Experiences of Advisors/Mentors in Developing Leadership Emergence in a Post Conflict, Marginalized Society: a Phenomenological Study

Experiences of Advisors/Mentors in Developing Leadership Emergence in a Post Conflict, Marginalized Society: A Phenomenological Study

by John E. Pyzdrowski

B.S. in Management, May 1978, United States Air Force Academy M.B.A. in Management, May 1986, Hardin-Simmons University

A Dissertation submitted to

The Faculty of the Graduate School of Education and Human Development of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education

May 21, 2017

Dissertation directed by

Michael J. Marquardt Professor of Human and Organizational Learning and International Affairs

The Graduate School of Education and Human Development of The George Washington

University certifies that John E. Pyzdrowski has passed the Final Examination for the

degree of Doctor of Education as of January 30, 2017. This is the final and approved form

of the dissertation.

Experiences of Advisors/Mentors in Developing Leadership Emergence in a Post Conflict, Marginalized Society: A Phenomenological Study

John E. Pyzdrowski

Dissertation Research Committee:

Michael J. Marquardt, Professor of Human and Organizational Learning and International Affairs, Dissertation Director

Shaista E. Khilji, Professor of Human and Organizational Learning, Committee Member

David A. Rude, Learning Director, Organizational Sciences and Culture, Inc., Committee Member

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank and acknowledge the contributions of my dissertation committee, Dr. Michael Marquardt, Chairperson, Dr. Shaista Khilji, and Dr. David Rude, whose support, interest, assistance and patience made this research study possible.

The author would also like to thank all faculty members and staff of the Executive

Leadership Doctoral Program for their wisdom, guidance, and counseling regarding all things educational and whose dedication to learning set the highest standard of excellence. In all sincerity, please accept my genuine appreciation for the superb knowledge you impart and the significant impact you have made in my life.

The author also extends my sincere appreciation to my parents; my father for being my mentor and the epitome of a leader by example; and to my mother, my teacher, whose constant caring, tenderness and love developed in me a genuine appreciation for life and gratitude regarding life’s most treasurable moments. Additionally, the author would like to thank and recognize my children for their continuous encouragement and tenacity which they taught me through the pursuit of their own goals and aspirations. The author also wishes to extend my continued love and appreciation to especially my wife,

Deborah, who demonstrated understanding, patience, and support throughout this entire undertaking, and whose enduring faith helped me to understand that life is less about the acceptance of fate and more about the pursuit of destiny.

Further, thanks to the many scholars and academics who provided thoughtful dialogue and conversation regarding leadership, culture and learning and whose constant pursuit of knowledge provided me with the perseverance and persistence to accomplish one of my life’s goals. Finally, my special thanks to advisors, mentors, trainers and

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teachers participating in capacity building efforts advocating free societies’ human rights principles.

Abstract of Dissertation

Experiences of Advisors/Mentors in Developing Leadership Emergence in a Post Conflict, Marginalized Society: A Phenomenological Study

This study examines lived experiences of advisors and mentors during leadership development efforts and how understanding cultural differences enables leadership emergence. Work conducted by advisors and mentors in Afghanistan provided the focus for research. The qualitative approach used incorporated interviews of ten participants.

The researcher used Moustakas’ phenomenological research method to explore the lived experiences. Findings provide understanding of how cultural differences influence leadership emergence development in marginalized societies and how cultural differences influence approaches to developing local leaders.

Conclusions from this study provide meaning because they address gaps in knowledge regarding experiences related to leadership development for society’s marginalized elements, leadership approaches mentors report important in fulfilling their roles, and methods to develop emerging leaders. Conclusions indicate 1) mentor and advisor experiences stress the importance of adaptability, demonstrated competence and positive outlook; 2) building trusted relationships, leadership as a social process, and the emerging leader construct form foundational elements of mentoring in post-conflict marginalized societies; 3) trust, critical thinking, planning, accountability and expertise are leadership competencies that result in mentor success; 4) developing leadership emergence in cultures other than one’s own require engagement strategies that enable rapid understanding of how to deal with cultural differences; 5) mentees in marginalized societies can alter mentors perspectives; and 6) developing leadership emergence is a non-gender specific process and should emphasize technical expertise.

This study offers recommendations for practice in developing leadership emergence and illuminates future research. Recommendations for practice include: providing intensive leadership development training for mentors and fostering increased multicultural understanding for emerging leaders; the importance of developing trusted relationships and networks; fostering curiosity in learning about other cultures; promoting the need for openness toward cultural differences; and integrating cooperative learning into leadership development practices. Recommendations for research include using actual field experience of leadership development that takes into account cultural differences; study on leadership emergence of youth in marginalized societies; study on indigenous cultures through the lens of cultural dimensions; and future meta-analysis of leader emergence in developing nations and vulnerable groups.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………iii

Abstract of Dissertation…………………………………………...... v

List of Figures…………………………………………………..……….………….....…xx

List of Tables…………………………………………………………….…………..….xxi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Overview ...... 1

Background ...... 3

Problem Statement ...... 9

Research Problem ...... 10

Purpose ...... 11

Research Questions ...... 14

Statement of Potential Significance ...... 14

Conceptual Framework ...... 18

Theoretical Foundation ...... 22

National Culture ...... 23

Mentoring ...... 24

Learning ...... 25

Leadership Development and Leadership Emergence ...... 27

Summary of the Research Methodology and Procedures ...... 28

Limitations of Study ...... 33

Researcher Bias ...... 36

Definition of Key Terms ...... 37

vii

Summary ...... 42

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 44

Introduction: Topics, Purpose, and Method of the Literature Review ...... 44

Description and Critique of Scholarly Literature ...... 46

Mentoring/Advising…………………………………………………..….46

Social Learning Theory ...... 49

Leadership Development ...... 51

Afghan Culture ...... 53

Marginalized Societies ...... 59

Leadership in the Global Context ...... 62

Approaches to Leadership Studies ...... 64

Global Leadership………………………………………………………..69

Culture Research and Cross-Cultural Issues ...... 75

National and Societal Culture ...... 75

Kluckholn and Strodtbeck…………………………….……………..81

Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions...…………………….……………..82

Cultural Dimensions of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner...... …..83

