Africa Germany's Federal Government Wants to Boost Private

DeVeLOPmeNT AND COOPerATION D+C

eNTWICKLUNG UND ZUSAmmeNArbeIT E+Z

International Journal

ISSN 2366-7257 D +C mONTHLY e-PAPer December 2018

AFrICA PAKISTAN WTO Germany’s Federal Only 3,000 people Developing countries Government wants to still speak the ancient should join forces to boost private investment Kalash language promote their interests Drugs policy Title: Afghan policeman destroys poppy fields in Badakhshan province. Photo: picture-alliance/NurPhoto D+C December 2018 In German in E+Z Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit. Both language versions FOCUS at www.DandC.eu Drugs policy

Monitor Latin American perspectives Limiting global warming | Insights into the war in Syria | How financial analysts work | In the past 12 years, some 240,000 people have African debt crisis | Nowadays: Online stalking in Uganda | Imprint 4 died in Mexico’s “war on drugs”. Andres Manuel Lopéz Obrador, the new president, has promised change in the election campaign, writes Virginia Debate Mercado of the Universidad Autónoma del Estado Comments on Jair Bolsonaro, Brazil’s new president, and Germany’s innovative de México. By contrast, Uruguay’s experience of Development Investment Fund, which is designed to promote Africa’s private sector 11 legalising cannabis has been mostly good, according to Sebastián Artigas of the Montevideo-based Universidad de la República. Colombian civil- Tribune socity organisations, in turn, worry that their new MAHWISH GUL government will prove to be more repressive again. Activist Julian Quintero assesses matters. In the Hindukush mountains, an ancient language is at risk of extinction 13 PAGES 18, 20, 22

FABIAN BOHNENBERGER AND CLARA WEINHARDT Ground-breaking WTO reform is not in sight yet 15 Time to regulate In the eyes of the Bristol-based Transform Drugs Focus: Drugs policy Policy Foundation, prohibition has failed. In an interview, Steve Rolles, a policy adviser with VIRGINIA MERCADO Transform, discusses the alternative of responsi- Security and drug cartels in Mexico 18 bly regulating production, distribution and consumption. PAGE 24 SEBASTIÁN ARTIGAS Uruguay’s experience with legal marihuana 20 Prohibition in Asia INTERVIEW WITH JULIAN QUINTERO In spite of NATO support after US-led liberation Drugs permeate all social strata in Colombia 22 from the Taliban regime, Afghanistan is largely a narco-state today. Janet Kursawe, professor at a INTERVIEW WITH STEVE ROLLES college in Bochum, has kept track of develop- Different substances require different relations 24 ments for many years. Iran’s fundamentalist regime is trying to repress the consumption of JANET KURSAWE alcohol and drugs, but even the death penality Afghanistan’s illegal opium economy 27 does not seem to make much difference. Mitra Shahrani, a student, reports that the regime is gradually loosening its stance. By contrast, the MITRA SHAHRANI government of Bangladesh is tightening the Iran’s escalating drug crisis 29 screws. Ridwanul Hoque and Sharowat Shamin of Dhaka University argue that the poor are affected RIDWANUL HOQUE AND SHAROWAT SHAMIN most. Journalist Emmalyn Liwag Kotte spells out In Bangladesh, enforcement of drug and alcohol prohibition mostly hurts the poor 30 why the churches criticise the bloody anti-drugs campaign that President Rodrigo Duterte has EMMALYN LIWAG KOTTE launched in the Philippines, and her colleague Churches oppose “war on drugs” in the Philippines 32 Edith Koesoemawiria takes account of prohibition in Indonesia. PAGES 27, 29, 30, 32, 33 EDITH KOESOEMAWIRIA Though Indonesia is tough on drug crime, consumption is not in decline 33 African worries ASSANE DIAGNE Pharma regulation is ineffective in many sub- Saharan countries. One consequence is a growing West Africa is an epicentre of fake pharma 35 informal market for tramadol, an opioid. Assane Diagne, a fact checker based in Dakar, describes JEFFREY MOYO West Africa’s fake-pharma scenario. In the south- Why alcohol and drug abuse are spreading in Zimbabwe 36 ern African country of Zimbabwe, many people lack hope for a better future and resort to various HANS DEMBOWSKI intoxicants, writes Jeffrey Moyo, a journalist. Relevant reading on the economics and history of the drug trade 38 PAGES 35, 36

D+C e-Paper December 2018 OUr VIeW Try regulation Deba(SW-Thema) te

Throughout history, human beings have used mind-altering substances. Discomfort with drugs was expressed too. Alcohol is taboo in Islam, whereas European cultures historically ostracised the use of cannabis and opium and its derivatives (with exceptions made for medical painkillers). In the 1960s, the UN adopted an international drugs policy that declared illegal all the drugs not traditionally used in Europe. Alcohol and tobacco are addictive too, but they are internationally seen as health hazards rather than issues of criminal law. In many predominantly Muslim countries, however, alcoholic beverages remain forbidden. In the early 1970s, US President Richard Nixon prominently declared a war on drugs. His example was followed around the world. The results are depressing. The production and use of opioids, coca derivatives, cannabis and various synthetic substances has only increased. Illegal drugs are widely used. At the same time, repression is causing massive suff ering, especially where Destroying the global commons the word “war” did not stay a metaphor. In Mexico alone, some 240,000 peo- The international rise of authoritarian populists is ple are reckoned to have died in drugs-related violence in the past 12 years. linked to vested interests’ opposition to the neces- Afghanistan was liberated from the Taliban by US troops and then “stabilised” sary transformation toward sustainability. As with NATO troops, but it must largely be considered a narco-state today. Hans Dembowski, the editor-in-chief of D+C/D+Z, By the way, alcohol prohibition has not succeeded either. Even where points out, Brazil’s new President Jair Bolsonaro despotic regimes exert brutal repression, some people drink in secret – in Iran considers forest protection an unnecessary bur- or Saudi Arabia, for example. When alcohol was made illegal in the USA in the den. In truth, the earth’s ecological balance 1920s, organised crime became deeply entrenched – and the gangs peddled depends on his country’s rainforests. PAGe 11 other drugs along with booze. To a large extent, European nations have been backing off from repression at home. The idea is to prevent harm. In Germany, for example, heroin addicts are provided with safe spaces and sterile syringes, and though cannabis is illegal, processing small amounts for personal use is Trib une no longer punished. Germany’s constitutional court ruled two decades ago that sentencing people to prison for these off ences is disproportionate. In legal terms, the situation is unsatisfying however. Forbidding something, but not sanctioning transgressions leads to ambiguity. Repression has generally been much harsher in developing countries and emerging markets. Some countries resort to capital punishment, but extra-judicial killings are far more common. Prisons are full of drug users, and many are recruited into criminal networks after release. It is true that addiction is spreading diseases, petty crime and prostitution, but prohibition is not preventing that. All too often poverty and a lack of prospects motivates people to take intoxicants – or to fi nd a black-market livelihood. Typically, there is a lack of rehabilitation facilities. The International Commission on Drugs Policy, which is led by Ruth Dreifuss, a former Swiss president, deserves attention. It argues that regulating drug markets is better than prohibition. Obviously, diff erent rules should apply to diff erent drugs, depending on how harmful they are. In any case, the Endangered culture best way to fi ght organised crime is certainly to thwart its business model. Today, a mere 3,000 people still speak Kalash, the Huge profi ts empower the cartels to corrupt institutions of governance and to language of Pakistan’s smallest ethnic group. Mahwish Gul, a student from Islamabad, assesses pay the perpetrators of horrifi c violence. The global community needs a better why this culture is at risk of extinction. PAGe 13 approach. Regulation could allow state agencies to tax drugs, ensure quality and have some impact on where, when and how people use them. There is no lack of good ideas, and the time has come to test them. Groundbreaking reform not in sight The World Trade Organization (WTO) must be You’ll fi nd all contributions reformed urgently. What has been proposed so far, of our focus section plus HANS DembOWSKI however, basically serves the interests of the related ones on is editor in chief of D+C Development advanced economies, as the scholars Fabian our website – they’ll be and Cooperation / e+Z entwicklung und Bohnenberger and Clara Weinhardt write. In their compiled in next month’s Zusammenarbeit. eyes, developing countries should join forces and otos: Faga/picture-alliance/Zuma Press; Martin Wright/Lineair otos: briefi ng section. [email protected] Ph promote proposals of their own. PAGe 15

D+C e-Paper December 2018 MONITOR: CONFERENCES AND STUDIES

GLOBAL WARMING Development and Humanitarian Aid NGOs (VENRO). All experts agree that, to reach climate A Herculean task goals, the global community must cooperate fast and closely. Action must follow words, demands Hans-Christoph Boppel of VEN- RO. The Paris Agreement of 2015 made it Climate experts disagree about the extent to dividuals will have to change their behav- look as though the international community which it is still possible to stop global warm- iour. Emissions will have to be drastically was ready to tackle climate change together. ing. Nonetheless, scientists insist that every reduced in every sector. New technologies Today, there is a strong sense of disappoint- tenth of a degree matters to prevent worse must be invented and investments diverted ment. droughts, storms and extreme rains. to carbon-free technologies. In order to limit According to Boppel, climate change warming to 1.5 degrees, carbon emissions is linked to almost every other development By Lea Diehl will have to drop by 2030 to a mere 55 % of issue, from fighting hunger to addressing the volume emitted in 2010. the causes of migration. He stresses that the In October, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) published a special report that warned of the disastrous consequences of a global temperature increase of two degrees Celsius by the end of the century. That is the goal spelled out in the Paris Agreement (see box next page). Daniela Jacob is one of the scholars who contributed to the special report and who are now urging policymakers to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius at most. “In the past, we didn’t think that there was an evidence-based figure that could be scientifically determined with such preci- sion”, she explains. Science has advanced, however, and Jacob points out that, if global warming were limited to “only” 1.5 degrees, there would be less extreme weather, including extreme heat and rainfall. The researcher also emphasises that crops like corn, wheat and rice would fail less often. In addition, biodiversity would not dwindle as fast. Finally, the global sea level rise would be reduced by ten centi metres by 2100. Jacob points out that the impacts of global warming are already felt in some regions. “Around the world, unprecedented weather phenomena are taking place.” How- ever, the changes are not happening at the same rate everywhere. On the other hand, A model for the future? An ecological village in Denmark. Jacob inspires cautious optimism: she does think it is possible to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees. The technical and financial Christiane Averbeck, the executive phenomenon is already seriously impeding means are available; but the lack of political director of Klima Allianz Deutschland, an development in poor countries and putting will remains a problem. This view is shared umbrella organisation of 120 non-govern- progress at risk. The consequences are par- by Mojib Latif, climate researcher at the mental organisations, considers it good ticularly disastrous for the poorest of the Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research in news that the 1.5 degree goal is still achiev- poor. Nonetheless, Boppel sees the climate Kiel (see E+Z/D+C e-Paper 2018/11, Debate). able. “But policymakers have to set the issue as an opportunity for the global com- Daniela Jacob emphasises, however, right course”, she insisted at a conference munity. Rising to the challenges together that limiting warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius in Berlin organised by Klima Allianz in co- could create a model for global governance

will require unprecedented changes. All in- operation with the Association of German in other areas, he believes. Ph oto: Lineair

D+C e-Paper December 2018 4 MONITOR: CONFERENCES AND STUDIES

One question that arises in view of the He feels that it is important to account the way individual people in diff erent needed transformation is what to do about knowledge the confl icting interests of dif- territories live and work. workers losing jobs in the oil and coal indus- ferent groups and to address their needs. Furthermore, the interests of indige- try. Antonio Zambrano Allende of MOCICC, Designing structural change in a fair man- nous communities as well as the unique his- a Peruvian civic movement against climate ner has many dimensions, Zambrano Al- tory of individual regions must be consid- change, sympathises with their protests. lende says. In his opinion, three things are ered. Zambrano argues that it is important “We have to understand the workers,” he essential: “democracy, land and territories”. to think locally and bring diff erent interest says. If change is to be just, it must take into ac- groups to the table.

Global greenhouse gas emis- he announced that his coun- IPCC special report and climate sions would have to be reduced try would withdraw from the much faster than planned. Paris Agreement, following change conference Moreover, carbon would have the example of US President to be removed from the atmos- Donald Trump. Furthermore, phere, for instance by planting Bolsonaro wants to reverse In early October, the Interna- The IPCC report makes new forests. protections for the Amazon tional Panel on Climate Change clear that limiting warming to Climate scientists fi nd it rainforests, which are essen- (IPCC) published a special a maximum of 1.5 degrees Cel- unsettling that the right-wing tial for preserving the global report in preparation for the sius by 2100 is still possible, populist Jair Bolsonaro was climate (see Hans Dembowski upcoming annual UN climate but requires rapid, far-reaching elected Brazil’s new presi- in Debate section on p. 11). summit, which will be held and unprecedented action. dent. During the campaign, (ld/sb) from 3 to 14 December 2018 in Katowice, Poland. The IPCC report is meant to further elabo- rate details of the Paris Agree- ment from 2015. Ninety-one authors from 40 countries contributed to the special report. It compiles sci- entifi c insights into what consequences it will have if global temperatures rise by 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels by 2100. The Paris Agree- ment, which was concluded by 195 countries, defi nes the goals of limiting the trend to two degrees at most, but preferably to 1.5 %. The IPCC was invited to produce the report as part of the Paris Agreement. According to the report, the average global temperature in 2018 was about one degree above pre-industrial levels. The authors therefore argue that any additional warming must be restricted to 0.5 to 1 degree. If, however, the global community continues to emit as much carbon as it currently does, global warming would increase by about 3 de- oto: Florian Kopp/Lineair

grees by the end of the century. The destruction of the brazilian rainforest is advancing. Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 5 MONITOR: CONFERENCES AND STUDIES

