Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences Turkish J Earth Sci (2013) 22: 793-819 http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/earth/ © TÜBİTAK Research Article doi:10.3906/yer-1207-11

Stable isotope-based reconstruction of Oligo-Miocene paleoenvironment and paleohydrology of Central Anatolian lake basins (Turkey)

1,2, 2,6 3 4 1,2,5 Tina LÜDECKE *, Tamás MIKES , F. Bora ROJAY , Michael A. COSCA , Andreas MULCH 1 Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Frankfurt, Germany 2 Institute of Geosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany 3 Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey 4 US Geological Survey, Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado, USA 5 Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum, Frankfurt, Germany 6 Eriksfiord AS, Stavanger, Norway

Received: 27.07.2012 Accepted: 28.01.2013 Published Online: 26.08.2013 Printed: 26.09.2013

Abstract: Isotope geochemistry of lacustrine carbonate represents a powerful tool to reconstruct paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental conditions. Here, we present a comprehensive set of long-term oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) stable isotope records from 5 Chattian to Burdigalian lacustrine sequences distributed over the Central Anatolian Plateau. Field relationships combined with stable isotope geochemistry indicate a relatively humid subtropic Late Oligocene climate with an environment characterized by large, temporally open freshwater lakes. Approximately during the middle Aquitanian, a 4‰–5‰ increase in lake δ18O values indicates changes in regional climate including more arid conditions and an increasing dominance of closed saline lake conditions in the central plateau region. This time period was also characterized by frequent climatic fluctuations such as short-lived humid periods, possibly recording the influence of seasonality, topography, and the waxing and waning of aridity. In general, relatively high Oligo-Miocene δ18O lake water values within the modern plateau interior, even for the least evaporative sequences, suggest the absence of significant orographic barriers at both the northern and southern plateau margins prior to 20–16 Ma.

Key words: Cenozoic, lacustrine carbonates, stable isotopes, 40Ar/39Ar geochronology, Central Anatolian Plateau, Turkey

1. Introduction paleoenvironments in the Eastern Mediterranean to The Oligocene/Miocene represents a critical interval with better understand the vegetation and climate history of respect to the tectonic, geologic, and climatic history of the region. However, most of these studies are based on the Central Anatolian Plateau (CAP) prior to and during micro- and macrofloral records, either addressing spatially the uplift of the plateau margins. Fission-track evidence extensive coverage (e.g., Ivanov et al. 2002; Kovar-Eder et points to an initial phase of Late Oligocene to Middle al. 2006; Akgün et al. 2007; Bruch et al. 2007; Fauquette et Miocene uplift of the Western Pontides in the northwest al. 2007; Ivanov et al. 2007a, 2007b; Strömberg et al. 2007; of the plateau (Zattin et al. 2005; Okay et al. 2008; Cavazza Ivanov et al. 2008; Yavuz-Işık & Toprak 2010; Bruch et al. et al. 2012), whereas the still ongoing differential surface 2011; Ivanov et al. 2011; Utescher et al. 2011) or focusing uplift of the Central Pontides, which is mainly driven on more local records (e.g., Akgün 1993; Whateley & by the North Anatolian Fault Zone, started in the Late Tuncali 1995; Akgün & Sözbilir 1999; Karayiğit et al. 1999; Miocene to Early Pliocene (Yildirim et al. 2011). Equally Akgün et al. 2002; Akkiraz & Akgün 2005; Kayseri et al. important is the multiphased surface uplift history of the 2006). Other approaches use mammal fossils as climatic Central Taurides that border the CAP from the south, for proxies (e.g., Böhme 2003; Fortelius et al. 2006; Eronen et which Mediterranean slab dynamics appear to have played al. 2009) or are based on sedimentologic analysis, such as a fundamental driving role in triggering a rapid phase of tracing the presence of lignite as an indicator of a warm surface uplift post-8 Ma (Cosentino et al. 2012; Schildgen and wet climate (e.g., Yağmurlu et al. 1988; İnci 1990). et al. 2012a, 2012b). This work presents the first comprehensive long-term Oligo-Miocene continental basins cover a remarkably oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) stable isotope analysis large area of the CAP (Figure 1). Numerous studies carried out on Middle Cenozoic continental successions were carried out to reconstruct Middle Cenozoic on the CAP. Lacustrine and pedogenic continental * Correspondence: [email protected] 793 LÜDECKE et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci

Kızılcahamam

Figure 1. Digital elevation map of Turkey with relevant geological and tectonic features and location of the studied sedimentary sequences. ECE: Ecemiş Corridor, MUT: Mut Basin, ILG: Ilgın Basin, GÖK: Gökler locality (Ankara region), KAS: Kasımlar locality (Ankara region). For geographic coordinates of the sampled sections, see Table 1; for field photographs, see Figures 2, 3, and 4. carbonate deposits are ubiquitous on the modern plateau such as water residence time, water balance, origin and and represent a premier framework for reconstructing composition of meteoric waters, sediment input, and Late Oligocene and Early Miocene paleoenvironments of climate changes such as fluctuations in precipitation the region. One of the main obstacles in reconstructing (e.g., Tucker & Wright 1990; Leng & Marshall 2004; past environmental conditions on the CAP, however, is the Gierlowski-Kordesch 2010). Provided that adequate scarcity of high-precision chronological constraints. Ages of age control is available, lacustrine carbonate deposited the sequences documented here are therefore based in part in such environments is capable of tracking some on published biostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic of this information and hence represents a valuable data as well as new 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of intercalated paleoenvironmental record. ash layers. Lake waters are part of the meteoric water cycle. The 18 18 13 δ O and δ C data from Chattian to Burdigalian oxygen isotopic composition of meteoric waters (δ Omw) paleolakes of the CAP indicate a long-term overall increase is affected by many factors, with the most important in lacustrine oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios over fractionation mechanisms for water being evaporation and time, with younger successions displaying an increased condensation at the hydrosphere–atmosphere interface positive covariance between δ13C and δ18O. Together with (Horita & Wesolowski 1994). The δ18O of lake water (δ18O ) is influenced by the field indicators of aridity (e.g., desiccation cracks) such a lw oxygen isotopic composition of meteoric waters supplied δ18O – δ13C covariance suggests a shift towards more arid to the lake, such as precipitation, surface runoff, and conditions during the Early Miocene. This trend may be groundwater inflow. Evaporation, itself governed by episodically interrupted by phases of increased humidity, temperature and relative humidity, strongly controls the especially during the Aquitanian when frequent climatic depletion in the light oxygen isotope 16O in the water (rainfall) fluctuations seem to have been common. phase. Changes in temperature, rainfall sources, riverine influx, and groundwater input are retained in the oxygen 2. Isotopic compositions of lake sediments 18 isotope ratios of carbonates (δ Ocarb) which precipitate 2.1. Stable oxygen isotope geochemistry from lake water (e.g., Turner et al. 1983; Talbot 1990; In contrast to marine environments, which are buffered Teranes et al. 1999; Lamb et al. 2000; Schwalb & Dean 2002; physically and chemically against minor environmental Leng & Marshall 2004; Yansa et al. 2007; Davis et al. 2009; changes, lakes represent highly sensitive and dynamic Deocampo 2010; Kent-Corson et al. 2010). Stratigraphic 18 systems, with the potential to record changes in hydrology changes in δ Ocarb values of lacustrine sections can

