A Cultural History of Children's Software

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ENGINEERING PLAY

A Cultural History of Children’s Software

Mizuko Ito

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ito, Mizuko. Engineering play : a cultural history of children’s software / Mizuko Ito. p. cm.—(The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation series on digital media and learning) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-262-01335-2 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Children’s software—Development—History—United States 2. Computer-assisted instruction—United States. 3. Computers and children—United States. 4. Enter- tainment computing—United States. I. Title. QA76.76.C54I86 2009 790.20285—dc22 2009006116 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Index

Abu-Lughod, Lila, 13 competitive, 139 Academic achievement, 44, 85, 86, consumption of academic, 43–54 103, 188 display, in Island of Dr. Brain, The, Academic content 62–68 case study of, 50–81 and gender, 44 engagement with, 68 link to edutainment, 187 in Island of Dr. Brain, The, 62–63 in MSBEHB, 121 link to edutainment, 187 orientation, lack of in MSBEHB, 114 and marketing, 46 recognition of, 62, 68–72 shift from, 99 recognition of, in Island of Dr. Brain, Academic genre of participation, 26, The, 62 29–84, 86–87, 108 technical, in SimCity 2000, 169 deﬁ ned, 3, 7, 39 Action-entertainment games, 90, 108, Academic performance, 43 134–139 Academic self-esteem, boosting of, 56 content of, vs. educational content, Access to games, 195n1 181 negotiations for, 178 cultural content of, 139 Accomplishment Adult/adults creative, 171 authority, challenges to, 184 technical, 166 challenges to goals of, 177–178, 181 Accountability as collaborators, 59–60, 64–65, 67–68, lack of, in SimTown, 132 69–72, 116–118, 165, 166–169, in SimCity 2000, 125, 127 172–175, 181–182 Achievement, 31, 33, 36, 42–54, 86, 88, goals of, 62–68, 116–121, 131, 132, 91, 99, 108, 132, 140, 166, 171, 188, 133, 139, 177–178, 181, 187 190 guidance by, 163 academic, 43–54, 85, 86, 103, 188 and kids, negotiations between, 187 in academic genre, 82–83 orientation toward SimCity 2000, anxiety, 101, 141, 188, 191, 83–84 163–164 assessment of, 43 resistance to goals of, 131, 133, 164, case study of, 58, 72–81 190 210 Index

Adult/adults (cont.) Anger, 58–61 and SimCity 2000, as collaborators in, Animation, 90, 92, 96, 121–126. See 165, 166–169 also Graphics and SimCity 2000, goals for, 163–164 as “fun spots,” 132 and subversion, as collaborators in, in Island of Dr. Brain, The, 54–56, 57 181–182 role of in MSBEHB, 114 supervision, role of, 24 as selling point, 101 values, childhood resistance to, 88–89 Anti-authoritarianism, 86, 88, 89, 135, Adventure games, 39, 101, 103 145, 148, 184 adventure-puzzle games, 54–56 Antisocial effects, of game playing, 127 Advertising. See Marketing Anxiety, achievement, 42–43, 83–84, “Aesthetic of simulation,” 146 101, 141, 188, 191 Aesthetics Appadurai, Arjun, 16 engagement with, in SimCity 2000, Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow, 36, 37 165–166 Apple Multimedia Lab, 92, 93 and girls, 170–171 Apple II, 2, 36, 37, 38, 54, 83, 85, 86, Age dynamics, and construction genre, 92, 98, 145 184–185 Aron, Jeffrey, 19 Age-graded system/software, 50 Arthur, 35 Agency, 12–13, 15 Artiﬁ cial life, 195n2 authorial, as marketing tool, 155–156 Artists, graphic, 95–96, 97 of children, 17–18, 90, 91, 143 Assessment claiming of, 190 of achievement, 43 computer as tool for, 145 educational, 56, 68 embodiment of in programming, 146 Atari, 29, 85 expansion of, 179, 182 Attitudes fun as, 133 Victorian, 33 struggles for, 185 toward violence in media, 91 uses in learning, 183 Audience studies, 12–14 Agendas Auditory special effects of adults, 133, 163–164, 177–178, 181 engagement with, 126–131 educational, 177–178, 181, 185 in MSBEHB, 114, 118, 120, 129–130 for SimCity 2000, 163–164 pleasure in, 126–128, 129–130 social, 187 of SimCity 2000, 159, 162–163 struggles to deﬁ ne educational, 185 Authorial agency, as selling point, “Ages and stages,” 50 155–156 Algorithms, in SimCity 2000, 160–162 Authoring Alice in Wonderland, 32 games, 6, 144, 166 Alternate-reality games, 153 games, as subversion, 177–183 Alters, Diane F., 4, 14, 34 and girls, 148 Althusser, Louis, 80, 91 media, growth of, 148 Amazon Trail, 39 multimedia software, 144, 145, 151 Ambron, Sueann, 92–93 software, marketing, 151, 155–156 Amusement, 86–91. See also Fun spread of tools for, 192 Index 211

tools, 144, 145, 155–156, 192 Boys tools, and cultural power shift, 184 and challenge to dominance of geek Authority culture, 149–150 adult, challenges to, 184 and geek culture, 149–150, 184 ﬁ gures, 87 and SimCity 2000, 162–163, 169–170 Authorship Boys and Girls Club, 20–22 of children, 143 Brand recognition, 48 negotiation of, 171 Braun, Jeff, 156 Automata, cellular, 160, 161, 195n2 Breakdown situations, 59–61, 63 Awards, 69 Breckenridge, Carol, 16 Bremer, Michael, 156, 159 “Bad screens,” 35 Brøderbund, 85–86, 96, 98, 109 Banet-Weiser, Sarah, 87, 91 Brown, John Seely, 14, 19 Bank Street College of Education, 37, Buckingham, David, 1, 4, 5, 10, 12, 13, 85 15, 31, 91, 191, 192 Bank Street Writer, 85 “Builder, child as,” 144 Barbie, 87, 109, 153, 154, 155 Building, world, 170–171 Barbie Fashion Designer, 99, 100, 153 Burp Gun, 88 Barol, Bill, 156 Bury, Rhiannon, 148 Bauer, Jo Anne, 25, 191 “Buzz,” as marketing tool, 183 Baugh, Charla, 23 Baumer, Sonja, 148, 170, 182, 185, 192 Call to Power, 156 Baym, Nancy K., 148 Camp, L. Jean, 147 “Beating” the game, 69–72 Campaign, JumpStart, 44–46 Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, 96 Canonical knowledge, 56 Behavior, codes of consumption, 91 Capital Behaviorism, 39, 46, 144, 187 cheats as gaming, 181 Benkler, Yochai, 148, 192 cultural, 36, 42–43, 131, 139 Bias, gender, and SimCity 2000, 170 gamer/gaming, 153–154, 170, 181, Bijker, Wiebe, 11 195n1 Bird, S. Elizabeth, 13 material, 36 Bittanti, Matteo, 148, 170, 171, 182, Cards, report, 55, 56 185, 192, 195n1 Carlston, Douglas, 85, 91 Blossom, Jon, 154–155 Carlston, Gary, 85–86, 91 Blue’s Clues, 35 Cassell, Justine, 1, 147, 149 Boellstorff, Tom, 153 Casser, Urs, 1 Bogost, Ian, 8, 161, 184 Castronova, Edward, 195n1 Bonding tools, toys as, 87 CD-ROM–based games/software, 54, 83, Books 85, 86, 90, 92, 93, 95, 96, 103, children’s, 31–32, 87 108–109, 122, 191 comic, 32, 87, 90, 96 decline of, 191 “Boosters” vs. “debunkers,” 10–11, 15 ﬁ rst consumer release, 96 Borg, Anita, 147 introduction of, 90, 91–92 Bourdieu, Pierre, 15 spread of, 54, 86, 92, 96, 109 212 Index

