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African Development Bank WWF Technical Partners: Publication details

The African Development Bank (AfDB) WWF is one of the world’s Zoological Society of Published in May 2012 jointly by Group’s mission is to help reduce largest and most experienced WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature The Global Footprint Network Founded in 1826, the Zoological poverty, improve living conditions independent conservation (Formerly World Wildlife Fund), and promotes the science of Society of London is an international for Africans and mobilize organizations, with over 5 AfDB – African Development Bank. by advancing the for the continent’s economic and million supporters and a global Any reproduction in full or in part , a educational organization. Its mission social development. With this network active in more than of this publication must mention the accounting tool that makes is to achieve and promote the objective in mind, the institution 100 countries. WWF’s mission title and credit the above-mentioned sustainability measurable. worldwide conservation of animals aims at assisting African countries – is to stop the degradation of the publishers as the copyright owners. Together with its partners, and their . ZSL runs ZSL individually and collectively – in their planet’s and the Global Footprint Network London Zoo and ZSL Whipsnade © Text and graphics: 2012 the efforts to achieve sustainable economic to build a future in which works to further improve and African Development Bank and development and social progress. live in harmony with , by implement this science by the Institute of Zoology and is WWF – the World Wide Fund Combating poverty is at the heart conserving the world’s biological coordinating research, developing for Nature. of the continent’s efforts to attain diversity, ensuring that the use methodological standards, conservation worldwide. sustainable economic growth. To of renewable natural resources is All rights reserved. and providing decision-makers this end, the Bank seeks to stimulate sustainable, and promoting the with robust resource accounts to An electronic version of this and mobilize internal and external reduction of and Institute of Zoology help the economy report and other related materials resources to promote investments as wasteful . Zoological Society of London operate within the ’s can be found at: well as provide its regional member Regent’s Park, ecological limits. WWF International London www.panda.org/lpr/africa2012 assistance. AfDB is owned by 77 Avenue du Mont-Blanc United Kingdom WWW.afdb.org Global Footprint members, including 53 from the 1196 Gland, NW1 4RY, UK ISBN 978-2-940443-39-0 region. As the continent’s premier Network www.zsl.org/indicators 312 Clay Street, Suite 300 www.panda.org www.livingplanetindex.org Front cover image: Oakland, California 94607 African Development Bank (AfDB) © Brent Stirton / Getty Images Group borrows from capital markets USA for on-lending to its regional member www.footprintnetwork.org countries. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.

African Development Bank 15 avenue du Ghana BP 323, 1002 Tunis Belvedere Tun isia www.afdb.org

Foreword 4

Introduction 6

Ecological wealth and human prosperity 8

Ecological Footprint 10

Water Footprint 18

People and nature 26

Toward 32

Africa’s Ecological Infrastructure (Case studies) 40

Conclusions and calls for action 56

Ecological Footprint FAQs 66

Living Planet Index: technical notes 67

References and further reading 68

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In response to the Around the world, nature and natural resources Earth. Our ecological infrastructure – terrestrial, maintaining with additionaland broader decline of the are under more pressure than ever before – and freshwater and marine and targeted investment; and highlighting the very real global environment, nowhere is this more striking than in Africa. The – is as essential to inclusive human the concept of “green principal driver behind Africa’s growing ecological development and improved as are natural capital and management. economy” is now footprint is growing consumption, driven by industrial and social infrastructures such as roads, We are proud to share some of our experiences on evolving from being increase and the robust expansion schools, hospitals and provision. sustainable development in the run up to Rio+20 just an ideal, to a of the regional economy. The region’s per capita Investment in natural capital can help drive and especially thank the Government of for concrete and achievable income has gone up and poverty rates have declined the development of a and secure supporting production of this joint report. approach to growth in some countries, giving rise to a growing, and services on which we all depend. These that is gathering more increasingly urbanised, middle class. These The African Development Bank and WWF, services provide , and energy, support and more support from changes are resulting in greater consumption of together with their partners, are committed to our livelihoods, and help us stay resilient to the countries worldwide resources in Africa and beyond, and increasingly supporting countries in Africa in transitioning uncertain conditions of a changing climate. impact the natural environment, degrading the towards a future of sustainable develop ment – ecosystems that underpin the economy and In Africa the sustainable use of natural resources with healthy people thriving on a healthy planet. sustain life itself. needs to be mainstreamed in economic development. Governments and businesses need Africa has choices. Embracing a more sustainable to make green economies a reality, and excellent initiatives have already been started both by in terms of environmental security, human individual countries and by regional groups. well-being and increased competitiveness. The choices made today about infrastructure, energy how they use resources and invest in new and food production will shape our opportunities and will help these and options far into the future. initiatives further. With their relatively low In response to the broader decline of the global footprints, African countries, their governments, environment, the concept of “green economy” is business leaders and investors need to show now evolving from being just an ideal, to a concrete ever greater leadership if the continent’s natural Donald Kaberuka Jim Leape and achievable approach to growth that is gathering resources are to be used sustainably. President Director General more and more support from countries worldwide. This report presents examples of solutions that African Development WWF International For us the lessons and messages are clear: as promote the creation of wealth and alleviation of Bank the world develops, greater attention must be poverty through more paid to improving the livelihoods of the poor, of the natural capital of the continent. These reducing the excessive consumption of the rich, strategies focus on reducing the detrimental effect and sustaining the natural fabric of life on of human consumption on the Earth’s resources;

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Children walking near the restoration nursery in Kasese District, Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda

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Fundamentally we all depend on nature: the animal over the 38 year period The average per capita footprint in Africa in ecological infrastructure of the planet that provides between 1970 and 2008. 2008 is rapidly approaching the available within Africa’s of 1.5 global Much of the pressure on ecosystems can be hectares per person. livelihoods and economies are built. traced to humanity’s voracious demand for which is now exceeding the planet’s Looking ahead, Africa as a whole is projected capacity to regenerate resources and absorb the Yet Africa’s ecosystems are changing faster than we produce. Humanity’s demand on the exceeds the biocapacity available within its ever before through the combined impact of world’s living resources, its Ecological Footprint, borders, by 2015. Already today, nearly 400 global and local pressures. Loss of ecosystem has more than doubled since 1961 and now million people living in Africa’s 36 largest services is compromising future security, overshoots the planet’s regenerative capacity – basins experience for at least and well-being and effects are being borne or biocapacity – by about 50 per cent. one month each year. Many African countries disproportionately by the poor. compensate for biocapacity and water shortfalls The Ecological Footprint of all African by importing goods and services from elsewhere. countries increased by 240 per cent between 1961 and 2008 (Figure 2) as a result of growing The combined measures of Ecological Footprint, in this volume, the Africa populations as well as increased per capita and Living Planet Index show us (Figure 1) shows a reduction of 39 per cent in consumption in a minority of countries. that Africa is now at a crossroad in terms of

Figure 2. Historical trends in Africa’s Ecological Footprint (1961-2008)

(Global Footprint s e

Figure 1. Africa’s r a

Network, 2011) t c Living Planet Index e h

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(1970 – 2008). a b o

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u l n a indicates there has Fishing o i v l

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been an overall e B

d Fo rest n reduction of 39 I per cent in animal Grazing populations over the Cropland

38-year period Carbon

(WWF/ZSL, 2012)

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its development options. Pursuing the resource- intensive pathways taken by other parts of the world will accelerate its path to biocapacity degradation. However, with its relatively low per capita footprint, Africa is well placed to develop seen in other regions, using known and cost effective technologies.

Pursuing a more sustainable approach to development than those taken elsewhere can security, human well-being and increased Hailed by President Goodluck as competitiveness. In this report we explore a “another milestone in our nation’s two-fold path to sustainable development on effort to solve national problems Africa, identifying options to reduce growth in through space ”, Ecological Footprint and to protect and restore Nigeria’s June 2011 launch of Africa’s ecosystems. two Earth observation will enrich our understanding of and human vulnerability in the Sahel, one of Africa’s most sensitive regions. In a year in which drought has wreaked havoc across the Sahel, this effort to reinforce our understanding of the forces shaping Africa’s fragile environment could not have been timelier. Arid , under heavy sky in the Sahel Zone, Niger

7 Without ecosystems, there would be no life. Ecosystems provide the food we eat and the materials we use for shelter and fuel, and they ensure the quality of the air we breathe and the water we drink. Yet in Africa and around the world we are seeing an unprecedented decline in the state of our environment as a result of humanity’s escalating demand for natural resources. of natural capital is endangering our future prosperity and undermining efforts to enable Africa’s growing population to move out of poverty. In the following pages we examine the nature of and trends in the demands humanity is placing on renewable resources globally and in Africa using the complementary measures of Ecological Footprint and Water Footprint. We look at the ecosystem services that underpin human livelihoods and well-being, and explore how these are being degraded as a result of human pressures – using the Living Planet Index as our ecosystems. We identify some key factors and drivers that are shaping our demand for renewable resources and identify opportunities to manage these in order to improve the sustainability of development in Africa.

9 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

The Ecological Footprint shows humanity’s competing approximately a year and a half to regenerate the demands on the by comparing the renewable resources used by humanity in that year. This Footprint provides an means that in order to sustain humanity’s current understanding of how resources people are consuming to the regenerative pattern of lifestyles we drawing on resources at a the Ecological Footprint capacity of the planet – or biocapacity. faster rate than they can be renewed and eating is made up of into our ecological reserves. components – and how these relate to Ecological Footprints vary enormously among The Ecological Footprint measures the amount human demands on the of biologically productive land and water area biosphere. It provides an consumption patterns and lifestyles. If everybody required to produce all of the resources an understanding the concept on the planet lived the of the average individual, population, or activity consumes, of global hectares (gha) citizen of the United Arab Emirates, then in 2008 and to sequester the they we would have needed more than four and a half generate, given prevailing technology and planets to support the global population. resource management practices. This area can be compared with biological capacity or biocapacity, the amount of productive area that is available to generate these resources and to absorb wastes. In 2008, the total productive area, or biocapacity, )

of the planet was 12.0 billion global hectares s t e n

(gha) or 1.8 gha per capita. Humanity had a l

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an Ecological Footprint of 18.2 billion gha, o

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equivalent to 2.7 gha per capita. b m

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This of approximately 50 per cent t n i r p

means that in 2008 we used the equivalent t o o

of 1.5 to support our consumption, or F

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a Figure 3. c in other words, it would have taken the Earth i g o

l Global Ecological o c Footprint by E land use type, 1961-2008

(Global Footprint Network, 2011)

10 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

Figure 4. Accounts for the area of forest land Represents the area used Components of required to absorb CO emissions to raise livestock for meat, dairy, hide and Footprint 2 from burning fuels, land wool products use change and international , that are not absorbed by the oceans.

Represents the forest area Calculated from the estimated required for the supply of primary production required to timber, pulp and fuel wood including catches from t ow

Represents the area used to Represents the area of land covered by human infrastructure, including for human consumption as transportation, housing, industrial well as the area for animal structures and reservoirs for feed, oil crops and rubber hydropower Both the Ecological Footprint (which represents demand for resources) and biocapacity (which represents the availability of resources) are expressed in units called global hectares (gha). One gha represents the productive capacity of one hectare of land with world average

11 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

Africa’s total footprint in 2008 was 1.41 billion gha or shown in Figure 5 have an Ecological Footprint 7.7 per cent of humanity’s total footprint. This is greater than the global per capita available biocapacity of 1.8 gha. In 2008, Eritrea had the equivalent to an average per capita Footprint of 1.4 gha. lowest per capita footprint at 0.7 gha. As well as variation in average per capita The footprint of many Although this is far lower than the global average footprint amongst countries, there is also per capita footprint of 2.7 gha, it is close to the considerable variation amongst individuals a level of consumption globally available biocapacity of 1.8 gha per within countries. The footprint of many African person and is rapidly approaching the biocapacity meet their needs available within Africa’s borders.

Mauritius has the highest per capita footprint The Ecological Footprint, as a measure of a Figure 5. Ecological at 4.6 gha and, together with Libya, Mauritania population’s utilization of renewable resources, Footprint per country, per and Botswana, is one of four countries with an can be compared to biocapacity, a measureable person, 2008 average per capita Ecological Footprint greater amount of productive area that is available to (Global Footprint than the global average. Ten of the 45 countries generate these resources and to absorb . Network, 2011). The

) horizontal line shows a t

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a global hectares h

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12 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

The biocapacity of an area, country or region is nations with high per capita biocapacity such a function of its bioproductive area and of the as the Republic of Congo and Central African productivity of that area. Africa comprises 2,960 million hectares of land, of which 1,873 million Gabon – the country with the highest biocapacity hectares are bioproductive or used as built-up land. Of this bioproductive land area, 681 million grounds and grazing lands. Grazing land makes hectares are forested, 251 million are cropland, and 909 million are grasslands. Africa has 192 leaders like Mauritania and Botswana while

its continental shelf and inland . At the other end of the scale, countries with Taking into account differences between lowest per capita biocapacity are often relatively average African yields and corresponding global densely populated or have unfavourable yields for cropland, grazing land, forest, and environmental conditions, such as low year- round rainfall, that affect their productivity.