794 LÜDECKE et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci therefore be attributed to changes in temperature or a Thermo Delta V mass spectrometer at the Institute of 18 δ Olw (Leng & Marshall 2004). Lacustrine carbonate Geology, University of Hannover, as well as a Thermo MAT oxygen isotope records have been also used in isotope- 253 mass spectrometer at the Institute of Geosciences, based paleoelevation models exploiting the systematic University of Frankfurt. Both instruments were interfaced relationship between oxygen isotopes in precipitation and to a Thermo GasBench II. Analytical procedures followed surface elevation (e.g., Currie et al. 2005; Garzione et al. those of Spötl and Vennemann (2003). Raw isotopic ratios 2008; Mix et al. 2011; Campani et al. 2012). were calibrated against a Carrara marble in-house standard A common obstacle in assessing all such 18 as well as against NBS18 and NBS19 carbonate reference paleoenvironmental conditions is that δ Olw does not 18 materials. Final isotopic ratios are reported against necessarily reflect the primary composition of δ Omw; 18 13 it is therefore important to account for evaporation, the V-SMOW (δ O) and V-PDB (δ C). Overall analytical residence time of the lake water, and biogeochemical uncertainties on the isotopic ratios are better than 0.07‰ 18 13 18 absolute (δ O) and 0.04‰ absolute (δ C). Carbonate processes in the lake that potentially affect δ Olw (and δ13C) (Fronval et al. 1995; Cyr et al. 2005). Likewise, size contents were derived from standard-sample total peak and hydrology of a lake strongly control its ability to buffer area ratios and are precise to within 5% absolute. Isotopic short-term (seasonal to decennial) hydrometeorologic compositions of samples with less than 10 wt.% carbonate 18 18 variations in δ Omw that affect δ Olw. Finally, it should were not considered in this work. Accepted results from be noted that δ18O values of the global oceans (and hence 230 samples are given in the Appendix. meteoric water) change over time. An increase of about 3.2. 40Ar/39Ar geochronology 18 1.2‰ in marine δ O is estimated from the Early to Late Hornblende and biotite from tephra intercalations in the Miocene; the difference between Late Miocene and recent lacustrine sequences were dated by the 40Ar/39Ar method marine δ18O is about an additional 1‰ (Friedman & at the US Geological Survey (USGS) in Denver, Colorado. Hardcastle 1988; Zachos et al. 2001). High-purity mineral separates of 1 sample of hornblende 2.2. Stable carbon isotope geochemistry and 2 samples of biotite were irradiated together with The total dissolved inorganic carbon (TDIC) concentration mineral standards for 2 MWh in the central thimble in lacustrine environments is governed by changes in carbon position of the USGS TRIGA reactor using cadmium and nutrient cycling, as well as by productivity within the 40 lake and its catchment, which are often climatically induced lining to prevent nucleogenic production of Ar. The (Leng & Marshall 2004). Carbon isotopes are fractionated neutron flux was monitored using Fish Canyon Tuff during various carbon-cycle transitions and eventually get sanidine, applying an age of 28.20 ± 0.08 Ma (Kuiper et incorporated into authigenic and biogenic carbonates. The al. 2008), and isotopic production ratios were determined - from irradiated CaF and KCl salts. For this irradiation, HCO 3 is derived from the interaction of groundwater with 2 36 37 rocks and soils in the catchment and the dissociation of CO2 the following production values were measured: Ca/ Ca dissolved in the lake water. The temperature effect on13 δ C = 2.447 × 10–4 ± 0.47 × 10–4; 39Ca/37Ca = 6.5 × 10–4 ± 0.13 is relatively small during carbonate precipitation (Kelts & × 10–4; and 38K/39K = 1.29 × 10–2 ± 0.01 × 10–2. Several Talbot 1990). In general, δ13C in lacustrine environments irradiated mineral grains from the samples and individual is controlled by 3 predominant processes: (1) δ13C of mineral grains from the standards were loaded into 3-mm inflowing waters, (2) CO2 exchange between atmosphere wells within a stainless steel planchette attached to a fully and TDIC, and (3) photosynthesis/respiration of aquatic automated ultrahigh vacuum extraction line constructed plants within the lake (Leng & Marshall 2004). of stainless steel. Samples were incrementally degassed and Because closed-basin lakes generally experience eventually fused using a 20 W CO laser equipped with stronger perturbations in their physical and chemical 2 a beam-homogenizing lens. The gas was expanded and parameters, larger isotopic variations accompany their purified by exposure to a cold finger maintained at –140 hydrological balance as compared to open lakes and strong 13 18 °C and 2 hot SAES GP50 getters. Following purification, δ Ccarb-δ Ocarb covariance is typically indicative of closed lake hydrology. In contrast, an absence of such covariation the gas was expanded into a Mass Analyser Products is often displayed in lakes with stable water level, where the 215-50 mass spectrometer and argon isotopes were effect of vapor exchange with the atmosphere has a strong measured by peak jumping using an electron multiplier influence of the stable isotopic compositions (Li & Ku operated in analog mode. Data were acquired during 1997). 10 cycles, and time-zero intercepts were determined by best-fit regressions to the data. Ages were calculated 3. Analytical techniques from data that were corrected for mass discrimination, 3.1. Stable carbon and oxygen isotope geochemistry blanks, radioactive decay subsequent to irradiation, and Whole-rock samples were digested in orthophosphoric interfering nucleogenic reactions. Results are summarized acid and analyzed as CO2 in continuous flow mode using in Table 1.

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Table 1. Results of 40Ar/39Ar geochronology, along with sample ID, basin name and lithostratigraphy, geographic coordinates, dated mineral phase, and plateau age.

Basin Latitude Longitude Phase Plateau age with 1σ Sample ID (section) (N) (E) dated error (Ma) Ankara 10-GK-04 Hornblende 20.7 ± 0.2 (Gökler) 39°57′12.9″ 32°25′22.4″ Ankara 09-GK-13 Biotite 22.2 ± 0.2 (Gökler) Mut V-01-05 36°30′24.1″ 33°9′19.9″ Biotite 25.5 ± 0.2 (Fakırca)

4. Geologic and tectonic framework and waning of Antarctic continental ice sheets (Zachos et The Cenozoic geodynamic history of the Eastern al. 2001, 2008). Late Oligocene warming reduced the extent Mediterranean region was characterized by the interactions of Antarctic ice and until the Middle Miocene, global ice of several microcontinents, including the opening and volumes remained (relatively) low. With the exception of closure of oceanic basins and parts of the Paratethys several brief periods of glaciation, oceanic bottom water (e.g., Şengör & Yılmaz 1981; Şengör 1984, 1987; Stampfli temperatures slightly increased over time (Wright et al. 2000; Robertson et al. 2004). Post-Late Eocene closure 1992) and this warm phase peaked from 17 until 15 Ma of the Tethyan Ocean resulted in the development of the (Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum, Flower & Kennett Pontides in the north and Taurides in the south. Parts of 1994). Numerical simulations indicate global mean the Western Pontides were exhumed along a pre-Miocene annual temperatures of about 3 °C higher than today, and ductile shear zone (Okay et al. 2008), while the active uplift northern hemisphere meridional temperature gradients of the Central Pontides at the northern plateau margin being less pronounced than today. Climate proxy data is attributed to stress across the restraining bend of the from Central Europe indicate terrestrial temperatures that North Anatolian Fault since the Late Miocene (Yildirim may have been 9 to 12 °C warmer during this time (Böhme et al. 2011). Multiphase post-8 Ma surface uplift of the 2003; Mosbrugger et al. 2005; You et al. 2009; Ivanov & Central Taurides at the southern margin is associated with Böhme 2011; Knorr et al. 2011). This mid-Miocene warm slab break-off, which likely also influenced the evolution phase was followed by long-term gradual cooling and of the CAP as a whole (Cosentino et al. 2012; Schildgen et reestablishment of a major ice sheet on Antarctica by 10 Ma al. 2012a, 2012b). In the plateau interior of Anatolia Oligo- (Zachos et al. 2001). Miocene basin development was accompanied by intense 5.2. Eastern Mediterranean Miocene volcanism in the Galatian Province (e.g., Wilson The climate history of Anatolia and its surrounding regions et al. 1997). At the same time, the last marine deposits is not only influenced by global climate changes, but also by record Tethyan regression through SE Anatolia towards more regional events, such as regional-scale tectonic uplift, the SE (Şengör & Yılmaz 1981; Mazzini et al. 2013). which affects paleotopography, land-sea distributions, and, In Central Anatolia northward-dipping tilted basins as a consequence, local climatic response. Semiquantitative developed initially under a compressional regime as a result Miocene paleotemperature and paleoprecipitation of intracontinental convergence. These basins experienced reconstructions in Western and Central Anatolia were episodic marine ingressions (particularly in the east; e.g., established from the paleobotanical record (e.g., Akgün Lüttig & Steffens 1975). Arc- and collision-related basins et al. 2007; Akkiraz et al. 2011; Utescher et al. 2011). These developed in the Late Cretaceous to Oligocene, filled results indicate a warm subtropical climate in Central by marine turbidites and in turn by shelf to nonmarine Anatolia during the latest Chattian (ca. 24 Ma), with mean successions (Görür et al. 1998). Widespread calc-alkaline annual temperature between 16.5 and 21.1 °C, coldest month magmatism, extension, and strike-slip faulting all had temperature (CMT) between 5.5 and 13.3 °C, warmest a profound effect on the depositional architecture of the month temperature (WMT) between 27.3 to 28.2 °C, and Neogene basins of Central Anatolia (Okay 2008). mean annual precipitation that reached 1100–1400 mm/ year. Subsequently, early Aquitanian (23–22 Ma) CMT 5. Paleoenvironment and WMT remained largely constant with the potential 5.1. Oligo-Miocene climatic development presence of slightly lower (cold season?) temperatures. Oligo-Miocene lakes of Central Anatolia developed under These results are in agreement with the palynological a pattern of global climate change that involved the waxing record (Nagy 1990; Planderová 1991; Yavuz-Işık &