Cellular automata, 160, 161, 195n2 peer-focused culture, 90 Cendant, 41 software, 2, 5, 29 Challenges software, defi nition of, 6 to adult authority, 184 and technical literacy, 150–154 to adult goals, 177–178, 181 Circumvention, of game rules, 178–179 to research frameworks, 193 “Citizenship, consumer,” 91 Change Civic engagement and game play, cultural and social, 4, 10–16 195n1 educational and social, and practices Civilization III, 8 of play, 189, 190–191 Clark, Lynn Shofi eld, 4, 14, 34 role of research in, 193 Class, 139 social, 4, 10–16, 187, 188, 189, differences, 34, 36 190–191 identity, 34, 83 technology and social change, 187 link to edutainment, 187 Chat, 149 and marketing, 108 Cheats/cheating, 178–181, 182, 183, and media use, 192 190, 191, 195n1 and multimedia products, 100–101 as gaming capital, 181 and relationship to computers, 146 in SimCity 2000, 166 status, 48 traffi c in, 185 Classroom dynamics, 110–111 uses in engineered subversion, Club, Mickey Mouse, 88, 91 182–183 Clubs Chen, Sande, 7–8 as educational settings, 24–25 Child-centered philosophy of learning, fi eldwork in 5thD, 54–81, 114–139, 144 162–183 Childhood Fifth Dimension (5thD), 18–25, enrichment, 100 54–81, 114–139, 162–183 innocence of, 103 Codes institutional organization of, cheat, 178–181, 182, 183, 185 187–188 of consumption behavior, 91 sociology of, 17 secret, sharing of, 178–181 studies, 17–18 traffi c in cheat codes, 185 transcripts of, 139 Cole, Michael, 18, 19, 65 Child rearing, pleasure-oriented Collaboration approach, 90 with adults, 57 Children/children’s kids’ and adults’, in SimCity 2000, agency of, 17–18 166–169 culture, 88–89, 90, 101 Collaborative learning vs. competition, ecstacy, culture of, 88–89, 101 case study of, 72–81 literature, 31–32 Collaborators lowbrow culture, 90 adults as, 59–60, 64–65, 67–68, 69–72, and marketing, 188 165, 181–182 and media, 4–5 peers as, 65–67, 162, 163, 165, 169 Index 213

in SimCity 2000, adults as, 165 Conceptual frameworks, 4–16 in SimCity 2000, peers as, 162, 163, “Concerted cultivation,” 34, 35, 44, 165 100–101 in subversion, adults as, 181–182 Confl ict Collins, Alan, 19 between education and entertainment Comic books, 32, 87, 90, 96 genres, 187–188 Commercialism, 98 among genres, as site for change, Commercials, 88–89 190 Commodifi cation, of learning software, institutional, between entertainment 83–84 and education, 189 Communication, between humans and Consoles, 35 machines, 63 game, 85, 98, 99 Communities market for, 85 alternative, of practice, 182, 183 Consolvo, Mia, 154, 170, 181, 183, of consumers, 91 195n1 fan, 148 Constraints gaming relationship to, 195n1 on children, 103 of interest, 185 educational, 98 Internet, 146 Construction genre of participation, of practice, 12, 182, 183 27, 143–185. See also Authoring; of subversion, 181–183 “Constructionism” Competition, 43, 171, 195n1 “Constructionism,” 150 academic, 44 “constructionist software,” 144 in academic genre, 82–83 programs, success of, 150–151 vs. collaboration, case study of, 72–81 Construction, of gender, 146 culture of, 44 Constructivism, 187 between humans and machines, and age dynamics, 184–185 63–64 case study of, 156–183 in Island of Dr. Brain, The, 57–58, challenges in marketing of, 154–156 62–68 content of, 152–153 lack of in MSBEHB, 114 and content of software, 152–153 Competitive achievement, 139 defi ned, 3, 7 Competitive games, 152 dominance of, 150 Computers/computing and engagement with learning, vs. consoles, 35 183–184 emergence of personal, 145 expansion of, 185 grassroots, 145 and gender dynamics, 184, 185 mainstream, resistance to, 145 growth of market for, 153 personal, 2, 38, 145 link to gaming, 153–154 power of personal, 2, 38 link to toys, 153 use of, and gender, 146–154 pleasure in, 152, 170 Concepts, abstract vs. concrete, 144 role in schools, 150–151 Conceptual focus, 9–10 and self-actualization, 187 214 Index

Constructivism (cont.) in MSBEHB, 116–121 software, history and cultural context as selling point, 101–103, 134, 141 for, 144–154 shift from academic, 99 and software developers, 150–153 in simulation software, 152–153 spectacle in, 145–146 vs. tools, uses in learning, 184 strengthening of, 149 user-generated, growth of, 185 and technical mastery, 187 “wholesome entertainment” vs. transforming potential of, 193 academic, 100 and virtual worlds, 170–177 Context/contexts “Consumer citizenship,” 91 connections between, 17 Consumer culture, 177 for construction software, 144–154 children’s, 88 cultural, 3–4, 9–10, 13–15, 144–154 resistance to, 33–34 for development, shift in, 188 rise of, 33 for educational research, 189–190 Consumer market, emergence of, 41 for edutainment, 31–36 Consumerism, 87 for multiplayer online gaming, 195n1 Consumption, 13, 82, 87 social, 6, 9–10, 13–15, 84, 174, and educational/social reform, 188 189–190 and learning, 184 social, for world creation, 174 of media, 33–34, 192 Control, parental, 50 passive, 126, 148 Convergence, 12–13 vs. production, 91, 184 Cool/coolness and production relations, shifts in, economy of, 131 177 and spectacle, 132, 138–139 resistance to passive, 148 Coppa, Francesca, 148 shifts in, 192 Cosaro, William, 17 Content Costs of development, 40, 41–42 academic, 46, 50, 62, 68, 81, 99, 100 Countdown, 93 academic, in Island of Dr. Brain, The, Counterculture, 87 62 hacker counterculture, 148 action vs. educational, 181 Counterculturalism, 145 case study of, 50–81 Cramer, Meg, 1, 149 commodiﬁ cation of educational, 141 Creation in construction genre, 145 attachment to, 175 cultural, in action games, 139 identiﬁ cation with, 171–172, 174–175, curricular, 39 177 development of, 40, 41–42 media, practices of, 148 educational, 101–103, 134, 141 relationships in, 175–177 and educational/social reform, 188 relationship to real world, 177 engagement with academic, 68, 81 Creative accomplishment, 171 entertainment, vs. educational, 134 Creativity, 171 marketing of academic, 46 hacker, and cultural production, 148 mastery of, lack of in MSBEHB, 121 as ideal, 187 Index 215