) million gha. The average available per capita a t A total of 27 of the 45 countries shown in Figure i p biocapacity in Africa is 1.5 gha which is lower a

c 6 have available biocapacity per capita within r e than the world average of 1.8 gha. p

their national borders of less than 1.5 gha per a h g

( capita. This compares to 78 of the 151 countries

y t i c for which data are reported worldwide. Figure 6. Biocapacity a p a per country, per person, c o i

B 2008 (Global Footprint Network, 2011)

13 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

Humanity’s Ecological Footprint more than doubled The small reduction in per capita footprint of Africa’s Ecological Footprint compared to between 1961 and 2008, taking the world as a whole into masks an increase of 122 per cent in the per 22 per cent globally. capita , representing an eight- Looking ahead and assuming that growth is not ecological overshoot in the early 1970s. fold increase in Africa’s overall carbon curbed by resource constraints, Africa’s total footprint between 1961 and 2008. Carbon now Ecological Footprint is projected to double by Figure 7 shows how Africa’s demand for accounts for 20 per cent of Africa’s Ecological 2040. Based on 2008 bioproductivity values, goods and services has changed between 1961 Footprint compared to a global average of 55 Africa as a whole is projected to be in biocapacity and 2008, and how it is projected to change per cent. The per capita cropland footprint between 2008 and 2050 based on a “business increased by 15 per cent, representing a available within its borders, by 2015. four-fold increase in Africa’s total cropland both the ongoing growth in Ecological Footprint footprint. Cropland accounts for 35 per cent and the change in the composition of Built-up land Ecological Footprint. Fishing The Ecological Footprint of all African countries Fo rest taken together increased by 238 per cent between Grazing 1961 and 2008. This increase is largely a result Cropland of population increase over the same period. Carbon The average per capita footprint on Africa has actually declined by about 5 per cent over the same period, while in all other regions of the a

world it has increased. h g

n o

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Figure 7. Historical i

b trends in footprint by land use type (1961-2008) show ing “business as usual”

projections for 2015, 2030, and 2045 (billion gha) (Global Footprint Network, 2011)

14 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

Figure 8. Biocapacity (gha per capita) creditor and debtor countries, 1961 and 2008. The biocapacity creditor and debtor map compares the Ecological Footprint of consumption with domestic biocapacity (Global Footprint Network, 2011)

the same period – to just 37 per cent of its Some countries and regions compensate for 1961 value. biocapacity shortfalls by importing goods and services from elsewhere. However, in a context Of the 45 countries for which data was Several countries in Africa like many elsewhere of global overshoot, natural resources in many in the world are already “biocapacity debtors” – countries are being depleted and the environment 2008, compared to just seven in 1961. Africa’s countries whose consumption patterns cannot be is degraded as a result of over-extraction. 20 biocapacity creditors have also seen a supported by their internal biocapacity. sharp reduction in the gap between available Africa has experienced an increase in total biocapacity and Ecological Footprint. biocapacity of about 30 per cent between A total of 37 countries in Africa have a cropland 1961 and 2008, mainly as a result of increased agricultural production. However, these biocapacity exceeds their domestic production. production gains have not kept pace with increasing demand and available per capita biocapacity has declined by dramatically over

15 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

Biocapacity debtor and creditor countries alike are have substantially outstripped exports; a trend increasingly relying on international trade to support that has accelerated in the 21st century. West statistics and probably underestimates the extent Africa has also seen imports outpace exports to which other countries are drawing on Africa’s their consumption patterns and preferences. biocapacity. For example, illegal, unreported

Figure 10 shows a breakdown by land use Trade data allow Globally, the footprint of goods and services was estimated in 2005 to represent a cost of component of biocapacity imports and exports traded between nations represented more than almost US$1 billion dollars a year (MRAG, for each sub-region. Cropland accounts for 40 per cent of humanity’s total Footprint in 2005, 2005) equivalent to over 25 per cent of the value the largest share of Africa’s net biocapacity is dependent on compared to 8 per cent in 1961 (WWF, 2008). imports and totaled a massive 53.5 million gha imported biocapacity Africa’s biocapacity imports and exports have extraction and trade is also costing African in 2008, with the majority of imports destined to support its both increased substantially since 1961 (Figure 9). countries many millions of dollars each year. for North Africa where water scarcity limits crop consumption At the regional level, Africa has been a net production. Importing substantial embodied From a strategic perspective, importing embedded patterns and importer of biocapacity since the mid-1970s and carbon and grazing land imports, North footprint through trade can help individual whether demand by 2008, biocapacity imports of an average of Africa accounted for two-thirds of Africa’s net placed on Africa’s 0.29 gha per person were more than twice the biocapacity imports in 2008. Ranking second demand for goods and services without drawing resources by magnitude of exports of 0.14 gha per person. in total net imports, West Africa’s net imports down their natural capital, or experiencing local other countries At 0.15gha per person, Africa’s net biocapacity of included 18 million gha of embodied carbon and effects of overshoot. Three biocapacity debtor is contributing to imports totaled 145 million gha in 2008 and were countries – Gambia, Senegal, and Somalia – have equivalent to 10.3 per cent of its total Ecological Footprint. such as Nigeria, Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire to and many other countries are using imports to meet shortfalls in particular biocapacity Biocapacity imports and exports have both a high market value and importing larger components. However, this dependence on experienced growth in Southern and Central quantities with a lower market value. In contrast, other countries to meet consumption patterns Africa with imports gradually catching up with the Southern Africa sub-region is a net exporter is increasingly risky in a resource-constrained exports between 1961 and 2008. In contrast, a of biocapacity with exports of carbon, forest and world – particularly where commodity prices are roughly ten-fold increase in imports by East and volatile and subject to increased speculation. North Africa over the same period means imports

16 Green Infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

Conversely, export of goods and services places additional demand on renewable resources that many countries can ill-afford to spare. Figure 10. Only two of Africa’s 25 biocapacity debtors – Biocapacity South Africa and Swaziland – are currently imports and exports by net exporters of biocapacity, but in the face of sub-region, 2008 growing domestic and international demand Figure 9. (Global Footprint for goods and services, the trade-off between Network, 2011) Biocapacity generating revenues from exports and meeting imports local demand will become increasing acute in and exports the coming decades. (1961- 20 08) fo r Africa. 40 of the 45 Commercial land leasing, or ”land grabs”, reported countries represent another way by which countries were net biocapacity can appropriate biocapacity and associated importers in 2008. from other parts of the world, (Global Footprint often with long-term obligations. The High Network, 2011) Imports by subregion and component (million gha) Level Panel of Experts on and (HLPE, 2011) reported that two- thirds of the estimated 50-80 million hectares

acquired as investments in recent years are ) a h g in sub-Saharan Africa. Other studies place

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Exports by subregion and component (million gha)

17 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

in agriculture, and households, as well the variation between countries is accounted Although water availability is vital to bioproductivity, as the water from rainfall used for growing crops for by differences in water use in agricultural and livestock fodder. its use is not measured directly in the Ecological as in the origin of goods being consumed – since Water use varies greatly among countries and water intensity in crop production varies greatly Footprint accounts. among communities and individuals within between countries. countries. Agricultural production accounts

Water Footprint provides a complementary for 92 per cent of the global Water Footprint; Figure 11. Water measure of human demand on natural renewable industrial production contributes 4.4 per cent Footprint per person per resources, and can be compared to water and domestic water supply 3.6 per cent (Hoekstra country, showing availability to determine whether a population’s and Mekonnen, 2012). agricultural, use of water can be supported by the renewable Figure 11 shows the average water used to industrial and supply. produce the agricultural, industrial and domestic usage (Average over The Water Footprint measures the total volume household goods and services that are consumed period 1996-2005) of water that is used to produce the goods and by individuals in African nations. It includes (Hoekstra and services that we consume. It includes the water goods and services produced locally as well as Mekonnen, 2012) withdrawn from , and , used those imported from other countries. Most of

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18 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

Blue Water Footprint: The volume of Grey Water Footprint: The volume of freshwater withdrawn from surface or ground water required to dilute released in The calculation of Water Footprint is based on water sources that is used by people and not production processes to such an extent that the Water Footprint of Production or the volume returned: in agricultural products this is mainly the quality of the ambient water remains above of freshwater used by people to produce goods, accounted for by evaporation of water agreed standards. measured over the full supply chain, as well as the water used in households and industry,

three components: Green Water Footprint: The volume of rainwater that evaporates during the production of goods; for agricultural products, this is the rainwater stored in that evaporates from

Forest, grazing lands, barren lands etc... -fed agriculture

Irrigated agriculture

Irrigated agriculture Industrial water use Household water use Remaining fresh and quality flows for and other uses

Figure 12. Components of the Water Footprint

19 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

In a context of increasing for water is supplied by rainfall. At the same time there included in Figure 15, as well as , are facing resources, understanding the nature of water use provides is substantial uncertainly around the effects of acute water scarcity. South Africa and climate changes on precipitation and run-off in are experiencing moderate water where a basis for effective water management and allocations. Africa. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate blue water demand exceeds 20 per cent of supply. Change (Bates et al, 2008) suggests it is likely Elsewhere in Africa year-round pressure on that there will be an in increase in the number blue water resources remains low, suggesting The Water Footprint of Production allows us of people experiencing water stress on an annual there is potential to increase irrigation in suitable to look at the water being used by agriculture, basis in southern and northern Africa, and a areas without seriously impacting downstream industry and households in a given country or reduction in eastern and western Africa. users and ecosystems. However, with region – irrespective of where the resulting Blue water use in irrigation accounts for 32 per goods or services are consumed (Figure 13). cent of agricultural water used in North Africa as well as strategies to optimize use of green Agriculture takes the largest share of water use in Figure 13. Blue, compared to just three per cent in sub-Saharan water resources will both be required to ensure Africa, accounting for 97.5 per cent of water use. Green and Grey Africa – where just a handful of countries are food security. Water Footprints of Industrial production uses 0.7 per cent of water, utilizing extensive irrigation. With demand Production in million and domestic water uses 1.7 per cent. cubic meters per year representing over 40 per cent of blue water supply (average for the period A total of 91 per cent of water use in agriculture (measured as internally renewable resources), the 1996-2005) comprises “green water”, or soil moisture, which

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Water availability varies on a seasonal basis in More northerly basins like the Senegal, many river basins, and extracting water during Volta, Niger, Chad, Nile and Shebelle suffer severe blue water scarcity in February users of their livelihoods and damage or even or March due to low run-off while in other destroy downstream ecosystems. Determining months scarcity is less serious. In the Orange whether water withdrawals and demand for and Limpopo River basins, water scarcity water uses are competing and likely to impact occurs in September and October, the period ecosystem services requires looking beyond the when the blue water extraction is highest traditional measures of water scarcity to consider while run-off is lowest. water availability on a year-round basis within These results underscore the importance of Figure 14. individual basins. planning water allocations for irrigation and Number of A recent analysis by the Water Footprint other purposes on a monthly rather than months during the year in which Network, The Nature Conservancy and WWF the blue water (Hoekstra et al., 2012) analysed where and between different water users and avoid major footprint exceeds when blue water footprint exceeds blue water or irreversible changes in ecosystem blue water availability in the world’s major river basins after structure and function. availability for setting aside a conservative allowance to ensure Africa’s major river basins, based show that nine of Africa’s eleven largest river on the period of basins (over 200,000 km2) experience blue water 1996-2005. Some of these basins are scarcity during at least one month of the year. in arid areas while

water scarcity quality of water is channelled into agriculture (Hoekstra et al., 2012)

21 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

International trade statistics combined with Water Footprint data can be used to calculate the volume of embodied or virtual water used in trade.