Schwartz's Dimensions Based on Values……….…………………..84

Cultural Dimensions of Project GLOBE…………….…….………..85

Project GLOBE: Global Leadership and Culturally Contingent

Leadership Dimensions………………...... …..89

Societal and Organizational Culture Relationships ...... 95

Implications of Cultural Constraints and Cultural Differences ...... 98

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Synopsis of the Literature on Culture ...... 102

Leadership Emergence ...... 103

Retrospective View of the Study of Leadership Emergence ...... 103

Leadership Emergence Themes ...... 118

Trait Based Leadership Emergence ...... 119

Personality Factors and Leadership Emergence ...... 127

Emergent Leader Behaviors ...... 132

Cognitive Aspects of Leadership Emergence ...... 138

Group Emotion / Emotional Response in Leadership Emergence ....142

Pattern and Variable Approaches to Leadership Emergence ...... 152

Social Network Analysis in Leadership Emergence: ...... 156

Leadership Emergence in Multicultural Teams ...... 159

Perceptions and Leadership Emergence ...... 167

Leadership Emergence and Gender Bias ...... 171

Complexity and the Leadership Emergence Process ...... 185

Task Framing and Leadership Emergence ...... 191

Synopsis of the Literature on Leadership Emergence ...... 195

Implications for Research ...... 199

Summary ...... 203

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 205

Overview ...... 205

Research Questions ...... 208

Research Procedures ...... 209

Epistemology ...... 209

Theoretical Perspective ...... 211

Rationale for Selecting the Phenomenological Research Tradition ...... 214

Phenomenology...... 214

Transcendental Phenomenology ...... 216

Epoché...... 220

Research Design ...... 226

Research Methods ...... 234

Interviews ...... 235

Procedures ...... 237

Unit of Analysis ...... 238

Population ...... 239

Recruitment of Participants...... 241

Sample Selection ...... 243

Data Collection ...... 245

Data Collection Methods ...... 247

Transcribing the Interviews ...... 249

In-depth Interviews ...... 251

Data Handling ...... 256

Data Analysis ...... 256

Trustworthiness ...... 263

Credibility ...... 264

Transferability ...... 265

Dependability ...... 266

Confirmability ...... 266

Protection of Human Subjects and Ethical Considerations ...... 267

Summary ...... 271

CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH FINDINGS ...... 274

Purpose and Research Question ...... 274

Overview of Chapter ...... 275

Individual Profiles ...... 276

Participants Background Experience ...... 278

Phenomenological Reduction ...... 287

Reducing Quotations and Codes into Invariant Meaning Horizons ...... 287

Invariant Meaning Horizons and Cluster Themes ...... 289

Question 1 Findings: Major Challenges Developing Leadership Skills in Afghanistan .290

Major Challenges ...... 292

(1) Lack of critical thinking ...... 292

(2) Gender bias ...... 294

(3) Preconceptions regarding leadership and associated prejudices ...... 295

(4) Lack of general understanding ...... 296

(5) Lack of transparency ...... 297

(6) Lack of confidence (& self-esteem) ...... 298

(7) Lack of continuity ...... 299

(8) Lack of interaction ...... 299

(9) Language barriers ...... 300

(10) Corruption ...... 301

(11) Illiteracy (lack of literacy) ...... 302

(12) Lack of education ...... 303

(13) Lack of initiative (and interest) ...... 304

(14) Lack of security ...... 305

(15) Nepotism ...... 306

(16) Self-destruction (brown stamp collectors) ...... 307

(17) Ethnicity, regionalism ...... 308

(18) Lack of infrastructure ...... 309

Other challenges...... 310

Question 2 Findings: Descriptions of Advisors and Mentors Roles ...... 311

Mentor Roles ...... 313

(1) Critical thinking...... 314

(2) Leading ...... 314

(3) Teaching ...... 315

(4) Teambuilding ...... 316

(5) Managing ...... 317

(6) Mentoring ...... 318

(7) Decision making ...... 320

(8) Building accountability ...... 321

(9) Providing Continuity ...... 321

(10) Goal setting ...... 321

(11) Questioning ...... 322

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(12) Training ...... 322

(13) Capacity building ...... 323

Question 3 National Culture Influence on What / How You Developed Local Leaders .324

How Mentors Developed Local Leaders ...... 326

(1) Stressed importance of building trusted relationships...... 326

(2) Taught cultural acumen ...... 329

(3) Promoted use of critical thinking ...... 331

(4) Taught inclusive leadership to enhance cooperation ...... 332

(5) Conducted gender training to alleviate bias ...... 333

(6) Taught common curriculum, emphasizing creative disruption ...... 334

(7) Taught teambuilding skills while promoting teamwork ...... 335

(8) Empowered mentees and created self-perception as emerging leaders ...... 335

(9) Continually encouraged mentees ...... 337

(10) Taught managing skills to achieve objectives ...... 338

(11) Promoted fact-based decision processes ...... 339

(12) Used informal interaction to facilitate learning ...... 340

(13) Stressed accountability and taking ownership ...... 341

(14) Provided candid insight into strengths and weaknesses ...... 341

(15) Provided guidance on how to deal with ethnic, tribal and regional groups .341