Cricket, 150 women, and geek, 147 “Critical thinking,” 99 youth, 88 Cross, Gary, 32, 33, 87 Curriculum, development of, 37 Cuban, Larry, 1, 191 Customization, of game play, 182, 183 Cultural bias, 146 Cultural capital, 42–43, 131 Dargahi, Nick, 156, 159 Cultural context, 9–10, 13–15 Darlin, Damon, 159 for construction software, 144–154 Davidson, Jan, 36, 38, 152 Cultural production Davidson & Associates, 36, 38, 86, 98 and hacker creativity, 148 Debates, over violence, 90 shift in control of, 184 Debord, Guy, 91, 126 Cultural psychology, 19 “Debunkers” vs. “boosters,” 10–11, 15 Cultural scripts, 190 Demographics Cultural shifts, in media use, gamer, broadening of, 147, 148 192–193 and marketing, 108 Culture Denner, Jill, 149 adult vs. children’s, 184 De Peuter, Greig, 10 boy-geek, challenge to dominance of, Design 149–150 of games, and learning outcomes,189 changes in, 4 graphical, growth in, 97 children’s, 33, 88–89, 101, 184 learning-game, 46 consumer, 33–34, 177 political correctness in, 98 deﬁ nition of children’s, 88 subversive, and developers, 181–183 digital, 148–150 Determinism, technological, 10–11 ecstacy of children’s, 88–89, 101 Developers, software, 35–38, 143 female participation in digital, in construction genre, 150–153 149–150 in edutainment genre, 188, 189 geek, 147, 184 in entertainment genre, 86 girls, and geek, 147, 184 goals of, 188, 189, 191 growth of digital, 148–149 of multimedia, 93 “junk,” 141 and subversive design, 181–182 low vs. high, children’s, 33 Development media-making, 148 of content, 40, 41–42 online, growth of, 192 context, shift in, 188 peer, 87, 89, 103, 141, 170 costs of, 40, 41–42 popular, 139–141 Dibbell, Julian, 195n1 resistance to consumer, 33–34 Differences, class, 34–36 rise of consumer, 33 Difﬁ culty, levels of, 50, 55, 56, 69 “of simulation,” 147 Digital culture strengthening of visual, 98 female participation in, growth of, vernaculars of popular, 141 149–150 video game, 86, 103 growth of, 148–150 visual, 86, 87, 90–91, 92, 93, 98, 103 “Digital divide,” 1, 192 216 Index

Digital media Dynamics fl exibility of, 144 of age, and construction genre, production, 192 184–185 “Digital natives,” defi ned, 1 classroom, 110–111 DinoPark Tycoon, 121, 127–129, 153 family, 88 Disaster/disasters of gender, and construction genre, in action games, 134–139 184, 185 in SimCity 2000, 160, 164, 165–166 of learning software, 187 as subversion, 180, 181 peer, 134 Discipline, 91, 101 of power, shifts in, 190–191 freedom from, 87 Dyson, Donald A., 109 Discourses of play, 89–90 Disney, 103, 109, 154, 156 “Easter eggs,” 182, 183 Disobedience in 5thD, 134–139 East Palo Alto Stanford Summer Display/displays Academy (EPASSA), 23–24 of achievement and knowledge, in Ecology/ecologies Island of Dr. Brain, The, 62–68 of home, 195n1 of knowledge, 62–68, 81, 190 of learning, 183 of mastery, in MSBEHB, 121 new media, and construction genre, Distinction/distinctions 193 gender, 149 Economy social, 43 of “cool,” 131 Distributed Literacy Consortium, 18 of “gamer capital,” 153–154 Distribution of knowledge, and “paratexts,” and educational/social reform, 183 188 “new,” 43 Internet, 148 peer status, 24 issues of, 36 Ecstacy, of children’s culture, 88–89, of learning software, 50, 187 101 Divisions among genres Education blurring of, 190 in construction genre, 145 as site for change, 190 vs. entertainment, 58, 61–62, 114, Do-it-yourself ethic, 148 139–141 Domain, masculine, in online space, and entertainment, institutional 146 confl ict between, 187–188, 189 Domestication experimental, 36–37 of media, 13–14 vs. learning, 36–43 of technology, 35 and “natural” childhood, 141 Drill-and-practice, 36, 39, 143 Vygotskian philosophy of, 65 DroidWorks, 153, 154 Educational agenda, struggles to defi ne, Duguid, Paul, 14, 19 185 DVD-based games, 83 Educational constraints, vs. Dyer-Witherford, Nick, 10 entertainment, 98 Index 217

Educational content engagement with, 121–131 commodiﬁ cation of, 141 interactional, engagement with, vs. entertainment, 116–121, 134 126–131 as selling point, 101–103 logic of, 127, 129 Educational games, 6, 166 in MSBEHB, 114, 116–121, 129–130 Educational philosophies, 187 pleasure in, 126–128, 129–130 “whole language,” 93 of SimCity 2000, 159, 162–163 Educational reform, 188 visual, engagement with, 121–126 Educational research, 30, 36–38, 92–93 Eisler, Leslie, 156–159 shift to marketing, 188 Electronic Arts, 159 social context of, 189–190 Elliot, Alison, 100 Educational software Empowerment, 35–36, 187 labeling of, 156 of hackers, 145, 146 marketing of, 44 packaging of, 155–156 vs. video games, 35 EncycloAlmanacTionaryOgraphy, 61 Educational tools, programming as, Engagement, 126 143 with academic content, 82, 83 Educational vs. action content, 181 with auditory special effects, Education Development Center, 93 126–131 Edutainment, 2, 5–6, 109, 141, 151, civil, and game play, 195n1 187 as “fun,” 131, 134 arguments for, 7–8 “geeked out,” with SimCity 2000, vs. authoring genre, 151 170 criticism of software, 143 girls’, in SimCity 2000, 170 deﬁ nition of, 30 with interactional special effects, developers, goals of, 188, 189 126–131 features, of MSBEHB, 109 with MSBEHB, 116–121 heyday of, 100 as obsession, 178 history of, 26, 31–43 social, and game play, 195n1 link to class, academic achievement, “soft,” 147 187 with special effects, 121–131, 177 marginalization of, 191 with spectacle, 134 market for, 83–84 with visual special effects, programs, success of, 150–151 121–126 software, 143, 144 Engenfeldt-Nielsen, Simon, 6, 46 Edwards, Lynn Y., 1, 149 Engestrom, Yrjo, 18, 19 Edwards, Paul, 11 “Engineered subversion,” 183 Effects, antisocial, of game playing, Enlistment, of peers, 120–121, 131, 127 132, 136 Effects, media, 13 Enrichment, childhood, 100 Effects, special, 177 Entertainment genre of participation, auditory/sound, 114, 118, 120, 26, 85–141. See also Fun 126–131, 159, 162–163 vs. authoring, 151 218 Index

Entertainment genre of participation Exploration, 170 (cont.) as narrative logic, 110–113 case study of, 108–121 in simulation software, 152 confl ict with academic genre, 58, Extra-credit points, 56 61–62, 95, 100, 114, 116–121, 134, 139–141, 187–188 Facebook, 149 in construction genre, 145 Failure defi ned, 3, 7 anxiety, 84 features of software, 108 “successful,” 36 fi eldwork in, 114–139 Family/families, 4–5, 31–34, 86, 87 growth in, 99, 191–192 changes in, 89 and identity creation, 187 computer, 100 learning potential of, 188–189 dynamics, changes in, 88 marginalization of, in Island of home life ecology of, 100 Dr. Brain, The, 58–62 values, 33–34, 88 marketing of, 99–108 Fans play with, 115 communities of, 148 pleasure, 187 practices of, 12–13 selling points for, 101–103 subcultures of, 185 software, 100, 108 Fantasy strength of, 141 irrational, 89 EPASSA, 23–24 range of content, 91 “Epistemic games,” 9 scenarios, 54–56, 110–113 Escobar, Arturo, 16 silencing of, 89 Essentialism, 147 violent, 87 Ethic worlds, virtual, 90 do-it-yourself, 148 Fanzines, 148 “hacker,” 144, 146, 148 Feedback, 58, 60–61, 145, 146 persistence of “hacker,” 146 Feminism and technology, 146–154 Ethnography, 13, 14, 16–17 Ferguson, James, 16 Evaluation Fern’s Hollow, 32 lack of, in MSBEHB, 114 Fiction, for children, 87 of players, in Island of Dr. Brain, The, Fieldwork 61–61 description of, 16–26 Evans, Chris, 195n1 in 5thD club, 54–84, 114–139, “Evergreen” titles, 38–39 162–183 Experimental education, 36–37 Fifth Dimension (5thD) clubs, 18–25 Expertise as educational settings, 24–25 as identity, 177, 182 fi eldwork in, 54–84, 114–139, 162–183 kids’ expansion of, 185 philosophy, contrast with in subculture, 170 mainstream, 58 validation of, 181 Figures, authority, 87 Index 219