Figure 15 shows the “virtual ” of populations. This means that when Figure 11. African countries over the period 1996 to 2005. drought is experienced, there are less likely to Countries shown in red are net importers of be under-utilized water resources in local virtual water, where imports exceed exports, systems to provide a buffer against crop failure. while those in green are net water exporters. Several countries in Africa are both net importers Agricultural products account for the largest of cropland and grazing biocapacity, and net share of virtual water globally, and it is not water exporters. This implies that they are surprising to see that North and Southern Africa exporting products that are more water intensive – the two sub-regions that import substantial to produce, than those they are importing. cropland biocapacity – are also importing Trade in virtual water is considered to be largely large quantities of virtual water. Hoekstra and incidental in current trading patterns. However, Mekonnen (2012) suggest that in water-scarce as water scarcity is predicted to increase in the Net virtual water imports countries, import of virtual water is likely to face of growing populations and climate change (Gm3/yr) have positive environmental, social and in Africa and around the world, water-wise Figure 15. Virtual water economic implications. balance for African between -35 and -15 trade patterns of the 21st century. countries related to trade However relying on the water resources of other between -15 and -5 nations to meet their own domestic needs can in agricultural and industrial products, over the period between-5 and 0 also be viewed as a risk. D’Odorico et al. (2010) 1996-2005 (Mekonnen and between 0 and 5 have argued that globalization of water resources Hoekstra, 2011) through trade has reduced societal resilience between 5 and 10 to drought-induced crop failure since virtual The countries shown in between 10 and 15 water imports have allowed growth in dryland green have a negative balance, which means that between 15 and 50 they have net virtual water between 50 and 115

No data in yellow to red are net importers of virtual water

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Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda. WWF has helped 574 farmers in the region plant 700,000 trees in its 5-year programme to replenish the bare hills. Many farmers in the region are switching to “drought-resistant” crops that include pineapple, mangoes, bananas, oranges and upland rice

23 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

Without ecosystems and the services they provide – such The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity Rural populations – particularly poorer (TEEB) study referred to the nature’s capacity households and women – are most directly to provide such services as “ecological reliant on ecosystem services and are particularly productivity – the Earth would be uninhabitable. infrastructure” and highlighted that ecosystem vulnerable to changes in ecosystem conditions. ©

conservation and restoration support a range Ecosystem services underpin natural resource M i c

h of policy goals – including food security, dependent industrial sectors such as agriculture, e l

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r development, and climate change mitigation and basis for rural livelihoods and resilience. In rural

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W adaption (TEEB, 2010). areas, ecosystems provide a wealth of everyday F - C products including fuel wood, , a n

o The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment n bushmeat and honey that are often overlooked described four categories of ecosystem services in standard accounting systems and thus that contribute to human well-being and which undervalued. Recognizing the important role underpin our livelihoods and economies. The ecosystem services play in rural development is assessment highlighted that, in a world in critical to securing sustainable livelihoods. which inequities are growing, many people do The harmful effects of the degradation ecosystem services (MEA, 2005). of ecosystem services are being borne disproportionately by the poor, and the The harmful effects of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment found that degradation of ecosystem these are sometimes the principal factors services are being borne disproportionately by the poor, and are sometimes the principal factor causing

Fish farming in Mellah Lake, El Kala National Park,

24 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

Water towers in Guinea the Fouta Djallon highlands in Guinea are the source of half of West Africa’s rivers, including seven international rivers

Ecosystem services is the term used to describe Fisheries the goods and services provided by ecosystems. In 2008, inland capture The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) fisheries in Africa yielded two and a half million describes four categories of ecosystem services: tonnes, nearly a quarter of reefs the world total support artisanal and commercial fisheries, protect Products directly obtained from ecosystems , absorb such as food, , timber, carbon dioxide and are the basis for a Figure 16. thriving recreational Ecosystem and sector. The total economic from the of natural processes such services in value of the 12,000 Africa km2 of coral reefs in the Western Indian climate regulation and crop . Ocean is estimated to be US$7.3 billion Africa’s forests stock per year some 98 billion tonnes Basic ecological of carbon, equivalent functions and processes that are necessary to 145 tonnes per hectare. Fifty six billion for the production of all other ecosystem tonnes is stocked in services such as nutrient cycling, , 34 billion in soil, and 8 billion in and soil formation. dead wood and Cultural services: such as recreational, educational, aesthetic Medicine Long used in traditional medicine, the Madagascar periwinkle (Catharantus roseus) is the source Mountain gorilla of alkaloid compounds used in the treatment of Each mountain gorilla is estimated numerous illnesses including diabetes and . to generate $1 million per year in Survival rates for childhood leukaemia have tourist revenue for the Ugandan increased from 20 to 80 per cent as a result of the economy. (Source: ht tp://wwf.panda. plant’s therapeutic properties org/?uNewsID=201576)

25 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

“The loss of services derived from ecosystems is a The causes of can be broadly

fragmentation or change; of Development Goals to reduce poverty, hunger, and species; pollution; the spread of invasive alien disease” (MEA 2005) . species; and climate change, all of which have their origins in human demands placed on the Between 2000 Humanity’s appetite for goods and services biosphere (Figure 17). The resulting erosion and 2010, Africa has a range of impacts on ecosystems and of ecosystem services has direct consequences lost an average of species. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment on human well-being since it affects security 3,414 ha of forests (2005) found that “over the past 50 years, such as access to resources; basic material needs such as food and shelter; and, health, such as annually, equivalent humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly to just under 0.5 and extensively than in any comparable period access to clean water (MEA, 2005). per cent of its forest of time in , largely to meet We take ecosystems for granted, overlooking cover per year rapidly growing demands for food, , environmental and all too often we (FAO, 2010a) appreciate their values only after we have lost ©

them. Yet it is usually much more expensive to

D o n

a replace or restore ecosystem services once they l d

M

i are lost, than to manage human activities to l l e r

/

W avoid or minimize impacts. Failure to account W

F for the values of ecosystems and environmental - C a

n externalities associated with human activities o n

degradation of ecosystem services as well as a source of (TEEB, 2010).

African Women mixing mortar for cistern Lake Nakuru, Kenya

26 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security ©

J a s o n

R

u b e n s

/

W W F - C a n o n

Species are the building blocks of ecosystems, and the health of ecosystems depends on as well as the of individual plants and animals and the relationships between these. Loss of biodiversity causes ecosystems to become stressed or degraded and ultimately to

to humans and other species. Conversely, more diverse systems are more resilient and better able to recover from natural shocks and anthropogenic pressures. As climate change compounds existing pressures on ecosystems, maintaining and enhancing the ability of ecosystems to withstand pressures is one of the foundations of climate adaptation strategies. Figure 17. Human activities, biodiversity, ecosystem services and well-being (WWF, 2012; MEA, 2005)

27 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

Tracking the health of the Earth’s biodiversity is essential to understand how it is changing and devise effective ways to counter the impacts of humans on wildlife and ecosystems.

Figure 18. the health of the planet’s ecosystems by tracking The Global Living the fate of more than 9,000 populations of Planet Index (1970 – ) 1 2008). =

species to evaluate the change in size 0

7 a decline of around 30

of wildlife populations over the past 38 years. 9 1 (

per cent from 1970 to e u l

The latest Living Planet Index suggests that a 2008 (WWF/ZSL, 2012). v

x Shading, on this and the across the globe, vertebrate populations are on e d n average a third smaller than they were 38 years I ago. This is based on trends in 9,014 populations limits surrounding of 2,688 , , reptile, , the trend – the wider the shading, the more The Africa index includes all species populations variable the underlying with available data from the Afrotropical realm, trend

populations from the Palearctic realm that are located in North Africa, and marine species populations from the southern Mediterranean Figure 19. ) 1 Sea, western Indian Ocean and eastern Atlantic. Africa’s Living Planet

=

0 Index (1970 – 2008). The Africa index is based on 1,299 populations 7 9 1

(

from 373 species. The Africa index shows a e u l indicates there has been a

steady decline in vertebrate abundance from v

x an overall reduction of e

1970 to 2008 (Figure 19). d

n 39 per cent in animal I populations over the 38 year period (WWF/

ZSL, 2012)

28 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

The calculation Regional, biome and taxonomic indices can be Figure 20. Exploring the for the Africa LPI Living Planet Index followed the same The Living Planet Index is a composite index that data are available. The calculation for the Africa process for that tracks trends in a large number of populations of LPI followed the same process for that of the of the global species from around the world. The global Living global biogeographic realms so that each species biogeographic Planet Index is an aggregate of two indices, the carries equal weight within the Africa index. realms so that tropical index and temperate index, which are each species carries given equal weight. equal weight within The tropical index includes terrestrial and freshwater species, populations found in the

realms, and marine species, populations found between the of Cancer and Capricorn. The temperate index includes terrestrial and freshwater species, populations found in the Palearctic and Nearctic realms and marine species, populations to the north or south of the tropics. Each of the individual populations within the

to two characteristics: whether it is tropical or temperate; and whether it is freshwater, marine

to the population rather than to the species, and some migratory species, such as freshwater mullet may have both freshwater and marine populations, or may be found in both tropical and temperate zones.

29 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

©

commercialization of a formerly subsistence H e r v è

threats to the 1,780 African that activity has put pressure on species in many M o r a

countries, especially in peri-urban areas. n

d

/

endangered (EN), or vulnerable (VU) on the Growing illegal is pushing W W IUCN Red List. Many populations and species some of Africa’s most iconic species towards F are subject to more than one type of threat over . their range. For example, the forest elephant Finally, climate change is an emerging threat ( ) is primarily affected by to species throughout Africa, with substantial destruction and reduction of its range in changes to habitats and water availability West Africa, while poaching is a greater concern expected to compound the effects of reduced in Central Africa. ranges and direct pressures on species. The top two threats to species in Africa, like the rest of the world, are agriculture and logging, both of which are associated with destruction or substantial alteration and fragmentation Figure 21: Proportion of natural habitats. Agricultural and of vertebrate species affected by different types of threats in affecting threatened vertebrates, followed by Africa. based on an assessment and urban waste water. of 1780 species (962 terrestrial, 964 Also associated with , freshwater and 162 residential/commercial development is less marine, with some species occurring in multiple Africa than in other parts of the world, but systems) (ZSL, 2012 based is expected to be a rising concern in view of on IUCN 2011) rapid and expansion of in vulnerable areas such as coastal zones. Hunting and trapping provides an important contribution to livelihoods in Africa

but increasing demand combined with

30 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security ©

G e t t

y

I m a g

Poaching and illegal wildlife trade is one of the e s

f o

greatest threats to many of Africa’s charismatic, r

W valuable and ecologically important species. W F - U

Products such as elephant ivory and rhino horn K are in great demand in Asia for ornamental or medicinal purposes.

There has been a dramatic upsurge in poaching and illegal trade in recent years. Rhino poaching in South Africa increased by 3,000 per cent between 2007 and 2001. Large-scale ivory seizures in 2011 were the highest ever recorded. The increasing large-scale ivory seizures are evidence of the growing involvement of well- organized criminal networks in illegal wildlife trade, now the 5th largest illicit transnational activity, worth US$7.8-10 billion per year. As a result, populations of several African species are plummeting. Elephant populations in Central Africa alone are estimated to have declined by more than 50 per cent between 1995 and 2007, primarily due to poaching.

Wildlife crime undermines governments’ efforts to halt other illicit trades, such as arms and drugs; facilitates the growth of organised crime; include increasing institutional capacity and resourcing for wildlife enforcement, and ensuring wildlife criminals are penalized to the full extent of the law.

31 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

With their relatively low footprints, African nations development. A more recent measure, the are well-placed to new development pathways sustainable development as a commitment to Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI) accounts for “improving the quality of human life while the inequality in attainment of , life that are more sustainable than those taken elsewhere. living within the carry capacity of supporting expectancy and income – which is greater in ecosystems”. lower income countries than in higher income countries (UNDP, 2011). An HDI value of 0.8 or Countries’ progress towards sustainability can be Another path However, achieving this will require a radical more in the 2007 Index is considered to represent assessed using the United Nations Development is possible that departure from “business as usual”. The “high human development” (UNDP, 2009). combines gains in following sections will explore the factors which Programme’s (UNDP) Human Development HDI with limited determine Ecological Footprint and biocapacity, Index (HDI), as a measure of quality of life, and At the same time, a per capita Ecological growth in per Ecological Footprint, as a measure of demand on Footprint of less than 1.8 gha – the value capita footprint The alternative is one of foreclosed development supporting ecosystems (Figure 23). corresponding to the available per capita biocapacity on the planet – meets the minimum options and lost potential. The HDI combines measures of income, condition for global sustainability in that it is and educational attainment In Caring for the Earth, published shortly before replicable at the global level. the 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and to compare countries’ economic and social Figure 23 shows that many countries’ development trajectories have taken them away from sustainability, with crucial gains in Figure 22. Ecological 1961 2008 IHDI achieved at the expense of substantial Footprint by geographic increases in footprint. Extended worldwide, these grouping, 1961 and ) development pathways would to increased ) a a t i t i

2008. The area within p

p overshoot and further deplete the natural capital a a

c c

each bar represents r r

e upon which human well-being depends. However, e p p

the total footprint for a

a

h other countries, such as , have achieved

h g g (

each region (Global ( t

t tremendous gains in HDI with a relatively small n i n

i Footprint r r p p r

r increase in per capita footprint. o

Network, 2011) o o o f

f

l

l a a c

i Figure 22 shows the combined effects of change c i g g o l o l in per capita footprint and population on the o o c c E E total Ecological Footprint in different regions. Per capita footprint has increased in all regions except Africa, but Africa’s overall Ecological Population (millions) Population (millions)

32 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

12

10

8

6

Children present saplings from a WWF-funded nursery 4 in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania

Footprint has more that trebled as a result of , and more and more countries 2

Sub-Saharan Africa’s average HDI rating is projected to rise by 44 per cent by 2050 0 (UNDP, 2011). However probable environmental 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 challenges – such as more severe water and air Inequality-adjusted (IHDI) pollution and climate change effects – could reduce this growth to 32 per cent while an Figure 23. The Ecological Footprint for each country (in 2008) versus the Inequality-adjusted Human “ scenario” shows human Development Index (in 2011). The dots representing each country are coloured according to their geographic development progress halting or even declining by 2050. thresholds for low, medium, high and very high human development based on UNDP, 2011 (Global Footprint Network, 2011).

33 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

Bringing an end to global overshoot means closing the gap between humanity’s footprint and available biocapacity. Five factors determine the size of this gap.

On the demand side, the footprint is a function Bioproductive area: The land and water Per capita consumption of goods and of ; the quantity of goods and (marine and inland) area that supports services: The basic necessities of life, such services consumed by each person; and the as food, shelter, fresh water and clean air resource and waste intensity associated with accumulated biomass that is used by people. are produced either directly or indirectly by production of these goods and services. Lower ecosystems. Bioproductivity per hectare: An area’s population and individual consumption, more productivity depends on the type of ecosystem Footprint intensity: and the way it is managed. which natural resources are converted into emitted in production of goods and services goods and services affects the size of the all result in a smaller footprint. Population growth: The total number footprint of every product consumed. of people is one of the strongest drivers of On the supply side, biocapacity is determined the increasing global footprint. by the amount of biologically productive area available, and the productivity of that area. However increases in either factor sometimes Figure 24. Factors

driving Ecological

come at the expense of greater resource T

O Footprint and O

use or waste emissions, or attrition of H

biocapacity (Global S

ecological services. R E Footprint Network, 2011) V O

The following pages look at these factors in more

detail and identify some of the drivers associated BIOCAPACITY (SUPPLY) = with increasing footprint, and at the trade-offs

Area x Bioproductivity

involved in managing biocapacity.