(16) Promoted results orientation in performing tasks ...... 342

(17) Implemented tailored approaches ...... 342

Question 4 Findings: National Environment Impact Types Leadership Skills Needed ..343

Types of Leadership Skills Needed ...... 344

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(1) Relationship skills (building trust) ...... 345

(2) Critical thinking skills ...... 346

(3) Leadership skills ...... 348

(4) Professional skills ...... 349

(5) Managing skills ...... 351

(6) Decision making skills ...... 351

(7) Planning skills ...... 351

(8) Accountability skills ...... 352

(9) Communication skills ...... 353

(10) Cultural awareness skills ...... 354

(11) Vision skills ...... 354

(12) Self-improvement skills ...... 355

Question 5 Findings: National Environment Impact to Developing Local Leaders ...... 356

Approaches to Developing Local Leaders ...... 359

(1) Trusted relationships ...... 359

(2) Cultural awareness / cultural acumen ...... 361

(3) Critical thinking...... 363

(4) Cooperative learning ...... 364

(5) Emerging leader construct ...... 367

(6) Promoting transparency...... 371

(7) Teambuilding ...... 372

(8) Humility ...... 373

(9) Tailored approaches ...... 374

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(10) Demonstrated expertise ...... 375

(11) Positive orientation ...... 376

(12) Build accountability ...... 377

(13) Perspective setting and objectivity ...... 377

(14) Planning and coordination ...... 378

(15) Vision for the future ...... 379

Question 6 Findings: Enabled Success as a Mentor and Advisor ...... 380

Enabled Success as a Mentor and Advisor ...... 381

(1) Cultural awareness / cultural acumen ...... 382

(2) Critical thinking...... 383

(3) Build trust ...... 383

(4) Teambuilding ...... 386

(5) Transparency ...... 386

(6) Applying the emerging leader construct ...... 387

(7) Managing ...... 388

(8) Humility ...... 388

(9) Demonstrated expertise ...... 389

(10) Patience ...... 390

(11) Continuous feedback ...... 390

(12) Listening skills ...... 391

Question 7 Findings: Change/Improve as a Mentor/Teacher ...... 391

Change/Improve as a Mentor/Teacher ...... 392

(1) Values changed ...... 393

(2) Cultural awareness / cultural acumen ...... 395

(3) Leadership ...... 396

(4) Mentoring ...... 396

(5) Transparency ...... 396

(6) Appreciative inquiry ...... 397

(7) Confidence ...... 397

(8) Patience and tolerance ...... 397

(9) Self-improvement ...... 398

(10) Planning and prioritizing ...... 399

(11) Tailored approaches ...... 399

(12) Positive orientation ...... 400

(13) Gained perspective ...... 400

(14) Problem solving...... 401

(15) Listening skills ...... 401

(16) Information sharing ...... 402

(17) Curiosity increased ...... 402

(18) Empathy ...... 402

(19) Teambuilding ...... 403

(20) Continuity ...... 403

Summary of Initial Findings ...... 403

Imaginative Variation to Develop Composite Textual-Structural Description ...... 405

Context and Setting of the Composite Textural-Structural Description ...... 406

Structural Themes to Derive Essential Invariant Structure ...... 408

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Synthesis of Composite Textural-Structural Description and Intuitive Integration .415

Composite Textural-Structural Description of Essence……………….….. 416

Composite Textural-Structural Synthesis: Experience of Advisors/

Mentors in Developing Leadership Emergence……...………………….…416

Statement of Essence ...... 421

Chapter Summary ...... 423

CHAPTER 5 – INTERPRETATIONS, CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 425

Overview ...... 425

Findings, Interpretations and Conclusions ...... 426

Discussion of the Findings ...... 427

Finding 1……………………………………………………………...……….427

Finding 2……………………………………………………………...……….428

Finding 3……………………………………………………………...……….430

Finding 4……………………………………………………………...……….431

Finding 5……………………………………………………………...……….433

Finding 6……………………………………………………………...……….434

Finding 7……………………………………………………………...……….435

Finding 8……………………………………………………………...……….439

Finding 9……………………………………………………………...……….440

Finding 10………………………………………………………….....……….442

Finding 11………………………………………………………….....……….444

Finding 12………………………………………………………….....……….445

Finding 13……………………………………………………….…....……….447

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Finding 14…………………………………………………….……...….…….449

Finding 15……………………………………….…………………...…….….450

Interpretations and Conclusions ...... 453

Conclusions ...... 455

…….....Conclusion 1…………………………………………………………………...456

…….....Conclusion 2…………………………………………………………………...459

…….....Conclusion 3…………………………………………………………………...462

…….....Conclusion 4…………………………………………………………………...465

…….....Conclusion 5…………………………………………………………………...468

…….....Conclusion 6…………………………………………………………………...471

Limitations of the Study...... 474

Summary of Conclusions ...... 476

Implications for Practice, Research and Theory ...... 477

Recommendations for Practice ...... 477

Recommendations for Research ...... 481

Implications for Theory ...... 487

Summary ...... 492

Concluding Remarks ...... 493

REFERENCES ...... 495

APPENDIX A ...... 588

Solicitation of Participants Letter ...... 588

APPENDIX B ...... 589

Interview Protocol ...... 589

xviii

APPENDIX C ...... 590

Approval Letter ...... 590

Proposal Approval ...... 590

APPENDIX D ...... 592

Participant Information and Consent Forms ...... 592

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Constructs for the Research………………..……………………………..…..19

List of Tables

Table 2-1. Cultural Dimension Studies…………………………………………………..79

Table 2-2. Global Leadership Dimensions as Identified by Project GLOBE……...…….81

Table 3-1. Data Gathering, Analyses, Reduction & Imaginative Variation……...….…238