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Demirci 2009) and the widespread occurrence of reefal diversification in mountainous forests in Central Anatolia limestones in Turkey and neighboring regions that also suggests that its paleotopography was higher compared to indicate warm conditions (Görür et al. 1995). During that of western Anatolia (Akgün et al. 2007). A potential the latest Burdigalian (ca. 16 Ma), palynomorph data scenario depicts central Turkey as an erosional highland still suggest warm subtropical conditions, yet with lower in the Miocene, which decreased in elevation towards the temperatures than during the Chattian and Aquitanian surrounding shallow seas in the north, east, and south periods. Even cooler but still subtropical conditions (Görür & Tüysüz 2001). The Bitlis Ocean still existed in persisted during the Langhian (16–14 Ma), yet the impact the Early Miocene between the Anatolian highland and of the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum on CAP the Arabian platform, although it might have been reduced temperature and rainfall patterns is still largely elusive. to a narrow seaway (Görür & Tüysüz 2001). Sedimentary Collectively, these data suggest a persistent subtropical evidence implies the existence of the Kırkkavak ridge climate with alternating warmer and cooler periods in along the southwest plateau margin since at least the Central Anatolia. Starting in the middle to late Serravallian Middle Miocene (Deynoux et al. 2005; Çiner et al. 2008). (12–11 Ma), the climate changed from subtropical to The onset of uplift of the Taurides bordering the present- warm temperate. This cooling trend continued in the day CAP to the south is dated at post-8 Ma (Cosentino et Tortonian, where a warm temperate climate dominated al. 2012); the northern Pontide orogenic belt was uplifted with seasonally dry conditions (Görür & Tüysüz 2001). largely synchronously in the Late Miocene (Yıldırım et al. Mediterranean coral records indicate the presence of 2011). It is very likely that much of the Central Taurides seasonal climate variability as reflected by changes in did not yet exist as a prominent topographic entity during temperature and composition of Eastern Mediterranean the evolution of the paleolakes studied here, although some seawater during the Tortonian (ca. 10–8 Ma) when North paleorelief was present pre-Late Miocene in the area (Clark Atlantic atmospheric circulation dynamics may have had & Robertson 2002, 2005; Cosentino et al. 2012; Schildgen et al. 2012b). Marine sediments uplifted 1.5 to 2 km on the similar impact on temperature and rainfall seasonality southern margin together with regional lithostratigraphic as today (Brachert et al. 2006). For the Late Miocene correlations indicate an important period of surface and Early Pliocene, interpretation of palynological proxy uplift between ca. 7 and 5.45 Ma, most likely due to the data is still controversial, including warm and dry, warm dynamics of the subducting African slab and upper mantle and humid, or cold and humid conditions (Bertini 2006; upwelling beneath Central Anatolia (Cosentino et al. 2012; Yavuz-Işık & Toprak 2010). Mammal chronofauna data Schildgen et al. 2012b). indicate a decrease in precipitation starting in the latest Middle Miocene with a climax in the middle Late Miocene 6. Geologic setting of the studied sections and sampling (Eronen et al. 2009). Thus, Messinian climate conditions in strategy the Eastern Mediterranean are far from being understood, This study focuses on Upper Oligocene to Early Miocene yet significant changes in temperature and aridity lacustrine sequences and examines how combined compared to the Tortonian are likely (Schneck et al. 2010). 13 climatic and lake fill histories are recorded in their δ Ccarb 5.3. Paleogeography of Turkey 18 and δ Ocarb records. Stratigraphic sections presented here Many aspects of the paleotopographic history of Anatolia cover a large portion of the present-day CAP, including are still elusive. There is limited evidence for the presence the Ilgın Basin near Konya, the Ecemiş Corridor, and Mut of significant relief already during the Oligocene and Basin in the south, as well as the Gökler and Kasımlar Miocene, such as apatite fission-track data reflecting Late (sub)basins in the north, near Ankara (Figure 1). Paleogene exhumation in the Pontides (Zattin et al. 2005; 6.1. Timing of deposition and sedimentation rates Okay et al. 2008; Cavazza et al. 2011) or the presence of To better evaluate the paleoenvironmental proxy data, it is palynofloral elements that prefer higher altitudes such as important to estimate the amount of time represented by pines (Akkiraz & Akgün 2005). In addition, the widespread each sedimentary section studied by means of sedimentation occurrence of thick, coarse-grained red continental clastic rates. Based on the high carbonate proportion of the sediments of the Oligocene age as well as the mere presence mainly fine-grained sediments, we uniformly assume of lakes, which require a topographic isolation from the a sedimentation rate of ca. 100 m/Ma (Einsele 2000) for Paratethyan and Mediterranean seaways, strongly suggest all sections where stratigraphic tie-points are lacking. that some paleorelief was present within Anatolia. Along We are fully aware that such an approach is likely to be the SE margin of the plateau, marine sediments onlapping compromised by discontinuous sedimentation histories, the Tauride basement units (Cosentino et al. 2012) and change in basin subsidence, or sediment delivery and coarse Oligocene postalpidic conglomerates along the compaction, but given the overall limited age constraints northern flank of the margin (Clark & Robertson 2002, currently represents a first-order framework within which 2005) imply pre-Late Miocene paleorelief. Rich species we correlate our δ18O and δ13C lake records.

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In the Gökler section, our new argon geochronological planktic foraminifera (Ünlügenç et al. 1993) are indicative data derive from the basal and the topmost beds of the for marine conditions during deposition of the lower part sampled interval, which therefore precisely bracket a of the Çukurbağ Formation (Karsantı Basin), which places time span of 1.5 ± 0.4 Ma covered by the section. Here, the overlying continental deposits into the Oligocene the possibly fastest calculated sedimentation rate is (Yetiş 1968) or Oligocene to Early Miocene (Jaffey & 15.9 m/Ma (Table 2). Krijgsman et al. (1996) suggested a Robertson 2001). Sedimentological characteristics, such sedimentation rate of 50 m/Ma for the lacustrine sediments as horizontally or trough-cross bedded sandstones with in the Ilgın Basin, derived from magnetostratigraphic and poorly sorted rounded grains, suggest that some of the radiometric data. Therefore, the 38.5-m-thick succession coarser-grained parts of the Çukurbağ Formation must could cover a time span of ca. 0.8 Ma, which is in good have been reworked material deposited in both alluvial fan agreement with the relatively low sedimentation rates of and braided river environments, whereas the gray-green <100 m/Ma for large, long-lived, carbonate-dominated massive silty mud units are considered to have formed lakes (Einsele 2000. pp. 92 & 389). in lacustrine and flood-plain environments (Gürel et al. Lignite beds occur in some of the examined sections. 2007). About 40 km east of Niğde, and ca. 2.5 km north Their accumulation and preservation depend on the of the village of Pınarbaşı (37°54′4.4″N, 35°7′14.9″E), we depositional environment and on the maintenance of a sampled subvertically dipping NNE-SSW striking strata sufficiently high groundwater level (Bohacs 1999). Due to (Figure 2a). The logged profile has a thickness of 44.4 m, the sum of uncertainties, all sedimentation rates are only and we analyzed 40 gray-to-green and red-to-black marls considered to be first-order estimates. collected from an alternating sequence of coarsening- 6.2. Ecemiş Corridor upward silty marls with rare intercalations of thin-bedded, In the south of the CAP, the Ecemiş Fault Zone developed medium to very coarse grained sandstones and pebble in concert with Neogene-to-recent regional exhumation horizons. and surface uplift of the Central Taurides (Jaffey & 6.3. Mut Basin Robertson 2001, 2005). Oligocene to Miocene nonmarine The Mut Basin at the southern margin of the CAP is situated sedimentary environments were dominated by braided in the central part of the Taurides. A mixed siliciclastic- rivers flowing from the Niğde metamorphic massif in the carbonate succession of up to 1600 m thick makes up N feeding large inward draining lakes; the clastic fluvial the Oligocene and Miocene basin fill, which overlies deposits (Çukurbağ Formation) unconformably overlie deformed Paleozoic and Mesozoic marine platform Upper Eocene shallow marine carbonates (Yetiş 1968). carbonates and dismembered ophiolites (Şafak et al. 2005). Age constraints on the timing and rates of sedimentation The lithologically diverse succession of the Mut Basin is are rather poor. For the sampled Çukurbağ Formation we divided into 5 main lithostratigraphic units: (1) the deep- rely on published nonmarine fossil assemblages such as water, deltaic to lacustrine Yenimahalle Formation; (2) gastropods and ostracods that were correlated in the Ecemiş lacustrine siltstones and marls of the Fakırca Formation, Corridor with adjacent nonmarine basins (Blumenthal overlain by (3) red beds of the Derinçay Formation and (4) 1955; Yetiş 1968; Nazik & Gökçen 1992). Early Oligocene upper Burdigalian-upper Tortonian marls and limestones

Table 2. List of each sampled formation in the studied basins showing age and time span covered by the sampled section with an assumed sedimentation rate 1) of 100 m/Ma (Einsele 2000); 2) of 11.7 m/Ma, as derived from 2 geochronological tie-points in the section; and 3) of 50 m/Ma, as derived from magnetostratigraphic data (Krijgsman et al. 1996). The most probable age range is provided bya ) Fortelius (2012); b) this work; c) Krijgsman et al. (1996); d) Blumenthal (1955), Yetis (1968), Nazik and Göken (1992), and Ünlügenç et al. (1993).

