Adaptation of Farmers to Climate Change in Ohangwena Region, Namibia Submitted by Raili Laudika Hasheela Supervisor: Professor André Pelser UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE Adaptation of Farmers to Climate Change in Ohangwena Region, Namibia Raili Laudika Hasheela Dissertation Submitted in Accordance with the Requirements for the Degree MASTERS DEGREE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES in the faculty of ECONOMIC AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES CENTRE FOR DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT at the UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE November 2010 Supervisor: Professor André Pelser i ABSTRACT This study aimed to establish an understanding of the local adaptation and coping mechanisms in relation to flood impacts on agriculture in the Ohangwena Region. This was necessitated by the fact that the region experienced heavy floods between 2008 and 2009, which are attributed to climate variability and change in Namibia. Nevertheless, since the region also experiences drought as a result of climate variability, the study has lightly touched on them, however, it mainly paid particular attention to the floods. In general, climate in Namibia is variable, with increasing variability in temperature and rainfall patterns. As a result, rural communities in northern Namibia have become vulnerable to climate variability. The latter mainly depend on agriculture for subsistence, the source of food security which is vulnerable to the climatic events of floods and droughts. One of the major factors that have contributed to communities‟ vulnerability to floods is the fact that many farmers have settled in flood prone areas. With the realization that rural communities are vulnerable to the two climatic events, it was deemed necessary to identify the coping strategies currently in place in order to strengthen them. This will help the communities to be able to respond to the changing environmental circumstances in the long-term. Enhancing the adaptive capacities for communities to respond to the impacts of climate variability and change on agriculture has also been considered essential by this study. Consequently the study placed some efforts in proposing future adaptation strategies for climate change, which will allow farmers to effectively address the impacts of climate change in future. This was made possible by consultations with farmers in four constituencies in the Ohangwena Region, namely: Eenhana, Endola, Odibo and Ongenga, through focus group sessions. The farmers in these constituencies shed some light on the climate variability within the region, on the impact of climate variability and change on agriculture, as well as on the coping strategies that are currently being implemented within the region. ii The reality of climate variability and change has been noticed by farmers in Ohangwena Region. Variability in climate patterns mainly results in affected rainfall patterns and in increasing atmospheric temperature. Rainfall is received during the late months of the year (October – December), and the early months of the year (January – April). However, there is a difference in the amount of rainfall received in those months. High amount of rainfall is received during the early months of the year compared to the amount received during the late months of the year, which in fact do not support grown of agricultural crops. The major impacts of floods on agriculture in the region are mainly: destruction of crop fields, livestock losses, destruction of households, loss of infrastructure, pest outbreaks, reduced soil fertility, reduction of crop yields, destruction of crop fields, poor rangeland conditions, diseases and loss of human and animal lives. At the moment, the coping strategies being implemented in Ohangwena Region to address the impact of climate change are very weak; therefore they need to be strengthened. The lessons learned during this study have been documented. This study has also made some recommendations around the implementation of the proposed adaptation strategies, on the possibility of increasing awareness about the reality of climate variability and change within the region, and on avoidance of settling in flood prone areas. The study has concluded that the regional capacity can be enhanced. iii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my parents Mr Veikko Hasheela and Mrs Hilja Hasheela. Thank you very much for your unending love and care. iv DECLARATION I hereby declare that the thesis hereby submitted for the Masters in Development Studies at the University of the Free State is my original work, which to the best of my knowledge has not been submitted to any other university for the purpose of awarding a degree. Where the work of other authors has been used, it has duly been acknowledged. I hereby concede copyright to the University of the Free State. Raili L. Hasheela November 2010 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to give special thanks to my supervisor Professor André Pelser for his excellent supervision and support throughout the preparation of this thesis. I would also like to thank Mrs Dorie Olivier for always been there to provide support whenever I needed it. I would further like to extent my thanks to the RAEIN-Africa Project for its financial support towards this research. Moreover, I am giving thanks to various staff from the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (DRFN) for their guidance during the research and for support with data collection. Particular thanks go to Mrs Viviane Kinyaga, Ms Irene Nunes, Ms Epfania Lepaleni and Mr John Ishila for placing great efforts in this research. I am also grateful for the moral support, financial support and encouragement from my parents and siblings during the study. Moreover, I am giving appreciation to my friends for their support and encouragement. I am also extending special thanks to the Governor of Ohangwena Region, Honorable Usko Nghaamwa, for allowing me to conduct the research in the region. I would also like to thank the Concillors for the following constituencies: Endola (Honourable Ruth Nhinda), Ongenga (Honourable Leonard Shimutwikeni), Ondobe (Honourable Mandume Pohamba) and Eenhana (Honourable Nehemia Haufiku), for showing interest in this research and for all their input. Furthermore, I am giving thanks to the farmers who sacrificed their time to make valuable contribution to this research. Above all, I would like to thank the Lord for giving me wisdom, strength and courage until I finished this thesis. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... iv DECLARATION ........................................................................................................ v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................ vi LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... x LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................... xi ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................................... 1 1.1. Background .................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Problem Statement ........................................................................................... 4 1. 3. Research Purpose ........................................................................................... 7 1.3.1. Aim ............................................................................................................. 7 1.3.2. Objectives................................................................................................... 7 1.4. Conceptual Framework .................................................................................... 7 1.5. Synopsis.......................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURE.................................... 12 2.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 12 2.2. Impacts of climate change on developing countries ..................................... 14 2.3. Climate patterns in Africa, with particular focus in Namibia .......................... 18 2.4. Vulnerability to climate change ...................................................................... 20 2.4.1. Impacts of floods on agriculture .............................................................. 22 2.4.2. General impacts of floods on human development ................................ 23 2.5. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 25 CHAPTER 3: ADAPTATION AND COPING STRATEGIES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ................................................................................................................ 27 3.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 27 3.2. Adaptation for climate change........................................................................ 28 3.3. Adaptation and coping mechanisms in agriculture in the face of a changing climate ...................................................................................................................