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CITIZENSHIP CAPITAL & POLITICAL POWER in ESTONIA by Copyright 2016 David J. Trimbach Submitted to the Graduate Degree Progra

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CITIZENSHIP CAPITAL & POLITICAL POWER in ESTONIA by Copyright 2016 David J. Trimbach Submitted to the Graduate Degree Progra CITIZENSHIP CAPITAL & POLITICAL POWER IN ESTONIA By Copyright 2016 David J. Trimbach Submitted to the graduate degree program in Geography & Atmospheric Science and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Chairperson Shannon O’Lear, PhD ________________________________ Alexander C. Diener, PhD ________________________________ Jay T. Johnson, PhD ________________________________ Barney Warf, PhD ________________________________ Marie-Alice L’Heureux, PhD Date Defended: March 24, 2016 The Dissertation Committee for David J. Trimbach certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: CITIZENSHIP CAPITAL & POLITICAL POWER IN ESTONIA ________________________________ Chairperson Shannon O’Lear, PhD Date approved: April 7, 2016 ii Abstract Citizenship is an underlying aspect of our geopolitical landscape and everyday political experiences. Citizenship is often accepted as a natural and universal form of legal and/or political membership that binds a nation to a territorial state; however, citizenship is a multidimensional and polyvalent construct that can be applied to critically examine the intersection of relational and spatial power. I operationalize citizenship as an embodied and enacted form of capital, a valued resource and form of distinction, whereby state-ascribed political power is relationally and spatially differentiated and fragmented. I utilize this critical interpretation by examining the ongoing Estonian citizenship dilemma. Drawing on my methodological engagement with Estonian Russian- speakers in Narva and Tallinn, Estonia, I examine the relationships among Russian-speakers’ embodied and enacted citizenship capital and political power in Estonia. Through a mixed- methodological approach that emphasizes descriptive citizenship narratives, I illustrate how and why Estonian Russian-speakers embody and enact citizenship through their own perceptions, practices, and identities. Although Estonia and Estonian Russian-speakers provide a unique research site to explore citizenship and political power, this geographic example brings to the fore much broader theoretical and practical implications by elucidating how minorities of disparate citizenship statuses and spatial communities engage with place, citizenship, nationalizing states, and democratic processes. iii Acknowledgements This dissertation, like all scholarship, is a social and relational project that could not have been completed without the generous contributions and assistance of innumerable individuals. I acknowledge the endless support and guidance of my dissertation committee chair Dr. Shannon O’Lear, who helped facilitate my doctoral progress and my dissertation’s completion. I also acknowledge the support and advice of my other committee members including: Dr. Alexander C. Diener, Dr. Jay T. Johnson, Dr. Barney Warf, and Dr. Marie-Alice L’Heureux. Additionally, I am thankful for the support and advice of the Institute for Policy and Social Research (IPSR) Doctoral Fellows Program, IPSR Qualitative Work Group, Hall Center for the Humanities Interdisciplinary Graduate Research Workshop, Dr. Germaine Halegoua, Dr. Irina Six, Debbie Brigmond, and Xanthippe Wedel all of whom contributed in various capacities to my methodological approach and/or Russian-language expertise and translations. I am thankful for the openness, kindness, and support my research gatekeepers and participants showed me during my fieldwork in 2012 and 2013. I am particularly thankful to the following institutions and organizations that assisted me with this project: University of Tartu, Narva College, Tallinn University, Narva Museum, Narva City Archives, National Library of Estonia, Narva Central Library, City of Narva, Integration and Migration Foundation Our People, Estonian Police and Border Guard Board, Estonian National Electoral Committee, Legal Information Centre for Human Rights, Network of Estonian Nonprofit Organizations, and any other organization or institution that remains unmentioned because of confidentiality. I am also thankful for the generosity of those individuals that welcomed me into their communities and provided me with a wealth of opportunities to experience everyday life in Estonia. I am also thankful for the generosity of the following institutions and/or agencies that have financially assisted either directly or indirectly with the production and completion of this iv dissertation: Department of Geography & Atmospheric Science, Center for Russian, East European, & Eurasian Studies, Institute for Policy & Social Research, and The Hall Center for the Humanities. Your financial assistance provided time and opportunities necessary for the successful completion of this project. Lastly, I would like to thank my friends, family, and colleagues who offered me tremendous support, positivity, breaks, alternative perspectives, and guidance throughout the dissertating process. John Biersack, Danielle Golon, Lara O’Brien, Nicole Reiz, and Stephanie Willis in particular have all had a hand in the production and completion of this major research project. I am also especially thankful for my parents, siblings, and husband who have been exceptional throughout this intellectual endeavor. Aitäh! Спасибо! [Thank you]! v Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 2: Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................... 13 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 13 Major Citizenship Traditions ......................................................................................................... 14 Citizenship Geographies ................................................................................................................ 18 Citizenship’s Conceptual Development ......................................................................................... 24 Citizenship as Capital ..................................................................................................................... 33 Bourdieu & Bourdieusian Scholarship. ...................................................................................... 34 Capital. ........................................................................................................................................ 37 The State. .................................................................................................................................... 47 Conceptual Overview ..................................................................................................................... 49 Chapter 3: Estonian State & Russian Minority Context .................................................................... 52 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 52 Estonian Nation & Nationalism ..................................................................................................... 55 Nation. ........................................................................................................................................ 56 Estonian Nation Formation & Nationalist Ideology. .................................................................. 58 Estonian Ethnocracy & Restorationist Geopolitics ........................................................................ 66 Ethnocracy. ................................................................................................................................. 68 Restorationist Geopolitics........................................................................................................... 73 Estonian State Formation & Citizenship ........................................................................................ 76 The Estonian Singing Revolution & Restorationism. ................................................................ 76 Estonian Citizenship Formation. ................................................................................................ 78 The Broad Impacts of Citizenship on Russian-speakers. ........................................................... 86 Estonian Russian-speakers ............................................................................................................. 87 Northeastern Estonia & Tallinn Metropolitan Area ....................................................................... 96 Northeastern Estonia: Ida-Viru County & Narva. ...................................................................... 96 Tallinn Metropolitan Area: Harju County & Tallinn. .............................................................. 102 Citizenship Capital in an Estonian Context ................................................................................. 109 Chapter 4: Methodology .................................................................................................................. 111 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 111 Positionality & Reflexivity .........................................................................................................
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