Basin Ankara Ankara Ilgın Mut Ecemiş (section) (Kasımlar) (Gökler) Latitude (N) 40°39′46.8″ 39°57′12.9″ 38°27′37.2″ 36°30′24.1″ 37°54′4.4″ Longitude (E) 32°40′48.6″ 32°25′22.4″ 31°49′19.7″ 33° 9′19.9″ 35° 7′14.9″ Oligocene to Early Age Burdigalian Aquitanian Aquitanian Chattian Miocene Age constrained by Mammalsa Geochronologyb Magnetostratigraphyc Geochronologyb Nonmarine fossilsd Thickness of sampled 6.0 17.5 38.5 8.9 44.0 carbonates (m) Timespan covered (Ma) 0.061 1.52 0.773 0.091 0.441 Age range covered (Ma) 20–18 23.0–16.0 22.3–20.7 28.4–23.0 33.9–16.0

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5 cm

a b

5 mm 20 cm

c d

Figure 2. Field characteristics of the studied Oligocene to Lower Miocene sediments. a) Dense sampling of the Çukurbağ Formation in the Ecemiş Corridor near Pınarbaşı. b) Laminated silty marls of the Fakırca Formation in the Mut Basin near Gezende. c) Close-up view of the Fakırca marls showing well-developed lamination. d) Organic- bearing marls in the Ankara region near Kasımlar. of the Köselerli Formation that already form part of a Ostracod and foraminiferal assemblages as identified in marine transgressive succession, mainly represented by (5) the topmost Fakırca Formation range from Aquitanian to the Mut Formation (upper Serravallian-upper Tortonian), mid-Burdigalian and indicate a transition from Chattian that completely overlies the continental series (Gedik et al. freshwater conditions to a lagoonal to marine littoral 1979; Tanar & Gökçen 1990; Şafak & Gökçen 1991; Ilgar setting (Şafak et al. 2005). & Nemec 2005; Şafak et al. 2005; Cosentino et al. 2012; The logged profile has a thickness of 8.9 m; 57 fine- Cipollari et al. 2013). We sampled laminated silty marls grained, laminated marl samples and 1 sample from the of the Fakırca Formation (Figures 2b and 2c). Ostracod ash layer were taken from a road cut ca. 0.5 km south of microfaunas from various levels define an age range the village of Gezende (36°30′24.1″N; 33°9′19.9″E), about that encompasses the Late Oligocene to basal Miocene 70 km northwest of Silifke. (Tanar & Gökçen 1990), which is in very good agreement 6.4. Ilgın Basin 40 39 with an Ar/ Ar age of 25.5 ± 0.2 Ma obtained from an In the Ilgın Basin, in the western part of the CAP, a approximately 5-mm-thin biotite-rich ash intercalated Neogene succession of conglomerates, sandstones, marls, within the sampled section (sample V-01-05; see below). mudstones, limestones, and lignites (Ilgın Formation)

799 LÜDECKE et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci unconformably overlies Paleozoic metamorphic schists sampled Harmanyazı Member, yet to an unknown extent. and Mesozoic crystalline limestones (Canik 1981; Karayiğit Because of the excellent correlation of the micromammal et al. 1999; Koçyiğit 2000; Inaner 2005; Özdemir & İnce and paleomagnetic data, we consider an Aquitanian age 2005). The Ilgın Formation has been subdivided into 3 (Krijgsman et al. 1996) to be most reliable for the sampled members: the oldest, fluvial Tekeler Member is overlain Ilgın section. by the lacustrine Harmanyazı Member, itself overlain by We collected 67 carbonate samples from a 40-m-thick fluvial sediments of the Sebiller Member (Karayiğit et outcrop at the northern flank of an abandoned lignite al. 1999). The studied Harmanyazı Member consists of quarry about 21 km north of Ilgın and ca. 2.6 km west of light gray marls; partly laminated yellow, gray, and white the village of Gölyaka (38°27′37.2″N, 31°49′19.7″E). siltstones; claystones; and limestones that collectively 6.5. Ankara region attain up to 180 m of thickness (Figure 3). In the Ankara region we focused on 2 sections close to The age assignment for the Ilgın lignites and the the villages of Gökler (SW of Kazan) and Kasımlar (N of associated sediments is controversial. Based on limited Kızılcahamam). ostracod fauna and palynological data, a Late Miocene age Here, an iron oxide hardground surface that developed was proposed (Çağlar & Ayhan 1991) but later revised to on top of Middle Eocene (Lutetian) marine carbonates Early Miocene according to ostracod faunal assemblages (Orhaniye, NW of Ankara) is overlain by Miocene red (Tunoğlu & Celik 1995). Rodent assemblages identified clastic sediment. These are overlain by light gray-green- in the section directly above the lignite were attributed to beige mudrock successions, which consist of an alternation the mammal zone MN1 or MN2 (Aquitanian; de Bruijn of clayey limestone, siltstone, sandstone, and marls with & Saraç 1991) and correlation with paleomagnetic data tuff and tuffite interbeds and lignite layers. placed the succession at ca. 22.3 to 20.7 Ma (Krijgsman et al. 1996 using calibration of Gradstein et al. 2005). Oligocene 6.5.1. Gökler section 40Ar/39Ar ages of 30.5 Ma in a volcanic horizon on the top An abandoned quarry, formerly exploited for lignite, of the section are in conflict with the magnetostratigraphic ca. 40 km west of Ankara and ca. 0.8 km south of the results and suggest that these biotite-bearing sediments are village of Gökler (39°57′12.9″N, 32°25′22.4″E) exposes in fact reworked (Krijgsman et al. 1996). Subsequently, a an alternation of partly laminated light gray to green silty Middle Miocene age was suggested for the Ilgın section on mudrocks, a few lignite horizons, and tuffite beds, overlain the basis of spores and pollen data (Karayiğit et al. 1999). by white diatomites (Figure 4). Fifty-three carbonate 40Ar/39Ar ages of volcaniclastic horizons in the Upper samples were analyzed from a section of ca. 17.5 m thick. Altınapa Group in the adjacent Altınapa Basin provide In addition, 2 volcanic layers (samples 09-GK-13 and an age of 11.9 to 11.6 Ma (Koç et al. 2012). Field relations 10-GK-04) were sampled for 40Ar/39Ar geochronology and suggest that the Upper Altınapa Group is younger than the place the section within the Aquitanian (see below).

5 m 10 cm

a b

Figure 3. a) Excellent outcrop conditions of the Aquitanian Ilgın Formation in an abandoned coal quarry near Gölyaka. b) Dewatering structures in mudrocks and overlying marls of the Ilgın Formation.

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a

10 cm 10 cm

b c

Figure 4. Outcrop conditions of the Lower Miocene Gökler sequence in the Ankara region. a) Overview of the sampled succession with laminated marls at the base, overlain by lignite (dark unit), volcanic intercalation, and diatom rich sediments. Person (circle) for scale. b) Laminated marls and ca. 20 cm of ash layer (indicated with orange lines). c) Large shrinkage cracks in the upper part of the quarry indicate desiccation of wet sediment. Note that the shrinkage cracks occur slightly above the logged portion of the succession.

6.5.2. Kasımlar section heating experiments are presented in Figure 5. A list of The Kasımlar section consists exclusively of monotonous, each sampled section with the most probable age range very finely laminated, dark gray organic-bearing marls (or and time span is given in Table 2. Table 3 provides an “paper shales”: Figure 2d). Thirteen marl samples were overview of the δ18O and δ13C data. Isotopic data of the taken from a 6-m-thick section, exposed in an outcrop individual samples are listed in the Appendix. 85 km north of Ankara, ca. 0.8 km east of the village of 7.1. Ecemiş Corridor Kasımlar (40°39′46.8″N, 32°40′48.6″E). The Kasımlar 18 Oxygen isotope ratios of lacustrine carbonates (δ Ocarb) marl succession is listed in the “Neogene of the Old in the Çukurbağ Formation vary between 22.1‰ and World Database of Fossil Mammals” (NOW) with an age 25.6‰ with a median value of 24.7‰, whereas carbon 13 of 20 to 18 Ma (Fortelius 2012) based on micromammal isotope ratios (δ Ccarb) range between –6.0‰ and –0.8‰ chronology indicating mammal zone MN3 (de Bruijn & with a median value of –3.6‰ (n = 40; Figure 6a; Table 18 Saraç 1991; Rummel 1999; Saraç 2003; López-Antoñazas 3). δ Ocarb values decrease by about 1‰ in the lower 10 m et al. 2004). from 25.5‰ to 24.5‰, and then increase upsection to about 25.0‰ at around 20 m. The upper half of the section 7. Results (20 to 40 m) is characterized by a larger (up to ca. 3‰) 40 39 18 Table 1 summarizes the new Ar/ Ar geochronological variability in the oxygen isotope data with δ Ocarb values data. 39Ar release spectra as derived from multigrain step- between 22.1‰ and 25.2‰.

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7.2. Mut Basin Lithologically monotonous marls of the Fakırca Formation 18 13 show very little variation in δ Ocarb and δ Ccarb values 18 (Figure 6b; Table 3). δ Ocarb values vary between 23.8‰ 13 and 25.1‰ with a median value of 24.2‰, whereas δ Ccarb values range from –1.6‰ to –0.8‰ with a median of –1.3‰ (n = 57) and 1 outlier of –2.6‰ at around 4 m of the section. At the base of the section, δ18O values are

Apparent age (Ma) carb generally uniform around 24.0‰, with a slight increase upsection, yet with a notably smaller variability than c that observed in the older Çukurbağ Formation (Ecemiş 18 Corridor). The δ Ocarb values fall within the same range as those of these older sediments, but when compared to 13 the Çukurbağ Formation, the δ Ccarb values of the Fakırca Formation are about 2‰ less negative (Figure 6). Radiometric dating of biotites from a thin ash layer in the upper part of the section yielded a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 25.5 ± 0.2 Ma (Table 1; Figure 5a). 7.3. Ilgın Basin 18 δ Ocarb values of lacustrine marls in the Ilgın Basin vary Apparent age (Ma) between 20.9‰ and 34.5‰ with a median value of 30.0‰, 13 whereas δ Ccarb values are characterized by a remarkably b large variability ranging from –7.9‰ to 26.1‰ with a median value of 7.6‰ (Figure 7a). Overall, isotopic values in the Ilgın Basin display the most extreme variability of all analyzed sections (n = 67; Figures 7 and 9; Table 3). 18 Between 10 and 22 m in the section, δ Ocarb values increase 18 from 22‰ to more than 31‰. Upsection δ Ocarb values remain stable before they decrease again at the top of the section (44 to 48 m) to ca. 22‰. 13 18 δ Ccarb values co-vary with δ Ocarb. Between 10 and 13 22 m in the section, δ Ccarb values increase from –7‰ to

Apparent age (Ma) 10‰ and remain stable around 9‰ to 10‰ before they decrease again to values around 1‰ at the top of the section. We adopted the Aquitanian age of Krijgsman et al. a (1996) of ca. 22.3 to 20.7 Ma for the succession.