SYRIA pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, the episodes add up to one big picture that illustrates the tragedy of Syria’s war. Insights into a war-torn country The book spells out that there can be no victors in this war. No matter on which side people stand, they all lose. It also shows how diverse political forces incrementally Brutal civil strife has been raging in Syria for cal settlement fascinated him. He began to usurped an initially peaceful protest move- eight years, and the international community film the protests and post videos online. As- ment. Nonetheless, it becomes clear that seems to be losing interest. In first-hand sad’s security forces became aware of him none of the country’s main political players reporting, journalist Rania Abouzeid vividly and he underwent the ordeal of prison and are in control anymore. portrays the people affected by the war. torture. The news for Syria stay alarming; Another important person Abouzeid the human-rights situation is depressing. By Dagmar Wolf writes about is Mohammad, who already The big question is whether peace will get opposed the regime before the Arab spring a chance in some kind of reunited Syria. Only in people’s memory and history books started and who basically identifies with According to a recent report issued by Ger- does Syria still exist as a coherent state. In its radical Islam. He spent years in Syrian pris- many’s Foreign Office, the police, security place, there are now several Syrias, argues ons, which have a reputation of torture, forces and secret service in Syria are system- the award-winning Abouzeid, who lives in and became increasingly radical. Abouzeid atically torturing members of the opposi- Beirut. In an attempt to understand the tragedy, her book “No turning back” spells out the views of many different people. It all started in 2011 with peaceful protests, when some youngsters wrote graffiti on walls, but it escalated into war and ultimately dissolved an entire nation. As the author reports, the UN stopped counting victims in 2013 because reliable information proved impossible to get. Experts now estimate that half a million have died, and that half of Syria’s 23 million people have been displaced from their homes. Abouzeid regrets that the western public has lost interest in one of our age’s worst humanitarian and geopolitical dis- asters. The images are too horrific, the scenario is too complex, and an end is not in sight. At the same time, the war has impacts on Syria’s neighboring countries, and even on the EU, where millions of refugees have arrived. For five years, Abouzeid has been traveling to Syria repeatedly. She visited None of the country’s main political players are in control anymore: member of the Syrian the front lines, but she also went to Turkey, Democratic Forces in the ruins of Rakka in 2017. Washington and various places in Europe. In her many conversations with Syrian people, she wanted to find out why the situa- neither spares readers the atrocities he wit- tion and people suspected of supporting it. tion kept getting worse. Her book consists nessed nor the brutal violence he later per- Even women and children are tortured. of moving stories and vivid portraits, it does petrated as a commander of the Al Nusra Abouzeid’s impressive book can con- not offer sanitised coverage from a safe dis- militia. tribute to raising fresh awareness of the tance. All of the book’s episodes have one Syrian drama. Reading “No turning back” Abouzeid tells the story of Suleiman, thing in common: they show how people’s changes one’s perception of the news. It who was a prosperous business man with lives were turned upside down at some calls attention to the people affected. family ties to autocratic President Bashar al- point during the war. In contrast to conven- Assad. He saw no reason to protest and knew tional war reporting, Abouzeid does not tell BOOK the rules of the game. But the courage of the us what she saw and witnessed herself. In- Abouzeid, R., 2018: No turning back: Life, loss oto: Morukc Umnaber/picture-alliance/dpa

activists and the prospect of a lasting politi- stead, she lets people tell their stories. Like and hope in wartime Syria. London: Oneworld. Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 6 MONITOR: CONFERENCES AND STUDIES

BANKING public trust in banks, but it did not change their business models. Most social scientists understand per- Inventing narratives fectly well that markets are driven by human expectations. Economists, by contrast, tend to pretend that markets reveal something akin to the laws of nature. Leins shows that Given that financial markets have a huge ●● Ultimately, financial analysts serve as this is not so. Indeed, perhaps the greatest impact on the world economy, the ethno- animators who stimulate others to invest. challenge financial analysts face is that data graphic research that Stefan Leins did in They therefore need narratives that promise do not speak for themselves. How market a Swiss bank is of great developmental rele good returns, not messages of doom. participants read them varies, and antici- vance. He studied how financial analysts see These insights are not entirely new. pating how others interpret what is going on the world and how they work. Observers of financial markets basically is just as important as understanding the know these things. It is one thing, how underlying economic dynamics. If unrea- By Hans Dembowski ever, to expect a certain profession to tick in sonable expectations are causing a stock- a particular way, and another thing to read market bubble, it may actually be smart to Western scholars developed the meth- an empirical account. keep buying shares nonetheless. Selling ods of ethnographic research to study ex- Leins points out that analysts’ work is them right before the bubble bursts will otic cultures. In recent decades, however, legitimate. In his eyes, “the economy needs bring maximum profits. Rational investors these methods are increasingly applied to narratives because they make the unknowa- will thus follow a collective trend even when understand specific professional commu- ble future accessible”. The financial analysts knowing that the trend is irrational, hoping nities in western societies. Leins, a social do their best to predict the future and cer- to get off at the right moment. Rational be- anthropologist, joined the financial ana- tainly hope that their narratives will work havior can thus compound irrational trends. lysts’ team of a Zürich-based bank to do his research. His recently published book “Stories of capitalism” shows that analysts’ work is highly subjective. They rely on a host of diverse sources of information, including aca- demic studies, company reports, business media, share prices and other stock market information. However, there is no clear hierarchy of exactly what data are essential, and how they are to be interpreted. According to Leins, analysts develop narratives about how they expect specific financial assets to perform. They then support that narrative with data that fits their hypotheses. In Leins’ words, “numbers do not tell stories, numbers are used to enrich previously constructed stories”. Selecting useful facts and figures from various sources is called “data mining”. In several ways, moreover, the narra- Paradeplatz is the centre of Zürich’s financial district. tives financial analysts invent are oppor- tunistic. The most important examples are probably: out well. The point is that this hope is more Economists, who like to construct ●● Analysts tend to shy away from deviat- an issue of faith and intuition than of rigidly models based on the irrational assumption ing too far away from what they perceive as processed data according to some kind of of human behavior being entirely rational, the consensus opinion. This attitude gives stringent methodology. would do well to consider Leins’ work. His them considerable protection. If the advice The subjective nature of analysts’ work book shows that their discipline too is really they give later turns out to be wrong, they helps to explain why the financial crisis on a social science. can always say that everybody got it wrong. Wall Street 10 years ago came as such a sur- ●● Moreover, their narratives normally fit prise. Many observers knew that problems REFERENCE the worldview and expectations of the peo- were brewing up, but they also kept reas- Leins, S., 2018: Stories of capitalism – Inside ple who receive their advice. After all, the suring one another that the problems would the role of financial analysts. Chicago: oto: Della Bella/picture-alliance/KEYSTONE

analyst’s job is to convince these people. somehow be controlled. The crisis shattered University Press. Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 7 MONITOR: CONFERENCES AND STUDIES

PUBLIC FINANCE debt more sustainable. The authors recom- mend reforms in three areas: ●● building the capacity of borrowing African countries at risk countries to manage debt responsibly, ●● enhancing transparency for all parties involved, and ●● developing state-contingent debt in- Public external debt is on the rise again in Policymakers and practitioners need struments (SCDIs) which would link debt sub-Saharan Africa. Almost 40 % of coun- to pay more attention to the changing service to pre-defined macroeconomic vari- tries are in danger of slipping into debt crisis, composition of debt and its accompanying ables, such as GDP growth: in the case of according to a new briefing note by Shakira risks, Mustapha and Prizzon demand. Three a downturn, the debt-service burden would Mustapha and Annalisa Prizzon from the trends matter in particular: thus be reduced automatically. London-based Overseas Development Insti- ●● The share of multilateral and conces- In many sub-Saharan countries, in- tute (ODI). sional debt has declined. For example, sub- stitutional capacity for effective debt man- Saharan multilateral debt has fallen from agement is weak. Shortcomings include By Monika Hellstern 53 % in 2005 to less than 40 % of the region’s the fragmentation of debt management external debt in 2016. One reason is that, responsibilities across several government In the 1990s, most countries in sub-Saharan as countries become middle-income coun- entities, lack of political commitment, high Africa saw debt ratios decline. The reasons tries, they are no longer eligible for multilat- staff turnover in debt management units as were debt relief and economic growth. From eral and bilateral donors’ programmes. well as unreliable debt recording systems the late 1990s on, the Heavily Indebted Poor ●● New bilateral sovereign creditors have and data gaps, according to Mustapha and Countries (HIPC) initiative and the Mul- increased their share in total public external Prizzon. However, improving debt manage- tilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI) re- debt from 15 % in 2007 to 30 % in 2016. For ment is not a panacea and has to be sup- duced low-income countries’ debt burdens. example, Chinese institutions are increas- ported by sound macroeconomic, fiscal and The idea was to free up resources for infra- ingly financing large-scale infrastructure tax policies. structure investments and social spending, projects in the region. These loans may lead Lenders need to promote responsible Mustapha and Prizzon write. to repayment problems if they do not gener- lending too. The authors argue for improv- In the current decade, however, public ate sufficient returns. ing transparency and information-sharing debt and debt-service ratios have been ris- ●● Sub-Saharan countries increasingly among creditors and borrowers. The World ing again. According to the scholars, they raise funds on international capital mar- Bank and the IMF should reach out to are now higher than they were in 2006 when kets. They are thus exposed to risks regard- emerging-market creditors for better coor- the MRDI started. Moreover, ratings by ing volatile exchange rates and interest dination. New approaches such as SCDIs the World Bank and IMF suggest that low- rates. Investor interest may shift too. might also help. income countries are now at high risk of The new finance landscape may ren- debt distress, which occurs when a country der past debt-relief mechanisms obsolete LINK struggles to service its debt. and exposes countries to more financial Mustapha, S., and Prizzon, A., 2018: Africa’s The number of countries at risk in sub- risks (also note Jürgen Zattler in Focus sec- rising debt. How to avoid a new crisis. Saharan Africa has more than doubled from tion of D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2018/08). Both bor- https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/ eight countries in 2013 to 18 in 2018. Eight rowers and lenders could do more to make resource-documents/12491.pdf countries – Chad, Mozambique, Republic of the Congo, São Tomé and Principe, South Sudan, Sudan, The Gambia and Zimbabwe External debt and debt service in sub-Saharan Africa – are already in distress. According to the 100 authors, borrowing is driven by the desire to 2.0 mobilise resources for reaching global goals, implementing national development plans 80 1.5 and turning low-income countries into middle-income ones. The authors caution that even though 60 1.0 borrowing is often seen as necessary for growth, unsustainable debt burdens may (% of GNI) undermine progress. It is unhealthy that 40 0.5 some governments are now pending more Average interest payments on external debt (% of GNI) money on debt servicing than on their edu- Average external debt stocks cation or health sectors. High debt levels 20 0.0 make them less able to attract investors and 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

innovators. Note: excluding SSA high-income economies. Chart: ODI/Mustapha Development Indicators Bank World and Prizzon/World

D+C e-Paper December 2018 8 NOWADAYS D+C correspondents write about daily life in developing countries

She sentenced Isiko to two years in prison Stalking women is for cyber harassment and offensive com- IMPRINT munication and said that this ruling was D+C DEVELOPMENT AND COOPERATION not love “meant to deter men who find it normal Vol. 45, 2018 to harass women.” D+C is the identical twin of the German edition E+Z Internet: www.DandC.eu This did not go down well with D 12 107 ISSN 0721-2178 In a landmark sentence, a court in some men – they verbally abused the D+C Development and Cooperation is funded by Germany´s Federal Uganda sent a man to jail for molesting judge, the MP and other women for Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and commis- a female politician with frequent text “denying” men the “right to express their sioned by ENGAGEMENT GLOBAL. D+C does not serve as a governmental mouthpiece. Our mission is to provide a credible forum messages. The ruling has shocked many love”. To these men, the feelings such of debate, involving governments, civil society, the private sector and men. It set a precedent of harassment of statements trigger do not matter. academia at an international level. D+C is the identical twin of E+Z Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit, the German edition. women having legal consequences. Some comments on social media In November 2017, Sylvia Rwaboo- were appalling: “This honourable mem- ENGAGEMENT GLOBAL gGmbH go, a member of the Ugandan parliament, ber of parliament should be sued. Where Service für Entwicklungsinitiativen Tulpenfeld 7 began to get unsolicited text messages is it written that when one expresses his D-53113 Bonn from 25-year-old Brian Isiko. Her interest, it is tantamount to crime, hence Phone: +49 (0) 2 28 2 07 17-0 Fax: +49 (0) 2 28 2 07 17-150 attempts to block Isiko did not stop him imprisonment? I am annoyed.” Another www.engagement-global.de from expressing “his love”. To Rwaboogo, male member of the public wrote: “What ADVISORY BOARD: it felt like harassment. After she alerted can you expect from such a person if just Thomas Loster, Prof. Dr. Katharina Michaelowa, the police, Isiko was arrested in June a mere 25-year-old boy can cause her to Prof. Dr. Dirk Messner, Petra Pinzler, Hugh Williamson

2018. Even in police custody, he con lose her peace?” PUBLISHER: tinued to send her text messages. Some say that Isiko’s prosecution FAZIT Communication GmbH Executive directors: Peter Hintereder and Hannes Ludwig In court, Rwaboogo broke down and his verdict only came to pass because in tears as she recounted the trauma of the victim was a woman of privilege. ADDRESS OF THE PUBLISHER AND EDITORIAL OFFICE: Frankenallee 71–81, D-60327 Frankfurt am Main, Germany eight months of stalking. The accused, by They have a point. The right to personal contrast, laughed throughout the court space and safety are still a dream to the This is also the legally relevant address of all indicated as responsible or entitled to represent them in this imprint. session. average Ugandan woman. In her verdict, the judge stated that The abuse of women’s rights is per- EDITORIAL TEAM: Dr. Hans Dembowski (chief), Sabine Balk, Katja Dombrowski, in Ugandan society it seemed to be nor- petuated by the very authorities meant Sheila Mysorekar, Eva-Maria Verfürth, Dagmar Wolf (assistant) mal to demean and disrespect women. to protect them, but refuse to enforce Phone: +49 (0) 69 75 01-43 66 Fax: +49 (0) 69 75 01-48 55 policies that would ensure a safe environ- [email protected] ment. Typically, the women are blamed Art direction: Sebastian Schöpsdau for any abuse they experience. Simon Layout: Jan Walter Hofmann Translators: Malcom Bell, Claire Davis Lokodo, Uganda’s minister of ethics, de- manded the arrest of victims of revenge Disclaimer according to § 5,2 Hessian Law on the Freedom and Rights of the Press: The shareholders of the company are porn. Revenge porn means that a former Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung GmbH (40 %) and lover publishes nude pictures and sex Frankfurter Societät GmbH (60 %).

ualised images. Onesmus Twinamasiko, ADVERTISING AND SUBSCRIPTION SERVICE: another politician, advised men to beat FAZIT Communication GmbH c/o InTime Media Services GmbH their wives. PO Box 1363 Male authority figures are not held D-82034 Deisenhofen, Germany UGANDA Phone: +49 (0) 89 8 58 53-8 32 Kampala to account for promoting violence against Fax: +49 (0) 89 8 58 53-6 28 32 women. Therefore, it is logical that Ugan- [email protected]

dan men can’t believe that anyone should PRINTING: be sent to jail for something they all take Westdeutsche Verlags- und Druckerei GmbH Kurhessenstraße 46 for granted: their right to disrespect D-64546 Mörfelden-Walldorf, Germany women. Opinions expressed by authors indicated in bylines do not necessarily reflect the views of ENGAGEMENT GLOBAL, the publisher or the LINDSEY KUKUNDA editor and his team. Provided that they indicate the original source, third parties have the permission to republish in complete or abridged is a writer, editor and versions the manuscripts published by D+C Development and digital-safety trainer, and Cooperaton and E+Z Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit. However, those who do so are requested to send the editorial office two hard also director of the copies and/or the links to the respective webpages. This general civil-society organisation permission does not apply to illustrations, maps and other items with explicitly and separately marked copyright disclaimers. “Not Your Body”. She lives in Kampala,

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D+C e-Paper December 2018 9 Please visit our website www.DandC.eu

