Humans (Homo sapiens) judge the emotional content of piglet (Sus scrofa domestica) calls based on simple acoustic parameters, not personality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals Iva L Maruščáková, Pavel Linhart, Victoria F Ratcliffe, Céline Tallet, David Reby
To cite this version:
Iva L Maruščáková, Pavel Linhart, Victoria F Ratcliffe, Céline Tallet, David Reby. Humans (Homo sapiens) judge the emotional content of piglet (Sus scrofa domestica) calls based on simple acoustic pa- rameters, not personality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Comparative Psychology, American Psychological Association, 2015, 129 (2), pp.121-131. 10.1037/a0038870. hal-01211004
HAL Id: hal-01211004 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01211004 Submitted on 27 May 2020
HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Version postprint 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of 5 4 3 2 1 personality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals toward attitude nor empathy, personality, domestica scrofa ( Humans tel.: e Republic Czech A author: Corresponding Špinka Maruščáková L. Iva Agrocampu Saint PEGASE, UMR1348 INRA, Czechia Prague, University, Charles Zoology, of Department Ethology of Department Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). - S ddress: mail: chool of Psychology, University ofPsychology, chool
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[email protected] Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870
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simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Introduction Abstract th e Whilst Key words: emotional listeners calls. nursing for negatively and calls, reunion and forcastration intensity emotion judgements. harmonic (jitter, properties within thecalls of duration increasing pitchand increasing increasing Recordings judgment Scale). Attitudes (Animal to animals attitudes (NEO personality their emission emo contexts different in 4 vocalizations. heterospecific content of emotional piglet vocalizations affected However, T Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). he ey also ey also
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Špinka, 2012 Špinka, and how the decoding is decoding the how and and and M ed ore complex acoustic acoustic complex ore
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Version postprint 43 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of level emotions the of most describe can dimension, orintensity arousal either two, ofthe and one dimension valence correlated highly instance, for potential) ( arousal Different taxa different across applicable manifestations. overt their states and emotional of the has approach The dimensional ( main 2005 Panksepp, animals and humans between 2008 important is emotions animal of perception animal content from emotional studied emotions animal of dimension the social species, vertebrate in various states emotional of correlates physiological the investigating ofresearch body extensive to thenow by perceived that e 2009 Laukka, Juslin, & Bresin, 2005 &Bresin, Juslin, Laukka, Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015).
; ; of of alternative alternative motions motions Mendl, Burman, & Paul, 2010 Paul, Burman,& Mendl, 2010 & Manstead, DeDreu, Kleef, Van Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 activity of activity B ( activation, activation, Špinka, 2012 Špinka,
esides theesides emotional dimensions dimensions emotional ( Laukka et al., 2005 al., et Laukka perception of of perception
conspecifics for listeners for are ;
approac J. Panksepp & Panksepp, 2013 Panksepp, & Panksepp J. (
Laukka et 2005 al., et Laukka an animal and hence is interchangeable with arousal. In our study, we will will study, we In our arousal. with interchangeable is hence and an animal expressed in cues and signals signals cuesand in expressed
degree ofexcitation), degree more ) . Specifically, there are few studies addressing the human decoding of of decoding human the addressing studies are few there Specifically, . h to the study of emotion of to thestudy h
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Version postprint 68 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of vocalizat listen (2008 basis. similar a mayhave vocalisations animalaffective and human 2008 & Owren, Bachorowski content emotional of perception human the influence considerably 2006 Miklósi, dogs social feeding and pain,fear, as of capable also ( which in context human positive) or (either negative arousal spectrum) frequency frequency, ( amplitudes) frequency of distribution by stimuli aversive toincreasingly response calls emitted ( young piglets emotional 2002 Zwirner, & Jurgens, Hammerschmidt, Scheiner, human term the theterms use henceforth Hammerschmidt & Jurgens, 2007 Jurgens, & Hammerschmidt 2001 & Jurgens, Hammerschmidt, Fichtel, Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015).