Cumulative %39Ar released 7.4. Ankara region Figure 5. Stepwise-heating 40Ar/39Ar degassing spectra with the 7.4.1. Gökler section 18 derived plateau ages from: a) an approximately 5-mm-thick, δ Ocarb values range between 24.3‰ and 30.9‰ with a biotite-rich, moderately altered ash layer at 7.0 m of the Fakırca median value of 29.4‰; values range from 3.5‰ to 7.7‰ Formation in the Mut Basin (sample V-01-05); b) a tuffite bed at 13 with a median value of 4.9‰ for δ Ccarb (n = 53; Figure the base of the Gökler profile (sample 09-GK-13); c) an ash layer 18 8a; Table 3). From 0 to 5 m, δ Ocarb values scatter around (crystal tuff) at 7.4 m of the Gökler profile (sample 10-GK-04). ca. 27‰ and then decrease to values of ca. 25‰ at ca. 7 18 13 m, yet with large variability in both δ Ocarb and δ Ccarb. 13 At 8 m, a very distinct shift of ca. 4‰ occurs and 18δ O Generally, δ Ccarb values show an inverse trend when carb 18 values attain ca. 30‰, and then remain relatively uniform compared to the δ Ocarb values. In the lower 20 m of 13 with a variability of mostly less than ±1‰. Between 0 and the section, δ Ccarb increases from ca. –5.5‰ to –2.5‰. 13 3 m, δ13C values average at ca. 4.5‰ and show a positive Upsection the δ Ccarb values average at ca. –3.0‰, yet carb­ 18 18 with an increased intrasample variability (up to 4.1‰). correlation with δ Ocarb. In a similar fashion to δ Ocarb, 13 Most of the marl samples from the Ecemiş Corridor have the δ Ccarb values also increase between 8 and 11 m before carbonate contents between 30% and 60%; however, there a good positive correlation between oxygen and carbon is no significant correlation between the carbonate content isotope ratios is observed again. Within the Gökler section, and δ18O and δ13C values. we dated 2 volcanic ashes: at the base of the succession

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18 13 Table 3. List of the stable isotope results for each sampled unit, sorted by age, with δ Ocarb and δ Ccarb ranges, their average and 2σ 18 standard deviation, number of analyzed carbonate samples, median δ Omw,rec values of recent meteoric waters in the vicinity of the examined sections with the 2σ standard deviation and number of samples (Schemmel et al. 2013), calculated fossil meteoric water δ18O values for lake temperature of 20 °C using the fractionation equation of Kim and O’Neil (1997), and the average difference between fossil and modern meteoric water δ18O.

18 13 18 18 18 Basin Median δ Ocarb Median δ Ccarb No. of carbonate δ Omw,rec (‰) Fossil δ Omw,cal Mean Δ δ Omw.rec – 18 (section) (‰) (‰) samples (Schemmel et al. 2013) (‰) δ Omw,cal (‰) Ankara 27.9 7.7 –10.7 ± 1.2 13 –1.2 9.5 (Kasımlar) ± 3.0 ± 4.9 n = 9 Ankara 29.2 4.9 –9.0 ± 0.8 53 0.1 9.1 (Gökler) ± 3.9 ± 3.4 n = 5 Ilgın 30.0 7.6 –9.6 ± 1.0 67 0.9 10.5 (Ilgın) ± 6.4 ± 12.5 n = 7 Mut 24.2 –132 –9.8 ± 0.6 57 –4.9 4.9 (Fakırca) ± 0.7 ± 0.5 n = 4 Ecemiş 24.7 –3.6 –11.7 ± 1.3 40 –4.4 7.3 (Çukurbağ) ± 1.6 ± 2.0 n = 15

40 39 18 biotites from a biotite-rich tuffite yielded a Ar/ Ar plateau carbonate formation (e.g., Leng & Marshall 2004). δ Olw age of 22.2 ± 0.2 Ma, whereas amphibole from a crystal tuff can be reconstructed using carbonate-water fractionation bed at the top of the section yielded a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age equations (e.g., Kim & O’Neil 1997) and assuming lake of 20.7 ± 0.2 Ma (Table 1; Figures 5b, 5c, and 7a). Therefore, water temperatures. Temperature is probably not the the timing of the deposition of the Gökler succession would only important parameter, since a 20 °C change of lake 18 largely overlap with that of the Ilgın succession. water temperature changes δ Ocarb values by only 4‰ to 7.4.2. Kasımlar section 5‰ (Kim & O’Neil 1997). For simplicity, only the values Monotonous laminated marls in the northern Ankara corresponding to a lake water temperature of 20 °C are 18 given hereafter. region show δ Ocarb values between 26.3‰ and 31.3‰ 13 with a median value of 27.9‰, whereas δ Ccarb values The reconstructed oxygen isotope ratios for Oligo- plot between 3.8‰ and 12.3‰ with a median value of Miocene lake waters plot between –4.9‰ and 0.9‰ (Table 7.7‰ (n = 13; Figure 8b). An overall trend in either 3). Depending on the geographic position with respect to isotopic composition in this short section is not evident. the modern orography of the CAP and its margins, oxygen 18 A covariation of the oxygen and carbon isotopic values is, isotope ratios of present-day meteoric waters (δ Omw) on however, rather apparent. Oxygen isotope ratios tend to the plateau range from –12‰ to –8‰ with an isotopic increase with decreasing carbonate content, which mostly lapse rate of ca. –3‰/km across the Taurides and Pontides 18 ranges between 20% and 50%. Absence of volcanic interbeds (Schemmel et al. 2013). Hence, modern δ Omw values prevents radiometric dating of this part of the section, but 7 are significantly more negative than the calculated fossil rodent and 8 insectivore species place the sampled section lake water oxygen isotope ratios (Table 3). This difference within mammal zone MN3, corresponding to an early might arise from 2 scenarios: (1) protracted evaporation Burdigalian age (ca. 20–18 Ma; de Bruijn & Saraç 1991; of Oligo-/Miocene lake waters, and/or (2) an essentially Rummel 1999; Saraç 2003; López-Antoñazas et al. 2004; flat topographic structure of Central Anatolia, which was Fortelius 2012). fundamentally different from that of the present-day CAP, with no major orographic barriers developed at either 8. Discussion margin. Oxygen and carbon isotope data of 6 paleolakes distributed Indeed, all studied successions were deposited prior over large distances on the CAP offer valuable insights into to the onset of Late Neogene major surface uplift of the the hydrological and paleoenvironmental conditions in southern and northern plateau margins (Yildirim et al. Central Anatolia during the Oligo-Miocene. Collectively, 2011; Cosentino et al. 2012; Schildgen et al. 2012a, 2012b) the data show an increase in aridity over time, interrupted apart from parts of the Western Pontides, which were by intervals of higher humidity. exhumed along a pre-Miocene ductile shear zone (Okay et 18 8.1. Fossil and recent δ Omw al. 2008). Based on our data, however, this relatively small The oxygen isotopic composition of lacustrine carbonates topographic relief had no large effect on oxygen isotopes 18 reflects the composition of lake water (δ Olw) during in precipitation on the plateau. The Oligo-Miocene oxygen

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Grain size Thickness (m)

Figure 6. Stratigraphic columns of the sampled sediments of the a) Ecemiş Corridor and b) Mut Basin showing main sedimentological features, the position of the samples (open circles), and the oxygen and carbon stable isotopic ratios. For legend, see Figure 7b. a) Stratigraphic column of the Ecemiş sediments near Pınarbaşı. b) Stratigraphic column of the Mut sediments near Gezende. Red line indicates position of the 40Ar/39Ar-dated sample. Displayed thickness of the ash layer is not to scale; real thickness is 5 mm.

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Mollusk fragments ) Ilgın Formation (Harmanyazı Member

Grain size Thickness (m)

Figure 7. a) Stratigraphic column of the sampled sediments of the Ilgın Basin showing main sedimentological features, the position of the samples (open circles), and the oxygen and carbon stable isotopic compositions. b) Legend for lithology, isotope plots, structures, and fossils as shown in Figures 6, 7, and 8.