Table 3-2. Study Participants’ Roles and Respective Codes……………………...……243

Table 3-3. Qualitative Research Activities……………………………………………..259

Table 4-1. Data Gathering, Analyses, Reduction & Imaginative Variation………....…276

Table 4-2. Participants’ Profession, Age, Experience, Education and Role……...….…277

Table 4-3. Examples of Phenomenological Reduction for Quotations & Codes to

Horizons…………………………………………………………………………….…..287

Table 4-4. Summary of Interview Question 1 Invariant Meaning Horizons and

Theme Clusters………………………………………………………………………....291

Table 4-5. Summary of Interview Question 2 Invariant Meaning Horizons and

Theme Clusters………………………………………………………………………....312

Table 4-6. Summary of Interview Question 3 Invariant Meaning Horizons and

Theme Clusters…………………………………………………………………..……..325

Table 4-7. Summary of Interview Question 4 Invariant Meaning Horizons and

Theme Clusters……………………………………………………………...………….343

Table 4-8. Summary of Interview Question 5 Invariant Meaning Horizons and

Theme Clusters……………………………………………………………………...….356

Table 4-9. Summary of Interview Question 6 Invariant Meaning Horizons and

Theme Clusters…………………………………………………………………...…….380

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Table 4-10. Summary of Interview Question 7 Invariant Meaning Horizons and

Theme Clusters…………………………………………………………………..……..391

Table 4-11. Key Challenges Impacting the Perspectives of Participants………………408

Table 4-12. Derived Structural Themes and Core Structural Meanings of

Participants’ Experience…………….………………………………………….…...….409

Table 4-13. Structural Themes Aligned to Participants, Using Meaning Units and

Theme Clusters………………………………………………………………………....414

Table 4-14. Invariant Structural Themes; Number of Participants and Cluster

Themes……………………………………………………………………………...…..414

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Overview

Within leadership studies, the concept of leadership as an emerging process received increased attention in the 1980s and 1990s (Kickul and Neuman, 2000; Moss and Kent, 1996), but many of the research studies focused on other than field conditions where the realities of daily life impacted the perceptions of how emergent leadership occurred, and the emphasis at the time did not take into account how leadership emerged in transformative societies such as what we have in the 21st century. Emergent leadership

as a social process occurs when individuals assume a leadership role in a self-directed

manner without a formal or predetermined appointment by an authority (Moss and Kent,

1996; Mahar and Mahar, 2003). This understanding of emergent leadership within relatively defined organizations is important given the increasing occurrence of leaderless group situations (Moss and Kent, 1996), the expounded need for teamwork processes

(Kickul and Neuman, 2000) and the reality of technology-based self-managed virtual teams (Carte et al., 2006). While the literature on emergent leadership indicates that it can be observed as a phenomenon and that certain factors can be identified as determinants of the process, what is not prevalent in research is the epistemology of what may influence how leaders emerge and the essence of conditions that help to promote leadership emergence as a phenomenon in elements of society considered vulnerable groups.

According to the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

Strategy on Democracy Human Rights and Governance (June 2013), in many developing countries, states govern without adequate regard for the needs, interests or preferences of their citizens; and political systems in which citizens have few mechanisms to engender

changes in policy and leadership consistently produce unsatisfactory government performance and policy outcomes. Over the course of the last decade, work by the United

States Department of State strove to develop leaders in emerging democracies and post- conflict nations. As reported in the Summary of U.S. Foreign Aid for Fiscal Year (FY)

2002 through FY 2011, obligations for Total Economic and Military Assistance was more than $406 billion, of which State Department Assistance alone totaled more than

$185 billion. A significant amount of this funding was dedicated to leadership development of host nation personnel by advisors, mentors, and trainers sponsored by the

United States whose responsibilities included instilling leadership practices and business acumen so as to enhance the host nation’s ability for self-governance. Further, President

Obama, at the United Nations Millennium Development Goals summit in September

2010 announced that the United States would change its policy towards foreign aid, with the U.S. focusing more on effectiveness, and make sure donated food, medicine, and money help countries get to the point where they no longer require such aid (United

Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2010).

The context for this study is post-conflict transformative societies where certain elements of the population are vulnerable or have become marginalized, and whose political aspirations can be characterized as emerging democracies. The order of the words used to describe the context of this study is purposeful. Post-conflict is most obvious in countries such as Afghanistan and Iraq, where military forces were engaged but have subsequently withdrawn (and now re-engaged); however, the Arab Spring movement in Northern Africa is equally applicable as civilian elements pushing for social change contributed to the uprisings. Transformative describes those movements whose

efforts are aimed at transforming institutions, infrastructures and organizations whose

tendencies may not be inclusive and transparent. Marginalized describes elements of any

population that may be underrepresented, discriminated against, or persecuted; and could

be considered vulnerable as a result of patriarchal-type institutions. Finally, the combined

term societal elements rather than societies is used in the context of a certain set of

demographics, i.e., women, race, gender, ethnicity, religion, etc., that comprise sub-

elements of a nation’s population.

Identifying emergent leadership in this context can be challenging. While interaction between members of societal elements may be apparent, it is the leader’s ability to achieve objectives or pursue a vision that contribute to their success given the settings in which leadership occurs. Insight into emergent leadership can be considered lacking with regard to conditions that may promote its occurrence, especially when members of societies are unable to accomplish their objectives or are deemed inadequate in terms of goal achievement. In addition, understanding the essence of how leaders emerge remains relatively unexplored since much of the research has focused on team related activities or more formal business settings which stress building effective relationships in order for leadership to emerge. However, in those situations where marginalized or vulnerable elements of society lack leadership due to oppressive regimes or discriminatory practices, the emergent leadership as a continuous process can help to overcome many of the obstacles that these groups face.