Fischer, Michael M., 16 Gamers, 147–148 “Fluency, technological,” 143 broadening of demographic, 147, 148 Focus, conceptual, 9–10 identity of, 148 Foehr, Ulla G., 1, 192 Games Formulas, of children’s software, 39–40, action-entertainment, 134–139 140–141 adult, adaption of for kids, 151 Foucault, Michel, 89 adventure, 39, 54–56, 101, 103 Frameworks, conceptual, 4–16 authoring, 166, 177–183 Frank, Thomas, 87 authoring, as subversion, 177–183 Freddi Fish, 99 “beating,” 69–72 Freedom, marketing of, 87 competitive, 152 Freud, Sigmund, 89 cultural content in action- Friendship, and gaming, 195n1 entertainment, 139 Froebel, Friedrich, 32 design of, and learning outcomes, Frustration 189 of instructors, 118–119 educational, 6 in Island of Dr. Brain, The, 58–61 “girls’,” 147 in SimCity 2000, 164 interactive storybook, 109 Fun, 85, 108, 131, 132, 187, 188 and learning, 4–10 as engagement, 131, 134 for learning, 2, 26, 143–144 as ideal, 187 modding of, 192 as kid-centered space, 131 as motivation, 162 as motivator of learning, 46–48 puzzle-adventure, 54–56 as pleasure, 131–133, 140 research, 8–9 as self-determination, 132 serious, 7 as spectacle, 132 simulation, 144, 151 Functionality and subversion, in authoring, ﬂ exible, uses of, 183 177–183 hidden, 182 vs. “toys,” 152 mastery of, 170 for training, 7 in SimCity 2000, 161, 162, 164, 166, “twitch,” 126 167 user authoring, 144 subversion of, 180–181 video, 5, 100 Web authoring, 151 Gaia hypothesis, 153 Gaming Game play capital, 170, 181, 195n1 customizing of, 182, 183 cheats as capital in, 181 dynamics of, in SimCity 2000, and friendship, 195n1 162–163 and gender, 149 and social, civic engagement, growth in female participation, 149 195n1 networks, 195n1 “Gamer capital,” 153–154 “paratexts” in, 183 220 Index

Gaming (cont.) of media, 14–15 relationship to communities, 195n1 negotiation between, 81–82 shift toward construction genre, and social investment, 187 153–154 of software, 5, 6 Garbage Pail Kids, 91 spectacle as formula in, 140–141 Gay, Paul du, 12, 188 struggles to defi ne, 35 Geating, Gary, 23 Gertrude’s Puzzles, 36, 54 Gee, James Paul, 6, 8, 181, 195n1 Giacquinta, Joseph B., 25, 191 Geek/geeks Giddens, Anthony, 15 and challenge to boys’ dominance of Girl-made media, 148 culture, 149–150 Girls and cheat codes, 183 and aesthetics vs. power, 170–171 culture, 147, 149–150, 184 and geek culture, 147, 184 engagement, with SimCity 2000, 170 “girls’ games,” 147 girls and culture of, 147, 184 “girls only” day, 22 women and culture of, 147 and SimCity 2000, 169–170 Groups, as resource, 182 Goal-directed vs. open-ended play, in identity, 144–150 SimCity 2000, 163–164 play, potential of, 193 Goals, 131 Gender adult, 131, 133, 141, 164, 181, 190 and achievement, 44 challenges to adult, 177–178, 181 and association with technology educational, 143 practices, 149 of edutainment developers, 188, 189 and computer use, 146–154 for Island of Dr. Brain, The, 62–68 dynamics, and construction genre, of kids vs. adults, 62–68, 116–121, 184, 185 131, 132, 133, 139, 140, 163–164, and gaming, 149 177–178, 187 and SimCity 2000, 169–170 for MSBEHB, 116–121 and violent spectacle, 137, 139 resistance to adult, 131, 133, 141, Genre/genres of participation, 2–3, 6, 164, 190 7, 14–16, 187. See also Academic for SimCity 2000, 163–164 genre of participation; and tension, 139–140 Constructivism; Entertainment genre Goldman, Shelley, 23, 44, 69, 82 of participation “Good screens,” 35 confl icts among, 15–16, 190 Gores Technology Group, 41 defi nition of, 7, 35 Gospodinoff, Kenneth, 19 differences among, 151 Grade-based software, 39–40, 43–44, 50 divisions, blurring of, 190 Grades, 56 education and entertainment, confl ict Graphical design, 96 between, 187–188 Graphical interfaces, 147 edutainment, marginalization of, 191 Graphics, 42, 54–57, 86, 90, 92, 95–96 features of SimCity 2000, 156–159 engagement with, 121–126 of gaming, girls’, 147 growth in, 97 Index 221

in Island of Dr. Brain, The, 54–56, 57 History in MSBEHB, 116–121 of construction software, 144–154 programs, 151 of edutainment, 31–43 role of in MSBEHB, 114 of entertainment software, 91–98 in SimCity 2000, 162–163 “Holding power,” of computers, Grassroots computing, 145 127 Gratifi cation, instant, 88 Holloway, Sarah L., 10, 146, 147 Guessing vs. instruction, 67 Home Gungan Frontier, The, 154, 155 as childhood institution, 187–188 Gunter, Barrie, 1 ecology of, 195n1 Gupta, Akhil, 16 uses of software in, 191–192 vs. school, 187–188 Habitus, 15 Hooper, Paula K., 150 Hacker/hackers Hoover, Stewart M., 4, 14, 34 and cheat codes, 183 Humongous Entertainment, 99, 101, creativity and cultural production, 103 148 Hutchins, Edwin, 19 defi nition of, 145 Hybridization, of educational and “ethic,” 144, 145, 146, 148 entertainment software, 39, 40 literacy, defi nition of, 150 Hysell, Dena, 23 origins of “ethic,” 145 persistence of “ethic,” 146 IBM, 145 play, potential of, 193 Identifi cation subcultures, 144–154, 185 with created world, 171–172, 174– women, 147 175, 177 “Hail,” 80 and rewards, 172–173 Hall, Stuart, 12, 188 Identity, 43 Happiness, of children, 101 of children, 139 “Hard mastery,” 144 class, 34, 83 of SimCity 2000, 166–170 construction of, 87 vs. “soft,” 146, 147 creation, and entertainment genre, and women, 146 187 Hawisher, Gail E., 195n1 as expert, 177, 182 Head Start, 22–23 gamer, 148 Heeter, Carrie, 149 geek, 144–50 Helft, Miguel, 41 regimes of, 91 Helmreich, Stefan Gordon, 195n2 self-identity, 44, 46 Hierarchies, of children, status in, 140 subcultural, 182 Hine, Christine, 11 Idet, Harel, 150, 151 Hints, 56, 60–61, 62, 63, 64, 67–68, 82 Illegality, in hacking, 145 Hirsch, Eric, 14, 147 Imagination, 101, 108 Historical trajectory, of children’s attention to, 90 software, 191 celebration of, 91 222 Index