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT

(DEMAND) = Population x Consumption x Footprint intensity

34 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

There is substantial variation amongst countries and regions in the extent to which the relative growth in population and average per capita footprint contribute to the overall growth of demand.

Figure 25 shows the relative contributions of population and average per capita footprint in challenge faced by African governments and driving growth in the total footprint in African the development in meeting the ) 1

= nations between 1961 and 2008. With the Millennium Development Goals. Important 1 6

9

decline in per capita footprint, it is clear that the advances across a wide range of development 1 (

e Figure 25: Index u principal driver of change in Africa’s Ecological fronts have been surpassed by the increase in l a

v of population,

Footprint is increasing population. In contrast, demand for goods and services. For example, d

e

x Ecological Footprint, increasing individual consumption levels have while net agricultural production in Africa has e d

n per capita Ecological played a more important role in driving the more than trebled since 1961 and per capita I Footprint, and increase in footprint in high income countries agricultural production has risen in North and per capita (WWF, 2012). West Africa, it has declined in Africa as a whole. biocapacity, Africa

In 2010, 239 million of the estimated 925 billion (1961-2008) (Global

By 2050, Africa’s population is projected to undernourished people in the world were in sub- Footprint Network, 2011) reach between 1.93 and 2.47 billion people Saharan Africa, equivalent to 30 per cent of the compared to 1.02 billion in 2010 and 0.294 population in this region (FAO, 2010b). billion in 1961 (Figure 26). As populations rise, there is less biocapacity available to meet the needs of each individual. The more than three- fold increase of Africa’s population between s

n o

1961 and 2008 has been accompanied by a i l l i

m Figure 26. Population two-thirds reduction in the available per capita n

o

i growth in Africa biocapacity. An increasing number of countries t a l

u from 1960-200 and in Africa are facing the choice between meeting p o

P projected population growth from 2010 services from other countries or overexploiting to 2050 based on their natural resources, risking an associated low, medium and high decline in ecosystem services. population scenarios (UN DESA, 2011)

35 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity

Urban populations are growing rapidly in Africa and will continue to do so as a result of intrinsic growth, displacement and migration (Parnell and Walawege, 2011).

The urban population in Africa is projected to Cities can also be part of the solution. The Figure 27. Projected reach 1.23 billion people in 2050; nearly three increasing concentration of growing demand growth in urban and times its 2010 level of 413 million and equivalent for goods and services provides opportunities rural populations to 61.6 per cent of Africa’s total population (UN to manage footprint growth and achieve to 2050 (UNDESA, 2009) DESA, 2009b). By 2050, Africa will have a higher economies of scale in service delivery through number of people living in cities than , and design measures and Latin America or North America. greener infrastructure – particularly in the building, transport, and waste Urbanization is associated with changing management sectors. lifestyles and demand for services. Around the world, the relative wealth of urban populations In view of the pivotal role played by energy is associated with higher per capita carbon services, managing the Ecological Footprint

footprints, as a result of increased energy of urban areas often goes hand in hand s n o i l l

consumption and/or a shift to energy sources with mitigation. Similarly, i m

n

such as fossil fuels with higher carbon emissions adaptation initiatives in cities, such as those i n o i

(Poumanyvong and Kaneko, 2010). Urban designed to reduce vulnerability associated t

a l

u demand for electricity will represent about 90 per with development in sensitive areas or sourcing p o cent of total power generation by 2030, but there of materials, can reduce the impact of urban P is scope to meet much of this demand through populations’ footprint in their immediate and renewable . surrounding rural areas. At the same time, with tens of millions of people

living in unregulated and un-serviced slums, African cities have the highest level of inequality in the world (UN Habitat, 2010). The need to improve living standards for the roughly 72 per cent of urban dwellers in sub-Saharan Africa living in slum conditions (UN Habitat, 2003) is accentuated by their greater vulnerability to the effects of climate change .

36 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

Globally, carbon is the most rapidly growing component ) (AfDB, 2008). h of Ecological Footprint – with much of the increase W T (

d driven by emissions from burning oil, gas and for At the same time, Africa is among the regions n a m

with the highest energy intensity per unit of Gross e

d energy generation. y t Domestic Product (GDP) in the world (Enerdata, i c i

r t c e In Africa, carbon represents the largest footprint l e

d e t c

would reduce energy users’ costs and increase their e j

whose energy economies are dominated by o r

competitiveness; provide savings for power systems P fossil fuels, and accounts for over 50 per cent of in terms of managing peak loads; and, allow more footprint in South Africa and Libya. Africa’s CO2 users’ needs to be met for each dollar invested in emissions from fossil fuels account for just 2.5 per Figure 28. infrastructure (UNIDO and REEEP, 2009). cent of the global total. Projected growth Biomass currently provides over 80 per cent of total in demand for Overall, however, Africa’s citizens have lower primary energy supply to households across sub- electricity, 2007- average per capita energy consumption than any 2050 (AfBD, 2008) Saharan Africa (excluding South Africa) (AfDB, other region, and expanding access to modern 2008) and will continue to play an important role and clean energy services is a development in the years to come. Fuelwood for household use priority. Electricity accounts for less than 3 per and charcoal production is often harvested at unsustainable rates and has become a driver for Consumption of electricity is projected to increase ) %

( forest degradation and conversion – especially y

more than six-fold over the next decades with t i c

around urban centres (Denruyter et al., 2010). A i r more than 80 per cent of the new demand in t c e

move away from traditional biomass towards other l e urban areas (AfDB, 2008). o t

energy sources, including more sustainable wood s s

Much of this demand could be met through supply chains, would reduce pressure on forests e c c A

renewable energies averting the carbon-intensive and cut CO2 emissions related to land use change :

e l t i t

energy patterns seen in most industrialized as well as black carbon emissions associated s i

x

countries (UN DESA, 2004). Development of with global warming and health impacts. Known A a low carbon economy can create direct and technologies including on-farm agroforestry indirect opportunities for entrepreneurship Figure 29. and employment and improve Africa’s global competitiveness. Africa’s biomass in improved stoves can help improve the electricity (per cent potential is largely untapped, and includes hydro- entire biomass supply chain. of the population) power, geothermal energy, solar and power, (AfDB, 2008).

37 Section 1: Ecological wealth and human prosperity 2011). However this has been challenged in view of the assumptions related to low population The above sections have focused on the main drivers density, the suitability of terrain and , water availability, and concerns about loss of ecosystem services (e.g., HLPE, 2011). footprint intensity and growth in footprint. There is now a growing consensus that expansion of agriculture comes at the cost of loss of vital Sustainable Managing these drivers is fundamental to halting and eventually reversing overshoot at of agriculture through increased yields and agriculture, including the global level. cropping intensity is the preferred option (e.g., wise water use, Overshoot can also be reduced by increasing Foresight, 2011a, HLPE ,2011, UN Habitat and can contribute to the bioproductivity of ecosystems, and by UNEP, 2010). For example, current yields for food security and extending the bioproductive area. Most of the maize, oil palm, soybean and cane in Africa maintainance of past gains in biocapacity around the world have biocapacity been associated with increased agricultural current values (Foresight, 2011b). productivity, either by expansion in the area under agriculture or by increased yield and with increased use of costly and energy cropping intensity. intensive , with pollution from In Africa, the area under agricultural , and with increased water abstraction production increased by roughly 35 per cent for irrigation, which can have negative between 1961 and 2005 (HLPE 2011), with the environmental externalities. However there is majority of expansion accounted for by forest a growing body of knowledge and good practice conversion. Permanent and shifting agriculture is the principal driver for land use change and minimize the need for these inputs and generate in Africa, and is largely responsible positive environmental externalities (e.g., for the region’s 17 per cent share of global CO2 Foresight 2011a). emissions from land use change (Denruyter In many areas bioproductive land has been et al., 2010). depleted as a result of urbanization or Some estimates place the potential area for expansion of rainfed agriculture outside protected and forested areas in Africa as high include over-cultivation leading to soil as 200 million ha (e.g., Deininger and Byerlee, exhaustion; , leading to loss of

38 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

vegetation cover and erosion; deforestation leading to soil loss; and inadequately drained irrigation systems that cause soil salinization (UNCCD, 2011). Looking beyond cultivated areas, ongoing destabilization of ecosystems and attrition of ecosystem services, such as water regulation, are major challenges to maintaining biocapacity. Plant and animal populations are the building blocks of ecosystem services and one recent study suggests that by 2050 biodiversity decline will be a result of the associated impacts on ecosystem functioning (Lenzen et al,. 2007).

In terms of drivers, climate change – with associated changes in , rainfall, and climate variability – is expected to have profound effects on ecosystems and food production in the coming years. There is still limited information on how these changes will be experienced at the local level in Africa, and maintaining, and where possible strengthening, resilience in ecosystems is a vital adaptation and coping strategy in the face of this uncertainty.

http://www.water-energy-food.org/ Man spraying crops, Lake Bogoria, Kenya

39

41

Heads of States and Governments of the Amazonian, convergence, a priority action plan to Logging concessions cover 60 per cent of the Congo and South-East Asia basins have undertaken to harmonize the forest sector’s legal and landscape, which is also an emerging iron ore regulatory framework, and catalyse sustainable area, with at least seven companies maintain close consultations and promote common interest management of the region’s ecosystems. currently prospecting. The mining industry poses related to forests, biological diversity and climate change. a substantial threat to areas of high biodiversity Congo Basin Forest Fund value as a result of and – caused by the mining activities Launched in 2008 and housed in the AfDB, themselves as well as access roads and mining the Congo Basin Forest Fund (CBFF) is designed camps. Wildlife poaching, including ivory to support implementation of the COMIFAC plan poaching, has been exacerbated by increased Home to an estimated 75 million people, de convergence. The current portfolio includes accessibility. Companies have expressed a strong the Congo Basin forest provides locally and 41 projects. Recently approved projects include interest in contributing to conservation of the globally important ecosystem services including support to member countries in developing area and some are developing biodiversity provision of food and medicines and regulation national REDD processes and establishing “offset” activities. of climate and water. The region is rich in national and regional systems for measuring, commodities such as timber, oil, diamonds, gold reporting and verifying carbon forest stocks Close cooperation between the governments, and rare metals, whose exploitation is gradually private sector, local populations and conservation destroying the forest. The future of the forests NGOs has enabled an integrated approach to depends on the ability of governments, civil TRIDOM – Planning economic management of the area that takes into account its society, the private sector and the international development and conservation at scale exceptional biodiversity – as well as the interests community to consider the sustainable of rural populations, indigenous peoples and the Covering nearly 10 per cent of the Congo management of these forests as essential to private sector – to ensure that logging and mining basin , the Tri-National Dja-Odzala- achieving sustainable economic development and proceed in an environmentally – and socially – Minkebe (TRIDOM) trans- forest is alleviating poverty in the Congo basin. responsible manner. recognized by the Governments of Cameroon, In 1999, Heads of State of the basin countries Congo, and Gabon as an area of globally Reconciling development and conservation signed the historic Yaoundé Declaration outstanding biodiversity values. TRIDOM interests in the area, in the context of logging and to safeguard their forest resources, an includes nine protected areas, covering 20 emerging mining interests, requires participatory per cent of the forest surface, and serves as approaches to infrastructure planning and Brazzaville Treaty in 2005. The Central Africa a stronghold for the largest remaining forest development (including railways, roads and Forest Commission (COMIFAC) is charged elephant population in the basin. hydropower), to minimize habitat fragmentation with ensuring coordination of the plan de and disturbance; use of state of the art technology

42 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

and internationally applied standards at recently, the area is now one of the most Primary forest cover mining sites and facilities to minimize impacts Main National Parks in the region such as ; and, coordinated efforts Congo and under serious threat from slash and Transboundary cooperation parks to ensure effective wildlife protection and burn agriculture, charcoal production and illegal anti-poaching operations in and around the forest exploitation. The main indirect drivers Source: Based on extractive zones. of deforestation in Mai-Ndombe are poverty, UNEP/GRID-Arenda lack of employment, traditional CAMEROON CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC agricultural practices, population growth and unclear forest tenure.