Canis lupus familiaris lupus Canis ed )
detected listeners vocalisation Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 Th
to affectively valenced vocalizations of cats, rhesus monkeys and human non human and monkeys rhesus ofcats, vocalizations valenced to affectively ions. ions. "
arousal e valence were found to correlate with temporal and spectral call features. call features. and spectral temporal with to correlate found were valence
dimensional approach has been u been has approach dimensional ; ( Direct comparison of how people assess emotional content in conspecific and and conspecific in content emotional assess people of how comparison Direct Tallet et al., 2013 al., et Tallet Tallet, Špinka, Maruščáková, & Šimeček, 2010 &Šimeček, Maruščáková, Špinka, Tallet, Sus scrofa Sus discriminating above chance levels betwe chance levels above discriminating
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simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of empathy ( empathy on degree to some of content emotional of theunderstanding psychology, c dimensions personality orgeneral animals towards attitudes abilities, asempathic such variables psychological individual ofthecalls classification the affect both could gender listeners’ w situations context of increase (2003 In factor. influencing most inter pitch and tonality, the by influenced a cases many as twice than barks example, some ability to have shown rules mammals across expressions across systems species across rules assessment use similar might humans that suggests vocalizations heterospecific Guarino Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). hether ( ) to the correct situation situation correct to the August & Anderson, 1987 & Anderson, August
found that human listeners listeners human that found Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 In our previous study study previous In our Beside d
, Roger, & Olason, 2007 &Olason, , Roger,
th and emotional empathy emotional and
Pongrácz, Molnár, Miklósi, and Csányi (2005 Csányi and Miklósi, Molnár, Pongrácz, , with with
from playbacks of pigletvocalizations of playbacks from even in naïve listeners with minimal experience with pigs with experience minimal with listeners naïve in even is is classification classification
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simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of higher. intensity emotional the rates will animals towards attitudes positive peo and neuroticism high on scoring people empathy, emotional withhigh people particular, Psychological and higher the perceived stimulus affect four Specifically, listeners human the andby calls the of qualities acoustic by affected by emitted cues perceive people how 2010 &Zanella, Osteras, toanimals attitude a positive with farmers empathetic 2000 &Coleman, Matthews, Barnett, Hemsworth, it trait on this examine theinter of even empat gender, sex education, type of affiliation, religious rural), vs. (urban upbringing as such factors by influenced the extreme might empathy emotional the higher while might enable to response the as thelatter othersand of perspective the to take ofindividuals the capacity as 2004 David, Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). ir
attitude towards animals towards attitude Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 The aim of this study was to investigate how human assessment human how investigate to study was this of The aim decod human affect whichcan factor psychological Another
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simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of th for assessed that recordings those from only made was selection the however applied, was recordings the selected the to recordings recorded. was them of each then part third the of start the at and listener including data personal their of function 'Normalize' testing interval 0.939). = p calls. individual lasted stimulus Each animals. other of vocalizations and noise the of quality the on based was choice Our recording. by recordings the from constructed 8 the during separation. of 30s after dam, its and piglet the of reunion Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). th
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simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of 5 and perturbation, average t across F0 in cycle measures which Jitter, subharmonics. of absence / presence and ratio, noise harmonic jitter, measured: also were calls of quality tonal the characterizing parameters three p detected of comparison the on based call particular each for adjusted were settings Final (F=1/T). frequency the obtain to inverse multiplicative the calculating separat 30 = F0 for range pitch 0.01 = length window settings: following durations. call of sum for ( frequency 0.95 and calls of number for 0.93 = r Pearson's recording per durations call of sum offsets and onsets clear had Calls Pro. AvisoftSASLab in envelopes amplitude and spectrograms call of inspection visual by identified th to call the of end the (from interval inter average and stimulus each for duration call average the duration), stimulus the by divided ( namely analyses, the in used were parameters PRAAT and Berlin) Specht, presented, be might types stimulus single a within calls The analysis Acoustic situation. for 15listeners another yet and valence for 15listeners byanother intensity, cyc the and purposes, three labelled Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). ely based upon likely range of the pitch of the call determined by measuring the periods and and periods the measuring by determined call the of pitch the of range likely upon based ely Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870
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le began anew. began le v - ersion ersion point period perturbation quotients quotients perturbation period point " ) for each call each for ) " , , calculated as the summed duration of all calls within the stimulus stimulus the within calls all of duration summed the as calculated , could resulting were 5.3.02
e beginning of the following call). Call onsets and offsets were offsets and onsets Call call). following the of beginning e
be of very similar or ve or similar very of be –
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0.05; voicing threshold = 0.15; silence threshold = 0.03; 0.03; = threshold silence 0.15; = threshold voicing 0.05;
Thus, each recording was evaluated by 15 listeners for for listeners 15 by evaluated was recording each Thus, in ighly correlated between two independent observers: observers: independent two between correlated ighly ( orm & enn, 2013 Weenink, & Boersma
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Version postprint 241 240 239 238 237 236 235 234 233 232 231 230 229 228 227 226 225 224 223 222 221 220 219 218 217 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of of measure a as used was others, unfortunate for compassion or sympathy of feelings experience to tendency the as author the by defined Concern, Empathic and empathy cognitive of measure a e in others of view psychological the adopt spontaneously to tendency the as described Taking, Perspective analysis. final the for subscales two used we study, our of purposes emp situational listener the measure to chosen was test (IRI) Index Reactivity Interpersonal The test Empathy listener language. Czech in worldwide, testing psychology for used the on valid. and stable consistent, internally be to appear scores the 2010 al., et Raad c factors the The test Personality 0.67). = (kappa observers between agreement' 'substantial revealed which coefficient kappa Cohen's using by independently assessed was subharmonics spectrograms the Bo cross h Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). oncept of of oncept armonic ersma, 1993 ersma, larger personality Czech version of NEO of version Czech - orlto agrtm o eet cutc eidct i vie scin o the of sections voiced in periodicity acoustic detect to algorithm correlation The call parameters were averaged within each stimulus. stimulus. each within were averaged parameters call The HTS HTS s Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 ( were used were Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness Agreeableness, Experience, to Openness Extraversion, Neuroticism, ( - Davis, 1994 Davis,
to NEO - the the
- Hogrefe os rto a obtained was ratio noise
- )
PI .