Imagination (cont.) Interactive computing, and origins of exploration of in simulation software, hacker ethic, 145 153 Interactive Learning, 48 role in world creation, 175, 177 Interactive media, 86, 87 as selling point, 101–103 link with fi lms, 139 stimulation of, 95 storybook games, 109 suppression of, 89 Interactivity, real-time, 29 Indulgence, 86, 101, 108, 140, 187 Interest, communities of, 185 Industry Interest-driven learning, 185 changes in, 40–43, 99 Interfaces maturation of, 188 exploration of, in SimCity 2000, methods for research of, 25–26 164–165 PC, 145 graphical, 147 software, 6, 8, 11–12, 25–26, 140–141, Internet, 192, 193 188 communities, 146 Informants, primary, 24 growth/spread of, 149, 191 Infrastructures, networking, 30 Interpretive fl exibility, 11 Innocence, of childhood, 103 IRL, 19 Instant gratifi cation, 88 Irrationality, 89 Instant messaging, 149 Island of Dr. Brain, The, 54–82, 86, Institute for Research on Learning 132–133 (IRL), 19 competition, achievement, and Institutionalization, of educational knowledge display in, 68–72 research, 189–190 descriptive assessment of, 57 Institutional organization, of dynamics of academic participation childhood, 187–188 genre in, 58–72 Institutional transformation, and features of, 56 practices of play, 193 goals of kids vs. adults, 62–68 Institutions, power of, 189, 193 graphics in, 54–57 Instruction marginalization of entertainment in, computer-based, 143 58–62 vs. trial and error, 67 as tool for learning evaluation, Instrumental logic vs. narrative, in 57–58 SimCity 2000, 168 Ito, Mizuko, 6, 13, 63, 148, 153, 170, Intelligence tests, 54 171, 182, 185, 192, 193, 195n1 Interaction between humans and machines, 63, Jacobson, Pat, 156–159 127 James, Allison, 12, 17, 18 between kids and adults, in MSBEHB, Janes, Linda, 12, 188 116–121, 130, 131 Jenkins, Henry, 12, 147, 148, 192, 193 user, in SimCity 2000, 159–162 Jenks, Chris, 12, 18 Interactional special effects, Jobs, Steve, 145 engagement with, 126–131 Johnson, Stephen, 192 Index 223

JumpStart, 39, 44–46, 48, 54, 81, 101, Learning 103, 108, 155 vs. achievement, 48 “Junk culture,” 141 behaviorist model, 187 Just Grandma and Me, 85, 96, 109 child-centered philosophy of, 144 collaborative, vs. competition, case Kafai, Yasmin B., 149, 150, 151 study of, 72–81 Kahne, Joseph, 195n1 commodiﬁ cation of software, 83–84 Kay, Alan, 37 and construction genre, 183–184 Kearney, Mary Celeste, 148 constructivist model, 187 Kendall, Lori, 146, 148 and cultural assumption about, 141 KidPix, 5, 144, 151 distribution of software, 187 “Kids,” use of term, 18 dynamics of software, 187 Kinder, Marsha, 12, 91, 139, 184 vs. education, 36–43 Kline, Stephen, 10, 32, 87–88 educational games, 4–10 Knowledge enrichment of, 93 display, 62–68, 81, 190 evaluation, Island of Dr. Brain, The, as economy of, and “paratexts,” 183 tool for, 57–58 expert, in spectacle, 134–136 games, 2, 26, 143–144 mastery of, lack of in MSBEHB, 121 goals, resistance to, 141 networks, 185 graphics-based software, 29 online, growth of, 192 history of games, 2 procedural, 166 holistic approach to, 93–95 rewards for display of, 81 as ideal, 187 sociocultural, and world creation, marginalization of software, 191 173–174 and media, alternative scripts, 192 technical, 166 models of, 187 Knowledge Adventure, 44, 48, 54 “narratives,” 166 Kozulin, Alex, 19 and new media, dynamics of, 187 Kutner, Lawrence, 1 outcomes, and game design, 189 peer-based and interest-driven, 185 Labeling, of SimCity 2000, 156 and play, 31–33, 187 Laboratory of Comparative Human “through play,” 84 Cognition (UCSD), 19 vs. play, 141, 188 Language play with software, 187 children’s, 103 potential of entertainment genre, programming, 37, 143, 144, 150 188–189 “whole,” philosophy of education, production of software, 187 93 and production vs. consumption, 184 Lareau, Annette, 34, 44, 100 programs, constructionist, 150 Lave, Jean, 12, 19 research, lack of progress in, 189–190 Leapfrog Enterprises, 41 school, features of, 56 LeapPad, 41, 191 situated, 8 Leapster, 191 software, 19, 29, 83–84, 187, 191 224 Index

Learning (cont.) of special effects, 127, 129 theory behind software, 19 technical, in SimCity 2000, 167 toys, 32–33, 144 LOGO, 37, 143, 144, 150, 153 trajectories, and video game play, Lopez, George, 23 195n1 Lowbrow culture, 90 and uses of tools vs. content, 184 Lowood, Henry, 148, 153 Learning Company, The. See TLC LucasArts Entertainment Company, 96, Learning-game design, 46 97, 98 LEGO, 103, 109, 153, 154, 155 marketing challenges of Lucas LEGO Friends, 103 Learning/Lucas Film, 154–155 LEGOLAND, 103 Luke, Nancy, 46 LEGO Mindstorms, 153 Lynch, Michael, 55 LEGO Racers, 103 LEGO Rock Raiders, 103 MacBeth, Douglas, 55 Lessig, Lawrence, 11 Machines, human interaction with, 63, Levels 127 of achievement, 69, 108 Machinima, 153 of difﬁ culty, 50, 55, 56 Mackay, Hugh, 12 Levin, Jane, 25, 191 Magic Artist 3D, 156 Levy, Steven, 145 Magic School Bus Explores the Human Lewis, Peter H., 96 Body (MSBEHB) Licensing assessment of user’s interaction with, arrangements, 109 113–114 mass, 35 case study of, 108–121 “Life worlds,” 192–193 contrast with Island of Dr. Brain, The, Limitations of research practices, 114 189–190 description of action in, 110–112 Lin, Holin, 195n1 descriptive assessment of, 114–115 Literacy/literacies, 8, 143 features of, 109 as consumer product, 35 organization of tasks in, 112–113 hacker, deﬁ nition of, 150 packaging of, 109 “procedural,” 8–9, 161, 166, 184 special effects in, 122–130 as right, 30 Mainstream technical, 35–36, 150–154 computing, resistance to, 145 and video game play, 195n1 narratives, appropriation of, 148 Literature, for children, 31–32 Making. See Authoring; Construction Living Books series, 85, 96, 109 genre of participation Livingstone, Sonia, 14, 34, 147 Manipulation Logic in creation of virtual world, 170 narrative, 110–113, 114, 116–121, by users, in SimCity 2000, 161–162, 161, 168 166 procedural vs. narrative, in SimCity Mankekar, Purnima, 13 2000, 161 Marcus, George E., 16, 17 Index 225