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Thickness (m) Grain size Figure 8. Stratigraphic columns of the sampled sediments within 2 successions of the Ankara region showing main sedimentological features, the position of the samples (open circles), and the oxygen and carbon stable isotopic compositions. For legend, see Figure 7b. a) Stratigraphic column of the Gökler locality. Red line indicates position of the 40Ar/39Ar-dated sample. b) Stratigraphic column of the sediments of the Kasımlar locality. isotopic data presented here are, therefore, consistent with (Table 3). This difference is in line with the magnitude the lack of a marked orographic rainout at the margins of of oxygen isotope fractionation related to present-day the CAP (and associated decrease in δ18O of precipitation orographic rainout along the Pontide (ca. 4‰ to 5‰) and within the plateau interior). Tauride (ca. 7‰ to 8‰) margins (Schemmel et al. 2013). 18 Lacustrine carbonates of the Chattian Ecemiş Corridor We therefore tentatively attribute the fossil δ Omw values and Mut Basin show 5‰ to 7‰ less negative values to a paleotopography devoid of high-relief margins and 18 in fossil δ Omw than recent meteoric waters in this area hence predating the surface uplift of the Taurides and

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18 13 Figure 9. Results of the stable oxygen and carbon isotope analysis. a) Plot of δ Ocarb versus δ Ccarb values of all 230 carbonate samples 18 18 considered in this study. Hydrologically closed lakes often show δ Ocarb vs. δ Ocarb covariance; the high values reflect different degrees of equilibration of the TDIC with atmospheric CO2 and preferential evaporative loss of the light oxygen isotope (after Leng & Marshall 2004). b) Dot-chart of oxygen (left) and carbon (right) isotopic values of each sample site stratigraphically sorted by the most probable age. Red diamond indicates median of all individual sample values for each section. The spread of the data from the Ilgın section is extremely large. The median of all values is therefore displayed as a gray diamond. The black diamond indicates the18 δ O median of samples with a negative δ13C (black circles) as the best estimate for least evaporative lake water conditions. Note that the timing of the deposition of the Ilgın and Gökler (Ankara region) sediments possibly largely overlap.

18 Pontides. This interpretation is supported by the stable Fossil δ Omw,cal values from the Aquitanian to isotope geochemical features of the paleolakes close to Burdigalian Ilgın and Ankara sections are about 4‰ to the southern margin, which indicate humid subtropical 6‰ more positive than those from the Oligocene sections conditions with extensive, hydrologically open basins. (Table 3). We attribute this difference to a shift towards A rather flat topography is further indicated by marine more arid climatic conditions, as well as changes in lake sediments directly overlying the sampled section in the hydrology, which will be discussed below. Mut Basin (Ilgar & Nemec 2005).

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8.2. Oligo-Miocene paleoenvironmental conditions of evaporation balance (Figure 9a; Leng & Marshall 2004; the CAP Deocampo 2010). 18 13 Based on 5 detailed lacustrine δ O and δ C records that 8.2.2. Aquitanian to Burdigalian (Ilgın Basin and Ankara cover the precursor region of the CAP, we establish a first- region) order paleoenvironmental framework of Central Anatolia Sediments of the Gökler section have been precisely dated during the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene. herein; deposition of the sampled interval took place 8.2.1. Chattian (Ecemiş Corridor and Mut Basin) between 22.2 ± 0.2 and 20.7 ± 0.2 Ma, corresponding to an Field and stable isotope geochemical data of the Çukurbağ Aquitanian age (Figure 8a) and therefore possibly largely Formation in the Ecemiş Corridor indicate broadly overlapping with the age of the Ilgın section. The overlying similar paleoenvironmental conditions when compared to Kasımlar section has been dated by micromammals (de deposition of lacustrine marls of the Fakırca Formation in Bruijn & Saraç 1991; Rummel 1999; Saraç 2003; López- the neighboring Mut Basin (Figure 6). It is therefore likely Antoñazas et al. 2004) and is listed in the NOW Database that the 2 basins share broadly similar paleoenvironmental with an assigned age of 20 to 18 Ma (Fortelius 2012). Based histories. Such an interpretation is consistent with previous on the above age constraints, we place the Kasımlar section sedimentological studies (Şafak et al. 2005) and suggests a stratigraphically above the Gökler section. The age control similar (Chattian) age for the Fakırca Formation and the on the Ilgın section is provided by biostratigraphical and analyzed part of the Çukurbağ Formation, and may hence paleomagnetic data, which places the formation into the refine previous age assignments that included a broader, middle Aquitanian (22.3 to 20.7 Ma; Krijgsman et al. Oligocene to Early Miocene time interval (Blumenthal 1996). Collectively, these 3 sections cover parts of the Early 1955; Yetiş 1968; Nazik & Gökçen 1992; Ünlügenç et Miocene time interval. al. 1993; Jaffey & Robertson 2005). Palynological data The relatively sharp contact between the lignite seam at the base of the Ilgın section and the overlying sediments indicate Early Oligocene humid subtropical conditions of the Ilgın Formation may reflect a relatively rapid change in southwest Anatolia with lowland slope, swamp, and in paleoenvironmental conditions from a (sub)humid freshwater aquatic elements (Akkiraz & Akgün 2005). climate that favored development and preservation of Previous sedimentological studies describe Late Oligocene the lignite seam (Karayiğit et al. 1999) to a more arid, deposition in southern Anatolia as dominated by alluvial subtropical environment as indicated by increasing δ18O fans and large lakes, consistent with regional evidence for ratios from below 22‰ to ca. 30‰ in the lowermost 10 m a (periodically?) humid climate during this time (Ilgar & of carbonates above the lignite. Nemec 2005; Jaffey & Robertson 2005), which agrees well The fossil spore-pollen assemblages of the Ilgın with the observed δ18O lake water records in this study. lignite indicate a warm and humid climate with lakes and Oligocene palynological data of the CAP also indicate extensive wetlands (Karayiğit et al. 1999). The relatively humid subtropical climatic conditions and suggest a 18 low δ Ocarb values (22‰ to 24‰) of the sediments paleoenvironment with montane, lowland, slope swamp immediately overlying the lignite are in agreement with and water-edge palynofloral elements as well as freshwater 18 the inferred subtropical conditions; mean δ Ocarb values, lakes in the western part of the CAP during this time however, rapidly increase by ca. 8‰ (from 22‰ to 30‰) (Akkiraz & Akgün 2005; Akgün et al. 2007; Akkiraz et between 10 and 20 m of the sampled section. Similarly, we al. 2011; Utescher et al. 2011). Furthermore, our results observe an increase in δ13C from ca. –5‰ to 4‰. Taken agree with those of Şafak et al. (2005), who suggested that together, these data indicate a transition towards more the lacustrine depositional environment of the Fakırca arid conditions and the development of an increasingly Formation was tranquil, with a very restricted supply of closed lake system. This interpretation is supported by a terrigenous detritus and with little evidence of sustained decreasing grain-size trend and a statistically significant wave or current activity. positive covariance of the oxygen and carbon isotopic 18 18 13 The δ Ocarb values from both the Mut and Ecemiş ratios. Upsection (20 to 56 m) δ O and δ C values remain sections are relatively low (22‰ to 25‰). Together with high and display a remarkable high-frequency variability. 13 the low δ Ccarb values (–6‰ to –1‰), the overall restricted The extremely large but (quasi-)periodic fluctuations oxygen and carbon isotope variability, the published in δ18O and δ13C values of the Ilgın lacustrine carbonates palynological data, and the lack of aridity indicators in indicate that the lake environment reacted rapidly to the sedimentary facies, the combined Mut/Ecemiş record changing paleoenvironmental conditions including most likely reflects a hydrologically open lake system with lake level, freshwater input, and biological productivity. large water volumes and stable lake levels developed under Whereas the overall extremely high δ18O and δ13C a relatively humid climate with a positive precipitation– values appear to be climatically controlled, their well-