Background

“Leadership emergence is a function of the interaction between the personalities of a group’s members and situation’s determinants (Sorrentino and Field, 1986, p. 1099). Other

factors influencing emerging leadership are the purpose of the group, type of task, length of association, group composition, relation to outside groups and incentives (Sorrentino and

Field, 1986). Emergent leadership as a social process occurs when individuals assume a leadership role in a self-directed manner without a formal or predetermined appointment by those in authority (Moss and Kent, 1996; Mahar and Mahar, 2003). “…Because emergent leadership is an evolutionary phenomenon, the continual reassessment of who emergent leaders are is essential” (Moss and Kent, 1994, p. 1344). Based on the literature, emergent leadership can be observed as a phenomenon with determinants identified regarding traits, behaviors and contexts of the emergent process but more research is required.

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Strategy on

Democracy Human Rights and Governance (June 2013) identified principal development objectives for post-conflict and emerging nations. These specific objectives identify both the need to understand leadership and the manner in which leaders emerge as they attempt to enhance the livelihood of the societal elements of which they are a part.

Development Objective 1: Promote participatory, representative, and inclusive political processes and government institutions. In many countries, large groups of people are excluded from involvement in the political processes that define their opportunities and quality of life. Many governments operate in a closed and nontransparent manner without the meaningful participation of citizens. In addition, historically marginalized groups face even greater barriers to participation and representation. The many characteristics that can result in marginalization differ among countries, and include geography, ethnicity, color, religion, creed, age, class, disability, sexual orientation, education and gender identity.

Development Objective 2: Foster greater accountability of institutions and

leaders to citizens and to the law. In many developing countries, states govern without

adequate regard for the needs, interests or preferences of their citizens. Political systems

in which citizens have few mechanisms to engender changes in policy and leadership

consistently produce unsatisfactory government performance and policy outcomes and

may result in endemic corruption.

Recent USAID efforts aimed at achieving these development objectives

include countries such as Afghanistan where transition to a more representative

government has served only to restrict or reverse even the most basic human

rights and educational opportunities marginalized groups such as women have

gained over the last decade, depriving the country of the productive contributions

of half its population, greatly diminishing national development prospects. Even

today, despite official Afghanistan Government mandates endorsing equal rights

for women, they are seriously under-represented in all sectors of society,

professionally marginalized, and lack institutionalized opportunities to assume decision making and leadership roles in government, the private sector and civil society. As one example of a marginalized element of society, research shows that women serve as a catalyst for many positive changes at all levels of society.

Access to education, for example, improves women’s long-term economic prospects and helps lift themselves and their families out of poverty (World Bank

Policy Research Report, Mason and King, 2000).

Research also demonstrates that women’s rights and opportunities are essential to maximize the economic and development potential of a country

(Hausmann et al., 2011 ‘The Global Gender Gap Report, 2011’). Women’s

empowerment, then, is inextricably linked to security, economic opportunity,

effective governance, and social development around the world. “Just as investing in women and girls can create a positive development cycle, however, the

opposite is also true: countries that fail to empower half their population will

suffer from lower productivity, slower economic growth, and weaker

development outcomes (World Bank Development Report, 2012).” These

examples serve to illustrate how leaders as members of marginalized elements of

societies are faced with the need to be proactive and more often than not exhibit a

high degree of advocacy for their particular cause.

Understanding how these leaders emerge (as compared to the act of

leadership itself) affords researchers the opportunity to explicate the essence of

what these emerging leaders believe, what motivates them, and how they describe

themselves. Focusing on this understanding is in lieu of identifying leadership

characteristics that include behaviors, traits, or actions which would be more

appropriately codified using a purer definition of leadership as an act with

contributing characteristics such as emergence as a process.

Leadership emergence in general terms has been identified as anyone who

challenges the status quo in a country’s infrastructure, within industry or associated with

an organization by using a blend of new leadership ideas and steadfast leadership principals. Consistent with this identification, emergent leaders have been recognized as people who are comfortable not having all the answers, generally seek consensus, know when to make a quick firm decision, freely share information and communicate clearly.

However, these characteristics and behaviors are more suited to traditional organizational

and business settings where technology and communications schema are used to inspire

others to action and collaboration is effectively used. While the concept of emerging

leaders is compatible with a view of leadership that is emergent, collaborative, as well as

complex, the question becomes one of whether prior research has accurately captured the

dynamic nature of either leadership emergence or the essence of how leaders emerge.

Consistent with the Development Objectives above, USAID continues to promote

freedom for all in many post-conflict nations. Particularly acute are barriers to women’s

political participation. Even where the legal rights of women are formally equal, cultural

discrimination often remains. USAID’s Democracy Human Rights and Governance strategy and Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy are mutually reinforcing in their emphasis on the principles of inclusiveness and accountability (USAID, Gender

Equality and Female Empowerment Policy, Washington, DC: USAID, 2012). Similarly, legal and cultural barriers can hinder the participation of a wide range of marginalized groups based on geography, ethnicity, religion, age, social mobility, disability, education, sexual orientation, and gender identity. Hence, if participation and inclusion are characteristic of emerging leaders, an understanding of how these leaders emerge would go a long way in overcoming legal and cultural barriers that exist for all marginalized and/or vulnerable groups.

Emergent leadership as conceptualized in the literature identifies several facets of the phenomenon that research has uncovered and helps to understand the dynamic process in action. Variables that seem to be important in understanding emergent leadership include the leader’s traits (Moss and Kent, 1996; Cronshaw and Ellis, 1991;

Bass, 1990), leader behaviors (Kickul and Neuman, 2000; Anderson and Wanberg, 1991;

Sorrentino and Field, 1986), and the context (Carte et al., 2006; De Souza and Klein,

1995) from which a leader can emerge such as a crisis (Hunt et al., 1999) or a group project (Carte et al., 2006).