Marginalization of entertainment, in Mathison, Anne, 23 Island of Dr. Brain, The, 58–62 Mattel, 29, 41, 88, 99, 153 Mario Brothers, 139 Maxis, 98, 156–159, 168, 182, 183 Market, 38 Mazzarella, Sharon R., 149 for authoring programs, 151 McCarthy, Laurie, 195n1 children’s, development of, 87–88 McCormick, Ann (Ann Piestrup), children’s software, 86 29–30, 31, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43, 48, 54, for edutainment, shrinking of, 191 85, 143, 152 effects on software content, 41–43 McDermott, Raymond, 19, 23, 36, 44, for entertainment, growth in, 191–192 68–69, 82 niche, 85–86 McGonigal, Jane, 153, 193 teenage, rise of, 87 Media Marketing, 81–82, 83–84, 183 active vs. passive, 5 of academic achievement, 43–46 attitudes toward, 33–34 challenges of construction genre, digital, ﬂ exibility of, 144 154–156 effects, 13 to children, 87–88, 188 genres of, 14–15 demands of, 40–41, 42–43 “hacking” of, 148 demographics, 108 for learning, 4–5 and educational research, shift and learning, alternative scripts, 192 between, 188 lowbrow, 100 of educational software, 44 mass, 87 edutainment vs. multimedia, 98 networked, dominance of of entertainment genre, 99–108 construction genre in, 150 formulas for, 101 social, growth in, 185 issues of, 36 studies, 12–13 to parents, 99, 103–108, 140, 155, 188 use, shifts in, 192 of SimCity 2000, 156–159 Media-making cultures, 148 Martin, Emily, 16 Mercer Mayer, 109 Masculine domain, in online space, Messaging, instant, 149 146 Methods, research Mashup, 148 ethnographic, 16–17 Mass media, 87 in ﬁ eldwork, 16–27 Mastery on software industry, 25–26 in creation of virtual world, 170 Michael, David, 7–8 “hard,” 144, 146, 147, 166–170 Michaud, Colette, 96, 97, 98, 99–100, “hard,” of SimCity 2000, 166–170 154 politics of, 145 Mickey, 156 “soft,” vs. “hard,” 146, 147 Mickey Mouse Club, 88, 91, 101 technical, and construction genre, Micropolitics, 18, 131, 190–191 187 of 5thD, 133 Math Blaster, 8, 36, 38, 39, 46, 86, 99, Microsoft, 98, 109 108, 150 Microsoft Word, 151 226 Index

MicroWorlds, 144, 150, 151 custom, 166 Middaugh, Ellen, 195n1 “learning,” 166 Miller, Daniel, 11, 16 logic, 110–113, 114, 116–121, 161, Minnesota Educational Computing 168 Corporation (MECC), 36 mainstream, appropriation of, 148 Miranker, Cathy, 100 in MSBEHB, 110–113, 114, 116–121 Mission, of educational research, 30, personalized, in subversion, 183 38 phantasmagorical, 89 MIT LOGO, 153 in SimCity 2000, 161, 168 MIT Media Lab, 93 trajectory, 56, 131 Modding, 148, 192 trajectory of, in Island of Dr. Brain, Mohl, Bob, 93, 95 The, 56 Moral values, development of in “Natural” childhood, 141 learning, 144 “Natural” vs. “unnatural” play, 89–90 Morley, David, 12, 14, 147 Negotiation Mortal Kombat, 139 for access to game, 178 “Motherhood, scientiﬁ c,” 32 between adults and kids, 187 Motivation of authorship, 171 extrinsic vs. intrinsic, 46 in play, 140 game as, 162 for status, 190 Movies, 86 Negus, Keith, 12 MSBEHB. See Magic School Bus Explores Nelson, Ted, 145 the Human Body Networked media, dominance of Multimedia, 85, 86 construction genre in, 150 authoring tools/software, 144, 145, Networking infrastructures, 30 151 Networks developers of, 93, 95 creation of, 91 interactive, 86, 87 gaming, 195n1 introduction of term, 96 online social, 149 potential for education, 92–93 of peers, 177, 185 products, and class, 100–101 subversive, in game play, 178–181 rise of, 91–98 women gamers’, 147–148 Multiplayer online games/gaming, 153 “New economy,” 43 context for, 195n1 New literacy, 143 Multisited ethnography, 16–17 New media Music, 95, 96, 97 ecology, and construction genre, MySpace, 148, 149 193 Myst, 85 and learning, dynamics of, 187 Niche market/marketing, 40, 85–86 Nader, Laura, 16 Nickelodeon, 91 Nanny, Margo, 93, 95 Nicolopolou, Ageliki, 18 Narrative/narratives Norms, adult vs. kids’ culture, 184 breaks in trajectory, 131 Number Munchers, 5, 36 Index 227

Objectiﬁ cation of women, 146 construction genre of, 143–185 Obsessive engagement, 178 entertainment genre of, 85–141 Olson, Cheryl K., 1 female, growth of in digital culture, Ondrejka, Cory, 148, 153, 193 149–150 Online genres of, 14–16, 193 games, multiplayer, 153 girls’, in SimCity 2000, 170 sociability, expansion of, 192 institutional transformation, and spaces, “social,”149 genres of, 193 Open-ended vs. goal-directed play, in in regimes of identity, 91 SimCity 2000, 163–164 Passive consumption, 126 Open School in Los Angeles, 37 Pathology, of play, 89, 90 Opportunities for reform, in conﬂ icts Paul, Ronald H., 156–159 among genres, 190 PBS, 35 Opposition, cultural, 91, 184 Pease-Alvarez, Lucinda, 18, 23 Oregon Trail, 5, 36, 38, 39, 43, 150, 188 Pedagogy, shift in, 98, 99 Orientation Peer-based learning, 185 hacker, 145–146 Peer/peers instruction vs. trial-and-error, 67 as collaborators, 65–67, 162, 163, 165, Outcomes 169 in construction of virtual worlds, 174 culture, 87, 89, 90–91, 103, 141, 170, learning, 82, 189 192 Ownership, of created world, 171–172, dynamics, 134 177 enlistment of, 90–91, 120–121, 131, 132, 136, 170, 180–181 Packaging expansion of networks, 185, of construction genre titles, 154–156 networks, 177, 185 of educational software, 48–50 relations, 131 of MSBEHB, 109 solidarity, 139 of pleasure, 99–108 and subversion, 180–181 standardization of, 39–40 Peer-status economy, 24 Pajama Sam, 99, 101, 109 Peirce, Neal R., 156–159 Palfrey, John, 1 Performance, academic, 43 Papert, Seymour, 1, 37, 143–144, 146, Permissiveness, 101 150–151, 183 Personal agency, expansion of, 179 “Paratexts,” 183 Personal computing Parenting, 4–5, 14, 31–34, 101, 187, emergence of, 145 192 power of, 2, 38 progressive, 90, 103, 108, 140 Pham, Alex, 41 Parents, 43–54, 83, 88–89, 100 Phantasmagoria, 89, 90, 187 and marketing, 44–46, 48, 50, 87, 99, as site of power, 91 101, 155, 188 Philosophy/philosophies Participation, 12–13 of education, 65, 93, 187 academic genre of, 29–84, 86–87 5thD, constrast with mainstream, 58 228 Index