Big Five is is Five Big profile
The presence or absence of subharmonic of absence or presence The ; -
R inventory R
McCrae & Costa, 1997 Costa, & McCrae for the analysis the for ( by
) Test . The IRI consists of 28 questions divided equally among four subscales. For the the For subscales. four among equally divided questions 28 of consists IRI The . s of of s VFR) Comment citer cedocument:
- System 4.0 System FFI listener considered a universal personality structure across human cultures cultures human across structure personality universal a considered .
o hc rlaiiy f uhrois identification subharmonics of reliability check To personality inventory personality ( McCrae & Costa, 1997 Costa, & McCrae . s. This test is based on on based is test This s.
system (Hogrefe (Hogrefe system
rm h ‘oc rpr’ ucin wih ss n a an uses which function, report’ ‘voice the from ) . The NEO The . a
10 second person and the agreement was compared compared was agreement the and person second
( - Hřebíčková & Čermák, 1996 Čermák, & Hřebíčková FFI ) . Within the normal population, the five factor five the population, normal the Within . –
Testcentrum, s.r.o., Prague, Prague, s.r.o., Testcentrum, is the short the is s the Administration and assessment was done was assessment and Administration was judged based on based judged was
h a crso ec atro every of factor each of scores raw The
concept of of concept
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F the Czech Republic), Republic), Czech ive call "
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Version postprint 266 265 264 263 262 261 260 259 258 257 256 255 254 253 252 251 250 249 248 247 246 245 244 243 242 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of model. the final dataset ofthe half second predictors significant least the removing model by the reduced gradually model backward selection the Using model. in the model. the full di scatterplots score, taking perspective IRI score, concern empathetic IRI score, total IRI Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Experience, ratio ( full model a with started We models. multiple stepwise through tested were H2) H1 and (Hypotheses valence of The effects analysis Statistical listener each of score raw total the Again, consistency. internal high a has and items 20 contains It areas. in differences individual assesses Scale of quantification For animals: towards Attitudes the and/or valence the to judg intensity influence may latter the whereas calls piglets´ of judgement situational empathy emotional proportion vocalized proportion Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). statistic , subharmonics ( ezg Bthr, Ptmn 1991 Pittman, & Betchart, Herzog,
Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 was used for statistical a statistical used for was were significant at the p < 0.05 level. < p the 0.05 at significant were al analysis al ments.
the d not indicate non indicate d not The random factors of vocal stimulus identity and the the and identity stimulus ofvocal factors random The Simple correlations correlations Simple
acoustic and psychological variables on the perceived emotional intensity and intensity emotional perceived the on variables psychological and acoustic
) and 10 psychological 10 psychological and )
( The raw score for for score raw The , ai, 1983 Davis, . tiue twrs animals towards attitudes
inter AAS Comment citer cedocument:
was then used for assessment of the p values of values the p of forassessment used then was -
call interval Attitude towards animals score and gender of the ofthe gender scoreand animals towards Attitude - nalysis. linear effects and therefore we did not include quadratic terms in in terms quadratic include did not we therefore effects and linear ) . listener We between average intensity and valence ratings for each stimulus stimulus each for ratings valence and intensity average between containing containing
the two the ,
hypothesized that the former may affect more strongly strongly more affect may former the that hypothesized call duration ; variables (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Openness Extraversion, (Neuroticism, variables s´ attitudes towards the treatment of animals in various various in animals of treatment the towards attitudes s´ inl Tyo, 2007 Taylor, & Signal
subscale Utiliz the the w amnsee te AAS the administered we , 11
on a randomly selec arandomly on
following predictors: predictors: following ing the the ing , mean pitch mean s , as well as the total raw score, raw total the as well as , hold predictor - , out out method ; mean jitter alr Sga, 2005 Signal, & Taylor listener ted half of the dataset the of half ted
until all the remaining remaining the all until linear linear 7 predictors predictors
acoustic variables variables acoustic
identity were included included were identity
– , of cross of regression mixed mixed regression
harmonic the Animal Attitudes Attitudes Animal the listener contained in in contained - validation, ).
- was used for used was to The The ) . - The scale scale The noise noise , we ,
the the the the
Version postprint 289 288 287 286 285 284 283 282 281 280 279 278 277 276 275 274 273 272 271 270 269 268 267 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Results judged to related significantly be to ceased set, thepitch the data from omitted recordings were effect medium had a together variables two acoustic 3B 0.0001, (F stimulus the vocal pitch of increasing with increased intensity The perceived significant two contained model the final judgements, intensity emotional the For on properties acoustic vocalisations’ of The effect Cohen s used for using constructed model was final The < p 0.05. at were significant factors remaining all until factor significant least ofthe omission an variables psychological the 9 situation, contained model The full distributions. binary with models linear generalised were models The and H2. H1 Hypotheses intestsfor as similarly wasapplied procedure reduction model stepwise backward (Hyp identification correct on variables thepsychological of influence the investigated we Second, stimulus. theparticular for identifications context correct of wastheproportion variable valence and intensity perceived the on depended identification correct ofthe probability the whether tested we First heard playbacks. situa three the for then and foursituations all first for accomplished was process this three other situations, the in vocalisations from the different were calls quite castration variables and acoustic Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). ). Cohen ’s f ’s
Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 Next we assessed which which assessed we Next Fig 2 ignificance testing of the variables in the final model. final the in the variables of testing ignificance
according to according ’s f ’s 3 A 2 ) and with increasing increasing with ) and
for the global effect of fixed variables in the final model was 0.11, indicating that the that the indicating was0.11, model final the in variables fixed of effect global the for were also calculated to help the interpretation of the model results. results. ofthemodel interpretation the help to calculated were also Selya, Rose, Dierker, Hedeker, and Mermelstein (2012 andMermelstein Dierker,Hedeker, Rose, Selya, Comment citer cedocument: a randomly selected half of the observations and the second half was was half second andthe observations the of half selected randomly predictors predictors proportion vocalized proportion
of the particular vocal stimulus (Hypothesis H3). The dependent dependent H3). The (Hypothesis stimulus vocal particular the of
affected the correct identification of the context from the the from ofthecontext identification the correct affected 12 intensity and valence judgements andvalence intensity
d gender and was iteratively reduced by by reduced iteratively was d gender and on perceived intensit perceived on
in the stimulus (F the stimulus in
The effect sizes were estimated using using were estimated effectsizes The tions excluding castration. excluding tions 1,266 y.
