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A X-Ray Scanning Machine for Imaging Atomic Elements

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A X-Ray Scanning Machine for Imaging Atomic Elements A X-RAY SCANNING MACHINE FOR IMAGING ATOMIC ELEMENTS A.G.R. FENELON A THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE PRESENTED TO THE NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL AWARDS THE SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR HIGHER EDUCATION, DUBLIN RESEARCH SUPERVISOR JOSEPH FRYAR MAY 1988 DECLARATION This thesis is based on my own work. ABSTRACT X-ray computer axial tomography is a well established technique for producing images which show the spatial variation of X-ray linear attenuation coefficient within an object. X-ray differential K absorbtion edge tomography is the application of computer axial tomography to form images of selected atomic elements within an object, and these images show the distribution of specific atomic element concentration. The technique is to measure the attenuation of X-rays on either side of the K absorbtion edge of an atomic element with an energy dispersive X-ray detector, and then reconstruct an image of the location and concentration of that element in an object by means of a computer algorithm for display on a colour monitor. This method is able to image several atomic elements in one X-ray scan only of the object, in particular, consecutive elements in the Periodic Table of the Elements. One atomic element only within the object may be better selected by correcting for the X-ray attenuation of all the other elements, the matrix of the object, by extrapolating the measurements to the K absorbtion edge, thus measuring accurately the absorbtion coefficient of the analyte element only. The concentration of analyte element may O be measured down to about lkg/m in a water like matrix with a total of O 10 photons. Herein is described the construction of an X-ray machine as a differential K absorbtion edge spectrometer, and the application of this technique to image three chosen atomic elements, 46Palladium, 47Silver, and 48Cadmium using the spectrometer. Experiments which showed that this technique works, and possible further development of the spectrometer, are also described. CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT CONTENTS i I RESUME AND HISTORICAL REVIEW 1 II X-RAYS 10 Absorbtion and scattering of X-rays 19 Production of X-rays 3 2 X-ray detectors 40 Units of X-radiation measurement 45 III TOMOGRAPHY 47 Computer axial tomography 47 Differential K absorbtion edge tomography 52 Differential absorbtion of X-rays 52 Reconstruction of the image of an object scanned with 65 X-rays The Algebraic Reconstruction Technique 68 Filtered Backprojection 71 The quality of a reconstructed image of an object 79 X-RAY MACHINE AND SCANNING INSTRUMENTS 81 Philips X-ray machine 81 Analysing chamber 94 X-ray tube cooling water pressuriser 96 (x,z,<j>) scanning coordinate table 98 X-ray detector 99 X-ray beam collimators 105 X-ray photon counting instruments 109 X-ray beam transmission filters 116 X-ray photon counting dead-time 120 Image display of a scanned object 121 V EXPERIMENT 123 A simple X-ray K absorbtion edge scanning machine 127 A semiautomatic BBC microcomputer controlled scanning 133 machine An automatic scanning machine with a X-ray line source 138 A crystal transmission filter for X-rays 148 VI A X-RAY SCANNING MACHINE FOR IMAGING ATOMIC ELEMENTS 152 VII CONCLUSION 179 VIII POSSIBLE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 188 A steel analysing chamber 190 X-ray beam transmission filters 194 Scanning and image reconstruction 196 X-ray K, L, and M absorbtion edges 199 Advanced scanning machine 200 Medical and industrial uses of differential absorbtion 204 edge tomography Differential absorbtion edge tomography with a 205 non-energy-dispersive detector ANNEXES A. X-Ray machine specification 208 B. The X-Ray beam profile 213 C. Periodic Table of the Elements and their K 217 absorbtion edge energies D. BASIC computer programs 221 REFERENCES 277 DIVISION 279 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS FIGURE INDEX 1.1 Computer axial tomography 3 2.1 Electromagnetic spectrum 11 2.2 Bremsstralung 13 2.3 Inner orbital electron transitions 13 2.4 Moseley's Law 20 2.5 Attenuation of X-rays by an atomic element 22 2.6 The X-ray K absorbtion edges of the atomic elements 23 2.7 Comparison of X-ray and optical spectra 25 2.8 X-ray spectra for 74Tungsten 33 2.9 National Synchrotron Light Source 37 2.10 A radioactive X-ray source 39 2.11 Structure of the gas-filled X-ray detector 41 2.12 Operation of a gas-filled X-ray detector 41 2.13 Structure of the scintillation counter 44 2.14 X-ray units 44 3.1 X-ray photography 48 3.2 Principle of focal plane tomography 50 3.3 Principle of computer axial tomography 50 3.4 The mass attenuation coefficient 55 3.5 Correction for the effect of the matrix by extrapolation 58 3.6 Element sensitive scan for 10^ photons 63 3.7 Relaxation consant 70 3.8 Backprojection 72 3.9 Radon transform R(1,0) of a function f(r,4>) 75 3.10 The locus of a set of lines parallel to the line L in 75 Figure 3.9 iii 3.11 Convolution 72 3.12 The grid of pixels on which the image is reconstructed 78 4.1 X-ray machine 82 4. 