X + www.dandc.eu DEBATE: OPINIONS

AUTHORITARIAN TENDENCIES responsibilities, claiming to put the national interest first. Under Bolsonaro’s rule, rainforest de- Destroying global commons struction is set to accelerate fast. As Brazil has about one third of the world’s remaining rainforests, which are important carbon sinks, this is of global relevance. Protecting Internationally, the rise of authoritarian lead- arm themselves. He promises violence, not forests is a crucial element of climate pro- ers is linked to vested interests’ opposition peace. tection. to the necessary transformation to sustaina- Ever since Donald Trump was elected According to Bolsonaro’s misleading ble economies. In the eyes of Jair Bolsonaro, US president two years ago, international message, however, the nation will benefit the right-wing leader who won Brazil’s presi- media pundits have been discussing why from exploiting underground resources be- dential elections, forest protection is an right-wing populists are gaining momen- low the forests or turning them into farm- unnecessary burden. In truth, the earth’s tum. They have mostly neglected how the land. Yes, there will be short-term financial environmental balance depends on his coun- trend is linked to climate change. Global gains – but only because the environmen- try’s rainforest. warming is a huge challenge that the hu- tal costs are not factored in. A rather small manity must rise to, but it means transform- number of people profits from rainforest de- By Hans Dembowski ing economies. To powerful vested interests, struction, and they do not pay for the dam- that is a threat. By denying there is a prob- ages they cause. The damages, however, By coincidence, Bolsonaro won the first lem at all and reversing climate protection, affect everyone else. round of the elections precisely when the In- populist leaders are serving those interests. The populist approach to environ- tergovernmental Panel on Climate Change In the past, both centre-left and mental politics will hurt the nations con- launched its latest report. The consensus of centre-right governments tried to regulate cerned. If the likes of Trump and Bolsonaro the climate scientists is that action on global capitalism in ways that solved the problems have their way, global warming will spin out warming must be taken fast (see Mojib Latif that market dynamics created. That is how of control. Extreme weather will cause ever in D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2018/11, debate). Lead- the welfare state and environmental protec- increasing damages, and failed harvests will lead to dramatic food shortages. The trend is irreversible, moreover, and will become Bolsonaro’s famous worse if certain tipping points are reached campaign gesture (see Dirk Messner in D+C/E+Z e-Paper symbolising guns. 2017/10, focus). Nobody will be safe. Populists claim to be defending the people from elite interests. In truth, they are protecting vested interests. Their policies only provide protection to the privi- leged few and leave everyone else to fend for themselves. They care about cash flows, not human rights. As the global commons are destroyed, social tensions will certainly increase. The cynicism is extreme. As the Washington Post recently reported, the US administration does not want the Environ- mental Protection Agency to regulate car emissions even though it acknowledges that global temperatures are set to rise by four degrees Celsius. Its point is that action is ers like Bolsonaro, however, are not inter- tion emerged (see my editorial in D+C/E+Z meaningless because climate change is hap- ested in scientific evidence. e-Paper 2018/10). Most parties on the cen- pening anyway. As is typical of right-wing populists, tre-left still take this approach, and so are Bolsonaro will most likely take Bolsonaro’s rhetoric is racist, xenophobic some on the centre-right. However, many a similar approach. Aware of climate change and misogynist. He pretends he will re- established conservative parties are either being real, he will probably claim that forest establish an earlier, social order that was being taken over or replaced by post-truth protection is useless. As in the USA, Brazil’s supposedly better and goes on to praise his populists. The new brand of leaders deny institutions may yet restrain the new leader country’s brutal military dictatorship which the problems instead of tackling them. They to some extent by enforcing the laws. Given ended in 1985. He wants to allow the police channel related fears by hounding scape- that Brazil’s democracy is much younger, oto: Faga/picture-alliance/Zuma Press

to kill supposed criminals and citizens to goats. They shy away from environmental they will struggle even harder. Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 11 DEBATE: OPINIONS

DEVELOPMENT INVESTMENT FUND conference in cooperation with the Sub- Saharan Africa Initiative of German Busi- ness (SAFRI). The event attracted a hun- Linking policies on development dred companies. Between them, they plan projects worth an investment volume of € 500 million. The projects will create and trade 13,000 jobs in eleven partner countries of the G20’s Compact with Africa. They are Be- nin, Côte d’Ivoire, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Morocco, Rwanda, Senegal, Togo Germany’s Federal Government has course. Even so, it is absolutely essential. In and Tunisia. Germany’s Federal Ministry announced a Development Investment Fund. 2017, € 36 billion were invested in African for Economic Cooperation and Develop- The new scheme can become an important countries, mostly in Egypt, Ethiopia, Nige- ment (BMZ) supports some of the ventures milestone for realigning cooperation with ria and Morocco. That sum was a mere 2.9 % through its Special Initiative for Training Africa – towards dovetailing aid and trade, of global foreign investment. By contrast, and Employment. increasing private-sector involvement and € 434 billion flowed into Asia. The major And yet German involvement does self-sustaining economic development in corporate investors in Africa are based in not reflect the country’s economic weight. African countries. the US, UK and France as well as in China Smart action could increase the € 1 billion and South Africa. Even firms based in the worth of projects currently in the pipe- By Christoph Kannengießer city-states Singapore and Hong Kong in- line across Africa several fold. For that to vest more in Africa than Germany’s private happen, small and mid-sized enterprises Poor infrastructure is a major obstacle to sector, which still hesitates to engage with (SMEs) need to see Africa as an attractive doing business in African countries – both Africa. A lack of suitable financing options, investment destination. The Development for local and for international enterprises. risk protection and political support are be- Investment Fund could offer the right lev- But infrastructure – for transport, energy moaned by many German companies, espe- erage, making a key contribution to creat- or water, for instance – costs a lot of money. cially small and medium-sized ones. ing more jobs for African youth. Items that It cannot be financed solely from national Many of the thousand German com- have long been on the SME wish list include budgets or official development assistance panies which are active in Africa are actu- accessible and less expensive guarantees (ODA). Private investment is needed for lo- ally very successful. Interest in Europe’s for exports, for project development and for cal economies to grow, livelihoods to be gen- neighbouring continent certainly exists. investments. It is good that governmental erated and people to lead independent lives. At the end of October, the German-African Hermes export-credit guarantees will be- Foreign direct investment does not Business Association (Afrika-Verein der come available for additional countries. To automatically result in more local jobs, of deutschen Wirtschaft) staged an investor better cushion investors’ risks, it equally makes sense to reduce Hermes’ costs and client excesses. It is helpful, moreover, that the Fund will make financing available for smaller projects than in the past. This will not only benefit German companies; Afri- can enterprises will also be able to access capital and grow. Africa needs private-sector involvement to leap out of poverty and become in- tegrated into the global economy. We must support the continent’s catch-up process, harnessing the current momentum. Judi- ciously linking policies on development and foreign trade is the right way forward – for better infrastructure and more investment in African countries.

CHRISTOPH KANNENGIESSER is the chief executive of the German-African Business Association (Afrika-Verein der deutschen Wirtschaft). oto: Jerome Delay/picture-alliance/AP Photo oto: Jerome Delay/picture-alliance/AP

Infrastructure is vital for economic development: electricity pylon in the Sahara. [email protected] Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 12 TRIBUNE: IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS

Kalash women and girls.

MINORITIES Kalash lifestyle and culture are very different from those of neighbouring Mus- lim communities. The Kalash celebrate On the verge of disappearing three festivals in a year. These festivals are celebrated over homemade wine and danc- ing on the sound of drums. They worship several gods and spirits, making offerings The Kalash culture is at risk of extinction. bands, which is otherwise rather unusual in and sacrifices during the festivals. These Today, Pakistan’s smallest ethnic group con- Muslim-majority Pakistan. are also occasions where young women and sists of only about 3,000 people. The Kalash are blue eyed and fair men choose their husbands and wives. skinned, so anthropologists, scientists and Kalash women are not only allowed By Mahwish Gul other authors wonder about their descent. to choose their husbands, but they can The most popular claim is that this unique also divorce them and are even allowed to The Kalash language is classified as be- tribe has Greek roots. After all, Alexan- elope. At the same time, Kalash women are ing severely endangered. An estimated der the Great conquered these lands over burdened with superstitious beliefs. For ex- 3,000 indigenous people who live in in the 2000 years ago, so it seems convincing that ample, menstruating women are said to be mountains of the Hindu Kush speak it. The the Kalash are descendants of his Greek impure and hence to bring bad luck to the language is the most important expression troops. It is also concurred that the tribe family if allowed to wander around. Wom- of a distinct indigenous group that has sur- shows signs, rites, history and possibly the en, during menstruation, are forced to stay vived millennia and is still maintaining its DNA that traces back to the ancient Greeks. in special compartments. All villages have rich and unique form. Another hypothesis, however, is that the them at some distance from the residential The Kalash people have held on to Kalash is an Indo-Aryan tribe and may have quarters. This is among the many traditions their religious beliefs, along with their own arrived much earlier. that make them different from other ethnic identity, way of life and language. Hidden Surrounded by Muslim neighbours on groups in Pakistan. up in the mountains near Pakistan’s border all sides, the Kalash are the smallest ethnic Kalash people also hold a unique with Afghanistan, the Kalash tribe loves group in Pakistan. Estimates vary, but cen- tradition of funeral ceremonies. Death is homemade alcoholic drinks, celebrates and sus data suggest that their number has de- mostly celebrated as a joyous occasion. It dances for days on festivals and worships clined from 10,000 or so in the late 1950s to is believed that it is a union of the soul with oto: Martin Wright/Lineair

a variety of gods. Women choose their hus- merely 3,000 today. the creator. Instead of mourning their dead, Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 13 TRIBU NE: IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS

the Kalash give a farewell to the deceased Many people argue that the Kalash should people are abandoning their traditions, but by paying tributes with singing and beating assimilate. they do not fi nd acceptance in the dominant drums. The dead are given food provisions Their traditions are actually becom- culture. If the course remains unchanged, for their fi nal journey. Their possessions ing extinct fast. One factor is conversions to only what is documented is likely to survive are laid besides them during the ceremony. Islam. This was already happening in colo- of their culture. It is therefore essential to These tributes last for days until the dead is nial times as depicted by Rudyard Kipling record the customs and traditions that have put to his fi nal resting place. In old times, in the short story “The man who would be been passed down orally. This knowledge is the Kalash used to lay the body of the dead king”. Insanity and idol worship fi gure in at risk and must not be lost. in a coffi n anywhere in open, but with time it prominently. The location is Kafi ristan, Civil-society organisations have been they started burying their dead. which means the land of the infi dels. campaigning to get the Kalash culture in- These ceremonies off er a chance to The subject of Kipling’s story were the cluded in UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural display wealth, showing the importance of “red Kafi rs”, who were brutally converted Heritage List. The process was initiated the deceased and his or her family. However, at the end of the 19th century and were then in 2008, but has stalled since. Pakistan’s the funerals of men tend to be more elabo- called Nuristanis, the “enlightened ones.” In government has also been making eff orts rate. Kipling’s time, the Kalash, who live in the to protect and preserve the Kalash cul- same region, were known as the “black Kaf- ture. The authorities worry that it is under TOURIST ATTRACTION irs” because of typical black clothing. There threat rom exploitative tourism, which is have been media reports of forced conver- set to get worse. The constitution ensures This unique and striking culture, though sions and of forced marriages with non- equal rights to minorities and the law is hidden in the mountains, has started at- Kalash people. It is estimated that as many designed to safeguard Kalash customs, tracting an increasing number of tourists. as 100 Kalasha have converted to Islam in which has helped centuries-old practices The Lowari Tunnel is making a big diff er- the past few years. to survive so far. What matters most, how- ence. This vehicular underpass is 10 kilome- Kalash culture is also being eroded ever, is that some Kalash people are deter- tres long and links the districts of Chitral, from within. Young people are adapting to mined to keep their traditions alive – and where the Kalash live, with the district of new and modern ways. Many want to get their resolve seems to be strengthening. Upper Dir. The tunnel was formally inau- a formal education and have professional gurated in 2017. Better road access has led career. Lakshan Bibi was the fi rst from her to an increase in local tourism. Moreover, valley to graduate. She became a commer- mAHWISH GUL modern supplies have become more readily cial airline pilot. Wazir Zada is the fi rst Kala- is from Islamabad and available. The Kalash themselves, however, sha to become member of the Provincial As- studies development hardly benefi t from related business as re- sembly of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, which was management at ruhr spective enterprises are controlled by non- formerly known as the Northwest Frontier University bochum and the Kalash people. Province. University of Western Cape in Cape Town. Her Discrimination against the Kalash Other issues that threaten the unique masters’ programme belongs to AGeP, the runs deep. The 7.5 magnitude quake that Kalash culture include illegal logging and German Association of Post-Graduate struck parts of Northern Afghanistan and land encroachment. This community is Programmes with Special relevance to Pakistan in 2015, for instance, was blamed severely marginalised in economic terms. Developing Countries. on Kalash community’s “immoral ways”. This is another reason why many Kalash [email protected]

three-fourths of the world’s re- dispossession, forced assimi- Endangered languages maining biodiversity. They are lation and other forms of dis- said to provide answers to food crimination are endangering security and climate change. the most fundamental aspects Unique cultures of indigenous a form of identity, cultural his- Their traditional knowledge is of indigenous peoples, includ- peoples are under threat. For tory, and a repository of tradi- considered of immense value ing their identity, language, art, instance, 40 % of the 6,000 or tions and memory, the UN has in preserving ecosystems. In- traditional knowledge and spir- so languages spoken today are declared 2019 The Year of In- deed, they are often considered ituality. endangered and may not sur- digenous Languages. to be stewards of nature. Kalash is one of the 26 vive by the next century, ac- According to the World Their food systems may endangered languages spoken cording to the UN. Since 1950, Bank, there are approximately off er solutions for expanding in Pakistan (see main story). 228 languages have become ex- 370 million indigenous peo- and diversifying the current According to UN categories, tinct. Due to the immense value ples worldwide. While they oc- food base and providing nutri- it is even one of the fi ve most of languages not only as a tool cupy a quarter of the world’s tious food in areas threatened severely endangered Pakistani for communication but also as surface area, they safeguard by climate change. Yet, land languages. (mg)

D+C e-Paper December 2018 14 TRIBUNE: IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS

Transmission lines in Abidjan, Ivory Coast: the Economic Community of West African States and other regional communities are increasingly cooperating on electric-power supply.