808 LÜDECKE et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci documented high-frequency, high-amplitude fluctuations the east to the west, between ca. 11 and 7 Ma (Fortelius et are likely connected to local environmental factors. al. 2006). δ18O and δ13C data in the Gökler section suggest a shift To complement the stable isotope records presented in lake hydrology towards more restricted lake conditions at here, it would be beneficial to further distinguish the approximately around 21 Ma (4–6 m of section; Figure 8a). effects of regional and temporal climatic and hydrological At this time (middle Aquitanian) carbonate precipitation variations and evaluate their influence on the stable isotopic took place in a humid environment with a positive compositions in lacustrine carbonates. In addition, further precipitation-to-evaporation ratio. This interpretation work should concentrate on determining the timing and 18 is supported by comparatively low δ Ocarb values of ca. rates of sedimentation in lacustrine environments covering 26‰ to 27‰ at the base of the section, which increase the modern CAP. rapidly by about 5‰ (from ca. 25.5‰ to ca. 30.5‰) over 13 the course of 1 to 2 m in the section. δ Ccarb values are 9. Conclusions not as negative as in the Chattian (28.4 to 23 Ma) Ecemiş We present a comprehensive long-term oxygen and carbon and Mut sections described above, but they do not attain stable isotope study from 5 dated sedimentary sequences such extremely positive values as those in the section in distributed over the CAP, ranging in age from Chattian to the stratigraphically similar Ilgın Basin (Figure 7). The Burdigalian and encompassing 230 lacustrine carbonate 18 δ Ocarb shift in Gökler section occurs roughly coeval to samples. In addition to existing biostratigraphic and the deposition of the ca. 1-m-thick lignite deposits and paleomagnetic data, we use new 40Ar/39Ar geochronological 13 is accompanied by a slightly sluggish shift in the δ Ccarb data from volcanic ashes to add new age constraints to the values, amounting to about 2‰. Storm deposits, the depositional ages of the individual basin successions. presence of lignite, and desiccation cracks (ca. 5 m above Field relationships and stable isotope geochemistry the logged portion of the section) all indicate a relatively are consistent with a relatively humid climate in the shallow littoral environment, with the stable isotope data Late Oligocene with landscapes characterized by large, strongly suggesting a changeover from hydrologically hydrologically open freshwater lakes. In the Aquitanian, open to more restricted conditions shortly before the a phase of generally more arid conditions with frequent Aquitanian/Burdigalian transition. Whereas the elevated climatic fluctuations such as short-lived humid periods, oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios most likely reflect a possibly recording the influence of seasonality, topography, more arid climate compared to the Chattian, the fact that and the waxing and waning of aridity, is reported. Roughly the major isotopic shift occurs coeval to lignite deposition around 21 Ma, the climatic evolution of the CAP led (itself typically requiring humid conditions) calls for to increasingly arid conditions with a dominance of additional processes affecting the hydrologic balance closed, freshwater to mildly saline lakes. The absence of of the lake, such as, e.g., the separation of an ephemeral significant orographic barriers along the plateau margin lagoon or regional forest-wetland environments. prior to 20 to 16 Ma, such as the Taurides and Pontides The Burdigalian Kasımlar sediments in the Ankara today, is consistent with the generally high fossil δ18O lake region show an increased variability in δ18O and δ13C water values sampled within the modern plateau interior. values (Figure 8b). First-order covariance between Altogether, the paleoenvironment and paleohydrology of δ18O and δ13C values is consistent with fluctuating lake Central Anatolian lake basins was spatially and temporally level, biological productivity in the lake, and a relatively highly variable in the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene. low precipitation-to-evaporation ratio. Nevertheless, the homogeneous, laminated, organic-rich character Acknowledgments of the marls suggests a relatively distal depositional This is a VAMP contribution to the ESF Eurocores environment. Paleovegetational climatic proxy data for the TopoEurope project (DFG Mu-2845/1-1 to A.M. and late Aquitanian to Burdigalian are in excellent agreement TÜBİTAK Project 107Y333 to B.R.). A.M. acknowledges with our findings (Akgün et al. 2007). The taxonomic additional support through the LOEWE funding program composition of middle Burdigalian silicified fossil wood (Landes Offensive zur Entwicklung Wissenschaftlich from the Ankara region bears good resemblance with ökonomischer Exzellenz) of Hesse’s Ministry of Higher its present-day counterparts (Akkemik et al. 2009). Education, Research, and the Arts. The manuscript Hypsodonty-based interpretation of precipitation rates benefited from helpful reviews by D. Cosentino and indicates an east-west (continental-marine) humidity C.S. Bayarı. We acknowledge discussion about the gradient, i.e. a shift of semiarid conditions in Europe from interpretation of NOW data with J. Eronen.

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Appendix. List of all carbonate samples sorted according to sections, with sample ID, stratigraphic position within the section, isotopic values, and carbonate proportion.

18 13 Section Sample ID Depth (m) δ OV_SMOW (‰) δ CV_PDB (‰) Carbonate (%) Kasımlar 10-KR-13 6.0 28.5 8.1 15 Kasımlar 10-KR-12 5.5 26.4 5.0 47 Kasımlar 10-KR-11 5.0 26.3 5.7 44 Kasımlar 10-KR-10 4.5 27.9 9.7 44 Kasımlar 10-KR-09 4.0 29.5 10.4 38 Kasımlar 10-KR-08 3.5 31.3 9.2 32 Kasımlar 10-KR-07 3.0 28.4 7.7 33 Kasımlar 10-KR-06 2.5 26.6 3.8 52 Kasımlar 10-KR-05 2.0 26.6 4.9 64 Kasımlar 10-KR-04 1.5 27.2 6.3 26 Kasımlar 10-KR-03 1.0 26.8 7.0 49 Kasımlar 10-KR-02 0.5 28.6 12.3 40 Kasımlar 10-KR-01 0.0 29.6 8.7 25 Gökler 09-GK-50 16.2 30.2 6.6 37 Gökler 09-GK-49 15.9 29.9 5.9 15 Gökler 09-GK-48 15.8 30.4 5.6 32 Gökler 09-GK-47 15.0 30.0 6.1 28 Gökler 09-GK-46 14.9 30.3 3.6 32 Gökler 09-GK-44 14.7 27.0 5.2 16 Gökler 09-GK-43 14.5 30.1 7.1 35 Gökler 09-GK-42 13.9 30.3 6.9 18 Gökler 09-GK-41 13.7 30.1 6.6 23 Gökler 09-GK-40 13.6 29.7 6.9 24 Gökler 09-GK-39 13.4 30.1 7.3 31 Gökler 09-GK-38 13.3 26.9 3.5 17 Gökler 09-GK-37 13.0 29.1 6.5 24 Gökler 09-GK-53 12.9 30.7 7.7 43 Gökler 09-GK-36 12.8 30.6 6.9 21 Gökler 09-GK-31 12.1 29.9 7.1 38 Gökler 09-GK-30 12.0 29.9 7.1 34 Gökler 09-GK-29 12.0 29.7 6.8 29 Gökler 09-GK-28 11.7 29.2 6.2 32 Gökler 09-GK-27 11.6 29.7 5.1 22 Gökler 09-GK-26 11.4 30.2 5.2 26 Gökler 09-GK-25 11.3 29.3 4.6 38 Gökler 09-GK-55 11.1 30.5 6.9 35 Gökler 09-GK-54 10.7 30.9 6.3 23 Gökler 09-GK-38 8.5 30.7 4.8 44 Gökler 09-GK-37 8.4 30.9 4.9 47 Gökler 09-GK-36 8.2 30.8 4.2 48 Gökler 09-GK-35 7.9 29.7 4.5 39 Gökler 09-GK-34 7.5 26.8 4.0 37 Gökler 09-GK-12B 7.1 25.2 3.5 40 Gökler 09-GK-12A 7.1 26.5 4.1 34

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Appendix. (continued).

Gökler 09-GK-11 6.8 25.2 5.0 24 Gökler 09-GK-10 6.3 24.3 4.4 28 Gökler 09-GK-09 5.9 25.4 4.9 35 Gökler 09-GK-08 5.7 27.0 3.7 48 Gökler 09-GK-07B 4.6 30.4 –3.5 47 Gökler 09-GK-07A 4.6 25.6 4.0 38 Gökler 09-GK-06 4.6 26.2 4.3 54 Gökler 09-GK-05 4.5 26.2 4.1 50 Gökler 09-GK-04 4.3 26.3 3.7 54 Gökler 09-GK-03 4.1 26.8 4.2 53 Gökler 09-GK-02 3.9 27.1 4.4 50 Gökler 09-GK-01 3.7 26.4 4.1 48 Gökler 09-GK-24B 2.9 27.0 4.2 24 Gökler 09-GK-24A 2.9 26.5 4.0 43 Gökler 09-GK-23 2.7 26.8 4.2 51 Gökler 09-GK-22 2.5 26.6 4.3 50 Gökler 09-GK-21 2.2 28.0 5.4 52 Gökler 09-GK-20 2.0 27.5 4.8 48 Gökler 09-GK-19 1.8 27.6 5.0 38 Gökler 09-GK-18 1.5 26.8 4.1 41 Gökler 09-GK-16 1.1 26.0 3.8 49 Gökler 09-GK-15 0.8 26.6 3.7 47 Ilgın 11-CS-98 38.5 22.4 –0.3 100 Ilgın 11-CS-97 38.0 28.6 4.0 52 Ilgın 11-CS-96 37.5 29.7 3.8 67 Ilgın 11-CS-93 36.0 33.0 10.4 98 Ilgın 11-CS-92 35.5 29.4 8.7 89 Ilgın 11-CS-91 35.0 31.7 16.1 100 Ilgın 11-CS-90 34.5 34.3 26.1 100 Ilgın 11-CS-89 34.0 30.8 21.7 87 Ilgın 11-CS-88 33.5 26.8 2.8 67 Ilgın 11-CS-87 33.0 31.1 4.7 75 Ilgın 11-CS-86 32.5 30.1 10.5 73 Ilgın 11-CS-85 32.0 30.8 7.2 59 Ilgın 11-CS-84 31.5 31.4 6.6 32 Ilgın 11-CS-83 31.0 27.8 2.5 45 Ilgın 11-CS-82 30.5 33.6 6.2 72 Ilgın 11-CS-81 30.0 30.2 6.9 53 Ilgın 11-CS-80 29.5 30.6 7.5 44 Ilgın 11-CS-79 29.0 31.2 11.1 68 Ilgın 11-CS-78 28.5 32.4 12.3 91 Ilgın 11-CS-77 28.0 30.3 9.6 78 Ilgın 11-CS-76 27.5 31.0 9.1 86 Ilgın 11-CS-75 27.0 33.4 12.2 88 Ilgın 11-CS-74 26.5 29.9 15.4 58 Ilgın 11-CS-72 25.5 31.9 16.2 93 Ilgın 11-CS-71 25.0 30.2 11.4 84

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Appendix. (continued).