Philosophy/philosophies (cont.) in created worlds, 177 of game design, 46 and entertainment genre, 187 of learning, child-centered, 144 as fun, 131–133, 140 Vygotskian, 65 as motivator of learning, 48 “whole language,” 93 packaging of, 99–108 Piaget, Jean, 19, 32, 144, 150 shared, 132 Piestrup, Ann (Ann McCormick), in special effects, 126–128, 129–130 29–30, 31, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43, 48, 54, women gamers’, 147 85, 143, 152 Points, extra-credit, 56 Pinch, Trevor, 11 Pokemon, 153 Pit Droids, 154, 155 Political correctness, in game design, Planetary Taxi, 93 98 PLATO, 5 Politics Play, 26, 86–91 of learning software, 187 academic genre of, 82 in self-authoring and mastery, achievement through, 48 145 adult vs. kids’ goals, 89 of spectacle, 141 as children’s work, 33 “of technology,” 14 and cultural assumption about, 141 Popular culture culture of, 87 vs. education, 139–141 discourses of, 89–90 vernaculars of, 141 with entertainment genre, 115 Power everyday, 195n1 and girls, 171 goal-directed vs. open-ended, in phantasmagoria as site of, 91 SimCity 2000, 163–164 shifts, 184, 190–191 in home life ecology, 100 struggles, in subversion, 181 and learning, 5–6, 31–33, 187 PowerPoint, 151 vs. learning, 141, 188 “Power users,” 166–170 of learning software, 187 Practice, communities of, 12 “learning through,” 48, 84 Practices “natural” vs. “unnatural,” 89–90 game-play, 10 negotiation in, 140 of play, and institutional practices of, and power for change, transformation, 193 189, 190–191 of play, and power for change, 189, vs. progress, 108 190–191 repression of, 89 research, limitations of, 189–190 as resistance, 89 technology, association with gender, and tension, 139–140 149 women’s, 147 Prensky, Mark, 1, 8 Playground culture, 88 Print Artist, 151 Pleasure, 46, 85, 86–91, 98, 99–108, Problem-solving strategies, in Island of 140 Dr. Brain, The, 58–68 in construction genre, 152, 170 Procedural knowledge, 166 Index 229

“Procedural literacy,” 8–9, 161, 166, Public television, 31, 35 184 Putt-Putt Joins the Circus, 101 Procedural vs. narrative logic, in Puzzle-format games, 54–56 SimCity 2000, 161 Producers, cultural, 87, 88 Radway, Janice A., 12 Production, 18, 82 Reader Rabbit, 5, 36, 38, 95, 150, 154 child-centered approach to, 184 Real-time interactivity, 29 vs. consumption, 91, 184 Reception, 13 cultural, 148, 184 Recognition digital media, 148, 192 of achievement, 68–72 and educational/social reform, 188 brand, 42 growth of digital media, 148 Record, “beating,” 69–72 hacker creativity, and cultural, 148 Reform, 35–36 and learning, 184 educational, 81–82, 93, 188 of learning software, 187 opportunities, in confl icts among shift in control of cultural, 184 genres, 190 tools’ value in, 152 potential, of construction genre, 193 Production-consumption relations, Relations, peer, 131 shifts in, 177 Relationships, in created world, Product tie-ins, construction genre and 175–177 toys, 153 Remix, 148 Profi les, MySpace, 148 cultures, 192 Profi ts, 40 “Report cards,” 55, 56 Programming Repression, of imagination, 89 children’s, 150 Research as educational tool, 143 educational, 30, 36–38, 92–93, 188, language, 37, 143, 144 189–190 self-authoring, ethic of, 144 ethnographic, methods of, 16–17 Programs fi eldwork, methods of, 16–26 graphics, 151 frameworks, challenges to, 193 learning, constructionist, 150 on games, 8–9 Progress institutionalization of educational, lack of, in learning research, 189–190 189–190 methods, 16–26 vs. play, 108 practices, limitations of, 189–190 Progressive parenting, 90, 103, 108, role of, in cultural/social change, 192 193 Prout, Alan, 12, 17, 18 on software industry, methods of, Psychology, cultural, 19 25–26 Public Broadcasting System (PBS), Resistance 35 to adult direction in MSBEHB, 121 Public scripts, 34 to adult goals, 133, 164, 190 reshaping of, 193 to adult values, 88, 88–89 230 Index

Resistance (cont.) “Scientiﬁ c motherhood,” 32 to corporate computing, 145 Score/scores, 39, 69, 72, 82, 108 in MSBEHB, 131 in Island of Dr. Brain, The, 62 to passive consumption, 148 scorecards, 56 Resnick, Mitchel, 150 Scratch, 150 Resources, adults as, 190 Screens, “good” vs. “bad,” 35 for subversion, 181 Screw Thy Neighbor, 82 Rewards Scripts in DinoPark Tycoon, 127–129 challenges to, 192 and identiﬁ cation, 172–173 cultural, 190 in SimCity 2000, 160 public, 34, 192, 193 visual, in SimCity 2000, 125–126 reshaping of, 193 Richmond, Todd, 148 Sefton-Green, Julian, 13 Richtel, Matt, 41 Seiter, Ellen, 1, 5, 32–34, 35, 36, 88–89, Rideout, Victoria, 1 91, 146, 147, 191 Rieber, Loyd, 46 Self-actualization, and construction Riverdeep, 41 genre, 187 Roberts, Donald F., 1, 192 Self-authoring, politics of, 145 Rocky’s Boots, 36, 37 Self-determination, fun as, 132 Role models, sexual, 87 Selfe, Cynthia L., 195n1 Role of research, in cultural/social Self-esteem, 44, 56 change, 193 Selling points, 100 Role-playing scenarios, 39, 54–56 for academic genre, 43–50 Roles, adults vs. kids, in SimCity 2000, for construction genre, 155–156 163 for entertainment genre, 101–103 Rollerpark Tycoon, 153 Serious games, 7 Rules, breaking of, 178 Sesame Street, 6 Ruocco, Jennifer, 109 Sexual role models, 87 Russell, Adrienne, 148 Sexuality, in fantasy, 89 Russell, Elizabeth, 38–39 Seyer, Ingrid, 23 Shaffer, David, 9 Sagan, Carl, 153 Shannon, Sheila M., 18, 23 Satwicz, Tom, 195n1 Shift/shifts Scanlan, Margaret, 1, 4, 5, 10, 31, 191 in computing orientation, 146 Scenarios, role-playing, 39, 54–56 in consumption-production relations, Scholastic, 109 177 School learning, 56 cultural, in media use, 192–193 School/schools in power, and authoring tools, 184 as childhood institution, 187–188 from research to marketing, 188 vs. home, 187–188 Sierra Online, 54 as sites for construction genre, Silicon Valley Homebrew Computer 150–151 Club, 145 uses of software in, 191 Silly Noisy House, 93 Index 231