When castration When castration ) = 11.46, p < 0.001, Fig p<0.001, 11.46, = . 1,266
= 38.00, p < p = 38.00, acoustic
(Hypothesis 1) (Hypothesis othesis H4). A othesis
variables. variables. Since Since
Version postprint 312 311 310 309 308 307 306 305 304 303 302 301 300 299 298 297 296 295 294 293 292 291 290 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of the either on The 0.05). (p > orvalence intensity perceived model The final valence judgements and intensity on variables psychological of The effect variables, acoustic among intensity with association strongest in intensity to correlated significantly interval were judgements valence Further, variables. two acoustic strongasso mirrored which judgements, valence and intensity with associated with (Table1), correlations < p 0.0001 = 35.38, F effect (pitch omitted were stimuli castration the weresignificant variables variable acoustic two the effect of Fig p <0.0001, valence 3B intensity Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). , F 1,176 Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 Overall, The perceived variables. twopredictor of consisted model final the judgements, valence For decreased, i.e. decreased, =
(Fig 3.90, p < 0.05). Nevertheless, the effect was small( was theeffect Nevertheless, 0.05). p< 3.90,
3A perceived perceived associated with valence. with associated 3C s
) results of multiple regression were in agreement with the results of the simple thesimple resultsof the with agreement in were regression multiple of results
, but , but contained no significant effect of any of the psychological variables on either the the oneither variables psychological ofthe any of effect nosignificant contained ) and with increasing duration of the calls (F calls the of duration increasing with ) and , Fig .
I n the reduced reduced n the proportion vocalized proportion changed to more negative with increasing pitch of the stimulus(F pitch of increasing with negative to more changed 3D intensity or the valence (p > 0.05). (p > valence the or intensity Comment citer cedocument: and had medium effect ( effect medium and had ). few
exceptions: exceptions: presence of subharmonics was associated with both intensity and both intensity with associated was ofsubharmonics presence s
on perceived valence was large was valence perceived on data the the
On set without castration calls, harmonic calls, castration set without reduced dataset but proportion vocalized showed the showed vocalized proportion but dataset reduced
the other hand, hand, other the
was still still was the duration and the duration listener 13 1,155 f 2 positively positively
= s 0.17) = 4.65, p < 0.05 p < = 4.65, ’ gender none of the acoustic variables were variables the acoustic of none
also for the reduced data set from which from data set the reduced for also proportion vocalized proportion f 1,240 affecting the perceived intensity ( intensity perceived the affecting 2
followed by call duration and call pitch. pitch. call and duration call by followed also =0.01). = 21.87, p < 0.0001, Fig 3D). Fig3D). < p 0.0001, = 21.87,
did not exert a significant effect effect a significant not exert did ( f , Fig 2 =0.37).
3C (Hypothesis 2) (Hypothesis ;
call duration effect F call duration The same predictor predictor same The c - to iatio -
noise ratio ratio noise were both both were n between these these n between
1,240 = 41.23, and call and The The Fig Fig 1,155
Version postprint 335 334 333 332 331 330 329 328 327 326 325 324 323 322 321 320 319 318 317 316 315 314 313 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of < (p 0.05). nursing t bypaired followed judged were also any of (r= much weaker 48 an intensity judged themean between The correlation between differences andvalence; intensity between Relationship (p >0.05). identification context in listeners these that showing psychological the none of contained model The final psychological of The effect 0.05). (p > identification context p<0.01). stimuli 2. = (t intensity perceived with increased Similarly 0.05). p 2.67, < (t = stimulus be f verylarge(local was that were An i context of correct identification the on andvalence intensity perceived of The effect Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). , Table1
correctly assigned to the castration situation increased with the perceived intensity of that that of intensity perceived the with increased situation castration the to assigned correctly nteraction between type of situation and perce and situation type of between nteraction , where less intensively perceived vocal stimuli were more often correctly classified ( t= ( t= classified correctly often weremore vocalstimuli perceived intensively less , where the remaining three situations (ANOVA followed by paired t paired by (ANOVAfollowed situations three remaining the Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870
Neither the estimated valence nor the situation*valence interaction affected the accura affected interaction situation*valence the nor valence theestimated Neither assigned correctly to the situation (Fig 4, (Fig 4, tothesituation correctly assigned ). Without the castration stimuli, the relationship between intensity and valence became became andvalence between intensity the relationship stimuli, castration the Without ). as as -
0.3 personal variables had no significant effect on the success rate of the individual rate the individual of the success on effect nosignificant had variables personal - more negative (of lower valence) than the other three situations (ANOVA (ANOVA threesituations the other valence) than (of lower negative more tests, p < 0.05) while isolation was perceived perceived was isolation while p <0.05) tests, 2 =1.06). 9 , p < 0.05, N = 36). Castration stimuli had much higher judged intensity than than intensity higherjudged much had stimuli Castration = < 0.05,N 36). , p Comment citer cedocument: variables variables
Specifically, the probability that a particular castration stimu castration particular a that theprobability Specifically,
on the correct identification of context of the correct identification on ,
for the reunion vocal stimuli vocal reunion the for
90, p < 0.01). The opposite was true for nursing vocal nursing for wastrue opposite The 0.01). p 90, <
14 ived intensity affected intensity ived F
3,36 attributes, attributes, d valence was high (r = high was d valence = 8.58, p < 0.001). 0.001). p < = 8.58, nor the gender of the responder, the responder, of gender the nor contexts as as , -
tests, p < 0.0001). Castration calls Castration <0.0001). tests, p correct identification of context context of identification correct more negative than reunion and and reunion than more negative
The effect size of this factor factor this of effect size The the proportion of stimuli stimuli of proportion the
(Hypothesis 4) (Hypothesis -
0.8 6
, p < 0.0001, N = 0.0001, , p < (Hypothesis 3) (Hypothesis
lus lus would would
- 3.07, 3.07, cy of