Ilgın 11-CS-70 24.5 27.1 3.7 93 Ilgın 11-CS-69 24.0 30.8 7.5 98 Ilgın 11-CS-68 23.5 29.5 4.7 53 Ilgın 11-CS-67 22.1 32.4 10.4 96 Ilgın 11-CS-66 21.6 30.1 8.2 62 Ilgın 11-CS-65 21.1 31.8 10.5 81 Ilgın 11-CS-64 20.6 29.0 4.5 56 Ilgın 11-CS-63 20.1 24.1 0.7 88 Ilgın 11-CS-62 19.6 23.0 –1.1 98 Ilgın 11-CS-61 19.1 30.6 14.3 78 Ilgın 11-CS-60 18.6 30.1 8.5 64 Ilgın 11-CS-36 18.4 30.0 6.5 41 Ilgın 11-CS-35 18.0 31.8 15.5 95 Ilgın 11-CS-34 17.5 29.9 5.2 36 Ilgın 11-CS-33 17.0 30.4 10.4 44 Ilgın 11-CS-30 15.5 31.0 11.4 87 Ilgın 11-CS-29 15.0 31.7 9.5 82 Ilgın 11-CS-28 14.5 29.5 11.7 77 Ilgın 11-CS-27 14.0 31.8 8.4 86 Ilgın 11-CS-26 12.8 31.3 9.7 75 Ilgın 11-CS-25 12.3 33.6 10.9 84 Ilgın 11-CS-24 11.8 26.4 0.3 64 Ilgın 11-CS-23 11.3 29.1 4.6 61 Ilgın 11-CS-21 10.3 29.9 5.6 13 Ilgın 11-CS-20 9.8 30.4 6.4 55 Ilgın 11-CS-19 9.3 31.1 8.0 47 Ilgın 11-CS-18 8.8 29.2 12.2 63 Ilgın 11-CS-17 8.3 28.3 3.7 59 Ilgın 11-CS-16 7.8 28.1 3.5 76 Ilgın 11-CS-15 7.3 25.7 –0.7 50 Ilgın 11-CS-14 6.8 29.6 8.6 68 Ilgın 11-CS-13 6.3 27.1 7.6 86 Ilgın 11-CS-12 5.8 27.8 9.4 83 Ilgın 11-CS-11 5.3 24.7 0.8 63 Ilgın 11-CS-09 4.3 27.9 9.9 81 Ilgın 11-CS-08 3.8 22.4 –6.1 81 Ilgın 11-CS-07 3.1 20.9 –3.9 80 Ilgın 11-CS-06 2.6 29.5 11.3 49 Ilgın 11-CS-05 2.1 28.8 7.2 91 Ilgın 11-CS-04 1.6 21.5 –7.9 88 Ilgın 11-CS-02 1.0 21.3 –7.3 33 Ilgın 11-CS-01 0.0 22.1 –6.7 64 Mut V-01-126B 8.9 24.6 –1.3 34 Mut V-01-126A 8.9 25.1 –1.4 40 Mut V-01-125 8.6 24.7 –0.8 58 Mut V-01-124 8.0 24.8 –1.1 50 Mut V-01-123 7.7 24.6 –0.9 60

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Appendix. (continued).

Mut V-01-122 7.3 24.9 –1.1 62 Mut V-01-121 7.0 24.9 –0.9 67 Mut V-01-120 6.7 25.1 –1.0 70 Mut V-01-119 6.5 24.9 –1.0 65 Mut V-01-118B 6.1 24.9 –0.8 71 Mut V-01-118A 6.1 24.8 –0.9 64 Mut V-01-117B 5.8 24.4 –1.4 35 Mut V-01-117A 5.8 24.9 –1.6 30 Mut V-01-116 5.6 24.4 –1.2 60 Mut V-01-115 5.3 24.6 –1.0 67 Mut V-01-114B 4.9 24.4 –1.0 62 Mut V-01-114A 4.9 24.7 –1.2 52 Mut V-01-113 4.6 24.5 –1.1 55 Mut V-01-112 4.3 24.3 –1.2 56 Mut V-01-111B 4.1 24.1 –1.0 60 Mut V-01-111A 4.1 24.4 –2.6 19 Mut V-01-110B 3.8 23.9 –1.4 51 Mut V-01-110A 3.8 24.0 –1.3 52 Mut V-01-109B 3.4 24.0 –1.1 56 Mut V-01-109A 3.4 24.1 –1.2 60 Mut V-01-108 3.1 24.1 –0.9 60 Mut V-01-107 3.0 24.8 –1.5 42 Mut V-01-106 2.9 23.9 –1.2 58 Mut V-01-105B 2.8 24.3 –1.3 48 Mut V-01-105A 2.7 24.5 –1.6 33 Mut V-01-104 2.6 23.9 –1.4 56 Mut V-01-103 2.5 24.0 –1.4 53 Mut V-01-102 2.4 24.5 –1.5 48 Mut V-01-101 2.3 24.0 –1.3 58 Mut V-01-100 2.2 24.2 –1.4 47 Mut V-01-99 2.1 23.8 –1.3 52 Mut V-01-98 2.0 24.0 –1.2 53 Mut V-01-97 1.9 24.5 –1.5 35 Mut V-01-96B 1.8 23.9 –1.5 42 Mut V-01-96A 1.7 24.1 –1.5 30 Mut V-01-95 1.6 24.1 –1.4 46 Mut V-01-94 1.5 24.1 –1.4 40 Mut V-01-93 1.4 24.2 –1.4 50 Mut V-01-92 1.3 24.1 –1.3 36 Mut V-01-91 1.2 23.8 –1.3 57 Mut V-01-90B 1.1 24.0 –1.1 53 Mut V-01-90A 1.0 23.8 –1.3 53 Mut V-01-89B 0.9 23.8 –1.1 56 Mut V-01-89A 0.8 24.0 –1.3 48 Mut V-01-88B 0.7 24.0 –1.2 52 Mut V-01-88A 0.6 23.9 –1.3 52

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Appendix. (continued).

Mut V-01-87B 0.5 24.3 –1.1 52 Mut V-01-87A 0.4 24.0 –1.4 48 Mut V-01-86 0.3 24.2 –1.2 39 Mut V-01-85B 0.2 24.3 –0.8 64 Mut V-01-85A 0.1 24.0 –1.2 53 Mut V-01-84 0.0 24.3 –1.4 44 Ecemiş 10-BM-42 44.0 25.0 –2.4 41 Ecemiş 10-BM-41 43.0 24.8 –3.4 43 Ecemiş 10-BM-39 41.5 25.0 –3.9 44 Ecemiş 10-BM-38 40.5 24.6 –2.1 52 Ecemiş 10-BM-37 39.5 25.4 –2.5 40 Ecemiş 10-BM-36 38.5 24.4 –3.5 40 Ecemiş 10-BM-35 37.5 23.6 –3.7 41 Ecemiş 10-BM-34 33.2 25.0 –3.1 37 Ecemiş 10-BM-33 32.2 23.3 –3.5 63 Ecemiş 10-BM-32 31.2 23.6 –3.6 45 Ecemiş 10-BM-31 30.2 23.2 –2.9 54 Ecemiş 10-BM-30 29.2 23.5 –3.4 53 Ecemiş 10-BM-29 28.3 22.7 –2.6 49 Ecemiş 10-BM-28 27.5 23.6 –3.0 56 Ecemiş 10-BM-26 25.5 24.4 –4.9 42 Ecemiş 10-BM-25 24.5 22.8 –0.8 67 Ecemiş 10-BM-24 23.5 22.1 –2.8 54 Ecemiş 10-BM-23 22.5 25.2 –2.2 37 Ecemiş 10-BM-22 21.5 24.3 –2.8 36 Ecemiş 10-BM-21 20.3 24.5 –2.7 41 Ecemiş 10-BM-20 19.2 24.2 –2.5 44 Ecemiş 10-BM-19 18.5 24.8 –3.1 37 Ecemiş 10-BM-18 17.5 25.0 –3.6 31 Ecemiş 10-BM-17 16.5 25.0 –4.5 35 Ecemiş 10-BM-16 15.5 24.9 –3.8 30 Ecemiş 10-BM-15 14.5 25.1 –3.8 35 Ecemiş 10-BM-14 13.5 24.7 –3.8 37 Ecemiş 10-BM-13 12.5 24.9 –3.7 39 Ecemiş 10-BM-12 11.5 24.4 –4.4 40 Ecemiş 10-BM-11 10.5 24.3 –4.2 43 Ecemiş 10-BM-10 9.5 24.8 –3.9 36 Ecemiş 10-BM-09 8.5 24.5 –4.2 41 Ecemiş 10-BM-08 7.5 25.1 –4.5 46 Ecemiş 10-BM-07 6.5 24.7 –4.6 38 Ecemiş 10-BM-06 5.5 25.2 –4.8 45 Ecemiş 10-BM-05 4.5 24.8 –5.0 47 Ecemiş 10-BM-04 3.6 25.4 –4.9 37 Ecemiş 10-BM-03 2.7 25.5 –4.8 34 Ecemiş 10-BM-02 1.5 25.6 –6.0 54 Ecemiş 10-BM-01 0.4 25.4 –5.1 48

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