WTO vanced economies. There are few reasons why developing countries should support their suggestions. No signs of sweeping reform The proposals concerning dispute settlement include concessions to the US, but also go beyond Washington’s demands. The Trump administration blames the DSB The World Trade Organization (WTO) is in ministration is imposing tariffs on trade for its judicial activism. This refers to a ten- urgent need of reform. But recent proposals partners in defiance of the organisation’s dency of the DSB to overstep its mandate by for institutional changes are limited in scope principles that were designed to safeguard defining rules and obligations that exceed and primarily serve the interests of advanced the multilateral trade system. Moreover, the scope of specific cases. Accordingly, the economies. Developing countries should the US is blocking the nomination of new EU proposes to restrict DSB jurisdiction. But seize this opportunity to promote their own members to the WTO Dispute Settlement the EU also advocates for more resources for ideas on the future of the trade system. Body (DSB). The DSB may thus be largely dispute settlement and an increase in DSB dysfunctional by the end of 2019. staff, which runs counter to the US stance. By Fabian Bohnenberger and Clara With traditional proponents and bene The most far-reaching EU proposals, Weinhardt ficiaries of the WTO system increasingly however, concern changes to the special turning away and the US leading this trend, status that developing countries currently Escalating trade conflicts, like the current the reform debate has become much more enjoy in the WTO, the creation of new WTO fracas between China and the US, have rein- urgent. The EU and Canada recently pro- rules to guarantee a level playing field and vigorated calls for WTO reform. Tempers are posed reforms, but their initiatives mostly the commitment to pursue plurilateral ne- running high: US President Donald Trump represent damage control that would reduce gotiations, which only involve a subset of oto: Legnan Koula/picture-alliance/dpa

has threatened to leave the WTO. His ad- the negative impact of current trends on ad- WTO members. Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 15 TRIBUNE: IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS

The EU is calling for greater differen- The proposals mainly serve the interest of agreed in subgroups – so-called plurilateral tiation among developing countries and, in the established economic powers and would agreements – should be extended to all WTO particular, wants dynamic economies like further restrict the policy space of develop- members, developing countries are often China to lose their flexibilities and exemp- ing countries. Moreover, many developing not part of the negotiations. It is thus un- tions. Two thirds of WTO members – in- countries still refuse to discuss new issues likely that their interests, like reducing rich cluding China – claim special treatment as because their priority remains to secure nations’ agricultural subsidies, will be high developing countries. This exempts them compensation for past concessions; they are on the agenda of these plurilateral negotia- from cutting some tariffs, permits longer thus hesitant to let go of the Doha Round tions or that developing countries will have much say in drafting new rules. Unfortunately, the much-needed re- newal process of the multilateral system is only just beginning. WTO members’ interests diverge fundamentally, and the current reform proposals are not far-reaching enough to bridge these differences. Limit- ing the damage will not suffice; neither will proposals that merely reflect the interests of a minority of the organisation’s members. Developing countries need to high- light the current gap between damage control and modernisation and take advantage of the existing impasse to advance own reform proposals. The deficiencies of the trade system are well known, but mounting conflicts have left member states with a new sense of urgency and willingness to address some of the flaws in the system. A good start could be to assess how the dispute settlement system can be made more accessible for developing countries, which so far have not been using it much. More generally, developing countries need to insist on a signifi cant role in future plurilateral talks. They must ensure that their interests are equally WTO Director-General Roberto Azevedo speaks at a press conference in Beijing in November. represented and the negotiations advance – rather than diminish – the integrity of the multilateral system. transition periods and entitles them to some negotiation agenda. China will pose another financial assistance. A more needs-driven hurdle, as it is unlikely that the country will approach with regular reassessments could agree to further restrict its domestic indus- FABIAN BOHNENBERGER benefit developing countries that face in- trial policies. is a doctoral researcher at creasing competitive pressure from emerg- The changes proposed to date cannot King’s College London ing economies like China. But the proposal fundamentally revamp the WTO. They rep- focusing on multilateral trade is highly controversial because it would resent damage control, slight tweaks that governance. mean the end of member states’ right to do little to address the underlying tensions [email protected] self-declare their development status in the in the system of global trade governance. Twitter: @BohnenbergerF organisation. Many WTO members have in recent years Other EU proposals will face similar opted for bilateral and regional agreements concerns. These address issues such as mar- to avoid complex and time-consuming mul- CLARA WEINHARDT ket-distorting subsidies, state-owned enter- tilateral diplomacy. The EU and the US have is a lecturer in International prises and forced technology transfers. The been driving forces of this trend, fully aware Relations at the Hertie School outdated WTO rules do not address these of its undermining effect on the WTO’s of Governance and a more recent concerns satisfyingly. Again, authority. non-resident fellow at the the proposed reforms primarily target Chi- The current reform proposals hold lit- Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi). na, which, according to the EU, USA and tle appeal for developing countries. While [email protected] oto: Shaver/picture-alliance/newscom

Japan, is deliberately distorting markets. they emphasise that trade liberalisation Twitter: @claraweinhardt Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 16 Drugs policy Illegal drugs are dangerous. They cause ill- nesses, addiction, petty crime and prostitution. Prohibition, however, has not solved the problems. Indeed, things have deteriorated since US President Richard Nixon declared the “war on drugs” 50 years ago. Several countries have therefore begun to pioneer new approaches to regulate the production, distribution and use of Legally harvested cannabis mind-altering substances. One goal is to thwart drying in a warehouse in the lucrative black market which has allowed Pueblo in the US-state of organised crime to thrive. Colorado. oto: Jeffrey Rotman/Lineair Ph DRUGS POLICY

Restart needed

MEXICO Mexico’s illegal drug economy has a huge to get a grip on the problem. He led the right- Mexico City impact both on domestic affairs and interna- wing Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) and was tional relations. The criminal cartels control the first president in seven decades who did entire areas, and their influence is felt far not belong to the Partido Revolucionario In- away in the USA. Tens of thousands of peo- stitucional (PRI). Fox created the Federal In- ple have died in the bloody war on drugs that vestigation Agency (AFI), copying the model Mexican governments have been waging. of the FBI in the USA. He also established After two consecutive PAN govern- People now hope that Andrés Manuel López the Secretariat for Public Security, which is ments did not end drug-cartel violence, Obrador, the new president, will usher in the a ministry of the federal government and the PRI returned to power. Voters trusted peaceful change he promised during the has the mission to coordinate policy meas- it to have the experience and competence election campaign. ures. The new institutions, however, did not to negotiate with criminal groups and re- succeed in uprooting the criminal cartels. store peace. That was not what happened By Virginia Mercado Like Fox, Felipe Calderón Hinojosa, however. Though Enrique Peña Nieto, who who became president in 2006, belongs to became president in 2012, promised a new One person is killed in Mexico roughly eve- the PAN. He took a much tougher approach. approach in the fight against organised ry 15 minutes, and violence has been get- He decided to confront the gangs head on. crime, he largely stuck to his predecessor’s ting worse ever since the war on drugs was At the time, the cartels were battling one law-enforcement strategy. He had to admit launched in 2006. So far, some 240,000 another in an extremely violent manner, defeat in April this year, shortly before the people have died, according to people close trying to get hold of specific regions. Cal- most recent municipal, regional and presi- to the president, who is commonly known derón declared the war on drugs soon after dential elections. as AMLO. 2017 was the year with the most assuming office, but it did not deliver the Once more, peace was the main cam- dead, and the number for 2018 will certainly desired results, and the failure revealed se- paign issue. Frustrated, angry and hurt, set yet another record. In August this year, rious problems within the security forces. the people chose AMLO to be the coun- the worst affected Mexican states were Gua- Corruption figured prominently. It became try’s next top leader. He ran for the party najuato and the State of Mexico in the coun- obvious, moreover, that some officers of the Morena – the acronym stands for Movi try’s centre, Baja California in the west and institutions which are supposed to fight or- miento de Regeneración Nacional (see my Chihuahua in the north. It is hard to tell how ganised crime are actually cooperating with comment in D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2018/06, many deaths were directly related to the the gangsters. opinion section). fight against drug cartels, but it is obvious that violence has escalated after the government started the war on drugs in 2006. The goal was to regain control of the areas where organised crime holds sway. Major successes included arresting some leaders of powerful cartels. However, their power has not diminished. The cartels simply reorganised. All too often, the gangsters have more and better weapons than the security forces. They mostly get the guns in the USA and use them without restraint. The policies of the past three presidents were drafted and implemented under considerable pressure from the USA. Washington wants Mexico to stop drugs trafficking across the border. According to a bi-national study prepared on behalf of the Mexican and US governments in 2010, Mexican cartels make an annual $ 19 billion to $ 29 billion in the USA. Vicente Fox, who was in office in Mexi Joaquín “El Chapo” Guzmán being arrested for the second time in 2014. The head of the Sinaloa oto: Jazmín Adrián/picture-alliance/Demotix

co from 2000 to 2006, took initial measures cartel managed to escape from prison twice, but was extradited to the USA in 2017. Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 18 DRUGS POLICY

AMLO took offi ce on 1 December, capacities to handle the situation alone. The recommendations, he announced several shortly after this e-Paper was fi nalised. He statement triggered a big wave of criticism. political principles for dealing with the se- is a harsh of his predecessors and wants to curity issues a few days later: restore peace by abolishing corruption. He NEW PERSPECTIVES ● First of all, the president-elect pointed also intends to call the soldiers back to the out that past approaches failed because they barracks, arguing that they should not be Soon after he had triumphed in the elec- were based on misunderstanding the core doing the police’s job. On the other hand, tions, AMLO established a council on peace problem. According to AMLO, the underly- he admitted that the police do not have the building and reconciliation. Based on its ing issue is Mexico’s great social disparities

spread and impunity has be- have any offi cers. Compound- Missing people come the norm. ing the problems, some units Internal displacement are secretly cooperating with is another serious issue, but it drug cartels, which are fi ghting To date, the results of Mexico’s registered mass graves has ris- does not get much public atten- one another. Offi cers’ chances war on drugs have been dev- en to 1,307. Some of the corpses tion. In 2016, Mexico’s National of survival often depend on astating. As Human Rights could be identifi ed, but many Human Rights Commission picking the winning side in Watch, the international non- others remain anonymous. The registered 90,000 displaced a gang war. Moreover, the car- governmental organisation, endless search continues. people who fl ed violence. Ac- tels have the fi nancial clout to stated in a country report in Human Rights Watch cording to other sources, more bribe offi cers. Tom Wainwright, 2018, 32,000 persons disap- points out, moreover, that there than 300,000 people were in- a former Mexico correspondent peared from 2006 to 2017. were extra-judicial killings and ternally displaced in the years for The Economist, has thor- Organisations of victims and that security forces have been 2009 to 2017. oughly assessed these matters their families, however, reckon in his book “Narconomics” (for that the number is even above a review, see p. 38 in this edi- 35,000. In many cases, offi cial tion). security forces were involved in In any case, it is well un- forced disappearances, but so derstood that the security forc- far, only 12 persons have been es themselves often infringe on taken to court and convicted in human rights, act arbitrarily related cases. and make mistakes that lead to It was the kidnapping of the death of innocent people. 43 students from Ayotzinapa in Their reputation has suff ered September 2014 that attracted considerably in recent years. the most international atten- Whether it can be restored is tion. What fate befell them is an open question. It is telling still unclear. Authorities claim that people are unsure how to that their bodies were burned, interpret a statement made by but the relatives of the victims Joaquín “El Chapo” Guzmán, have ample reason not to trust a prominent cartel boss who is this supposed “historic truth”. on trial in New York. He said The kidnapped students were that Felipe Calderón Hinojosa never found. Commemorating victims of mexico’s war on drugs. and Enrique Peña Nieto, the Given that state agencies previous two presidents, took largely stayed inactive, the or- huge bribes. El Chapo may be ganisations of the relatives of increasingly abusing their pow- So far, there has been lit- lying, of course, but can anyone other missing persons have ers. In a survey, 58 % of prison tle progress. Police offi cers are really be sure? (vm) started a painful journey across inmates said they were tor- poorly trained and not paid the country. People dig with tured. The human-rights situa- well. They lack security equip- reFereNCe their own hands, hoping to fi nd tion has deteriorated in general. ment and weapons. Their per- Human rights Watch, 2018: a clue that might lead them to Extortion, human traf- sonal safety and the safety of Country report mexico (in english remains of the person they are fi cking and slavery are part of their family depends on not in- and Spanish). looking for. So far, they have the drug cartels’ operations. terfering in cartel activity. The https://www.hrw.org/world- discovered several mass graves, Journalists and policymakers dangers are real. In some vil- report/2018/country-chapters/ oto: picture-alliance/AP Photo oto: picture-alliance/AP

and the number of offi cially are at risk. Corruption is wide- lages, the police simply do not mexico Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 19 DRUGS POLICY

which previous governments’ economic National Guard, which is to be trained by As future cabinet member in charge policies did not reduce. In his eyes, this is- the army, but many people would prefer not of domestic affairs, Olga Sánchez Cordero sue never got the attention required. to have the military involved at all. announced in autumn a reform that could ●● AMLO promised not to use arms to ●● He announced he would free political be approved by mid-2019 to regulate the suppress the people. This statement was an prisoners, and a broad-based public debate production and consumption of cannabis, implicit criticism of his predecessors’ reli- erupted immediately. Proponents of the am- though it would not permit the commercial- ance on the military, and it resonated wide- nesty say that activists and members of the isation of this drug. ly. He plans to create a new, better prepared opposition deserve justice after having be- During the election campaign, the ing falsely sentenced to prison. Opponents, Morena party, cast itself as Mexico’s hope. however worry that AMLO’s stance may Now people’s expectations are very high. compound problems of impunity. They want to see results fast. AMLO’s op- HEAVILY INDEBTED POOR ●● Another new approach is to pay more ponents, however, will try to use any little COUNTRIES attention to the victims of violent crime. One mistake he might make to regain power. implication can be punishing state-agency The new government now has considera- Correction: In our focus section officers who were involved in crimes. ble – but not unconditional – political cap- on the history of structural adjust- ●● AMLO also wants to revisit two previ- ital. ments (e-Paper 2018/08, print issue ously taken strategies. The first is to train 2018/09-10), we falsely stated that the police and other security forces with HIPC stands for „highly indebted a focus on human rights and peace. The sec- VIRGINIA MERCADO poor countries”. In truth, it stands ond is compensating victims of crime. is a scholar at the for “heaviliy indebted poor coun- ●● He wants to establish a permanent advi- Universidad Autónoma del tries”. The mistake was made in the sory council to tackle issues relevant to peace. Estado de México (UAEM) editing process. We apologise to our ●● Finally, reform is being considered in and teaches peace and readers as well as our contributors. regard to Mexico’s drugs policy, which has development studies. been extremely restrictive so far. [email protected]

costs slightly more than six dollars. Regis- Legal distribution tered citizens can buy up to 40 grammes per month. There have been cases of farmers being prosecuted illegally by the police for growing cannabis in the interior of the coun- Uruguay was the first country in the world to agent, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC try. The farmers had actually complied with legalise the cultivation and consumption of content varies between two to 20 %. The dif- the law. marihuana. Pessimists predicted a rise in ference between psychoactive and medical In the past year, the government ran drug addiction and crimes, but that did not cannabis is defined by the THC content. a campaign for “prevention and sensitisa- happen. Uruguay now has four years of Since the drug was legalised in Uru- experience with a legalised drug. guay, the production for personal use and the establishment of cannabis clubs were By Sebastián Artigas successful. Distribution via pharmacies has remained sluggish. The main reason is the In 2014, the parliament of Uruguay legalised boycott by big international banks. They cannabis. There now are three legal ways for threaten to sanction pharmacies that sell the purchase and consumption: cannabis. For instance, they might close the URUGUAY ●● You can buy cannabis in pharmacies, accounts of pharmacies concerned. Accord- if you are a citizen of Uruguay and register ingly, pharmacy chains are reluctant to be- as a user, come involved in the cannabis market, and ●● you can grow it yourself for your per- this distribution system is not selling much. Montevideo sonal use, or Otherwise, the regulated market would ●● you can consume it in special clubs. most likely be growing faster. Cannabis is mostly used in one of two Moreover, the authorities delayed forms: as pressed resin (hashish) or dried the implementation of the law. Only since herbs (marihuana). The psychoactive effect July 2017 it is possible to buy marihuana in depends on the concentration of the active small packages of five grammes. A package

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tion” regarding the use of cannabis. Diego Olivera, secretary of the national drug commission, told the press that awareness raising was “necessary and mandatory by law”.