Version postprint 358 357 356 355 354 353 352 351 350 349 348 347 346 345 344 343 342 341 340 339 338 337 336 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Effect of acousticEffect of characteristics on perception of stimuli Discussion mammal vocalizations juvenile content of emotional the to judge humans by used maybe astimulus within call types results uniformity this by ofvocalizations judgment their in are affected emitted types are ofcall mixture arich situations, repertoire in variation the natural This reflects Fig.2D). in example isolation (the modulation dif that calls of consisted others 2A)while inFig. example thereunion (e.g., each other to similar were quite that calls contained val of predictor not asignificant that was it the fact ratingsdespite for to model calls castration in valence use retained be calls. durati and the stimulus within sound of proportion the namely ofstimuli, temporal features two and stimuli ofthe pitch mean the by were affected Judgments criteria. acoustic Our study Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). - noise ratio showed a simple correlation with valence and therefore, listeners could have used it usedit have could listeners therefore, and withvalence correlation asimple showed ratio noise much less, if at all, ifat less, much d
the presence of subharmonics to detect the higher emotional intensity and lower emotional loweremotional and intensity higheremotional the detect to ofsubharmonics presence the T he more complex acoustic variables (jitter, harmonics (jitter, variables acoustic complex he more because because indicate that simple average acoustic properties that do not take account of the variability of the variability of account take not do that properties averageacoustic simple that indicate Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 It is worth noting that each of our stimuli consisted of several calls. Some of the stimuli stimuli the Some of calls. several of consisted ourstimuli eachof that noting It worth is
in the multiple regression models regression multiple the in , indicate
where in some situations, calls of one predominant type are used while while areused type predominant ofone calls situations, some in where
it wa s
that that s highly correlated with other with other correlated highly s important for listeners’ listeners’ for important .
l isteners Comment citer cedocument:
(the subharmonics variable was dropped from the multiple regression regression multiple from the dropped was variable subharmonics (the fered substantially in quality, e.g. in duration, pitch and frequency frequency and pitch duration, in quality, e.g. in substantially fered
rated the intensity and valence of the stimuli based on very simple simple very on based stimuli the of valence and intensity the rated
, simple c simple judgments. judgments. 15 ( time Tallet et al., 2013 al., et Tallet orrelations indicated that listeners that listeners indicated orrelations
-
and pitch and While n While - to - noise ratio, subharmonics) subharmonics) ratio, noise - versus one of these variables were were variables these one of - related ) . It is unknown whether humans whether unknown . Itis ence ratings in final model. infinal ence ratings - diversity dimension. dimension. diversity
variables. variables.
the in other other in macroscopic macroscopic Also, harmonic Also,
piglet vocal vocal piglet may seemed to seemed
have have on of on Our
- Version postprint 384 383 382 381 380 379 378 377 376 375 374 373 372 371 370 369 368 367 366 365 364 363 362 361 360 359 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Stimuliand features intensity rating other the from stimuli the among non and castration the between intensity. and pitch between relation 2009 Charlton, non than intensity, higher ashaving i.e. urgent, s study of inthe more intensive as perceived were frequency fundamental non verbal both for distribution) energy frequency, (fundamental pitch studies previous human to associated intensity humans ourstudy, in relationship positive strongly the to contrast intensity. emotional increased indicate might speech during durations intensity increasing with speechrate decreasing further report withi andwords syllables between judgements. Neverth content. emotional the tojudge listeners by used were truly variables time ofthe which determine to impossible correlations simple the to according intensity, inter shorter sound We fou olicitation purrs ofcats purrs olicitation Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). - verbal verbal
( nd that the perceived emotional intensity increased with with increased intensity emotional perceived the that nd " Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 Pitch was related to perceived emotional intensity in our data but only in the full dataset full inthe only but ourdata in intensity emotional perceived to related Pitch was was reported to be reported was proportion ( Sauter, Eisner, Calder, et al., 2010 etal., Calder, Eisner, Sauter, ( Sauter, Eisner, Calder, et al., 2010 etal., Calder, Eisner, Sauter,
- This is in agreement with with agreement in This is call intervals ) . , However, after castration calls were removed from our dataset, there was no wasno there dataset, our from removed calls were after castration However, too, too,
v - ocaliz perceived emotional intensity intensity emotional perceived the that that Comment citer cedocument: . perceived emotional intensity intensity emotional perceived
ed these of Both negatively e less, less, " have conspicuous high frequency components components frequency high conspicuous have ) . Proportion vocalized Proportion - castration calls over castration temp three n a phrase) decrease phrase) n a The reason reason The
correlated (longer utterances = lower intensity) with perceived perceived with intensity) = lower utterances (longer correlated Laukka et al. (2005 et al. Laukka
oral situation
two components components two
) variables variables
and duration of dog calls was found to be negatively be negatively foundto was calls ofdog duration and . )
Due to the correlative nature of our study, it is is study,it our of nature correlative the to Due - human human solicitation purrs solicitation
s for for 16 . One way to test this assumption would be a be a would this assumption test wayto One . (
that may be that thev bethat may that Faragó et al., 2014 et al., Faragó may involve
clearly are potential clearly are shadowed the more subtle differences in pitch in pitch differences more subtle the shadowed utterances. d has been found to to found been has
with perceived increasing intensity. They intensity. increasing perceived with ) the the
were also also were who who duration of non of duration ,
found that pause proportion (silence (silence proportion pause that found suggesting an
( both longer call durations and durations call both longer McComb, Taylor, Wilson, & Wilson, Taylor, McComb,
Also, dog calls of higher higher of dogcalls Also, ( Laukka et al., 2005 al., et Laukka increasing proportion of of proportion increasing associated with emotional emotional with associated On ) .