2 X-ray machine 83 4.3 X-ray machine block wiring diagram 84 4.4 X-ray machine electric circuit diagram 85 4.5 X-ray tube cooling water pressuriser 97 4.6 The Lithium drifted Silicon detector 100 4.7 The energy resolution performance of a 32Germanium detector 103 4.8 The detection efficiency of a Si(Li) detector 103 4.9 The spectral resolution capabillity of three X-ray 104 detectors 4. 10 An adjustable collimator 104 4.11 X-ray beam spatial profile 108 4.12 Multichannel analyser energy windows for 56Barium 113 4. 13 X-ray spectrum for 50Tin calculated by SPECTRA 119 4. 14 40keV X-ray spectra 119 5.1 X-ray spectra for imaging 46Palladium 125 5.2 X-ray spectra for imaging 55Caesium 126 5.3 A table top K X-ray absorbtion edge scanning machine 128 5.4 Block electric circuit diagram of the table top scanning 129 machine 5.5 Differential K absorbtion edge tomography of 55Caesium 131 5.6 The concentration shape of a 55Caesium analyte 132 5.7 A semiautomatic scanning machine 134 5.8 Equivalent thickness profile of 55Caesium in a cork matrix 137 5.9 An automatic scanning machine 139 5.10 Projection data for 46Palladium 142 5.11 Projection data for 55Caesium 143 iv 5.12 Reconstructed images of 46Palladium 145 5.13 Reconstructed images of 55Caesium 145 5.14 Relaxation constant in imaging 46Palladium 149 6.1 Schematic diagram of the differential K absorbtion edge 153 scanning machine 6.2 Cork matrix and 3 analyte elements 154 6.3 Computer programe procedure for computer axial tomography 157 6.4 Computer program procedure for differential K absorbtion 158 edge tomography 6.5 The mass attenuation coefficient of 50Tin 160 6.6 50Tin filter transmission 161 6.7 An X-ray spectrum after transmission through the object 162 6.8 Selection of the 8 regions of interest for scanning 164 6.9 The projection data profile across the object 166 6.10 The equivalent thickness profile of 46Palladium 167 6.11 Extrapolation to absorbtion edges 169 6.12 The dead-time of the multichannel analyser 171 6.13 A computer axial tomography image 174 6.14 Differential K absorbtion edge tomography scan of 174 46Palladium 6.15 Differential K absorbtion edge tomography scan of 47Silver 175 6.16 Differential K absorbtion edge tomography scan of 48Cadmium 175 6.17 The concentrations of analyte elements 171 8.1 Front view of a steel analysing chamber 191 8.2 Side view of a steel analysing chamber 191 8.3 A stepped wedge X-ray filter 195 8.4 12 x 12 stepped wedge X-ray filter 195 8.5 Normalised X-ray spectra calculated by SPECTRA 197 8.6 A block diagram of an advanced scanning machine 201 v X-rays at 60kV and 50mA: apertures closed 211 X-rays at 60kV and 50mA: apertures open 211 X-ray beam profile calculation 214 X-ray beam profile 214 To calculate overlap areas to 2% by CALAREA40 244 To select the overlap areas as 1 or 0 by CALAR40 258 INDEX X-ray machine and pulse counting instruments 92 The X-ray machine analysing cabinet 92 The X-ray tube and high tension tank 93 The Lead analysing chamber and coordinate table 93 A semiautomatic scanning machine 135 The 46Palladium and 55Caesium analytes in the cork matrix 135 The three analyte elements and cork matrix on the 155 coordinate table Computer axial tomography image 177 Differential K absorbtion edge tomogram of 46Palladium 177 Differential K absorbtion edge tomogram of 47Silver 178 Differential K absorbtion edge tomogram of 48Cadmium 178 INDEX Comparison of equivalent thickness and concentrations 147 The relaxation constant and analyte element concentration 150 vi CHAPTER I RESUME AND HISTORICAL REVIEW This work is a way of forming images of the internal structure of objects by means of X-rays. It is a a study of method of imaging atomic elements within an object, and the construction of an X-ray scanning machine for carrying it out. The work consists of three interdependent parts: theory and planning, experimental method and instruments, and image reconstruction of detected elements. The part herein is primarily in relation to experimental method and instruments. The formal description of this work may be stated as a method and scanning machine for imaging atomic elements by differential X-ray absorbtion edge tomography and computer axial tomography.
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