COMPANIES AND CLIENTS

For several purposes, the state grants li- cences to grow cannabis. Recreational use is one of them. So far, two companies have been registered in this context: Simbiosys and International Cannabis Corporation. Moreover, the company Fotmer has at- tained a licence to produce an annual ten tons for scientific use. Medicplast has a licence for medical cannabis and has registered ten additional companies for hemp cultivation. The companies for medical cannabis have founded an association, the Cámara de empresas de cannabis medicinal (CECAM), with more than 10 members. They are planning or implementing investments worth $ 100 million. By the end of October 2018, Uruguay’s regulatory body IRCCA (Institute for Regula- Marihuana smokers in Montevideo, Uruguay. tion and Control of Cannabis) had registered 29,386 buyers (eligible for purchases in pharmacies), 6,863 cannabis growers, 109 clubs THE VIEW OF THE DRUG USERS The government is run by the alliance and 17 pharmacies (of 1,100 in total in the Frente Amplio. It took the legalisation deci- country), which sell psychoactive cannabis. Hernán lives in Montevideo and has been sion and is now contemplating how to use Pharmacies sold 1,200 kilos of psychoactive consuming cannabis for recreational pur- the topic in the next election campaign. For cannabis since they started distributing the poses for years, even when doing so was instance, it could propose modifications of drug in 2017, according to the IRCCA. still illegal. Since legalisation, it has become existing regulations. Many regions of the Monitor Cannabis, a scholars’ plat- “easier to smoke marihuana,” he recounts. country are still under-supplied, because form, reckons that the actual demand in “We always used to be on guard so the police not enough pharmacies are selling marihua- Uruguay is much higher, since the national wouldn’t catch us.” Now he is more relaxed, na. The bank boycott is a lasting challenge. drug commission estimates that more than Hernán says, and it is easier to purchase the The legal market is not expanding as fast 160,000 people in the country consume drug. “Only the long queues in the pharma- as the government would like. Diego Ferrer marihuana. That would imply that the le- cies get on my nerves. There are simply not from the party alliance Frente Amplio con- gal market share amounts to no more than enough pharmacies that sell marihuana. But cludes: “One of the objectives of this law was 20 %; with the rest being black market. The you can also order it via WhatsApp or online.” that the consumers shouldn’t be forced to comment of Diego Olivera of the national On the other hand, many consum- buy their marihuana illegally. Unfortunate- drug commission is: “The numbers are ers maintain that the marihuana from the ly, we have not achieved this goal.” good enough for a first stage, but they are pharmacies is “nothing much”. They prefer The people, however, have accept- not sufficient if we consider the total de- to smoke it in the cannabis clubs, where the ed legalisation and embrace it. It has not mand.” quality of the product is said to be much brought any disadvantages. Consumers, The IRCCA has published further in- better. The fact that the state now regulates cannabis farmers and pharmacies see lots of formation regarding the registered cannabis not only the sale, but also the quality and advantages. buyers: 49 % are between 18 and 29 years potency of marihuana, irritates many drug old, 34 % are between 30 and 44 years old, consumers. “We are not getting the world’s SEBASTIÁN ARTIGAS and 17 % are older than 45 years. Seventy best marihuana of the world, although that is postgraduate student of percent of the cannabis buyers are male, and would be possible,” says Hernán. “The state philosophy and psychology at 35 % have a university degree. Of the people keeps a close check on how much THC is the Universidad de la who grow cannabis for their personal use, contained in the stuff that you get in the República in Montevideo, roughly 70 % live up-country and the rest in pharmacy.” He says black-market dope used Uruguay. oto: picture-alliance/AP Photo oto: picture-alliance/AP

the capital Montevideo. to be stronger. [email protected] Ph

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Coca harvest in Putumayo.

of links to the drug trade. That is nearly “Drugs are in our country’s DNA” three arrests a day. Colombia produces two of the world’s major stimulants: coffee and cocaine. Coffee is legal and internationally appreciated, but cocaine is illegal and a major source of conflict. The war on drugs appears to have failed in Drugs have been an everyday topic here for Colombia. Despite billions being spent on more than 40 years. The marihuana mar- Why has the war on drugs not been suc- it, the drug trade is flourishing.B oth domes- ket emerged in the 1960s, the cocaine mar- cessful – despite the billions spent on it and tic consumption and the amount of land ket took off in the ’70s and ’80s, and heroin the military aid and support provided by the used for coca cultivation are increasing. came along later. Colombia is the world’s USA? Julian Quintero and his civil-society organi- biggest producer of psychoactive drugs. Because it was based on a fantasy. For two sation Acción Técnica Social (ATS) are in Drugs are in our country’s DNA. decades, our governments have acted as if favour of an alternative drugs policy – one the drug trade could be eradicated. No one that educates users rather than criminalis- That sounds extreme. would admit that this was an unachievable ing them. The truth is that drugs and the drug trade goal. That would have meant they’d spent permeate all levels of our society – from the all that time peddling pie in the sky. Julian Quintero interviewed by Julia poorest rural farmers through the middle Jaroschewski and Sonja Peteranderl class to the highest ranks of the political and What impact have the peace negotiations military establishment. More than 900 po- with the FARC militia had on the drug oto: Fernando Vergara/picture-alliance/AP Photo Vergara/picture-alliance/AP oto: Fernando

What impact do drugs have on Colombia? lice officers were arrested last year because trade? Ph

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Coca is still being grown. Attempts have – and we are able to identify trends in the il- been made to paint rosy pictures. President legal market. Our relationship with the po- Juan Manuel Santos was awarded the Nobel lice is good. Thanks to the information we Peace Prize for ending the civil war with the provide, they warn people when dangerous FARC. But in June 2018 he was replaced by substances are in circulation. Iván Duque, a conservative leader who is op- COLOMBIA Bogotá posed to the peace deal. Whether EU or US Is the quality of Colombian cocaine as high financial support continues to flow has now as is often claimed? become his problem. Much was invested in There is luxury cocaine, and there is regular recent times to solve the coca-growing is- cocaine, which can be bought on the streets. sue. Farmers were given incentives to switch A gramme of street cocaine may cost the from coca to coffee or other crops. But the equivalent of around two dollars. Luxury budget was too tight, and there is no other cocaine is five to six times more expensive. product in such lucrative demand as the raw is protecting users’ health, and the second Cocaine prices in Colombia are lower than material for cocaine production. is depriving organised crime of a part of its anywhere else in the world. Cocaine from highly profitable business. Both are being a street dealer is often of poor quality. It is So drug cultivation remains farmers’ first achieved. In the 1930s, we saw the legalisa- generally cut with at least four other sub- choice? tion of alcohol, and in recent years it is hap- stances. Caffeine is almost always added. Li- The climate of our country is ideal for grow- pening with cannabis. Since cannabis was docaine, xylocaine, levamisole and paracet- ing coca. What is more, many people are legalised in the US State of Colorado, all amol as well as simple glucose powder are driven into the drug business by poverty problem indicators there have gone down, also common. The actual cocaine content and hopelessness. Rural infrastructure is while state revenues have gone up. Various of a street deal may be 50 %, but it is some- bad, and educational opportunities are few European countries and Canada are trialling times even less than 15 %. The highest-qual- and far between. Drug gangs exploit the schemes for dispensing heroin to addicts ity cocaine we have found was 98 % pure. situation. Sadly, the government relies on under state control – by prescription for force rather than social inclusion. Corrup- example. Sterile syringes are provided, and Iván Duque, the new president, is a con- tion is widespread; the cartels have a lot of rooms are made available so that the drug servative hardliner. What will that mean for money. Colombian cocaine is consumed by is used in a safe environment. The schemes drug policy? an estimated 20 million people worldwide, are delivering good results, and ATS is copy- Iván Duque fought an election campaign and demand is still strong in consumer ing them in Colombia. The black market that rejected a progressive approach to countries like the US. Therefore, coca culti- cannot be eradicated completely, but can be drugs. He is against state regulation of can- vation is economically rewarding. radically restricted. nabis, whether for medicinal or recreational purposes. He also opposes the harm-reduc- What is the answer? Is there any short-term measure that can tion approach. He wants to go back to using The policy pursued so far has not been suc- reduce the harm done by drugs? glyphosate to destroy coca crops. However, cessful, so new approaches are required. We were the first in Latin America to offer it is not obvious yet what promises he will Our projects at Acción Técnica Social (ATS) on-site drug-testing at rock festivals. We tell keep and what he will actually do. To win emphasise education and harm reduction. people what effect drugs have, and we ana- the election, he had to forge lots of alliances, We are actually working on a study looking lyse the substances they give us. They can make complex commitments and conclude at ways of regulating the cocaine market by then decide for themselves whether they opaque agreements. The global trend in 2034. That would give the state control over want to take them or not. Festival organis- drug policy points in the other direction. production, transport, distribution and con- ers hire us because they want to reduce the I hope that formal channels for dialogue will sumption – which it currently leaves to the health risks. The services we provide are be created and that discussion will be based gangs and cartels. In a regulated market, coca cheaper than keeping four ambulances and on evidence. farmers could operate legally, intermediaries five doctors on standby and still anticipat- could be eliminated and coca cultivation and ing fatalities. the quality of cocaine could be better con- JULIAN QUINTERO trolled. The conditions for the legal purchase Quality-testing of illegal drugs – why do the is the executive director of of cocaine – who can buy how much – would authorities permit you to do that? Acción Técnica Social (ATS), have to be politically negotiated. We have actually had government support a civil-society organisation since we started. This project was part of the that promotes an alternative Drugs are dangerous – why would regula- 2007 national drug strategy. Our model is drugs policy in Colombia. tion be better than prohibition? based on users’ faith in us. They tell us what [email protected] It is interesting to see that various countries they have bought, and we give them infor- around the world are moving towards regu- mation what impact it may have on their Julia Jaroschewski’s and Sonja Peteranderl’s lating drug markets in order to reduce harm. health. We have analysed more than 4,200 research in Colombia was supported by the There are two dimensions to this. The first samples – mostly ecstasy, LSD and cocaine European Journalism Centre (EJC).

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won’t find coca leaves either, but crack co- “Prohibition empowers gangs” caine can easily be purchased on street cor- ners. Prohibition tilts the market towards the riskiest drugs, but does not eliminate them.

The Bristol based Transform Drugs Policy the kind that multinational corporations That is basically the same with alcohol, Foundation wants governments to change are required to do. We know, however, that which is prohibited in various predominant- their approach. In its eyes, prohibition is the biggest profits are made in the advanced ly Muslim countries. In those places, there counter-productive. As Steve Rolles of Trans- economies where most drugs are being con- tends to be a keen illegal interest in high- form told D+C/E+Z, the goal must be to sumed. We also know that profits mostly percentage whisky, but low-percentage reduce health hazards. accrue to the top-tier gangsters who largely beer is hardly an issue. live in safety and are only very rarely taken Exactly, and things were similar when alco- Steve Rolles interviewed by Hans to court. They benefit from money launder- hol was prohibited in the USA in the 1920s. Dembowski ing and tax havens. The farmers in the pro- Under criminal control the market shifted duction countries and low-ranking actors in to potent, but profitable spirits. When the The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) the criminal hierarchy live precarious lives. ban was lifted, most consumers switched does not enjoy undisputed appreciation. According to the UNODC, total global turn back to drinking beer and wine. Consumers What’s wrong with it? over generated with illegal drugs is probably will often actually prefer milder drug varie- Well, the fundamental problem is that it is between $ 300 billion and $ 400 billion an- ties if they can get them. This is one reason an office on drugs and crime rather than one nually. – though not the only one – why prohibition on drugs and health. Alcohol and tobacco is destructive. It makes more sense to legally are potentially harmful and addictive drugs Let’s put that in proportion: the global turno- regulate drugs than to ban them entirely. If too, but in the UN context, the World Health ver of German car makers was about $ 450 you apply a higher tax rate to drinks with Organization (WHO) takes care of alcohol billion in 2016. Unlike selling cars, however, higher alcohol content, for example, that is and tobacco policy. Its focus is on reducing selling drugs is illegal. What impact does an incentive to stay away from the more po- health hazards, and it is quite successful. By that have on supply? tent drinks. If governments apply regulatory contrast, the focus of the UNODC, which is It’s a very risky business, so the criminals tools responsibly, they can encourage safer essentially a crime and enforcement agency, naturally gravitate towards the most profit- use of safer products. Prohibition does the is on eliminating illegal drugs like opiates, able preparations, which also are the most exact opposite. cocaine, cannabis and various synthetic potent and most dangerous. It is not diffi- drugs. It’s a fundamental classification er- cult to buy heroin in London, but it is im- But doesn’t it protect people from using ror, and things are not going well. possible to get opium tea, for example. You drugs in the first place? Alcohol consump-

Is there any progress on that front at all? No, there isn’t. The last time that the UN drug control institutions declared that the goal was to rid the world of illegal drugs was ten years ago, and that was supposed to be achieved within a decade. The truth, however, is that the production of opium poppies has roughly doubled in those years, and coca cultivation has increased by about a third. There are no figures on global cannabis production, but it is assumed that it has risen, alongside rising use. Indeed, we are moving ever farther away from the stated goal of a “drug-free world”. At Transform, we think it is time to admit that the goal is a delusional and potentially harmful fantasy.

Do you have any financial figures concerning the size of the global black market? It is impossible to get an accurate, up-to- date picture. After all, organised crime oto: Woods/picture-alliance/AP Photo oto: Woods/picture-alliance/AP

groups don’t publish quarterly reports of Shop counter in Winnipeg: cannabis is legal in Canada, but products man not be branded. Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 24 DRUGS POLICY