Faragó et al. (2014 et al. Faragó
cues for emotional emotional for cues the other hand other the
ery stark contrast in pitch inpitch starkcontrast ery that correlate positively with with positively correlate were - verbal sounds in sounds verbal
longer syllable syllable longer
perceive )
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) as more as vocal vocal
and .
the In
Version postprint 409 408 407 406 405 404 403 402 401 400 399 398 397 396 395 394 393 392 391 390 389 388 387 386 385 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Stimuliand features valence rating cries of elongation both infants, both situation that the fact find situations different duration call average review non in duration call shorter and valence emotional increased between the relationship confirm cue instead asa rate vocalization when duration in valence However, valence). did proportion (the pause valence with increasing decreased syllables/words al. (2005 stud decoding Thi ourstudy. in positive asmore perceived were duration ofshorter Calls intensity emotional with increased insituation asample) within inter decreased and durations call increased results decoding animals of arousal inthe differences to objective vocalizations stimuli. listener the in which study similar Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). - any any human species human ;
Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 V
e.g. african elephants Loxodonta africana: Soltis, Blowers, & Savage, 2011 & Savage, Blowers, Soltis, africana: Loxodonta elephants african e.g. difference in difference ) ocal production (encoding) studies, i.e. i.e. studies, (encoding) production ocal
reported that perceived valence increases with speech rate, suggesting that that suggesting rate, with speech increases valence perceived that reported
the study of study the ies of ies of attempting . I n herreview , ( the Faragó et al. (2014 et al. Faragó
Tallet et 2013 al., Tallet such as dogs as such has been found to found been has the Saute duration of human non ofhuman duration Comment citer cedocument: call durations of castrated and sham castrated of durations call
s were near to the very negative end ofthe end negative to the very near s were andaggression play between to distinguish s with higher emotional intensity. Also, Also, intensity. emotional higher s with r, Eisner, Calder, et al. (2010 et al. Calder, Eisner, r, ,
Briefer (2012 Briefer ( Scheiner etal.,2002 Scheiner ( s ( McComb et 2009 al., et McComb McComb et 2009 al., et McComb are not are ( Briefer, 2012 Briefer, ) . In contrast, contrast, In .
)
on dog calls dog on correlate negatively with emotional valence across 11 11 across valence emotional with negatively correlate
exposed at all to the high pitched, pitched, the high allto at exposed - call intervals (leading to larger vocalization proportions proportions largervocalization to (leading intervals call )
documents documents
- verbal sounds did not correlate with correlate not did sounds verbal investigations ) 17 .
Weary, Braithwaite, and Fraser (1998 Fraser and Braithwaite, Weary, . Also .
)
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) but not not but , . .
that the majority of studies of majority the that in their study on human speech, speech, human study on in their
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castrated piglets castrated that relate relate that , humans seemingly ignored growl growl ignored , humansseemingly in others the
in valence pitch of calls pitch of dog vocalizations, and used used and dog vocalizations, s
agreement with our our with agreement the ( see Briefer, 2012 for for 2012 Briefer, see is consistent with consistent is not decrease with decrease not high acoustic quality of quality acoustic (
spectrum. In human human In spectrum. Porter, Miller, & Miller, Porter, ,
which may be due to due be may which
) intensity playback playback intensity . In piglets, the the . Inpiglets,
the invariably invariably
have the
perceived perceived )
duration of duration did not did
some some Laukka et Laukka et found found
the the Version postprint 434 433 432 431 430 429 428 427 426 425 424 423 422 421 420 419 418 417 416 415 414 413 412 411 410 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Situation recognition through perceivedi ability human the for specifically match Our results 2012 species in different h of vocalizations 1986 et Porter al., vocalizations dog calls human between found was hand, norelationship by contexts fear anger and fear Further studies. ca animal pitched higher associated Humans also ratings valence negative more assigned vocalizations, human of decoding variables. explanatory of set numerous w Therefore, wefound However, mildl callsfrom than shorter being situations very negative and positive a indicate This might 1986 Marshall, Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). ( ; Pongrácz al.,2006 et Pongrácz Brudzynski, 2007 Brudzynski, more Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870
Emotion encoding studies across many species found s species found many across studies encoding Emotion We H ( igher pitched solicitation purrs of cats are rated as less pleasant less as rated cats are of purrs solicitation pitched igher Faragó et al., et al., Faragó fur , human , human e did not test for quadratic effects because our full models anyway started with a with started anyway models ourfull effectsbecause quadratic for test not e did emitted in emitted ther ther )
have been reported asresponse reported been have igher pitch in in pitch igher ; previous
Scheiner etal.,2002 Scheiner found that that found exist no indication of non of indication no non listener ; 2014
negatively loaded situations situations loaded negatively Millot & Brand, 2001 & Brand, Millot as well as - Comment citer cedocument: linear ) ; high pitch was also also was pitch ; high
listener evidence for cross for evidence ) s associated high pitched dog barks with emotions emotions with barks dog pitched high s associated .