International commitment to reduce carbon The Mai-Ndombe Integrated REDD+ emissions from deforestation and forest Programme is pioneering an approach degradation, and to conserve, sustainably that aims to both stabilize forest loss and manage and enhance forest carbon stocks emissions from land use change in the TRIDOM territory and to establish a model of low funding for forest conservation, bringing carbon sustainable development consistent with national REDD+ and REPUBLIC GABON OF implementation of REDD+ in Africa has proved climate strategies. CONGO MAI-NDOMBE be an expensive experiment facing a number of The programme will help local forest serious challenges such as complex governance mechanisms, and failure to deal with multiple threats to forest . A programme DEMOCRATIC sustainable management of their territory, REPUBLIC recently launched in the Bandundu province in while addressing the underlying causes of OF CONGO the Democratic Republic of Congo is exploring deforestation. The three complementary areas solutions to these challenges. of action are delineation of a simple REDD+ land Spanning 1.8 million Spanning more than 3 million hectares, the Mai use plan; establishment of a community-based km2, the Congo Basin Ndombe region lies between the Congo River, payment for environmental services forest, one of the last regions Kasai River and Lac Mai-Ndombe at the point (PES) system; and promotion of multi- on Earth where vast, interconnected where transitions to rainforest, and stakeholders local development projects as expanses of tropical rainforest permit is home to elephant, bonobo and chimpanzee. alternatives to deforestation. biological processes to continue undisturbed, Isolated by distance and river barriers until is now at a turning point

43

Spanning the border areas of , Botswana, KAZA has the potential to address several key this heavily poached and degraded area and Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe, the Kavango issues that impact wildlife populations, including is enabling recovery of wildlife populations. poaching and range fragmentation. By joining A partnership between the Zambia Wildlife Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) is the Authority, private sectors, NGOs and local world’s largest international conservation area covering combat international wildlife trade and poaching communities is now bearing dividends. The 44 million hectares. through information sharing, joint patrols and community wildlife institution, Kahare surveillance, and harmonized law enforcement Community Resources Board, received policies. Wildlife movements may be facilitated US$ 20,000 as its inaugural share from by removal of some of the thousands of kilometres of fences that impede the historical expected to treble in 2012. movement of animals. Critically this will KAZA’s landscape features miombo woodlands, depend on attracting investors to provide an wetlands and , and is home to 44 per economic boost to the people who live within the cent of Africa’s elephants, an estimated 325,000 Namibia’s 1996 Conservation Amendment animals. Highlights include renowned tourist amongst the local communities. Act empowered rural communities to take attractions such as Falls (the world’s Community based natural resource management largest ) and the Okavango Delta. resources – by providing rights to revenues (CBNRM) programmes across southern Africa from hunting and tourism on communal lands. KAZA was created in August 2011 by a treaty have demonstrated that by empowering rural The results have exceeded all expectations. designed to enable collaborative management and sustainable use of wildlife, it is possible Since 1998, more than 71 natural resource of the region’s rich natural heritage in a spirit to achieve the joint objectives of biodiversity management institutions, known as of regional integration and a culture of peace. It conservation and improved livelihoods. conservancies, have been established in aims to improve the livelihoods of the 2.5 million order to manage wildlife resources on communal The creation of the Mufunta Game Management people who live in the Okavango and Zambezi lands in Namibia. Rural communities have Area (GMA) project covering 541 thousand river basin regions of southern Africa. now taken on responsibility for sustainable hectares to the west of the Kafue National management of wildlife across nearly 15 million Park in Zambia has opened new economic ha of land, equivalent to around 18 per cent of opportunities for communities living around the country’s area.

44

Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

The results have been impressive – with wildlife

s populations having recovered to healthy numbers l a m across large areas (Figure 30) and revenues i n a

from CBNRM ventures both in and outside f o

r

conservancies amounting to more than 45 e b

m million Namibia dollars or US$6.4 million in u N 2010 (Figure 31). With growing investment in joint venture tourism between private companies and communities, local people are enjoying a range of social and economic opportunities Figure 30. Estimated game including development of skills and livelihoods, populations employment and improved nutrition. in Nyae Nyae Conservancy from Initiatives in many areas are now self-sustaining aerial game censuses and the programme is expanding into new areas, (1995, 1998, 2004), including across Namibia’s borders to south- water point counts, s

r a l

western Zambia and Botswana. l and local knowledge o d

from 1995-2007 a

i

b (NACSO, 2008) i m

Figure 31. Income a N

n o i l l

in Namibia rose i m

n i

e m

o c

n (NASCO, 2011) I

45

Figure 32. Rhino status by area distribution and Extant populations (Emslie Reintroduced 2011). Populations marked in the centre of a Introduced country refer to country Extinct wide population trends.

Conservation action is yielding results amongst some of Population trends the ‘extinct’ range refer Africa’s best known and iconic species – but threats remain, Declining to populations that have and some remain . Increasing been recently extirpated. Populations outside the range states have been

© recorded historically

M a

r but are not represented

t i

n

H in IUCN’s current a (Gorilla beringei beringei) r v e

y distribution maps

/

W The two remaining populations of mountain W F

- gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) are found in C a n

o national parks straddling the borders of Uganda, n Rwanda and Democratic Republic of the Congo. Figure 33. s

The area surrounding the parks is the most l

abundance a m

densely populated area in Africa resulting in a i n a

Gorilla f o

r

and wildlife (Blomley et al, 2010). populations e b m Listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN u (Based N Red List, there are estimated to be fewer than on Pomeroy 790 individuals remaining in the wild (IGCP, and Tushabe, 2012). Gorillas are threatened by poaching and 2004; Pomeroy,

habitat loss and degradation; pressures that are 2006, 2010; exacerbated by their small and fragmented range. and Arinaitwe, Individual population declines in recent years Pomeroy and have occurred primarily amongst unhabituated Tushabe, 2000) Virunga Young mountain gorilla, Rwanda groups forming approximately 30 per cent of Bwindi

46

Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

©

the population that are not being n a t

(Diceros bicornis) u

r utilized for tourism or research e p l . c

(Robbins, 2008). The mountain o m

/

T

gorilla remains in a fragile position species at the heart of Africa’s thriving o

n y

due to resurgence in poaching and wildlife-tourism industry. However, despite H e a l d

killing in recent years, while oil an almost two-fold increase since 1991, black /

W

exploration is emerging as a new threat rhino numbers are alarmingly low with fewer W F in Virunga National Park. than 5,000 of this Critically alive today (IUCN SSC AfRSG, pers.comm.). Encouragingly, numbers started to Population trends vary across Africa (Figure 32). increase from the late (Figure 33), Many populations in central and western African as intensive monitoring of the populations countries have declined into extinction whereas offered protection from poachers. This increase others, particularly in South Africa and Namibia is also due to veterinary intervention and the are showing signs of increase and recovery. The local community’s change in perception of the West African sub-species (D. bicornis longpipes) value of the species. Authorities and NGOs in was recently declared extinct (Emslie, 2011). Uganda have taken a community development approach to gorilla conservation to resolve The black rhino is threatened by poaching and by habitat loss and degradation leading to displacement of people following the gazetting to fragmentation of their ranges. Demand for rhino of the national parks. Local communities are horn for traditional and non-traditional uses has allowed restricted access to forest resources Africa lost 1,439 rhino horns to the illegal markets from gorilla trekking permits that provides between 2006 and 2009 (Milliken et al., 2009). revenues for building schools, infrastructure Encouraging local through and healthcare facilities. The approach has led investment in areas hosting core rhino populations to an increase in positive perception of the parks has proven successful in continuing to increase by local people and has been integral towards black rhino numbers across Africa. Public-Private mitigating threats to gorillas (Blomley et al., Black rhinoceros, Etosha National Park, Namibia Partnerships – such as those being implemented in 2010). Mountain gorilla tourism is now the South Africa, Kenya and Namibia – are providing highest contributor to tourism revenues in Uganda. to appreciate their vested interest in the ecosystem and its associated services.

47 initiative that was developed in the context The Zambezi basin is the fourth largest of Africa’s 60 international of an integrated approach to water resources river basins, with a catchment of 1.3 million square kilometres spanning management. Its objective is to re-establish eight countries: Angola, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, system in order secure freshwater and estuarine Malawi, Mozambique, and Namibia.

modifying the operating rules of hydropower ©

W dams in the Zambezi River basin in order to W F

- generate Environmental Flows Releases (EFR) C a

n The Zambezi River provides vital services o n

/

F for the populations of the basin countries,

o basin as well as protecting and managing the l k e

W u l f extraction for and domestic to ensure integrity of the ecosystem. water supply; and electricity generation. Technical studies indicate that it is possible The need to “maintain a proper balance between resource development for a jeopardizing hydropower production, with its higher standard of living for their people and conservation and enhancement of the environment to promote sustainable currently represent a major source of risk in the development” has been recognized by the basin. This case study highlights the potential signatories to the Revised Protocol on Shared for regional cooperation to lead to a win-win Watercourses in the Southern African outcome in allocation of water to different users Development Community (SADC) Region. and functions in a transboundary basin. The Joint Zambezi River Basin Environmental Flows Programme is a partnership Local villager riding a makoro boat, Zambezi river

48

Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

TANZANIA

DEMOCRATIC ZAMBIA REPUBLIC OF CONGO ANGOLA Major riverine wetlands in MALAWI the Zambezi basin include the Construction Kafue Flats and of dams for Upper Zambezi power generation, Floodplains, including at Kariba Barotse including the and Cahora Bassa floodplains Barotse and on the main stem Caprivi-Chobe of the river, has plains. These vast wetlands support substantially altered Cahora the basin Bassa agriculture; and Caprivi-Chobe Kariba grazing; as well as ecological, floodplains important wildlife economic and social populations and consequences. NAMIBIA major congregations Zambezi of waterbirds. Further hydropower Delta dams are planned in In 1999, the view of the growing MOZAMBIQUE direct economic regional demand for ZIMBABWE value based on electricity. consumptive use of the extended Barotse wetlands Zambezi Delta: The change in river discharge following closure of complex was the Cahora Bassa dam in 1974 led to a dramatic reduction in offshore estimated to be US$400 per household (Turpie shrimps to the Sofala Bank with a resulting increase in productivity of et al., 1999).

(at 1997 prices) (Hoguane 1997).

49

Land use Malawa around Lake river Naivasha One of few freshwater lakes in Eastern Africa, Lake Naivasha, located high in Kenya’s Great Rift Valley, is at the heart of a thriving agricultural economy centred on its prized water resources. Lake Naivasha ©

S i m

o n

R a

w From the upper catchment to the lake and its l e s

/

wetlands, water in the lake basin is a shared W W

F resource – to which numerous stakeholders - C a

n lay claim, from small-holders, horticulturalists o n

wildlife. The shallow lake and surrounding

swamplands host more than 350 species of farms

waterbirds and have been recognized under the Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international Beef farms importance since 1995. Small-holdings Agricultural activity in the basin has expanded LAKE NAIVASHA BASIN dramatically, in both the rural small-holder farms in the upper catchment and the commercial horticulture farms around the lake. The sector anchors a local economy that supports almost 650,000 people.

A combination of factors makes Lake Naivasha one of the best sites in the world to produce cut

climate, its access to a reliable supply of high- quality fresh water, low rainfall, fertile soils and its proximity to an international airport that can Planting seedlings in the upper catchment easily reach European markets have enabled the

50 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security © development of the Naivasha region Increasing urban and agricultural abstraction, H a r t together with increasing and m

into what is now considered the heartland of u t

J u

climate variability, are highly likely to impact the n g i u

recurrence and severity of crisis periods. s

(Becht et al., 2006). Commercial farming /

W has become a mainstay of the local economy, W F

The basin stakeholders are exploring new ways - C

attracting tens of thousands of local and migrant a n

to work together under the framework of Kenya’s o workers and contributing hundreds of millions n 2002 Water Management Act, which emphasizes of dollars each year to Kenya’s economy. The that water management be locally driven and area accounts for more 70 per cent of Kenya’s provides for creation of water resource user associations (WRUAs). in the basin account for some 20 per cent of its vegetable exports. One successful project in the region is the pilot project for “Equitable Payment for Watershed Over the past 50 years the upper catchment Services” project which was jointly facilitated by CARE and WWF, and linked the commercial including conversion of indigenous forest and water users around the lake with 565 smallholder open woodland into agricultural smallholdings. farmers via the WRUAs. The Lake Naivasha Increasing of plots over generations, Water Resources User Association (LANAWRUA) members sponsored the Wanjohi and Upper pressure on the natural resource base – leading Turusha WRUAs to rehabilitate and maintain to a decline in land productivity, increasing the riparian zones, plant trees and reduce run-off and altered hydrology. With use. declining land productivity and lack of access to know-how, farmers have been unable to invest The 565 upper catchment farmers who undertook in much-needed changes in farming practices. these activities were rewarded with vouchers that At the same time, discharge of municipal could be used to purchase agricultural inputs and basic household goods. This has allowed commercial farms pose threats to the water them to further transform the way in which they quality in the lake. users, and to the environment. Changes in lake levels, including as a result of Although still a pilot, the project is an example of pollution events, have highlighted how basin the effective cordination of different water users stakeholders are bound by a fabric of interwoven to manage water resources from the top of the Irrigation water from green houses is being collected in run-off channels, risks associated with water services in the basin. catchment to the end user. Lake Naivasha region, Kenya

51 Around Africa, a new generation of multi-purpose Locally-managed marine areas in A steady process of community empowerment marine protected areas (MPAs), ranging in size from just has been central to the improved management

a few hectares to many thousands of square kilometers, half of the 200km coastal strip from Maromena/ is providing biodiversity conservation, tourism revenues, Madagascar’s coastal waters, mostly operating Befasy to Ambohibola. Resident facilitators within 10 kilometers of the . The worked with communities over several years to globally important coral reefs of southwestern understand their needs and concerns, leading Madagascar support one of the most productive to the organization of management committees representing different family lineages. The income for local populations – especially in committees have taken on activities such as Acclaimed MPAs gazetted in the last decade times of drought. However economically valuable and communication at village level, and include Saint-Louis, Cayar, Joal-Fadiouth, species, such as octopus and lobster, are now in are reaching out to neighbouring communities. danger of overexploitation, while others, such as Bamboung and Abéné in Senegal, created The improvement of the health of the reef sea cucumbers, have virtually disappeared from under the auspices of PRCM, the regional ecosystem since local management measures marine and coastal conservation programme, some areas. in close cooperation with the Subregional AfDB is supporting pilot initiatives in community Fisheries Commission, Quirimbas National reduction in species associated with unhealthy Park in Mozambique, and Prince Edward are now beginning to yield results that will reefs. Fishers have reported that catches of prized belonging to South Africa. Less formal inform Madagascar National Parks’ efforts to species such as lobster have increased by 1.5 to management regimes established at local level establish a large multi-use MPA to the south of 4 times. Infractions fell by 75 per cent between are also bearing dividends. Toliara, as well as development of a regional legal framework. Facilitated and supported by NGOs has disappeared in two areas. such as WWF, Blue Ventures and the Wildlife Conservation Society, the locally-managed marine area (LMMA) approach combines community planning and regulation of resource use with The growing appreciation of carbon sequestration by coastal ecosystems presents an productivity and the state of the reef. opportunity to manage and restore

52 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

forests and to enhance the coastal livelihoods through payments for environmental services. carbon than productive terrestrial forests, and coastal wetlands (, sea grasses and marshes) account for as much as 71 per cent of all carbon storage in ocean (Nellemen et al., 2009). “Mikoko Pamoja” is a small-scale feasibility project at Gazi Bay in Kenya designed to enhance local communities. The project partners plan to replant 0.4 ha/yr in degraded intertidal areas over the next 20 years, generating blue carbon support community development projects, and to protect 107 ha of natural and 10 ha of replanted mangrove forests.