tion is forbidden in Saudi Arabia, and Sau- cently, Canada have done so. More countries evant UN treaties – some having been draft- dis certainly drink much less alcohol than are set to follow. The drugs we are discuss- ed in the 40s and 50s – reflect the political Germans. ing here are very different, and responsible priorities of rich-nation governments of the Yes, but what does that tell us? The evidence regulation has to take account of all these time. The world has changed in social, cul- suggests that prohibition can sometimes differences. On the other hand, none of tural and political terms since then. Drug work so long as demand for a certain drug them should be promoted as tobacco was in demand has expanded dramatically. But the has not yet been established. Once that has the past and alcohol sometimes still is. Ad- policy foundations of the global response happened, however, prohibition basically vertising, branding and marketing should have not evolved. Today, attempts to eradi- means that control of the market is surren- be restricted. Commercial entities want to cate drugs are undermining security, endan- dered to organised crime, and even extreme maximise profits, but the goal of responsible gering human rights, fuelling sickness and repression hardly keeps a check on it. It is policymakers should be to minimise harm death, and making it impossible to achieve well known that drugs are widely available and maximise benefits for people who use the Sustainable Development Goals in much in high- security prisons. What makes a big drugs, the communities they live in and the of the world. It is a strange situation. The difference, however, is the social and cul- markets that service them. Prohibition does UN agencies that deal with human rights, tural context. In line with religious norms, not serve that goal, but regulation guided by health and development are based in Gene- for example, alcohol consumption is gener- public health science can do so. va, and they speak about the systemic fail- ally much lower in predominantly Muslim ings of drug policy. But they are historically countries. How do you assess the side effects that disconnected from UN drug agencies, which prohibition has in terms of governance? are based in Vienna and have a bunker men- Can governments use intelligent regulation First of all, it empowers and enriches organ- tality. It is clear that major institutional to promote healthier attitudes to drugs? ised crime, in turn fuelling corruption and reform is needed. The outdated and mal- Yes, consider tobacco, for example. Even as violence. At the extremes, such groups can functioning UN drug policy must evolve, al- illegal drug use has been rising, smoking undermine the security and viability of the lowing member states to explore options for has become much less popular in Europe state itself. One example is Guinea-Bissau regulated markets. The WHO should be put and North America in the past three dec- in West Africa. This fragile state has be- in charge of drugs with a mandate to deal ades. Awareness raising, mandatory health come an important transit country for Latin with them the way it deals with alcohol and warnings, restriction of advertising, plain American cocaine on its way to Europe, and tobacco. Drugs are primarily a public health packaging, smoking bans in public places, the situation has rapidly deteriorated. Bet- issue and should be dealt with as such. taxation and other measures have made the ter known examples are Afghanistan, Co- difference. Society may have de-normalised lombia and Mexico. In these countries, the What difference does it make that Uruguay, smoking to some extent, but tobacco smok- drugs economy is undermining institutions Canada and several US states have legal- ers and vendors are not criminalised. and fuelling endemic violence. Peacebuild- ised cannabis? ing and economic development have be- It basically shows that change is possi- But you certainly don’t want to make crack come extremely difficult. International aid ble and, increasingly, inevitable. The path cocaine or heroin available in supermarkets organisations have been trying to promote ahead certainly remains very challenging. as cigarettes are in the EU? alternatives to the drugs economy, such as Governments are reluctant to admit failure No, there needs to be a graded approach to cultivating vegetables or fruit instead of after decades of populist “drug war” pos- regulating drugs – there is no one-size-fits- coca, for instance. Even when effective lo- turing. After so much fear-mongering, the all solution. Stricter regulation is needed for cally, such approaches tend to fail, as the concept of legalising and regulating drugs more risky drugs, and some preparations cartels can easily source the commodities seems counterintuitive. The truth, nonethe- should not ever be made legally available. elsewhere. The viable alternative to illegal less, is that the war on drugs has been a dis- For example, crack cocaine would still be drug crops may be appropriately regulated aster and that regulation is a much better al- prohibited, while cocaine powder might be legal drug crops. We must take into account ternative for everyone involved – apart from available to registered users on a rationed the wellbeing of millions of marginalised organised crime, of course. basis from pharmacies, and lower potency people whose livelihoods depend on what coca-based energy drinks or coca leaves are illegal drugs today. could be sold in specialty shops. In a similar STEVE ROLLES fashion, doctors could prescribe heroin to Has the war on drugs succeeded anywhere? is a senior policy advisor at people with long-term dependencies, as is No, it has not, and certainly not in the sense the Bristol-based Transform already being done successfully in Switzer- of making any country free of drugs. Drug Policy Foundation, an land and the UK. Less risky opium smoking independent think tank and might be permitted in licensed, member- In view of the lack of success, it seems advocacy-organisation. He has contributed to ship-based clubs. Cannabis, the most wide- odd that the international community is still the work of the Global Commission on Drug ly used illegal drug, is not harmless, but we largely sticking to this approach. Why is that Policy (see Eleonore von Bothmer in D+C/E+Z now have working models of how to make so? e-Paper 2018/11, monitor section). it legally available. The Netherlands, Spain, Part of the problem is that the prohibition twitter: @stevetransform several US states, Uruguay, and most re- strategy was adopted in the 1960s. The rel- https://www.tdpf.org.uk/

D+C e-Paper December 2018 25 Join us on Facebook!

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of purity, the higher the price for a gramme A sad record of heroin. UP TO A THIRD OF THE ECONOMIC OUTPUT

In Afghanistan, the drug sector has been In Afghanistan, the production and trade of the drug market responds to supply and de- estimated to be worth between $ 4.1 bil- illegal drugs are an important industry. mand. If supply is abundant, prices drop. lion and $ 6.6 billion, which would amount Almost 85 % of the villages in the country’s In order to put a check on volatility, supply to about 20 % to 32 % of the country’s gross south cultivate opium poppies. The drug needs to be limited. domestic product in 2017. One year earlier, economy provides a regular and somewhat Smuggling cartels and distributors the share was a mere seven percent. In 2017, reliable income to rural people in this thus keep opium in reserve in hidden stor- about 354,000 people were working full- extremely unstable country. Yield fluctua- age facilities, creating artificial shortages. time in the drug business, which also em- tions have more to do with the weather than According to estimates, the total amount ployed many part-timers and occasional with policy measures. of opium in storage is somewhere between workers. 10,000 and 15,000 tonnes. Because opium The difference in profits between By Janet Kursawe does not spoil, smuggling networks are free opium cultivation and the cultivation of le- to manipulate supply at any time. Moreover, gal crops like wheat, rice, corn or tomatoes For over 25 years, Afghanistan has been the new substances with different combinations has decreased significantly. Nevertheless, world’s main cultivation area of opium pop- of opiates are constantly being developed in farmers stick to growing opium because pies and the primary supplier of opium, hero order to stimulate demand. they expect prices to stay stable. Money can in, morphine and other opiates. In the past Because of the record harvest of 2017, be earned not only through cultivation and year, the country’s total cultivation area for experts estimate that approximately 7,600 harvesting. There are also jobs in the trans- opium poppies grew by 63 % to 328,000 hec- to 7,900 tonnes of opium can currently be port, trade and chemical processing of opi- tares, thereby achieving a new record. The processed into heroin, so a record amount ates. southern provinces of Kandahar, Uruzgan could soon flood the global drug market. Agriculture dominates Afghanistan’s and Helmand are the centres of production. The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) rural areas with weak infrastructure, and Figures concerning cultivation and believes that about 550 to 900 tonnes of a considerable share of the people depends production vary from year to year, but that heroin with a very high purity of 50 to 70 % on poppy cultivation and drug production. has less to do with targeted political in- will be available globally this year. However, In the western and northern regions, pop- terventions in the drug sector than with prices are expected to be high. Especially pies are cultivated in about a third of all occasionally unfavourable weather. Trade in the lucrative western European markets, villages, in the west in over half, and in the dynamics matter too. As every free market, the rule of thumb is: the higher the degree south in almost 85 %. Drug cultivation pro-

Afghan farmers harvesting opium. oto: Rahmat Gul/picture-alliance/AP Photo oto: Rahmat Gul/picture-alliance/AP Ph

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vides not only farmers with secure incomes, It has therefore been assumed that the drug but also many day labourers, migrant work- economy serves primarily to fund their op- ers and former refugees returning from erations. This interpretation is most superfi - neighbouring Iran and Pakistan, for exam- cial, however, and ignores the complexity of ple. AFGHANISTAN the national and regional drug trade. The country’s security situation re- Yes, the Taliban and other insurgents Kabul mains volatile, and that boosts the drug do indeed profi t, but there are many other economy too. In past decades, the illegal benefi ciaries. They include regional militia business has become professionally organ- leaders, mullahs and village headmen, all ised. It is now largely immune to any law- the way up to high-ranking offi cials in the enforcement eff orts. Such eff orts have not central and provincial governments. They been made systematically, moreover. The rake in drug revenues, for example, by col- policy of intentionally including former lecting protection money and tariff s. warlords in the new governance system by measures such as arrests, the destruction of Even more drug profi ts, however, ac- granting them positions of power has al- fi elds, investigations into smuggling rings crue outside Afghanistan. Along the most lowed them to act as offi cial political op- and the seizure of large drug volumes. Their important route to western Europe, the so- erators while remaining constituents and attitudes have invigorated the drug econo- called Balkan route, Turkish and Kurdish protectors of the illegal drug economy at the my, but badly damaged the credibility of the mafi a organisations and clans dominate the same time. They have assumed patronage state. Government action has been reduced illegal business. roles in the drug sector. Some managed to to symbolic engagements like the small- rise in its hierarchy. scale destruction of fi elds and the arrest of JANeT KUrSAWe From the highest levels of govern- low-level poppy farmers or drug dealers. teaches political sociology ment, former warlords have been exerting For decades, cultivation has been con- and drug policy at the infl uence on newly created drug-fi ghting centrated in the southern provinces, which Protestant University of institutions – especially the security forces. are also the traditional spheres of infl uence Applied Sciences in bochum. These patrons have torpedoed enforcement of the Taliban and other insurgent groups. [email protected]

Germany spends an annual ence shows that, though farm- International responsibility € 5 million on promoting the ers grasp such opportunities, cultivation of legal agricul- the impact is not strong enough tural products as an alterna- to disrupt the illegal drug busi- The international community Since 2002, the USA alone tive to poppies. The impact of ness, which has come to domi- is partially responsible for Af- has invested over $ 7.5 billion such measures, however, is not nate Afghanistan’s political ghanistan’s drug economy hav- to fi ght drugs in Afghanistan. evaluated thoroughly. Experi- economy. ing professionalised the way Since 2001, the drug it did. Much too late, interna- industry has thus been inex- tional actors realised that incor- tricably linked to the state- porating “drug barons” into the building process. Key players government ran counter to ef- understood how to use drugs to forts to build up new state struc- shore up their power. A holistic tures and the security forces. approach will be needed to up- Attempts to correct this root them. Development pro- mistake and remove drug pa- grammes must tackle under- trons from offi ce were made too lying issues such as poverty late and only half-heartedly. A fi rst and foremost. To date, the professional and covert smug- focus has been on repressing gling network was already the cultivation, processing and deeply entrenched, system- trade of drugs in the context of atically protected by persons counterinsurgency measures. at the highest levels of gov- The approach was destined to ernment. This network is well fail. It will take decades to ef- connected to all centres of po- fectively repress a drug econo- litical and economic power in my that grew resilient in 30 oto: picture-alliance/Photoshot

Afghanistan. Afghan security forces prepare to burn confi scated drugs. years of war. (jk) Ph

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from there to all other countries. Iran shares “Gravest social malady” 921 kilometres of porous borders with Af- ghanistan. Transit routes run through Iran, and various narcotics are easily available. According to Parviz Afshar, the spokesperson of Iran’s Drug Control Headquarters, Today, Iran usually comes up in international use drugs for recreational purposes, but opium is the most widely used narcotic in debates for its nuclear deal with the global hopelessness seems to be an important is- Iran, accounting for about two thirds of the powers, its controversial missile programme, sue. Despair is widespread and believed to amounts consumed. Marihuana and its de- and also the international sanctions. The be growing because people lack economic rivatives have replaced methamphetamine deep-rooted domestic challenges that the and political prospects. Economic hard- in second place with about 12 % of drug use. country faces get less attention. One of them ship, which is believed to result from dec- It is believed that cannabis and its off- is a drastic rise in narcotics consumption in ades of mismanagement and corruption as shoots are more commonly used by younger the past ten years. well as international sanctions, has a strong people, who also seem to speak more openly psychological impact on society. about it than those who use other drugs. By Mitra Shahrani Another important factor is Iran’s geo- Abbas Deylamizadeh, the head of the Re- graphical location. The country is close to birth Charity Society, believes that the open The local reports and statistics indicate that the hub of the world’s opium production. discussions about cannabis on social me- Iran’s government has failed to adequately Afghanistan has about 90 % of the world’s dia and legalisation in parts of the western address what has become a looming crisis. poppy harvest, and opiates are smuggled world have contributed to its popularity in The UN Office on Drugs and Crimes considers the situation to be one of the most serious internationally. Opiates are the main cause of concern. Every once in a while, drug-related issues in Iran make local or even international headlines. The complex drugs crisis has many aspects. In June 2017, Iran’s Drug Con- trol Headquarters reported that, according to a representative survey, the number of drug addicts was between 2.8 million to 3 million people of the ages 15 to 65 years. Observers believe the real number to be even higher, but the official data indicated that narcotics abuse had doubled in six years. In August 2018, a member of the Iranian parliament’s Social Affairs Committee revealed that some addicts in Iran are merely 11 years old. Indeed, one trend is that drug abuse is spreading among women and children. Sometimes, addicted women even give birth to addicted infants. The newborns tend to live very short lives or struggle with the difficult recovery process. Typically, older addicted children are from poor families who live in impoverished areas on the outskirts of metropolitan cities. They are constantly exposed to narcotics, and some of them are used by their families to sell drugs or procure them for their parents. Poverty probably pushes many people towards narcotics abuse, but not all addicts are poor. The escalation of Iran’s drug problem seems like a national epidemic, affecting people of different backgrounds. oto: Taherkenareh/picture-alliance/dpa

To some extent, the middle classes may An Iranian woman watches confiscated drugs being burned in Tehran in 2013. Ph

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Iran. Another reason may be that people can ist president, was in office. More recently, narco-traffickers”. The idea is that addicts grow marihuana plants at home. the government itself has begun to take will gradually give up their addiction in- a similar approach. For example, it has now stead of staying dependent on criminals. POLICY CHANGES allocated budget money for setting up reha- Similar rules were in force before the revolu- bilitation centres for children. Iran probably tion, according to Norouzi. Since the revolution in 1979, the Iranian gov- needs more rehab facilities, but these are All in all, Iran’s drug crisis seems to ernment has been trying to eradicate the steps in the right direction. have its roots in the country’s economic, production and use of narcotics as well as Last year, the government of President social and cultural problems. If it is to be alcoholic beverages. They are all forbidden Hassan Rouhani got the Parliament and dealt with properly, the government may under the country’s Islamic laws. The laws the Guardian Council to pass an amend- need to address those issues first. As Saeid are tough and have been enforced vigorous- ment to the existing drug laws. This reform Sefatian, a member of Iran’s Expediency ly. Until last year, the zero-tolerance policy abolished the death penalty for some drug- Council, which gives advice to Supreme against drug-offenders officially included offenders. According to estimates, the lives Spiritual Leader Ayatollah Khamenei, has capital punishment for anyone possessing of about 4,000 prisoners on death row were put it: “Drug addiction is Iran’s gravest so- even small amounts of hard drugs like hero- thus saved. Nonetheless, capital punish- cial malady and the government should in or cocaine. In the past decades, thousands ment is still in place for offenders who pos- treat it with a more serious and professional of criminals were arrested and executed. Re- sess or traffic at least two kilos of hard drugs approach.” cent statistics and reports show, however, or 50 kilos of opium or cannabis. Repeat of- that this rigid policy was not successful. fenders will also be sentenced to death. MITRA SHAHRANI Indeed, the drug crisis only became worse. Another change is that the govern- is a master’s student in In the late 1990s, non-governmental ment may now distribute diluted drugs to International Migration and organisations began to deal with drug- addicts. Hassan Norouzi, the spokesperson Ethnic Relations at Malmö related issues as social and medical prob- for the Parliament’s Judicial and Legal Com- University, Sweden. She is lems rather than as criminal offenses. At mission, emphasised the need to “cut off also a freelance journalist. the time, Mohammad Khatami, the reform- the relationship between drug-addicts and [email protected]

high, amounting to 25 % of the imported Cracking down on the price. Bangladesh has only one distillery: the state-owned Carew and Co. It was established by a British businessman in 1887. disadvantaged The law that regulated drugs and alcohol for many years was passed in 1990 (Act No. 20 of 1990). It is based on the constitutional obligation that the state must adopt “effective measures” to prevent the con- Bangladesh’s government has recently spoiled!” Government policy reflects the sumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs. adopted a “war on drugs” rhetoric. Some 200 general aversion to addictive substances. Indeed, Bangladesh is overfulfilling inter- people have been killed in encounters with In the 19th century, the British colonial national commitments made in the context the security forces in recent months. By law, power introduced legislation to regulate of the UN. Law enforcement, however, is alcohol and other drugs are basically prohib- the production, distribution and taxation uneven. ited. Unfortunately, state agencies are focus- of dangerous drugs as well as alcohol. The ing on enforcing criminal law instead of tack- trade in liquors, other alcoholic beverages, ling underlying social problems. According to opium and cannabis were a heated issue – new draconian legislation, people who are not least, because British merchants made found carrying certain drugs will be sen- huge profits by exporting opium to China tenced to death. (see review essay by Hans Dembowski on BANGLADESH p. 38). By Ridwanul Hoque and Sharowat Shamin From the point of view of the colo- Dhaka nised people in South Asia, liquor was In Bangladesh, people who take drugs or “western”, while cannabis and locally-made drink alcohol have a bad reputation. They alcoholic drinks, such as the traditional are likely to be told things like: “You drink rice beer of indigenous Adivasi tribes, were alcohol! It’s haram; you filthy spoiled part of the domestic culture. Today, most rich!” Or: “You do drugs! You’re completely liquors are imported. Taxes and tariffs are