Just as there is no definitive description of the competencies needed by leaders, the most effective means through which individuals develop as leaders is often driven by the cultural conditions and social context that exists. Many expatriates, advisors and mentors rely on approaches traditionally used in their respective country’s domestic leadership development programs, such as education, training, career development, 360° assessment and feedback, executive coaching, job rotation, special project assignments, and other developmental experiences, irrespective of host nation cultural differences. As such, these traditional, domestically-based leadership development methods used in isolation may not result in developing the desired leadership competencies appropriate for differing cultures.

Day (2000) stressed that leadership development has its origins in and should comprise a more contemporary, relational model of leadership. This model assumes that leadership is a function of the social resources that are embedded in relationships (Day,

2000, p. 605); and leadership is considered an emergent property of social systems

(Salancik et al., 1975). Leader development focusing on the individual as an emerging leader, has an orientation toward developing human capital which emphasizes the development of individual capabilities such as those related to self-awareness and self- motivation (Day, 2000).

Problem Statement

The importance of culture and how it influences leadership emergence is extremely crucial given today’s globalism. Practitioners and scholars alike agree that culture plays an important role in how leaders emerge and in leadership development.

Individual perceptions of the various aspects of culture are crucial to understanding how culture influences leaders and the act of leadership. However, implementers often struggle during capacity building efforts in drawing distinctions between approaches that work in one culture as compared to another, and they sometimes fail to properly account for how cultural differences can inhibit leadership emergence. National and societal culture should be considered equally important concepts to consider in fostering leadership emergence. Culture can be said to be the bond that ties members of a society together and also impacts leadership emergence. When advisors and mentors from one country working in a host nation do not recognize cultural differences and address them, misunderstandings may occur, performance shortfalls can result among emergent leaders, or rejection of leader and/or leadership development efforts may occur.

Emerging leaders in post-conflict nations operate in complex contexts, often shouldering leadership, administrative and management responsibilities that simultaneously span multiple social paradigms, language dialects, and cultures. This complexity presents emergent leaders with significant challenges and at the same time offers them equally significant developmental opportunities. Although progress has been made in identifying the competencies, skills and traits leaders need in developing nations, research has not yielded definitive results to date as evidenced by many of the negative after action reports generated by the U.S. Government and/or donor nations concerning

Afghanistan and similar countries. To address these concerns, research needs to examine

the impact of leadership emergence as a phenomenon and leadership development efforts

by advisors and mentors on how culture and leader development efforts may influence

leadership emergence and learning by host nation personnel.

Research Problem

Many designated leaders or self-organized groups associated with marginalized or

vulnerable elements of society are unable to sustain themselves because of a lack of

leadership competencies. Individual success stories, however, afford researchers the

opportunity to study underlying aspects of how leadership emergence occurs and improve

our understanding of why some leadership development efforts are more successful than

others. This becomes all the more important given that donor nations have been

advocating leadership development for recipient nations using advisors, mentors and

trainers who more often than not are unable to determine whether their efforts aimed at

transforming vulnerable groups and transitioning fully to host-nation autonomy are truly

successful. In the case of Afghanistan, a culture of corruption further complicates leader

and leadership development efforts and negatively impacts emergent leadership

processes. While many donor countries and non-governmental organizations have

attempted to codify leadership theory and its practical application, many efforts have

failed. In these situations, the identification of leaders based on personal traits or attributes, and confusion generated by group member role-based attributes could be better

served by increasing host nation prospective leaders understanding of what fosters leadership emergence. Having marginalized elements of society and their respective governments gain a better understanding of leadership development, defined as the

collective capacity of organizational members to engage effectively in leadership roles

and processes (McCauley et al., 1998), would go a long way in understanding how leaders emerge and how leadership emergence when viewed as a distributed process can sustain the development of emerging leaders in organizations and nations.

Finally, with regard to a predominant region of the world (i.e., Afghanistan) as the

focus of the study, despite a significant number of existing leadership programs in the

country, leadership development efforts have seemingly had a less than desired impact on

a large percentage of women that have participated, slowing their advancement within

their areas of influence. Shortcomings of existing leadership programs include a focus on

leadership exclusively in the context of politics; theoretical rather than application and experiential methodologies; lack of coaching and follow-up; and an absence of role

models.

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to explore the lived experiences of advisors, mentors,

and trainers they identify as important in their performance during leadership training and development efforts. The study will seek to gain an understanding of how knowledge of cultural dimensions and cultural differences enable leadership emergence.

Since advisors and mentors from donor nations and non-governmental organizations are in a unique position to offer insights into practices that promote leadership emergence, it is anticipated that this empirical research will also discover how emergent leadership in groups is influenced by social structures themselves, and for potential leaders to benefit from the understanding of different learning orientations so as

to stimulate emergent leadership. More specifically, the research seeks to gain

understanding as to how advisors and mentors enable emergent leadership in host nation

personnel that had previously lacked the confidence, business practices and social acumen as potential leaders of ministerial and provincial level agencies and organizations in Afghanistan. The Afghanistan ministries themselves serve the entire country’s population and comprise a half dozen or so ministries and more than 500 personnel. This study will identify the impact of the advisors and mentors and their implementation of leadership development concepts and seek greater understanding of cultural sensitivities on leadership emergence.