Implemented by the Kenya Marine Fisheries Services and partners, the Gazi Bay project is at the forefront of efforts to generate credits for blue carbon. WWF and partners are exploring opportunities to scale up this pioneering work in the western Indian Ocean region and beyond, wider global community.

53 Renewable projects are being planned and through job creation and through stimulation of North Africa and become a global powerhouse implemented throughout Africa, bringing both immediate off-grid renewable energy in the wider economy. for green energy. CSP can help meet growing It intends to mobilize and channel international demand in the region and beyond, enhance and long-term solutions to Africa’s , energy security and diversify the energy mix while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions. energy capacity and the delivery of green energy. for power generation. It can also fuel green growth opportunities through local sourcing of In parallel, the South African Low Carbon Action equipment, components and services. Plan (WWF, 2011) is a proposed framework or national planning tool designed to unpack the Morocco has the largest proposed capacity of As a country extremely vulnerable to the impacts what, when and how of creating a low carbon the MENA countries and is now planning one of economy. The allocation of the carbon budget will the largest CSP plants in the world. The Morocco water, disease, food security and environmental involve trade-offs between different activities, Solar Plan, launched in November 2009, is the migration as key areas where climate change will which will have far-reaching implications. It cornerstone of the country’s renewable energy exacerbate existing development challenges. At is being undertaken through a collaborative and climate change mitigation strategy. The US$9 the same time, with an economy powered by coal- process involving all stakeholders. Contribution billion Solar Plan calls for the commissioning of generated electricity and with energy-intensive to development will be a primary consideration in determining which emitting activities are and 2020 – with a total capacity of 2000 MW. towards GDP, there are fears it will be penalized afforded space in the national carbon budget. With investment from AfDB, the Phase One of by global markets that are starting to shun the ambitious Ouarzazate 500 MW CSP project Concentrated solar energy carbon intensive goods and services. aims to develop 125-160 MW of CSP of a total 500 Electricity consumption in the Middle East MW planned in a public private partnership with The South African Renewables Initiative and North Africa (MENA) region is among the MASEN, the Moroccan public solar agency. (SARi) aims to support the rapid development fastest growing in the world. At the same time, the region has huge potential in concentrated of South Africa’s Integrated Resource Plan solar power (CSP) generation that could serve With the help of AfDB, the privately-owned and (IRP, 2010) that envisages adding up to 19 GW its own and wider regional needs. The vision operated Sahanivotry Hydroelectric Power Plant of renewable energy to the national grid by 2030. of the Mediterranean Solar Plan (MSP), under in Madagascar has been helping the country The initiative has set out to solve the incremental the Union for Mediterranean (UfM) initiative cost challenge and to help catalyse green growth is to exploit the renewable energy potential of a reliable and cost-effective manner since 2008.

54

Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

©

A

Located on the Sahanivotry River of Congo. While there are promising long-term f D in the province of Antanarivo, the B Sahanivotry hydropower plant has an installed capacity of 15 MW and refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) an average gross electricity generation called for a more immediate solution to growing of 90 GWh. It provides 10 per cent of the deforestation. Conservation and development ’s electricity from hydropower, feeding partners working with UNHCR have adopted a the Antsirabe and Antanarivo grid, which in two-fold strategy. turn, feeds the regional grid of Antananarivo, On the demand side, local craftsmen have Madagascar’s capital. With lower costs than an equivalent sized thermal plant, Sahanivotry woodstoves made from metal barrels and clay. has facilitated a 50 per cent increase in new Over 7,500 stoves have been manufactured since connections at an affordable price. November 2008 for distribution to IDP camps In August 2010, the Sahanivotry Plant was and for sale in Goma at a price of at US$5 per granted approval to sell carbon credits through stove. Manufacturing of stoves has created some the UNFCCC Clean Development Mechanism distribution and sale. Madagascar, and one of only 48 projects On the supply side, WWF’s EcoMakala registered in Africa. The African Development programme has worked with local communities Bank, which provided half of the €13 million to plant forestry plantations on their land for needed for the plant’s construction in 2007 and commercial fuelwood as a viable alternative to 2008, guided the operating company, Hydelec, illegal extraction of fuelwood. Approximately through the rigorous CDM registration process. 6,000 ha of woodlots have been planted over the Improved Fuelstoves Over one million sacks of charcoal are burned each year for household energy needs in the of Goma, in the eastern Democratic Republic AfDB has supported development of the Ain Beni Mathar Integrated Solar Thermal Combined Cycle in Morocco

55 57

The choices made today about infrastructure, Africa has choices in terms of its development The good news is that many of the solutions energy and food production will shape humanity’s pathways. Pursuing a more sustainable and are already known. Based on the analyses and opportunities and options far into the future. equitable approach to development than those growing body of experience summarized in taken in some other parts of the world can sections 1 and 2 of this report, the following

© security, human well-being and increased for managing the growth and impact of the

M a r

t competitiveness. Ecological Footprint in Africa through resource i n

H a r v

e Humanity’s demand on the world’s living y

enhancing ecosystem resilience. The approaches /

W resources, its Ecological Footprint, has more W and measures proposed in the following sections F

- than doubled since 1961 and now exceeds the C

a can also contribute to mitigation of carbon n

o planet’s regenerative capacity by about 50 per n emissions and adaptation in the face of cent. The ecosystem services on which we depend climate change. for our livelihoods and well-being are being degraded as a consequence of our escalating Building a sustainable economy will require demand for natural resources, and this is concerted efforts from local to national levels increasing our vulnerability to economic and and across all sectors, changing the way our environmental shocks. institutions work together and plan together. Many of the actions and strategies described in the following pages will require action by Ecological Footprint exceeds available domestic governments ranging from policy guidance to enabling legislation and improved governance. a generation. While the impact of the average innovation, in the expressed preferences of African citizen is lower than that of many of their buyers, consumers or investors, or in the global counterparts, a growing number of African private sector. countries are now using their natural resources more rapidly than they can be renewed and depleting their natural capital. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment found that loss of ecosystem services is jeopardizing national and regional efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals to reduce poverty, hunger, disease and gender inequality. Forest of the western Congo basin at the edge of Minkebe Reserve. Gabon

58 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security ©

B r e n t

S t i r

t o n

/

Green Growth is about quality of growth. The African Development Bank is currently in G e t t y

The enabling conditions and realities for I m a development are vastly different in the 21st towards Green and Inclusive Growth in g e century from those of the 20th century. Africa. Emphasis is being placed on tailoring s Increasingly inter-connected and knowledge- based economies present new opportunities development context of the African continent. and avenues for development, while pollution, The development of the strategic approach is waste, environmental degradation and climate focused on providing sustainable infrastructure, change pose growing challenges. As the Ecological Footprint report shows, on a global sustainable manner, and strengthening the scale, development processes need to become resilience of livelihoods and economic sectors to environmental and socioeconomic changes. more resilient, if the needs of a growing world The Green Growth concept for Africa must be population are to be met. This requires the guided by a development centered emphasis on shift towards a greener, more sustainable and growth, poverty alleviation and sustainability, inclusive development model. with a strong client orientation. Core operating principles for enabling green growth are For Africa, the priority is to develop, building inclusiveness, promoting gender and pro-poor livelihood security and economic prosperity. economic growth, and embracing a participatory Promoting Green Growth in Africa means approach, which seeks to align skills and addressing existing and emerging development comparative advantages of various stakeholders challenges without locking into development at country, regional and global levels. Within pathways which deplete Africa’s natural this setting, the African Development Bank must capital and leave economies and livelihoods act as a catalyst and champion for enabling a more vulnerable to climate change and other transition towards Green Growth in Africa, by environmental, social and economic risks. It facilitating access to information and knowledge, is about turning Africa’s existing biocapacity into an asset and advantage for sustainable development and prosperity.

Woman watering plants at tree nursery, Shimba Hills, Kenya

59

Ecological resilience and biocapacity can be enhanced Measures to secure access to natural resources Halt and reverse forest loss for future generations and ensure adequate through a suite of measures including good agricultural Forests in Africa support tens of millions of security for all include: practice, restoration of degraded lands, careful use of livelihoods and provide vital environmental Promoting integrated approaches to planning limited water resources in the context of river basin and management at all scales in order to populations. If forests are to continue to provide management, and ecosystem management. reconcile and balance development and the goods and services upon which we depend, conservation while conserving vital ecosystem we urgently need to stop deforestation and forest Entrenching good governance principles services. degradation. and practice is a precondition for Africa’s Preserving and protecting ecosystems that Measures that can help to halt and reverse development. The initiatives illustrated in provide key ecosystem services necessary to forest loss include: case studies above have highlighted how achieve food, water and energy security. stronger regional integration, inter-ministerial Investing in sound stewardship of forests in coordination, community empowerment and order to secure goods (food, medicine, timber, involvement of non-state actors can mobilize government processes responsible for the construction materials, etc.) and services stakeholders at all levels to better manage allocation and sustainable management of (preserving watersheds, stabilizing soil and natural capital. It is clear that particular resources, for example by land-, sea- and preventing erosion, and carbon sequestration). water-use planning within and between attention needs to be paid to ensure Africa’s Collaborating in the REDD+ mechanism countries, as well as on the high seas. natural resources provide sustainable and (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Encouraging investment in restoration and Forest Degradation) under the UNFCCC. Enforcement and Governance process rehabilitation of the ecological and natural Promoting the use of sound environmental resource base of our economies, for example and social standards including through tackle illegal resource use. eroded soils, degraded water bodies, degraded

Stewardship Council, and bringing an end to Invest in Africa’s ecological and degraded lands. infrastructure trade in illegal timber. Promoting reform to secure equitable Humanity’s long-term food, water and energy access and sustainable utilization of natural Manage water as the crucial link in the security is contingent on the sustainable and resources. equitable management and conservation of water, energy and food security nexus Enhancing resilience by putting in place Water is the lifeblood of ecosystems, but in effective systems, integrated wetlands, grasslands, savannas, oceans and Africa and around the world, there is growing into surrounding landscapes, with the effective coasts, freshwater systems, and biodiversity. competition for scarce water resources. participation of local communities.