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Bangladeshi law makes distinctions Soldiers of for specific cultures and religions: Bangladesh’s Rapid ●● Muslims are forbidden to drink alco- Action Battalion hol, which fits Islamic rules. Exceptions are (RAB) rounding up made for medical reasons. Patients can get suspected drug a permit only if an authorised doctor makes dealers in Dhaka. a prescription. ●● Those who adhere to other faiths are allowed to consume alcohol, but they are also supposed to get a formal permit. ●● Foreigners are allowed to drink only in licensed bars or restaurants, of which there are only few. ●● According to an amendment passed in 2000, Adivasis and other disadvantaged communities who traditionally make and consume alcoholic drinks may continue do- yaba (a mixture of caffeine and metham- however, 184 rehabilitation centres across ing so. phetamine) is imported from neighbouring the country. Considering the need, they are In theory, alcohol prohibition is thus Myanmar. In the context of the recent influx too few and too poorly resourced. quite stringent. Breaches of the law are to of Rohingya refugees, yaba trafficking has Cannabis, which used to be very com- be punished with two years of prison. Alco- increased. Observers say that yaba is now mon in our country’s past, is seen with a lit- hol is not available in shops; there are only the most popular drug in Bangladesh, but it tle bit more leniency than hard drugs. It is very few legal outlets. What many people do is not yet on the list of prohibited substanc- actually less dangerous and less addictive not know, moreover, is that drinking alco- es under the 1990 Act. In October, however, than more potent drugs such as heroin. hol without permit is even forbidden in the the national parliament passed a new law Nonetheless, the government handles both privacy of one’s home. In practice, however, which foresees the death penalty for anyone kinds of narcotics more restrictively than its private drinking seems to be tolerated by the found carrying 200 grammes of yaba or 25 counterparts in many western countries. state. grammes of heroin or cocaine. Germany and other European nations, The government sometimes runs In recent months, the government has for example, have decriminalised cannabis drives against the unlawful trade or con- adopted a “war on drugs” rhetoric. It is step- in the sense of no longer punishing people sumption of alcohol, with mobile courts ping up repressive measures with the inten- who possess small amounts for personal us- summarily punishing individuals or restau- tion of getting a grip on the problem. So far, age. Canada and several US states have even rants if found guilty. Most cases of seizure some 200 people have died in encounters legalised this drug. Moreover, heroin users of illicit alcohol regard smuggled liquors for with the security forces, but no police of- are provided with safe syringes in many which no tariffs were paid. ficer or soldier has been taken to court for an European cities. Nothing like this is done in Two serious issues are that: extra-judicial killing. Bangladesh. ●● domestically made spirits regularly The government thus certainly seems It is noteworthy that law enforcement cause poisoning, which all too often kills to be determined to enforce anti-drugs leg- is biased against the poor. The better-off in people, and islation, but it is facing various implemen- Bangladesh are frequently alcohol consum- ●● drink-driving, especially among the tation problems. One of them is that gov- ers. Their habits are illegal but are generally drivers of long-haul buses and trucks, lead- ernment staff, including police officers, are not prosecuted. By contrast, the users and ing to deadly traffic accidents. allegedly corrupt and involved in drug traf- dealers of cannabis, yaba and domestically All summed up, the enforcement of ficking. produced booze tend to be poor. They are at alcohol-related rules is rather weak. Pros- According to a report in the newspa- considerable risk of being charged, tried or perous men, among whom the occasional per Dhaka Tribune, 35 % of inmates are in even killed. whiskey is quite popular, have little reason prison because of drug offences in Bangla- to fear the law. desh. This ratio shows that the situation is RIDWANUL HOQUE serious indeed. Adding to the problems, the is a law professor at the ENFORCEMENT ISSUES country is close to the “Golden Triangle” of University of Dhaka. Myanmar-Thailand-Laos. It is affected by As for other drugs and narcotics, the 1990 international trafficking, which is a security [email protected] law imposes a complete prohibition of use, problem and makes intoxicating and addic- production and trade, with the exception of tive substances easily available. SHAROWAT SHAMIN medical purposes. Drug users and dealers Unfortunately, the government is is a law lecturer at the are generally shunned by society. mostly focusing on the enforcement of crim- University of Dhaka. In spite of the prohibitive law, drug inal law, neglecting the social dimensions of oto: Mamunur Rashid/picture-alliance/NurPhoto

problems are escalating. A new drug called the endemic narcotics problem. There are, [email protected] Ph

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a war against the poor, since Bishop David’s response, since “War against the poor” most of the dead are from the doing so would imply that “the impoverished settlements of victims of drug-related killings Manila and neighbouring cities. are not human”. The clergy In the Philippines, Christian armed drug suspects in cus- Last year, Bishop Pablo leader pointed out on Facebook faith leaders oppose Presi- tody” and “no one has been David called on the Philippine that “drug use is not a crime dent Duterte’s bloody “war on meaningfully investigated, let government to stop its “cru- that deserves death”. What peo- drugs”. This stance was recent- alone prosecuted, for these kill- el and simplistic” campaign ple with substance-use disor- ly reconfi rmed at an ecumeni- ings”. To judge by international against illegal drugs. Speaking der need is rehabilitation. cal conference in Bonn. standards, moreover, the Phil- at the funeral mass of a teenager Father June Mark Yañez “When we entered the ippines is not facing any dra- killed by the police, (also see agrees. He is a Protestant Phil- convent, we did not give up our matic drugs crisis, according to Alan Robles in Debate section ippine pastor who works for the citizenship.” This is what Sister Amnesty International. of D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2017/10), he German Seafarers’ Mission in Mary John Mananzan tells crit- Photojournalist Raff y reminded government leaders Hamburg. He points out that ics who say that she should not Lerma spoke at the Ecumeni- that they should not abandon valuing human lives is a deep meddle in politics. The Ben- edictine nun has a long history of fi ghting the dictatorship of Commemorating Ferdinand Marcos in the 70’s victims of Duterte’s and co-founding GABRIELA (a war on drugs in federation of women’s organi- manila on All Saints sations) in 1984. She also served day, 30 October as its national chairperson for 2018. more than a decade. These days, Mananzan is involved in campaigns to stop the killings related to President Rod- rigo Duterte’s so called “war on drugs”. In her eyes, faith leaders have a moral duty to speak up against people getting killed. According to government data, the Philippine police cal Philippine Conference the rule of law. Bishop David is Christian tradition. Respect for killed 4,948 people in anti-drug (ÖPK) in Bonn in late October. the vice president of the Catholic it means to support “only those operations from 1 July 2016 to It convened members of Catho- Bishops’ Conference of the Phil- state policies that uphold basic 30 September 2018. The police lic and Protestant church or- ippines (CBCP) and one of Du- human rights and respect hu- say that the dead were sus- ganisations in Germany. Lerma terte’s most outspoken critics. man lives”. pected drug pushers or users showed pictures he took, in- Other faith leaders have who resisted arrest. They also cluding of drug-war victims. He joined Bishop David’s call to reFereNCe claim that drug traffi ckers and says he wants the government stop the killings. The most HrW World report 2018: dealers kill each other. Human to get a grip on the illegal drug prominent is Archbishop Luis https://www.hrw.org/world- Rights Watch (HRW) reckons trade, but questions Duterte’s Antonio Cardinal Tagle of Ma- report/2018/country-chapters/ that Duterte’s clamp down has approach: “Why do poor people nila. Nonetheless, President philippines so far claimed 12,000 lives. The get killed without due process?” Duterte announced in his state- international non-governmen- According to Lerma, peo- of-the-nation address that his emmALYN tal organisation reports that ple who get caught with mil- war against illegal drugs will LIWAG KOTTe the police “carried out extra-ju- lions worth of drugs are taken stay as relentless and chilling is a freelance dicial killings of drug suspects, to court and sentenced to pris- as it began. journalist. She is and then falsely claimed self- on. “They do not die, unlike the “Your concern is hu- a member of the defence”. According to a recent- poor who get killed with 200 man rights, mine is human working group that organises the ly published report, eyewitness pesos (ca. three dollars) worth lives,” Duterte told his critics. annual ecumenical Philippine accounts “portray the killings of drugs.” Lerma sees Duterte’s The Catholic Church cannot Conference in Germany. oto: Marquez/picture-alliance/AP Photo oto: Marquez/picture-alliance/AP

as coldblooded murders of un- so called war against drugs as agree with that statement, was [email protected] Ph

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Police raiding an ecstasy lab in Bogor in 2018.

against drugs in 2015, arguing that about 30 President Widodo’s war on drugs people die because of drug abuse every day. Ever since, drastic measures have included shooting dead smugglers, traffickers and manufacturers if they resist arrest. Warn- ings against illegal drugs are posted in pub- Anti-narcotics laws and their enforcement Depending on the type and amount of nar- lic spaces and flit across TV screens during tend to be tough in Southeast Asia. In Indo- cotics, even capital punishment or life sen- commercial breaks. nesia, however, drug use is not in decline. tences are possible. Only rarely are court rulings compara- 18 EXECUTIONS IN TWO YEARS By Edith Koesoemawiria tively mild. Fidelis Arie Sudewarto only re- ceived an eight months jail term and a fine In 2015 and 2016, Indonesia executed 18 Be prepared. If you are planning a visit to worth $ 67,000 for trying to grow cannabis drug offenders. Some of them were foreign Indonesia while still under treatment with because he wanted to allay the excruciating nationals. Indonesian and international hu- narcotic based medication, be sure to have pain of his wife, a cancer patient. He ben- man-rights organisations demand that the an official medical statement from a doc- efited from a massive show of support from death penalty must be abolished, but so far, tor or hospital about your condition and an the media and civil society. The fine was ul- their calls have fallen on deaf ears. Accord- extra prescription. You may be questioned timately waived. ing to the BNN, there were almost 50,000 at customs about your medication. With- The National Narcotics Agency (BNN) illegal drug cases in 2017, with 79 suspected out proof of its necessity, it may be seized. defines narkoba closely to the English drug dealers shot on location. Worse still, if the monitoring officers believe acronym NAPZA, which stands for narcot- On the other hand, BNN statistics these “drugs” were intentionally hidden, ics, psychotropic and addictive substances. show that the number of drug offenders is you could be charged with smuggling. Hav- Besides natural substances like canna- not in decline. A BNN survey carried out in ing to face the law is not a happy way to start bis, cocaine, opiates and their derivatives, 13 provinces revealed that some 3.5 million a vacation or business trip anywhere in the highly addictive synthetic drugs are covered Indonesians are drug abusers. This number world. In Indonesia it could be particularly too. They include pharmaceuticals like Va- amounts to 2.2 % of the people. According to bad. lium and Mandrax as well as party drugs the BNN data, 72 % of the drug abusers are Illegal drugs, generically called like ecstasy. Even alcohol can be considered men. One survey result was that about one “narkoba” in Indonesia, are considered narkoba. Indonesia is a predominantly Mus- third of the drug abusers try to quit their a major problem. If convicted, smugglers, lim country, and Islam forbids the drinking habit on their own, while others turn to pri- traffickers, dealers, manufacturers and even of alcoholic beverages. vate rehabilitation centres or hospitals. users of illegal drugs can be sanctioned to Early on in his presidency, Indone- Evy Harjono, the founder of Second oto: Eko Siswono Toyudho/picture alliance/AA oto: Eko Siswono Toyudho/picture

imprisonment between two to 20 years. sian President Joko Widodo called for a war Chance, a civil-society organisation that Ph

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supports prison inmates, sees poverty and ports where smuggling is easy. Some 5,000 population growth as major drivers of drug BNN officers are cooperating with the police abuse. While the government is concentrat- and armed forces across the nation. The ille- ing on building infrastructure to ease pover- INDONESIA gal drug trade is a multimillion-dollar busi- ty in the long run, economic disparities will ness run by ruthless crime syndicates. The be acutely felt for many years to come. Jakarta gangsters do not shy away from using vio- “We must work at many levels,” Har- lence. They do what they can to get control jono says. “There are currently not enough of the black narcotics market and exploit the medical rehabilitation centres for drug ad- addiction of vulnerable people. The death dicts, so once they are sentenced, they end penalty is inhumane, and it is not deterring up in jail with dealers, manufacturers and hardcore criminals. other criminals.” She insists that more rehab Confusing victims with perpetrators centres are needed for all addicts to be able its, while some will be recruited into organ- compounds the problems – and so does to undergo medical and social rehabilitation ised crime. conflating highly addictive substances like as is required by law. To improve matters, Harjono founded heroin with comparatively harmless ones According to Harjono, there are cur- Second Chance. This small foundation of- like cannabis. Indeed, cannabis was only rently over 260,000 inmates in Indonesia’s fers inmates skills training – from basic lit- made illegal by the Dutch colonial power in 600 prisons, 482 correctional facilities and eracy to handicrafts and theatre classes. The the early 20th century. Some people wonder 118 detention centres. These institutions idea is to allow drug addicts to become self- to what extent the war on drugs is prevent- tend to be in miserable conditions and over- sufficient. Starting in detention, they gener- ing harm – and to what extent it is actually crowded. Harjono says the inmates are not ate small incomes, and related savings are causing suffering. being prepared for a life in freedom. Many useful when they are set free. The founda- lack vocational skills. Most have spent tion currently works in 11 of Indonesia’s 34 EDITH KOESOEMAWIRIA whatever savings they had on lawyers. Re- provinces. is a freelance journalist based leased from detention, moreover, they will The war on drugs is a challenge for in Jakarta and Frankfurt. face stigma. The civil-society activist ex- Indonesia. The archipelago of more than pects many to fall back into their drug hab- 17,000 islands has many small and informal [email protected]

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cine have found that some 64,000 to 158,000 Epicenter of fake pharma people die of malaria every year because of low-quality or falsified antimalarial drugs.