Specifically, this study seeks to illustrate how an enhanced understanding of cultural contexts, through a phenomenological study, can uncover the key cultural differences that need to be taken into account by mentors in order for leaders to emerge in post-conflict nations. By exploring the lived experiences of advisors and mentors as they perform capacity building, it will be possible to achieve a better understanding of how leadership emergence is enabled by a better understanding of the impact that differences in cultures can have. Examining how advisors and mentors in international settings make sense of their experience will serve to illuminate how they take into account cultural differences between their own culture and the host nation culture when developing host nation leaders. The study also seeks identify how advisors and mentors make sense of their experiences in their daily routines in the host country environment and how an understanding of learning orientations of mentees further enables emergent leadership for marginalized or vulnerable elements of societies. The goal is to make explicit the tacit knowledge regarding leader and leadership development that advisors and mentors accumulate in the course of their assignments in a host country. More specifically, what

do they employ to make sense of how cultural awareness enables emergent leadership for host country personnel? How do they examine long-held cultural frames of reference that may be inappropriate for them in the host country? Additionally, the context of advisors and mentors in international assignments will be used to understand the role that culture plays during international leadership development.

Since international development and host nation capacity building involve societal and national cultures, an increased sensitivity in this regard could positively influence how leaders emerge. Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) and House et al. (2004) cultural dimensions, Schein's (1985) model of organizational culture as assumptions, values, and artifacts and Hatch’s (1993) cultural dynamics model (symbols and processes) provides a framework to discuss the dynamism of organizational cultures, especially as they serve to define organizations such as those represented by Afghanistan ministries for this study.

Hatch’s (1993) Cultural Dynamics Model focuses on processes that simultaneously change and reinforce an organization’s culture. However her theoretical model does not fully consider differences in societal culture. This is important when considering leadership development activities, and components of the Hatch (1993) model as they relate to the process of leadership emergence.

Bennis (1989) states "The basis for leadership is learning, and principally learning from experience" (p. 181). Inherent in leadership development is how people learn, especially with respect to adult learning. Merriam and Caffarella (1999) describe five basic orientations to learning along with different assumptions about learning; these include "behaviorist, cognitivist, humanist, social learning, and constructivist" (p. 250).

Taylor (1994) also suggested that Mezirow’s (1991) transformational learning theory

provides a framework for studying intercultural competency. Thus, learning theory as a subordinate construct can serve as a framework for examining how emerging leaders learn in the host country. By employing an adult learning framework, this phenomenological study seeks to inform leadership development theory and practice in cross-cultural settings. At this stage of the study, leadership as a construct will generally be defined as the process of achieving performance beyond expectations through people

(Bass, 1985).

Research Questions

This study proposes to explore the following primary exploratory research question:

How does culture influence the lived experiences of advisors/mentors engaged in developing leadership emergence in post conflict societies?

Given the principal research question identified above, this research will utilize the tradition of a phenomenological study to interpret and analyze the data collected.

Statement of Potential Significance

An understanding how leaders emerge and are enacted would do well to enhance scholarly understanding of leadership. One of the primary reasons for seeking better understanding of activities and conditions that influence how leaders emerge includes the ability to overcome obstacles and challenges they face as they aspire to enhance their social status and recognition. By conducting exploratory research on leadership emergence as a phenomenon, this study will focus on leadership development activities and the lived experiences of advisors/mentors engaged in developing emergent leadership, respective learning conditions, and an understanding of how cultural

differences combine to influence leadership emergence in transformative societies.

There is a vast amount of literature by seminal scholars on leadership (e.g.,

Barnard, 1938; Burns, 1978), on culture (e.g., Schein, 1985), and learning (e.g., Merriam and Caffarella, 1999) who provide insight into each of these disciplines, This present

research will focus on the symbiosis of culture and leadership emergence to provide

guidance for capacity building and international aid to developing and/or emerging

nations during leadership development efforts.

In addition, many donor nations and non-governmental organizations continue to

rely on leader and leadership development training that focuses on competencies, skills, traits and behaviors as aspects that leaders should possess. These stakeholders also often fail to address the significance of the contextual setting adequately enough to understand that emergent leadership can be constrained by environmental conditions beyond their control. As a result, gaining a better understanding of how cultural differences may influence how leaders emerge in marginalized/vulnerable groups will promote greater understanding of leadership emergence as a phenomenon.

Although the need to consider culture in the context of leadership emergence has previously been identified, this study seeks to utilize the dimensions of societal culture

(Hofstede, 1980; House et al., 2004). This study is intended to add to the scholarly literature on the influence of culture on leadership and how cultural differences and its dimensions contribute to emergent leadership among host nation personnel. It also

contributes to the knowledge and understanding of practitioners who find themselves

involved in the leadership development process during capacity building and

international aid efforts. Information from the study and findings may inform new

policies and practices related to leadership development and how culture and learning orientations inform leadership emergence.

Further, this research study will address gaps in current knowledge regarding the experiences that advisors, mentors and trainers report to be important during capacity building efforts of emerging democracies and how their awareness of cultural differences and learning orientations contribute to the host-national personnel emerging as leaders, and the methods these advisors and trainers report as having been used to develop leaders.

A number of competencies have been proposed as being important for global leaders (Mendenhall and Osland, 2002; Marquardt and Berger, 2000). However, there has been limited empirical research to ascertain successful approaches to leadership development during capacity building and international aid efforts. The results of this study will contribute to a better understanding of the experiences advisors and mentors report as being successful in developing host nation leadership capacity and how their practices enable leadership emergence. Findings from this study may be useful in identifying leadership development competencies that are important to the role of advisors, recruiting and selecting mentors to perform leadership development activities in countries other than their own, and providing mentoring better suited to aspiring leaders.

The results of this study will also contribute to an understanding of how culture and learning orientations enable emergent leadership and what competencies advisors and mentors need to fulfill their role.

This research will also address a gap in our understanding of how members of developing nations learn and how advisors and mentors handle cultural differences

between their culture of origin and the respective host nation culture. Cultural diversity

among host nation personnel and cultural differences between these same people and their advisors and mentors increases the need for donor nations to acknowledge that a better understanding of cultural nuances can indeed contribute to leaders emerging. As such, findings can be used by advisors, mentors and trainers to prepare for overseas assignments and by others to enhance host country leadership development. Human resources and staffing professionals could also use research findings to assess viability of individual training skills and mentoring competencies prior to overseas assignments.