60

Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

Measures that can help ensure that guiding and supporting transboundary water Transforming current unsustainable adequate and reliable supplies of clean water cooperation. agricultural systems by closing nutrient cycles, are available to all without undermining Providing greater protection and support for ecosystem services include: unsustainable practices that harm the environment and lead to biodiversity loss. Managing inland water ecosystems so that practices and policies to prevent, control or Promoting better management practices and quality are adequate to sustain biodiversity reverse overexploitation. knowledge transfer in order to reduce impacts and ecosystem services. and expand production knowledge that helps Enable sustainable production and maintain and restore healthy ecosystems. Restoring and safeguarding ecosystems that access to markets provide essential services related to water, Investing in support to small-scale farmers to including along rivers, around lakes, in Investing in sustainable production will be vital enable them to maximize their contribution mountains and steep slopes and in coastal to meet Africa’s food security needs and put an to food and water security, environmental end to food shortages currently affecting up to a protection, and climate adaptation. Measures forests, wetlands, aquifers’ recharge zones, third of Africa’s population. would include dissemination of knowledge riparian vegetation and mangroves. and information including through extension Measures to improve food security without services, early warning systems related to Governing, managing and allocating undermining the ecological services on which extreme events, and appropriately water within the framework of integrated, this depends include: designed technological assistance to increase participatory river basin management, yields and diversify rural incomes. including through creation and strengthening improved yields over agricultural expansion of river basin organizations. Empowering producers to produce sustainably into new areas. Building and investing in institutions and Investing in rehabilitation of degraded, and schemes. capacity for integrated water resources abandoned or underperforming lands. Related management including water allocation to measures to reduce impacts such as erosion meet the needs of all relevant sectors. and soil loss include construction of terraces, through investment in storage, processing and Reiterating a commitment to transboundary planting of trees and grasses, rehabilitating improved access to markets. water cooperation including by joining and waterways and cleaning-up pollution, and effectively implementing the UN Convention adoption of agroforestry techniques to improve Promoting water economy by encouraging soil fertility. the treatment and re-use of wastewater for International Watercourses (UN Watercourses agricultural purposes. Convention) as a global framework for

61

The three main drivers for increased footprint in Africa Put clean / renewable energies at the Increasing the contribution of clean renewable heart of a green economy energy sources and paying close attention to environmental and social externalities of energy In view of the urgent need to provide access demand for energy, and urbanization. With its relatively production. low per capita footprint, Africa is well-placed to develop to clean and reliable energy for households, businesses and industry, energy will take centre Investing in sustainable biomass supply and stage in the low-carbon economy of the future. utilization through multi-purpose agro-forestry, regions by using known and cost-effective technologies. Investment in low-carbon provides opportunities for job creation, digesters. innovation and entrepreneurship as well as Adopting, enforcing and complying with © increased productivity and competitiveness.

M , , policies and standards a r t i n

The following measures can help secure on sustainable hydropower, including with H a r v

e reliable energy access in a carbon and footprint y

/

W integration, and public participation in W F

- decision-making. C

a Developing a long-term vision for Africa’s n o n Adopting and adapting and renewable energies. technologies and promoting technology cooperation. Promoting national and to enable mainstream investment in low- carbon energy supply and distribution at local, Invest in sustainable urban lifestyles national and regional scales. By 2050, over 60 per cent of Africa’s population Establishing national targets to bring an will live in urban areas and there is an urgent end to energy poverty and vulnerability by achieving 100 per cent access to safe, clean and existing and new cities; to reduce the footprint affordable energy services by 2030. intensity of GDP; and to manage the impact of footprint on surrounding areas. Greening of Promoting clean development and contributing to global emissions reduction efforts, by investment, but can bear dividends in terms of the well-being of citizens, enabling them to contribute side and encouraging a culture of energy effectively to social and economic development. saving on the demand side.

Water collection on the outskirts of Nairobi, Kenya

62 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security ©

M

The following measures can guide the transition Enable choices about population a r t i n

to greener and healthier cities: H a r v e y

Designing compact or multi-centred cities and greatest single driver for footprint growth in /

W W

generating economies of scale by clustering Africa and in many other parts of the world. F - C a

services and infrastructure. Meeting human needs and enabling the right to n o n Enforcing planning and zoning regulations to resource-constrained world, appropriate policy limit and avoid construction in measures to achieve the goals set out in the Dakar/Ngor Statement on Population, Family landslides. and Sustainable Development should include: Investing in mass transit systems to reduce Promoting services to provide pollution and congestion. a choice to families both in the spacing of their children and in the number of children they may wish to have. buildings. Promoting mother and child health care Promoting urban agriculture and sustainable services, and, in particular, reproductive waste water management to support peri- health services, to help lower maternal urban agriculture, thus increasing urban food mortality rates; promoting child health care to security and reducing cost and wastage of reduce the number of children who die before water and nutrients. Managing water consumption in cities and Investing more in the education of girls in view reducing water risks in urban settings, of the high pay-offs in terms of both family including through the protection of upstream and reducing population growth rates. ecosystem. Promoting interventions to encourage and raise the opportunities and incomes of including for heating, cooling and lighting African women and youths and promote entrepreneurship. awareness building. Integrating into waste are shared by all by pursing pro-poor economic management systems. growth policies.

63

The way we measure progress and manage our We take ecosystems and the services that Use full-cost accounting to capture social economies means ecological limits and the impacts they provide for granted and all too often we and environmental externalities recognize their values only after they have gone. Full-cost accounting models which capture social we are having on ecosystems and the services they The way we measure progress and manage our and environmental externalities associated economies means that ecological limits, and the provide are overlooked in strategic decision-making and with production and consumption would allow impacts we are having on ecosystems and the us to address the causes rather than simply the services they provide are overlooked in strategic symptoms of environmental degradation, and decision-making and day-to-day transactions. to ensure these are captured in environmental Failure to account for the values of ecosystems is factor in their continuing loss and degradation. assessments and market valuations.

© degradation.

Y

o Develop and implement incentive s

h i

S frameworks to improve environmental h i

m Incorporate environmental performance i

z performance u

and resource scarcity in measures of /

W

W societal progress Economic instruments, alongside regulation, F - C

a can help bridge the gap between the people who n

o Existing measures of societal progress such as n generate environmental externalities and those GDP and HDI fail to capture environmental who feel the impacts; and between those who performance and resource scarcity. At the national and global level, the use of Ecological those that forego opportunities. These include Footprint, biocapacity, Water Footprint and penalties for poor environmental behaviour (‘polluter pays’) and rewards for those who environmental indicators alongside more alter their behaviour to conserve or enhance traditional measures that can help us measure ecosystem services and protect biodiversity our progress towards sustainability; and ensure that national development strategies take full account of the state of natural assets and ecosystems and their role in sustaining human well-being and economic activity.

64 ©

H e l e n

M o r f

/

W W F - C a n o n

Sand dune, Sossusvlei, Namib , Namibia

How is the Ecological Footprint calculated? What is Biocapacity? waste production for which the Earth has regenerative capacity, and where data exists The Ecological Footprint measures the amount Biocapacity is the capacity of ecosystems to that allow this demand to be expressed in terms of biologically-productive land and water area produce useful biological materials and to absorb of productive area. For example, toxic releases required to produce the resources an individual, waste materials generated by humans, using are not accounted for in Ecological Footprint population or activity consumes and to absorb the current management schemes and extraction accounts. Nor are freshwater withdrawals, waste it generates, given prevailing technology technologies. Biocapacity is measured in global although the energy used to pump or treat and resource management. This area is expressed hectares (Global Footprint Network, 2012). water is included. Ecological Footprint accounts in global hectares (hectares with world average provide snapshots of past resource demand biological productivity). Footprint calculations What is a (gha)? and availability. They do not predict the future. use yield factors to normalize countries’ A productivity-weighted area used to report both Thus, while the Ecological Footprint does biological productivity to world averages (e.g., the biocapacity of the Earth, and the demand on not estimate future losses caused by current comparing tonnes of wheat per UK hectare versus biocapacity (the Ecological Footprint). The global degradation of ecosystems, if this degradation per world average hectare) and equivalence hectare is normalized to the area-weighted factors to take into account differences in average productivity of biologically-productive a reduction in biocapacity. Footprint accounts world average productivity among land types land and water in a given year. Because different also do not indicate the intensity with which a (e.g., world average forest versus world average land types have different productivity, a global biologically productive area is being used. Being cropland). Footprint and biocapacity results for hectare of, for example, cropland, would occupy a biophysical measure, it also does not evaluate countries are calculated annually by the Global a smaller physical area than the much less the essential social and economic dimensions Footprint Network. Collaborations with national biologically-productive pasture land, as more of sustainability. governments are invited, and serve to improve pasture would be needed to provide the same the data and methodology used for the National biocapacity as one hectare of cropland. Because Footprint Accounts. To date, Switzerland has the biocapacity and Ecological Footprint of a world bioproductivity varies slightly from year to completed a review; and , Ecuador, year, the value of a gha may change slightly from Finland, Germany, Ireland, and the when the Footprint of a population exceeds year to year (Global Footprint Network, 2012) UAE have partially reviewed or are reviewing the biocapacity of the area available to that

their accounts. The continuing methodological population. Conversely, a biocapacity remainder What is included in the Ecological Footprint? development of the National Footprint Accounts exists when the biocapacity of a region exceeds What is excluded? is overseen by a formal review committee. A its population’s Footprint. If there is a regional detailed methods paper and copies of sample To avoid exaggerating human demand on calculation sheets can be obtained from nature, the Ecological Footprint includes only region is importing biocapacity through trade www.footprintnetwork.org those aspects of and or liquidating regional ecological assets. In

66 Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security

Footprint estimates for countries where trade Global Living Planet Index Threats to Vertebrate Species be compensated through trade, and is therefore The threat data contains the equal to overshoot. However, this does not affect the total global composite index that tracks trends in proportion of vertebrate species Footprint. a large number of populations of affected by each threat type. We Overshoot: Global overshoot occurs when species from around the world. The included African vertebrates that were humanity’s demand on the natural world exceeds Does the Ecological Footprint say what is a species population data used to assessed as threatened with extinction calculate the index are gathered from the biosphere’s supply, or regenerative capacity. a variety of sources published in (IUCN, 2012). Such overshoot to a depletion of Earth’s The Footprint documents what has happened Not all African vertebrate species life-supporting natural capital and a build up on the worldwide web. All data used in the past. It can quantitatively describe the in constructing the index are time have been assessed by IUCN, but representative samples are available ecological resources used by an individual or a series of either population size, density, and overshoot are the same, since there is no abundance or a proxy of abundance. for all groups. In order not to bias the population, but it does not prescribe what they The period covered by the data runs should be using. Resource allocation is a policy from 1970 to 2008. been comprehensively assessed, all overshoot occurs when a local ecosystem is classes were given equal weight, an issue, based on societal beliefs about what is exploited more rapidly than it can renew itself Annual data points are interpolated average proportion was taken from or is not equitable. While Footprint accounting for time series with six or more data the individual proportions for each (Global Footprint Network, 2012). can determine the average biocapacity that is points using generalized additive modeling, or by assuming a constant available per person, it does not stipulate how How is international trade taken into account? annual rate of change for time series this biocapacity should be allocated among with less than six data points, and The National Footprint Accounts calculate individuals or countries. However, it does the average rate of change in each year across all species is calculated. the Ecological Footprint associated with each provide a context for such discussions. The average annual rates of change in country’s total consumption by summing the successive years are chained together Footprint of its imports and its production, and to make an index, with the index value in 1970 set to 1. Additional details are subtracting the Footprint of its exports. This available in Collen et al., 2009. means that the resource use and emissions associated with producing a that is Africa LPI manufactured in Japan, but sold and used in The Africa index includes all species India, will contribute to India’s rather than populations from the continent of Africa, and marine species populations Japan’s consumption Footprint. National from the Exclusive Economic Zones consumption Footprints can be distorted of African countries in the southern when the resources used and waste generated , western Indian Ocean and eastern Atlantic. The in making products for export are not fully African index was calculated by documented for every country. Inaccuracies giving equal weight to each species

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Ecological Footprint Ecosystems and Species Parnell, S. and Walawege, R. 2011. The World Bank. 2010. Cities and Climate 2008. Globalization of Water: Sharing the Sub-Saharan African urbanization and Change: An Urgent Agenda. Urban Borucke, M., Moore, D., Cranston, G., Planet’s Freshwater Resources. Oxford, global environmental change. Global Development Series Knowledge Papers. Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. Environmental Change, Volume 21, December 2010, Vol. 10. The World Bank, E., Morales, J.C., Wackernagel, M. and www.iucnredlist.org. Data downloaded Supplement 1, December 2011, Pages Washington DC. Galli, A. . In prep. Accounting for demand on 24 February 2011. S12-S20. Elsevier. and supply of the Biosphere’s regenerative 2012. The Water Footprint of Humanity. Energy capacity: the National Footprint Accounts’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Poumanyvong, P. and Kaneko, S. 2010. underlying methodology and framework. Sciences. doi:10.1073/pnas.1109936109. Dey, C., Widmer-Cooper, A., Williams, Does urbanization lead to less energy use AfDB. 2008. Clean Energy Investment Global Footprint Network, Oakland, M. and Ohlemüller, R. 2007. Forecasting and lower CO2 emissions? A cross-country Framework for Africa: Role Of the African California, USA. the Ecological Footprint of Nations: a analysis. , 70(2010): Development Bank Group. Operations. Chapagain, A.K, Mathews, R.E. and blueprint for a dynamic approach. ISA 434-444. Elsevier. Policies and Compliance Department; Richter, B.D. 2012. Global Monthly Research Report 07-01, May 2007. Tunis, 25 April 2008. www.afdb.org/ Oursler, A., Reed, A. and Wackernagel, Water Scarcity: Blue Water Footprints UN DESA (United Nations Department of Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. M. 2010. The Ecological Footprint Atlas Economic and Social Affairs, Population Policy-Documents/10000025-EN- 2010. Global Footprint Network, Oakland, ONE 7 (2): e32688. doi:10.1371/journal. Division). 2009. World Urbanisation our Means. World Resources Institute PROPOSALS-FOR-A-CLEAN-ENERGY- California, USA. pone.0032688. Prospects: The 2009 Revision. File 3: INVESTMENT-FRAMEWORK-FOR- Washington, DC, USA. Urban Population by Major Area, Region Global Footprint Network 2010. Ecological AFRICA.PDF. The Economics of Ecosystems and and Country, 1950-2050. POP/DB/WUP/ Wealth of Nations. Global Footprint National water footprint accounts: the Rev.2009/1/F3. Denruyter J.P. et al. 2010. Bioenergy in Network, Oakland, California, USA.. green, blue and grey water footprint of Biodiversity (TEEB) Thematic and production and consumption. Value of Summary Reports downloadable at www. UN DESA . 2011. Global Footprint Network 2011. National teebweb.org/InformationMaterial/ Water Research Report Series No. 50, Prospects: The 2010 Revision. File 1: Total 2010 Footprint Accounts 2011. Global Footprint UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the . TEEBReports/tabid/1278/Default.aspx population (both sexes combined) by Network, Oakland, California, USA. The TEEB Synthesis Report major area, region and country, annually UNIDO and REEEP (Renewable Energy Living Planet Index Mainstreaming the Economics of for 1950-2100 (thousands). POP/DB/WPP/ WWF International, Gland, Switzerland. Nature: A synthesis of the approach, Rev.2010/02/F01. 2009. regulation and policymaking for Africa. Introduction and conclusions and recommendations of UN Habitat. 2003. The challenge of slums: TEEB (2010) User Manual. Biodiversity, biocapacity and better Monitoring Change in Vertebrate global report on human settlements. www.unido.org/index.php?id=1000755 choices. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland. Conservation . 23 (2): 317-327. Makers (2010) Sterling, VA. UN DESA. 2004. Sustainable Energy Consumption in Africa. UN DESA UN Habitat. 2009. Planning sustainable Water Footprint The TEEB for Policy Makers Report and Research Network. (2009) cities: global report on human settlements www.un.org/esa/sustdev/marrakech/ Bates, B.C., Z.W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu EnergyConsumption.pdf and J.P. Palutikof, Eds. 2008: Climate using species population time series to The TEEB Climate Issues update (2009) and Steraling, VA. track trends in biodiversity. Philosophical Enerdata. 2009. Data on Energy Intensity. Change and Water. Technical Paper of Population and Urbanization UN Habitat. 2011. Global Report on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Transactions of the Royal Society B 360: Online database at: yearbook.enerdata. 289-295. Human Settlements 2011: Cities and net/2009/energy-intensity-GDP-by- Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, AfDB. 2000. Policy on Population and Climate Change. Earthscan Publications Switzerland. Strategies for Implementation. October region.html