Silverstone, Roger, 14, 147 Social engagement and game play, SimAnt, 153 195n1 SimCity, 97, 98, 100, 132, 144, 151, “Social envelope,” 25 152, 159, 182, 183, 188, 190 Social media, growth in, 185 SimCity 2000, 115, 121, 122–127, 134, Social network sites, 149, 192 137, 138–139, 156–185, 190 “Social” online spaces, 149 animation and graphics in, 159–161 Social resources, in created world, case study of, 156–183 176–177 description of action in, 159–161 Social tension in 5thD, 177–178 descriptive assessment of, 162–163 Society, changes in, 4 disaster function in, 160 Sociocultural knowledge, and world genre features of, 156–159 creation, 173–174 marketing of, 156–159 Sociocultural learning theory, 19 player manipulation of, 161–162 Sociology of childhood, 17 Urban Renewal Kit, 161, 183 “Soft” engagement, 147 user’s interaction with, 159–162 “Soft mastery” vs. “hard,” 146, 147 SimCity 3000, 97, 156, 183 Software SimCity4, 159 adult, adaption of for kids, 151 SimEarth, 153 construction, history and cultural Sims, The, 151, 156 context for, 144–154 SimTower, 63, 144, 166, 175 “constructionist,” 144 SimTown, 132 educational, 35, 156 Simulation/simulations, 6, 8–9, 27 entertainment, 95, 100 “aesthetic of,” 146 genres of, 3, 5 content of software, 152–153 grade-based, 39–40, 43–44 “culture of,” 147 industry, 2–4, 6, 8, 11–12, 25–26, games, 144, 151 140–141, 188 marketing of software, 155–156 learning, 187 software, 152–153, 155–156 Solidarity, peer, 139 Sites, ﬁ eldwork, 20–24 Solitaire, 133 Situations, breakdown, 59–61, 63 Sound effects, 95. See also Auditory Skywalker, Luke, 154 special effects Slater, Don, 11, 16 “Sourcebooks,” for SimCity 2000, 156, Smith, Jan, 46 161 Sociability, online, growth of, 192 Space Invaders, 2, 138, 139 Social agendas, 187 Special effects, 177 Social change, 188 auditory/sound, 114, 118, 120, and technology, 187 126–131, 159, 162–163 Social context, 9–10, 13–15 engagement with, 121–131 of educational research, 189–190 interactional, engagement with, Social ecology of learning, 183 126–131 Social/educational change, and logic of, 127, 129 practices of play, 189, 190–191 in MSBEHB, 114, 116–121, 129–130 232 Index

Special effects (cont.) Subculture/subcultures pleasure in, 126–128, 129–130 children’s, 88 of SimCity 2000, 159, 162–163 fan, 185 visual, engagement with, 121–126 hacker, 144–154, 185 Spectacle, 90 SimCity 2000, 159 in construction genre, 145–146 status in, 170 and coolness, 132, 138–139 Subjectivity engagement with, 91, 121–131, 134 adult, kids’ access to, 185 as expert knowledge, 134–136 countercultural, 181 as genre formula, 140–141 oppositional, 181 interactive, 90 toward game, 152, 170 as politics, 141 Subversion, 190 violent, and gender, 137, 139 action games as, 134–136 Spending, on children, 88 authoring games as, 177–183 Squire, Kurt, 8 “engineered,” 183 Standardization, of educational enlistment of peers in, 180–181 software, 39–40 in SimCity 2000, 166 Star Wars, 154 Success Status academic, 44, 46, 50 in children’s hierarchies, 140 competitive, 48 negotiations for, 190 recognition of, 61–62, 81 in subculture, 170 “Successful failure,” 36 Steinkuehler, Constance, 195n1 Suchman, Lucy, 63 Stevens, Reed, 195n1 Sun, Jennifer Y., 149 Storybook, interactive format, 109 Suppression, of imagination, 89 Strategies Sutton-Smith, Brian, 89, 90, 139 problem-solving, in Island of Dr. Brain, Systers, 147 The, 58–68 for SimCity 2000, 160–161, 165, Tanner, Clive, 156–159 166–169 Tapscott, Don, 1 women gamers’, 147 Tasks, in Island of Dr. Brain, The, 57–58 Street culture, 88 Taylor, T. L., 147–148, 153, 195n1 Structuration, 15 Teachers, 89 Structure/structures, 15, 17 Technical accomplishment, 166 circumvention of, in SimCity 2000, Technical ecology of learning, 183 178–179, 183 Technical Education Research Center, 93 institutional, transformation of, 193 Technical knowledge, 166 Struggles among genres, 15–16 Technical literacy, 35–36, 150–154 Studies Technical logic, in SimCity 2000, 167 audience, 12–14 Technical mastery, and construction of childhood, 17–18 genre, 187 media, 12–14 Technological determinism, 10–11 technology, 11 “Technological ﬂ uency,” 143 Index 233

Technology for learning, 32–33, 87, 144 domestication of, 35 link to construction genre, 153 and feminism, 146–154 as marketing tools, 154, 155 gendering of, 149 as open-ended tools, 152 “politics of,” 14 as tools for bonding, 87 practices, association with gender, 149 Trajectory/trajectories and social change, 187 breaks, in narrative, 131 stabilization of, 11 historical, of children’s software, 191 studies, 11 learning, and video game play, Television, 86, 87, 92 195n1 as marketing tool, 87–88 narrative, 56, 131 public, 31, 35 Transformation, institutional, and Tension, 139–140 practices of play, 193 between collaborative learning, Trial and error vs. instruction, 67 competition, 72–81 Turkle, Sherry, 127, 146, 147 between instruction, guessing, 67–68 “Twitch” games, 126 between kids and adults, 62–68, 116–121, 130, 131, 139, 141 User authoring games, 144 social, in 5thD, 177–178 User-generated content, growth of, 185 Tests, intelligence, 54 User interaction, with SimCity 2000, “Thinking, critical,” 99 159–162 Thorne, Barrie, 18 “Users, power,” 166–170 Tie-ins, 109, 153 Tips, 64, 67 Valentine, Gill, 10, 146, 147 for SimCity 2000, 166–168 Values Titles, “evergreen,” 38–39 adult, childhood resistance to, TLC, 29, 35, 38, 40, 41, 54, 86, 93, 96, 88–89 98 family, 33–34, 88 Tobin, Joseph, 153 of kids vs. adults, 131, 184 Tools moral, development of in learning, adult, adaption of for kids, 151 144 authoring, 144, 145, 192 Varenne, Hervé, 19, 36, 44, 68–69, 82 for bonding, toys as, 87 Varnelis, Kazys, 192 vs. content, uses in learning, 184 Vasquez, Olga A., 18, 19, 23 for learning, 32–33, 93, 143 Victorian attitudes, 33 multimedia, for learning, 93 Video-based analysis, 19–20 programming, for learning, 143 Video game/games, 5, 35, 86, 90, 92, in SimCity 2000, 159–161 100 toys as, for learning, 32–33 culture, 103 Toys, 87 play, and learning trajectories, 195n1 advertising of, 88 Violence vs. “games,” 152 in fantasy, 87, 89 history of, 87 public debates over, 90 234 Index

Violent entertainment, illustration of, Worlds 134–137 creation, role of imagination in, 175, Violent spectacle, and gender, 137, 177 139 “life,” 192–193 Virtual worlds virtual, marketing of, 155–156 construction of, 170–177 Wozniak, Stephen, 145 marketing of, 155–156 Wright, Will, 152–153, 156, 181, Visual Almanac, 92, 93 182–183 Visual culture, 86, 87, 90–91, 92, 93, Wyman, Michael, 155 103 strengthening of, 98 Yoda, 154 Visual elements, similarity among Youth culture, 148–149 genres, 108 Yu-Gi-Oh, 153 Visuals, in MSBEHB, kids’ preference for, 116–121 Zinesters, 148 Visual special effects Zone of proximal development (zoped), engagement with, 121–126 19, 65 pleasure in, 126 Zoombinis, 93 Von Neumann, John, 195n2 “Zoped” (zone of proximal Voyager, 86, 92, 93, 96 development), deﬁ ned, 19 Vygotsky, Lev, 18 philosophy of education, 65

Wajcman, Judy, 146 Warschauer, Mark, 1, 36 Web authoring games, 151 Weil, Peggy, 93–95 Wenger, Etienne, 12, 19 Where in the World Is Carmen San Diego, 5, 85, 96, 188 “Whole language,” 93 “Wholesome” norms, 134 Wicat, 5 Women and computer use, 146–154 and geek culture, 147 objectiﬁ cation of, 146 technologies of, 146–154 Work children’s, 33 technologies of, 146 Workarounds, 63, 64