THE BIGGER PICTURE

One consequence of African poverty is that latory systems for medical drugs. The mind- According to the International Crime Police quality medication is often unavailable. altering opioid tramadol is part of a bigger Organization (Interpol), Africa is a the heart Health-care systems tend to be weak, and problem, which has several dimensions. of the “biggest black market in the world”. the marketing of pharmaceuticals is not reg- Quality pharmaceuticals are often unafford- The Jacques Chirac Foundation estimates ulated effectively. Many patients depend on able or unavailable, so sub-standard, coun- that the trafficking of pharmaceuticals is sub-standard or even counterfeit drugs. In terfeit and fake drugs are sold. Generics, worth an annual $ 200 billion. One of the this setting, a powerful opioid has become most of which are produced in India, flood topics the Foundation, which was launched easily available – addiction is spreading in African markets. The quality, however, tends by the former French president, is involved West Africa. to be unreliable. Researchers from the Lon- in is promoting access to health care and don School of Hygiene and Tropical Medi- quality drugs. By Assane Diagne

Tramadol is an opioid pain medication. Un- like other powerful and addictive opioids, such as methadone or fentanyl, for example, it is not regulated by the International Nar- cotics Control Board. The consequence is that every country must pass its own regulation. Governments only do so, however, once they see a problem. Tramadol is valuable for medical purposes, but it can also be abused as a stimu- lant. It can improve peoples’ mood and en- able them to work harder. Those who get used to the drug, however, need ever higher dosages to keep functioning at all. Sub-Saharan Africa is currently expe- riencing a serious tramadol crisis. The medical journal The Lancet published a report in May in which it likened the West African scenario in particular to the current opioid crisis in the USA. A huge black market has emerged. High potency pills with up to 250 mg are available, though doctors would hardly subscribe more than 100 mg pills for medical purposes. An increasing number of addicts overdose and die. There are hardly any rehab facilities for those who want to kick the habit to find professional support. According to The Lancet, African governments have begun to wake up to the problem. The painkillers are typically manufactured in Asia. Some are generic pharmaceuticals, but there are also counterfeit versions. Yearly seizures of tramadol in sub- Saharan Africa are said to have risen from 300 kg five years ago to more than three tons. However, governments struggle to pass appropriate laws and enforce them stringently. The depressing truth is that oto: Deloche/GODONG/Lineair

many African countries lack effective regu- All too often, medication may be sub-standard: pharmacy customer in Mali. Ph

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The World Health Organization (WHO) According to the WHO, the illicit ble. Moreover, properly regulated distribu- has stated: “Low- and middle-income coun- pharma business is facilitated by ever more tion systems would be quite complex – too tries, those in conflict, and those with weak people having access to the internet. In complex for regulatory authorities lacking or no health systems bear the brunt of the 2008, Interpol and the International Fo- adequate resources. Cool chains, for exam- problem of fake medical products.” Many rum on Pharmaceutical Crime in the World ple, have a propensity to fail, if they exist African countries are in this group, and they launched an operation called “Pangea”. It is at all. Porous borders compound the prob- constitute the most important markets for a global initiative to fight the online sale of lems. the deadly trade. The US Food and Drug Ad- illicit and counterfeit medicines. It involves Interpol has spelled it out clearly: ministration reckons that one in ten drugs customs authorities, the police, health regu- “Drug trafficking can only be effectively sold around the world is probably fake, and lators and private-sector companies. It fo- combated in the long-term.” It calls for experts believe that the respective shares cuses on the three components illegal web- full-time mobilisation and cooperation of probably range from 30 % to 70 % in sub- sites depend on: internet service providers, customs, health and law-enforcement agen- Saharan countries. payment and delivery systems. One aspect cies from around the world. African gov- Between 2013 and 2017, the WHO re- is to raise awareness of the dangers that are ernments know the strategies that would ceived 1,500 case reports of sub-standard related to buying medicines online. Pangea change matters. This is more a problem of or falsified medicines, and 42 % of these re- is now being run in 100 countries. political will than one of ideas. A good place ports came from sub-Saharan Africa. This The main reasons for African pharma to start would be providing more reliable shows that Africa is the epicenter of the il- markets being dysfunctional are poverty, and more comprehensive information on licit pharma market. Between mid-May and overburdened health-care systems and bad the risks and benefits of pharmaceuticals to mid-June 2017, Interpol led an operation governance. “To sell fake medicines, you the public. to fight the trafficking of fake medicines in need customers,” Marc Gentilini, a former seven West African countries: more than 41 president of the French Red Cross, has said, ASSANE DIAGNE million fake tablets and 13,000 cartons of “and there are more poor patients in Africa works for the Dakar office of medical and pharmaceutical products were than anywhere else in the world.” Consid- Africa Check, the fact- seized. Their estimated worth was more ering the low average incomes of African checking media agency. than $ 20 million. people, quality drugs are often unafforda- [email protected]

and very cheap alcoholic drink is one called Drowning the unemployment Tegu-Tegu. Its alcohol content is between 30 % and 40 %. Cannabis and other illegal drugs are worries used too. Educationists report that substance abuse is derailing some pupils’ per- formance in school. “Due to alcoholism and drug abuse, many pupils miss classes,” com- plains a teacher based in Harare. A stroll on Alcoholism and drug abuse are spreading in ever, Jerry is dangerous to deal with.” Jerry the streets of Harare shows that young peo- Zimbabwe, according to the country’s Minis- is one of many young people hooked on al- ple are openly abusing alcohol and drugs, try of Health. For many unemployed, it is cohol in Zimbabwe. although it is an offence to do so in public. a way to forget the harsh realities of life. The Washington Post reported in 2014 According to the Zimbabwe Civil Lib- Addiction leads to health problems, including that Zimbabwean men and women ranked erties and Drug Network (ZCLDN), approxi- mental disorders. 6th and 7th respectively as Africa’s top drink- mately 290,000 youths in this Southern Af- ers. According to the beer and soft drink rican nation are abusing drugs and alcohol. By Jeffrey Moyo company Delta Beverages, Zimbabweans The figure has risen fast from an estimated consumed almost 200 million hectolitres 85,000 for the years 2009 to 2015. Formed Jerry Nhemachena is 17 years old. He wears of its lager beer and more than 330 million seven years ago, the ZCLDN advocates for an untidy school uniform and carries a bot- hectolitres of opaque (millet) beer in 2012. strategies to address problems related to tle with some clear alcoholic liquid in his Companies like Delta Beverages make a lot drug use in the entire Southern Africa region. right hand. A school bag is dangling loosely of money. from his left shoulder. Jerry is obviously Various informally produced alco- COUGH SYRUP, CANNABIS AND COCAINE drunk as he walks into his school gate. The holic beverages are flooding the streets of security guard pays no attention to him. “In cities and towns, moreover. Home-brewed BronCleer has become dangerously popular. principle, we don’t allow drunk pupils into beer, the alcohol content of which is not It is a medical cough syrup which contains the school yard,” the guard later says. “How- measured, is a common drink. A popular alcohol and codeine. As medical practi-

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Empty BronCleer bottle on a street in Harare.

tioner Hilton Hungwe explains, codeine is Drugs and alcohol abuse are getting Zimbabwean parents find the trend an opioid that serves as a painkiller. Due to worse in Zimbabwe. The health ministry has worrisome. Letiwe Mpofu, whose children its alcohol content, BronCleer makes peo- reported that currently 57 % of all admissions have fallen prey to drug and alcohol abuse, ple feel extremely drunk “when they down to psychiatric institutions are attributed to says: “I helped my three sons to make it to a lot of it in one go,” Hungwe says, “which is substance abuse. “Of these admissions, over university. However, it was exactly there, at why a lot of young people are turning to it.” 80 % are in the age group 16 to 40,” explains university, where they started abusing drugs The streets of Harare are strewn with cough Evans Masitara, a psychiatrist in private and alcohol, at a time when they were still syrup bottles. practice. “It is mostly men who are affected.” studying.” In her eyes, peer pressure and BronCleer is manufactured in neigh- “Young and old alcoholics have be- mob psychology are to blame. bouring South Africa. According to the come common victims of dementia, sei- Civil-society groups want the govern- Medicines Control Authority of Zimbabwe, zures, liver disease and early death,” says ment to act. “The government should strict- BronCleer is not licensed for sale here, even Andrew Muchineripi, a medical doctor in ly control the import of alcohol and drugs,” with a prescription. However, it is easily private practice. He adds that cases of drug- says Claris Madhuku of the Platform for available. A 100 ml bottle of BronCleer costs induced psychosis have been reported. Sui- Youth Development. “Our borders have be- seven dollars. cidal addicts, moreover, are known to over- come so porous and corruption is rampant, Marihuana is known as “mbanje” or dose on purpose. so that prohibited drinks and drugs are find- “dagga”. The ZCLDN reckons that up to People, who abuse alcohol and drugs, ing their way so easily into our country.” 20 % of the youth use it. Government policy tend to be driven by poverty and hopeless- However, for young students like Jerry has been ambivalent. It recently legalised ness, according to Edgar Mutambu, a psy- Nhemachena, who comes to school intoxi- growing cannabis for medical reasons, but chologist in Harare: “Millions of Zimba- cated, that approach is too simple. “Influen- then back-peddled to prevent drug abuse. bweans are jobless and therefore stressed. tial people make money from drugs and al- Production and possession were previously They struggle to cope with life’s daily chal- cohol that they sell to us, and they also make punishable by up to 12 years in jail, and no lenges.” the laws.” He believes it may “take ages to one is quite sure what rules apply now and Hapton Ruvangu is one of them. end drug and alcohol abuse here”. whether the authorities are enforcing them “I completed my university education, but coherently. I never found work. I continue to live with LINK With the economy in tatters, Zim- my parents,” the 31-year-old man reports. Zimbabwe Civil Liberties and Drug Network babwe has also become a transit point for “This is embarrassing because I still de- (ZCLDN): drugs such as cocaine, which is smuggled pend on them for everything.” About the http://zcldn.org.zw/ to neighbouring countries like South Africa substance abuse of many young people like and Botswana. Some of the substances stay him, Ruvangu’s comment is: “Alcohol and JEFFREY MOYO in the country, however, because the peo- drugs help us to forget our challenges.” It is a journalist and lives in ple who transport them are paid in kind, does not cost much money to get intoxicat- Harare, Zimbabwe. not cash. “They start using the drugs them- ed. “Even for one dollar you can get drunk

selves,” reports a police officer. fast”, Ruvangu says. [email protected] Ph oto: Moyo

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th gave rise to a global black market. In the “Free trade” in the 19 century author’s eyes, one of four major mistakes that governments have been making is to mistake prohibition for control. In truth, he argues, the mafias are in control of the drug business. For business reasons, they Whether legal or illegal – narcotic sub- tions are profit-driven. They must source focus especially on the most addictive and stances have meant strong profits through- commodities, process them and sell them potent substances. To take control, govern- out human history. Prohibition creates lucra- to customers. The big difference is that drug ments should regulate the drugs market, tive black markets for mafia organisations. cartels operate outside the law. They rely on Wainwright suggests (see contribution by Recent publications show that the war on violence to enforce contracts, dominate lo- Eleonore von Bothmer in the Monitor sec- drugs has failed. cal markets and protect themselves. At the tion of D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2018/11). He appre- same time, they often form alliances with ciates that several US states have legalised By Hans Dembowski state agencies. marihuana. Wainwright shows convincingly that According to Wainwright, the three Tom Wainwright is The Economist’s former prohibition is not the solution. Indeed, the other fundamental errors are: Mexico correspondent. His book “Narco- “war on drugs” that US President Richard ●● trying to block supply, even though nomics” compares drug cartels to multina- Nixon launched in 1971 and that was adopt- the real issue is demand, tional corporations. Both kinds of organisa- ed by policymakers around the world, only ●● spending heavily on law enforcement, but being scrimpy in terms of preventing ad- dictions, and ●● tackling problems at the nation-state level, even though the industry is global and supply routes are fast diverted through other countries. Wainwright’s understanding of the market is profound. He interviewed top policymakers and police officers. He portrayed leading gangsters and coca farmers. He visited outlets for legalised marihuana in Colo- rado and prisons in Central America. In his view, the demand for legalisation used to be raised by hippyish people who wanted to enjoy their intoxication. Today, however, it is raised by responsible people who want to prevent harm. His con- clusion is: “Unless there is a real change in strategy, business conditions for the mafia will remain promising.”

HISTORICAL EXPERIENCES

Drugs have always been commodities of great trade relevance, as Lucy Inglis shows in “Milk of paradise”. This history of opium starts with the first appearances of opium somewhere in the Mediterranean region more than 5,000 years ago. The final chapters deal with recent poppy cultivation in ISIS-held areas of Afghanistan and the impacts of opioids on modern western culture. An overarching message of the book is that opium is at once a blessing and a curse. Opioids are indispensably effective painkillers. On the other hand, addiction destroys people, families and communities, while or-

Cartoon published in the French periodical Le Rire in 1899. ganised crime thrives on black markets. Cartoon: picture alliance/akg

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Harm reduction: poster in public facility for heroin addicts in Berlin admonishes users to “wash hands before and after injecting”.

Inglis elaborates convincingly why the ine. The doctrine of “free trade” was that ciously wounded in battle. Painkillers were term “free trade” does not inspire enthusi- nothing could be opposed if it was good for needed. After the war, many veterans were asm in China and India. In the 19th century, merchants. By the way, Amitav Ghosh, the traumatised – and addicted. Their demand masses of Chinese were opium addicts. The bestseller author from India, has published proved to be lasting, and attempts to curb it drug was shipped in via the Port of Guang- a fascinating trilogy of novels that is set in failed. zhou, which Europeans called Canton, in these historical circumstances. When the USA later outlawed alcohol the Pearl River Delta. This was where China Other imperialist powers became in- in the early 1920s, moreover, mafia organi- did its foreign trade. Corruption was rife. In creasingly involved in the China trade too. sations became involved in the trafficking 1939, the Chinese emperor banned opium The 2nd opium war from 1856 to 1860 rein- of all kinds of other intoxicating substances, imports – and that ban triggered the first forced their predominance. Inglis describes including opium and marihuana. Often, il- opium war. The war went on for three years, that China was brutally exploited, and mass- legal goods were shipped in from Mexico. and the British Navy proved far superior. In es of people found some comfort – though Ever since, organised crime has remained the end, China was forced to open four more not sustenance – in opium consumption. deeply entrenched. harbours to international trade, and Hong According to estimates, up to a quarter of the Kong became a permanent British outpost people were addicted. As China increasingly in the Pearl River Delta. lacked commodities to trade in, it began to REFERENCES As Inglis elaborates, British mer- export slave-like labourers. They brought Inglis, L., 2018: Milk of paradise – A history of chants had developed a very profitable along their opium habits to the countries opium. London: Macmillan. scheme. They imported tea from China to they were shipped to. In the USA, opium Ghosh, A., 2008: Sea of poppies. London: John their home country. On the return trip, they was thus available along the railway lines Murray (Ibis trilogy I). first brought textiles from England to India, that coolies built. Chinatowns – whether in Ghosh, A., 2011: River of smoke. London: John and then opium from India to China. This San Francisco or in small settlements in the Murray (Ibis trilogy II). scheme was so lucrative that British compa- wild west – had opium dens. Ghosh, A., 2015: Flood of fire. London: John nies made Indian farmers cultivate opium What really made opiates widely used Murray (Ibis trilogy III). rather than cereals and lentils. When har- in North America was the Civil War, accord- Wainwright, T., 2016: Narconomics – How to run oto: Sören Stache/picture alliance/ZB

vests were bad, this policy resulted in fam- ing to Inglis. Masses of soldiers were atro- a drugs cartel. London: Ebury Press/Penguin. Ph

D+C e-Paper December 2018 39 Today, Pakistan’s smallest ethnic group, the Kalash, consists of only about 3,000 people. Their culture is at risk of extinction. Page 13 Ph oto: Martin Wright/Lineair