database. WWF and the Zoological Society 2000, Tunis. uploads/afdb/Documents/Policy- UN Habitat and UNEP, 2010. The State Agriculture, Food Security, Natural 2010. Does globalization of water reduce Documents/10000010-EN-POLICY-ON- of African Cities 2010: Governance, Resources and Water societal resilience to drought? Geophysical 2012. POPULATION-AND-STRATEGIES-FOR- IMPLEMENTATION.PDF Nairobi, November 2010.

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Foresight. 2011a. The Future of Food www.ilec.or.jp/eg/lbmi/pdf/17_Lake_ Nellemann, C., Corcoran, E., Duarte, C. Robbins, M,M,, Gray, M., Fawcett, K.A., and Farming. Final Project Report. The Naivasha_27February2006.pdf Nutter, F.B., Uwingeli, P., et al. 2011. Rome. Grimsditch, G. (Eds). 2009. Blue Carbon. Blomley, T., Namara, A., McNeilage, A Rapid Response Assessment. United Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S. Foresight. 2011b. Foresight Project A., Franks, P., Rainer, H., Donaldson, Nations Environment Programme, GRID- ONE 6(6):e19788. doi:10.1371/journal. and J.P. Palutikof, Eds. 2008. Climate on Global Food and Farming Futures. A., Malpas, R., Olupot, W., Baker, J., Arendal. pone.0019788 Change and Water. Technical Paper of Synthesis Report C9: Sustainable the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 2010. Development and gorillas? Assessing Milliken, T., Emslie, R.H. and Talukdar, Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 210 pp. analysis of lessons and common issues. B. 2009. African and Asian Rhinoceroses Barnes, J. 1999. Economic Value of the and development in south-western Zambezi Basin Wetlands. IUCN: Harare, Boko, M., Niang, I., Nyong, A., Vogel, C., Uganda, in Natural Resource Issues. 2010, report from the IUCN Species Survival Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press. Githeko, A., Medany, M., Osman-Elasha, investments in agriculture. A report by International Institute for Environment Commission (IUCN/SSC) African and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups and UNEP (2007) Mangroves of Western and Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation Security and Nutrition of the Committee TRAFFIC to the CITES Secretariat Central Africa. UNEP-Regional Seas and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working on World Food Security, Rome, Italy. CBFF. The Congo basin Forest Fund pursuant to Resolution Conf. 9.14 (Rev. Programme/UNEP-WCMC. Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report www.cbf-fund.org/ CoP14) and Decision 14.89. of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate MRAG. 2005. Review of Impacts of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing on Department of Trade and Industry and the Pegram, G. 2011. Shared risk and Action Plan for South Africa. Final Report Department of Energy. 2011. The South opportunity in water resources: Seeking for WWF: June 2011. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, African Renewables Initiative: Partnering Cambridge UK, 433-467. for green growth. December 2011. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland.

Comprehensive Assessment of Water Stern, N. 2006. Stern Review: The Emslie, R. 2011. Diceros bicornis. IUCN Pomeroy, D., The State of Uganda’s Management in Agriculture. 2007. Water Economics of Climate Change. Executive Biodiversity 2006, in The State of Uganda’s summary available at webarchive. 2011.2. www.iucnredlist.org Biodiversity - an analysis of trends. nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.hm- Assessment of Water Management Hoguane, A. 1997. Shrimp abundance and 2006, Makerere University Institute of treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm Environment and Natural Resources. and Colombo: International Water The Federal Government (Germany). The Zambezi. Paper presented at the Workshop Management Institute. Pomeroy, D., The State of Uganda’s Water, Energy and Food Security Resource on the Sustainable Use of Cahora Bassa Biodiversity 2010, in The State of Uganda’s FAO. 2010a. Global Forest Resources Platform. www.water-energy-food.org/ Dam and the Zambezi Valley, 1997, Songo, Biodiversity - an analysis of trends. Assessment 2010. Main report. FAO Mozambique. 2010, Makerere University Institute of Forestry Paper 163. FAO, Rome, Italy. Synthesis, 50pp. www.unccd.int/en/ IGCP (International Gorilla Conservation Environment and Natural Resources. FAO. 2010b. The State of Food Insecurity resources/publication/Pages/default.aspx Programme). 2012. Mountain Gorillas. Pomeroy, D. and H. Tushabe, The State of in the World 2010. Addressing food www.igcp.org/gorillas/mountain-gorillas Uganda’s Biodiversity 2004, in The State Case Studies insecurity in protracted crises. FAO, Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier of Uganda’s Biodiversity - an analysis Rome, Italy. Arinaitwe, H., D. Pomeroy, and Conservation Area of trends. 2004, Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural FAO Statistics and Information Service H. Tushabe, The State of Uganda’s www.kavangozambezi.org Biodiversity 2000, in The State of Uganda’s Resources. of the Fisheries and Aquaculture NACSO. 2008. Namibia’s communal Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, 2000, Makerere University Institute of conservancies: a review of progress and Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics. 2008. challenges in 2007. NACSO, Windhoek. C.D. (eds.) 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. FAO, Rome, Italy. Environment and Natural Resources. The International Society for Mangrove Becht, R., Odada, E, and Higgins, NACSO. 2011. Namibia’s communal Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan: 178 pp. FAO. 2011. The State of Food Insecurity in conservancies: a review of progress 2010. the World 2011. How does international NACSO, Windhoek, Namibia. price volatility affect domestic economies and food security? FAO, Rome, Italy. Version 2011.2. www.iucnredlist.org

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Editors: Celine Beaulieu, Aimée contributors can be found at In no event shall WWF nor AfDB be Bella-Corbin, Anthony Nyong Pestalozzi, Voahirana Randriambola, www.livingplanetindex.org liable for damages arising from its use. , , , , Belgium, , , Bolivia, Brazil, WWF and AfDB encourage electronic Author: Sarah Humphrey Soumare, Hawa Sow, Paul Sunters, Water Footprint The Water Footprint Bulgaria, Cambodia, Cameroon, , sharing of information, printing and Andrea Westall, Marianne Werth and Central African Republic, Chile, , Contributors copying exclusively for personal and Dominic White from WWF; plus Kwame Colombia, , D.R. of Congo, WWF Brigitte Carr-Dirick, Ashok non-commercial use with proper Koranteng (FAO), Ross Esson and Guy detailed data for Figures 11 and 13 that , Ecuador, Finland, Fiji, France, Kumar Chapagain, Paul Chatterton, acknowledgement of WWF and AfDB. Pegram (Pegasys), Pati Poblete (GFN), were adapted by Ashok Chapagain at Gabon, Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Jose Chiburre, Wendy Elliott, Saliem Users are restricted from reselling, James Kairo (KMFRI) and MH Knight WWF UK, and for permission to use Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, , Fakir, Timothy Geer, Patrick Matakala, redistributing, or creating derivative (IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Figure 14 (Hoekstra et al., 2012) and Honduras, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Joseph Okori, Stuart Orr, Bruno works for commercial purposes. Group).

Richard Gregory, The material and geographical desig- Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritania, Peter Scheren, Greg Stuart Hill Petr Vorisek and the European Bird Maps nations in this report do not imply the Mexico, Mongolia, Mozambique, AfDB Census Council for data from the Pan- UNEP/GRID-Arendal for permission to expression of any opinion whatsoever Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands, New European Common Bird Monitoring use the Congo Basin map on page 43. on the part of WWF or AfDB concerning Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, , Chahed Chawki, Hela Cheikhourou, scheme; the Global Population the legal status of any country, territory, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, , the Khadidia Diabi, Mbarack Diop, Al Dynamics Database from the Centre for With special thanks to or area, or concerning the delineation of Philippines, Poland, Romania, Russia, Hamdou Dorsouma, Mafalda Duarte, Population Biology, Imperial College We would like to thank the Government its frontiers or borders. Senegal, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Justin Ecaat, Anouk Fouich, Ilmi South Africa, Spain, Suriname, Sweden, and Herbert Tushabe for data from to the AfDB South-South Cooperation Regions Switzerland, Tanzania, , Jalow, Ken Johm, Shingo Kikuchi, Jean- the National Biodiversity Database, Trust Fund, which provided a grant for See www.afdb.org/en/countries/ for Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, United Arab Makerere University Institute of this report. We would also like to thank Emirates, United Kingdom, Marttin, Simon Mizrahi, Jacques Moulot, Environment and Natural Resources, the members of AfDB’s Rio+20 Task referred to in the report’s sections on of America Vietnam, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Mwila Musumali, Balgis Osman-Elasha, Uganda; Kristin Thorsrud Teien and Team, Green Growth Strategy Core Task Trade and on Water Footprint (Central, Hikaru Shoji, Bakary Sanogo, Preeti Jorgen Randers, WWF-Norway; Pere Team, Climate Change Coordinating East, North, Southern and West Africa). WWF Associates Sinha, Frank Sperling, Nogoye Thiam, Tomas-Vives, Christian Perennou, Committee (CCCC) Extended list and Zeneb Toure, Ignacio Tourino Soto, Driss Ezzine de Blas, Patrick Grillas

and Galewski, Tour du Valat, guidance on drafts of the report as well Algeria, Angola, Burkina Faso,Burundi, GFN Gemma Cranston, Mathis Camargue, France; David Junor and as AfDB’s Department of Quality Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Conservation Foundation (Nigeria) Wackernagel, Scott Mattoon, David Alexis Morgan, WWF- Canada and Assurance and Results, the Cooperation Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Emirate Wildlife Society (UAE) Moore and Partnership Unit, and other AfDB AfDB HQ Côte d’Ivoire, East Africa

Canada; Miguel Angel Nuñez Herrero colleagues for their support. Regional Resources Centre, Egypt, Concept and design by Ben Collen Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinée Acknowledgements Environmental Volunteer Programme Disclaimer The authors are extremely grateful to in Natural Areas of Murcia Region, All reasonable precautions have been Mali, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, ISBN 978-2-940443-39-0 the following individuals and Spain; Mike Gill from the CBMP, taken by WWF to verify the information organizations for sharing their data, for Christoph Zockler from UNEP- contained in this publication. However, review comments and other support: WCMC and all data contributors to the published material is being Resources Centre, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia ATR, Uganda, Rosamunde Almond, Jean-Philippe the ASTI report (www.asti.is ); Arjan distributed without warranty of any Zambia, Zimbabwe. Denruyter, Elaine Geyer-Allély, David Berkhuysen, WWF-Netherlands and all kind, either expressed or implied. The Greer, Monique Grooten, May Guerraoui, responsibility for the interpretation and estuarine systems. A full list of data use of the material lies with the reader.

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Wetlands rehabilitation in South Africa contributes to water management and provides local employment

71 The average person in Africa uses 1.4 global hectares of biocapacity Increasing scarcity of resources will while 1.5 global hectares of affect all economies. The impact of biologically productive area is environmental degradation is felt most currently available. acutely by the world’s poor. Without access to clean water, land or adequate food, fuel or materials, vulnerable

break-out of the cycle of poverty and embrace prosperity.

The total economic value of the 12,000 km2 With a relatively low footprint, Africa is of coral reefs in the western Indian Ocean is well placed to create new development estimated to be US$7.3 billion per year. pathways that are more sustainable.

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