higher pitch piglet vocalizations were judged as more negative. asmore werejudged vocalizations piglet pitch higher more negative negative more
relationship when calls associated with positive states have higher pitch pitch higher have states positive with associated calls when to recognize to recognize higher pitched verbal and non and verbal pitched higher s ( Leinonen, Linnankoski, Laakso, & Aulanko, 1991 &Aulanko, Laakso, Linnankoski, Leinonen,
; ( - Laukka et al., 2005 etal., Laukka
linear relationships in the scatterplots of our data ofour scatterplots the in linear relationships African elephants: Soltis etal.,2011 Soltis elephants: African
between valence and call duration with calls from from calls with call duration and valence between ) - the . situations situations species underst species
a s lls with negative emotions in several previous previous several in emotions negative with lls - common attribute of macaque calls assigned to calls assigned ofmacaque attribute common
18 context to negative situations and their varying intensity. varying their and situations negative to perceived perceived
( squirrel monkeys: Fichtel et 2001 al., Fichtel monkeys: squirrel ntensity ( Tallet et al., 2013 al., et Tallet s
in which in ; valence Sauter, Eisner, Calder, et al., 2010 et al., Eisner,Calder, Sauter, anding of vocalization contexts and contexts vocalization of anding hift - verbal utterances were utterances verbal s
to higher frequencies to higher vocalizations
and fundamental frequency in frequency fundamental and y negative situations. negative y
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Version postprint 459 458 457 456 455 454 453 452 451 450 449 448 447 446 445 444 443 442 441 440 439 438 437 436 435 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Castration vocalizations different from other situations it seems Therefore situations. with other overlap little with negative, very and asveryintensive wereperceived calls Castration ofcastration. exclusion the listener the in and properties acoustic in theirobjective situatio other three the from different very were castration during emitted The vocalizations with. acquainted well arenot they species ina from vocalizations situations alg simple apply humans that the possibility to resultspoint our species. the about was children ofpreverbal vocalizations decode adults human workwhen be at may mechanisms Similar humans. including situations, withsimilar experience personal their from originate may preconceptions These event. intensity isalow contentment, as experienced presumable a as reunion also and pain, strong including asituation as castration, that may assume they example, For situations. different the of /intensity impact emotional the of apreconception have that listeners is context vocalizations. nursing in found was stimuli) intense less of recognition (easier pattern theopposite and intense intui were calls castration intensive most the that surprising situation that indicate other Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015).
most likely likely most tively, species s. The results based on full dataset were different from results based on three situations after after three situations basedon results from different were dataset full on based results The s. Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 The
( Zeifman, 2001; Lindová et al. in prep. in et al. Lindová 2001; Zeifman, reunion vocalizations were vocalizations reunion listener
( One potential mechanism by which perceived ca perceived which by mechanism potential One Leinonen et al., 1991 al., et Leinonen based on some general judgement procedure rather than on specific knowledge knowledge onspecific than rather procedure judgement some general on based
situation involving active greeting are relatively high intensity events whilst nursing, nursing, whilst events intensity high arerelatively greeting active involving situation
Together with our finding that intensity is estimated through simple acoustic cues, cues, acoustic simple through estimated is that intensity ourfinding with Together s had little experience with live pigs. Therefore, their recognition of the situation the situation of recognition their Therefore, pigs. live with experience had little s al
recognition may be mediated by the perceived intensity of emotion. ofemotion. intensity perceived the by bemediated may recognition Comment citer cedocument: ; Pongrácz et al., 2005 et al., Pongrácz also also
more correctly identified if they were perceived as more more as perceived were ifthey identified more correctly ) .
intensity and valence and intensity
19
that the the that the the ; Tallet et al., 2010 al., et Tallet most successfully recognized. Less recognized. successfully most ll intensit ll main orithms when they estimate estimate they when orithms
information decoded from piglet piglet from decoded information
values assigned by the bythe assigned values y
might be used to identify to identify used be might
social situations with other other with situations social
) . Our Our novel findings novel ns, both ns, It is not not It is
Version postprint 484 483 482 481 480 479 478 477 476 475 474 473 472 471 470 469 468 467 466 465 464 463 462 461 460 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of vocalizations Lack of effect ofpsychological bechecked to need results the connection, this investigating study first isthe Asthis vocalisations. of exclusion the after dataset the foundin was noeffect calls as castration negative any had animals However, discern to ability their and/or voices piglet the in emotions of assessment that in 1994 al., Doka, Molnár, age early an from present apparently The ability situations. other not between distinction precise) less (and layerisafiner The second sow example, unspec arerather calls most urgent these to reactions sows’ that to thefact corresponds call very negative The stimuli. vocal from emotions two a indicate results these Taken together, judgements. intensity than properties by acoustic explained better much were judgements valence dataset, became intensity and valence excluded, is situation urgent most the when Thus weaker. much became relationship the excluded, the between correlation a strong created calls castration of values negative and very intensive The very therefor pain and in is piglet the whether is vocalisations Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). intensity and valence values across the whole dataset. When the castration stimuli were stimuli thecastration When dataset. whole the across values and valence intensity " Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 naïve ; Tallet et 2010 al., et Tallet neither the emot neither
of humans of " s
& Miklósi, 2011 & Miklósi, humans, other psychological differences between individuals might influence their their influence might individuals between differences psychological other humans, react readily to calls of alien piglets piglets of alien to calls react readily
effect s
that should incite immediate action without delaying deliberation. This notion notion This deliberation. delaying without action immediate incite should that
to recognize to recognize
on the judgements on Comment citer cedocument: ) ional empathy nor the cognitive empathy nor the attitudes toward toward attitudes the empathy nor cognitive the nor empathy ional .
Our perceived perceived )
but can be to some extent improved by experience experience by improved some extent be to can but
listener first layer is aquick is layer first the the ( Linnankoski, Laakso, Aulanko, & Leinonen, 1994 &Leinonen, Aulanko, Laakso, Linnankoski,
context of vocalizations emitted by other animals is animals other by emitted vocalizations of context attributes as as s had very limited experience wit experience s hadverylimited . This was not due to the masking effect of the very very ofthe effect masking to the not due was This separate separate 20 ( Held, Mason, & Mendl, 2007 &Mendl, Mason, Held,
- characteristics ofv characteristics and
on e - - layer system of encoding and decoding of of decoding and encoding of system layer rough rough
listeners’ whether whether identification of of identification there is a need for urgent action. action. urgent for need isa there - so - ocal stimuli. stimuli. ocal judgementsabout pig urgent calls arising from from arising calls urgent h pigs and we hypothesized hypothesized andwe h pigs the situation from the calls. calls. the from situation ; the most urgent urgent most the
Spinka et al., 2000 et al., Spinka ( In this restricted this restricted In Linnankoski et Linnankoski the ; Pongrácz, Pongrácz, castration castration ific , for , for ) . . Version postprint 497 496 495 494 493 492 491 490 489 488 487 486 485 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Acknowledgement and suggestions. call identification. Agriculture. of Ministry the Czech from 0002701404 Agency and Grant the Czech from P505/10/1411 grants the by supported was This study decoding listener animal thecalling of animal the such as tests, empathy based verbally less more detailed, using a perhaps investigations, with further Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). Multifaceted Empathy Test Empathy Multifaceted
vocali s’ psychological profile psychological s’ Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870 To summarize, we provide we provide To summarize,
nor it affected accuracy ofcontexts accuracy it affected nor s ation may be based on very simple simple very based on may be ation
We would like to thank to three anonymous referees for their useful comments comments useful their for referees three anonymous thank to to like would We could be could Comment citer cedocument:
based s
( neither significantly affected the emotional intensity and valence valence and intensity emotional the affected significantly neither
Dziobek etal.,2008 Dziobek the
on
evidence that that evidence
Iveta the perceived emotional intensity of of intensity emotional perceived the Červenková helped Červenková recognition acoustic acoustic 21 )
. human human
. criteria. criteria.
decoding of decoding
with Also, Also,
conducting recognition of recognition
the emotional content of of content emotional the the calls
reliability reliability .
Surprisingly, Surprisingly, the situation situation the test of of test Version postprint 523 522 521 520 519 518 517 516 515 514 513 512 511 510 509 508 507 506 505 504 503 502 501 500 499 498 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
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): a comparison of discrete and and discrete of comparison a ): & Jensen, P. (2000). Dimensions Dimensions (2000). P. Jensen, & (2), 1059 - (1), 18 1066. Applied Animal Animal Applied
- 27. Advances in in Advances
Applied Applied Applied Applied Version postprint 661 660 659 658 657 656 655 654 653 652 651 650 Humans (Homosapiens) judgetheemotional content ofpiglet(Sus scrofadomestica) callsbased on
simple acoustic parameters, notpersonality, empathy, nor attitude toward animals. Journal of Tables to 0.001) p< <0.01; *** **p * p<0.05; r and point Pearson’s (n =48). diagonal bellow arepresented situation castration dataset including for and correlations Note. valence intensity, emotional between correlations Simple Table 1 9. SH 8. HNR 7. jitter 6. pitch 5. callint 4. duration 3. vocprop 2. valence 1. intensity variable Marušáková, I.L.,Linhart, P.,Ratcliffe, V.F.,Tallet, C.,Reby,D., Špinka, M.(2015). - noise ratio; ratio; noise 4
Correlations for dataset excluding castration situation are presented above diagonal (n = 36) (n diagonal above presented are situation castration excluding dataset for Correlations
3
2 Comparative Psychology, 129 (2), 121-131. DOI : 10.1037/a0038870
1
- - 1 0.01 0.00 0.47*** 0.81*** 0.70*** 0.70*** 0.14 0.86***
4
-
subharmonics subharmonics
- - 0.08 - - - - - 2 0.54*** 0.16 0.87*** 0.04 0.79*** 0.71*** 0.39* -
biserial correlation coefficeints inca coefficeints correlation biserial
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- 0.03 - - 0.32 3 0.44** 0.44** 0.58*** 0.72*** 0.05 0.32* 0.32
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; ; 0.11 - 0.16 - 0.24 4 0.40** 0.40** 0.63*** 0.56*** 0.03 0.70*** 1
proportion of vocalized sound; sound; vocalized of proportion
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- 0.21 - - 0.30 - - - 5 0.03 0.07 0.08 0.34* 0.33* 0.08
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0.25 - 0.25 0.16 - - 0.22 6 0.62*** 0.03 0.14 0.44**
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and acoustic variable acoustic and
se of subharmonics are subharmonics se of
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0.16 - 0.27 - - 0.07 8 2 0.64*** 0.42* 0.37* 0.03 0.40*
intercall interval; interval; intercall
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s 0.17 0.11 0.15 0.16 0.21 0.08 - - 9 0.10 0.05
shown -
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