Benefits include gaining a better understanding of how emergent leadership can be enabled in vulnerable groups and marginalized societal elements. In addition, an

enhanced understanding of how leaders emerge could go a long way in improving the

quality and effectiveness of group dynamics and leaders’ decision-making so as to reduce

the potential for discrimination to occur because of race, religion or gender.

As a follow-on to prior research on distributive leadership (e.g., Brown and Gioia,

2002; Woods et al., 2004), this study will help researchers and practitioners understand

distinctive dimensions of distributed leadership and the distributed perspective (Spillane

et al., 2001, 2004), and how emerging leaders embrace collaboration, coordination and

inclusiveness. For researchers and social scientists, gaining a better understanding of how

leaders emerge and whether leadership emergence is influenced by cultural differences

will greatly aid in having theory follow practice (Creswell, 2003), allowing social

scientists to mature current theory based upon descriptive analysis. For practitioners,

understanding how leadership emerges will allow for the effective and efficient

application of reasonable actions by advocacy groups when leadership development

models are created. For policy makers and organizational leaders, understanding how leaders emerge in marginalized and vulnerable populations will promote more effective implementation of leadership models that may have previously been inappropriately applied because of a one size fits all mentality.

The significance then, of this research resides in the potential to eliminate

misconceptions related to the perceived benefits of identifying leader traits and behaviors

and in promoting adjustments to leadership thinking regarding predominant models (e.g., transformational leadership) and complexity theory. The possibility also exists of

enhancing group and team effectiveness as formal and informal leaders interact. Finally,

recommendations for further research into leadership development and emergent

leadership will be proposed.

Conceptual Framework

The principal constructs for this phenomenological study are culture and

leadership as moderating constructs to the relationship between mentoring as a mediating

construct to developing leadership emergence as the fourth conceptual element as shown

in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Constructs for the Research.

Project GLOBE (House et al., 1999) sought to validate numerous hypothesis regarding culture and its implications for leadership (House et al., 2004; Den Hartog et al., 1999). Components of the culture construct, i.e., cultural differences and cultural dimensions, are used in this study, in anticipation of providing evidence that having advisors and mentors understand cultural nuances can act as an enabling mechanism for host nation personnel leadership emergence.

While cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; House et al., 2004) do not necessarily predict the values and beliefs of all members of a society, they do provide guidelines for general insights into behaviors of society’s members (Hofstede and

Peterson, 2000). For this research, culture is operationalized through the elements of cultural dimensions and cultural differences.

Leadership provides the other foundational element within this study’s conceptual framework. However, in a leadership development setting, learning can be considered an

embedded subordinate construct. Learning has been defined as "a process by which behavior changes as a result of experiences" (Maples and Webster, 1980, p. 1). In addition, the basis for leadership is learning from experience (Bennis, (1989). However, merely having an experience does not guarantee that one learns from that experience

(Fiedler, 1970), and as a result the ability to learn is one of the most important competencies for successful leadership (Argyris, 1991; Marshall-Mies et al., 2000;

Mumford and Connelly, 1991, 1992). In describing the conceptual framework for this study more precisely, the sub-construct of learning will be operationalized by the advisors and mentors conducting leadership development of emerging leaders. The construct of leadership will be operationalized by the conceptual phenomenon of emergent leadership. Thus, the specific relationship that this study seeks to understand is the influence of cultural dimensions and differences and leadership development efforts in order for emergent leadership to occur.

The relationship between these constructs (culture, leadership, mentoring/advising, and developing leadership emergence is key to understanding how advisors, mentors and trainers as expatriates on international assignments provide leadership development during capacity building. Culture impacts how these personnel interpret and negotiate their environment and also impacts how they teach and how host national personnel learn. Culture and its impact on how people behave are pervasive throughout societies and in individuals’ lives. For example, the core values that guide how individuals think are inculcated through cultural conditioning during childhood and are reinforced throughout life (Triandis, 1994).

Hofstede (1980) defined culture as “the collective mental programming of people

in an environment” (p. 21). This collective mental programming is transferred to people

who share a common time and place through socialization from an early age (Erez and

Early, 1993). Nations serve as collectives whereby culture is transmitted and sustained.

As children mature, they internalize culturally accepted social norms, and these are

reinforced by society. Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture provide insight into how

societies handle power relationships, individual versus group roles, ambiguous situations, gender roles, and action in the present versus planning for the future. These dimensions inform challenges and opportunities that advisors and mentors (as expatriates or sojourners) encounter.

In the case of mentors and mentees, they each rely on their respective cultural frame of reference – variously referred to as “thinking as usual” (Schutz, 1964),

“meaning perspectives” (Mezirow, 1981), and “theories in use” (Schon, 1987) – to make sense and learn. For example, an advisor may initially employ their own cultural frames; but when these do not produce the results desired, the advisor may reconsider things, and this may cause them to learn about cultural differences and use this awareness to facilitate better mentoring. Without the benefit of cultural immersion training or prior experience in country, an advisor or mentor new to a respective country where they are assigned would likely find more comfort in their own cultural paradigms rather than the host country which could jeopardize not only their own insight into another culture, but

negatively impact the training they desire to provide.

In the conceptual framework for this study (Figure 1), the main research question

implies a tangible relationship between mentoring as a social learning (Bandura 1963,

1971) process while developing leadership emergence with culture and leadership

moderating that relationship. Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions provide an initial basis to elucidate cultural differences between advisors and host nation personnel.

Theoretical Foundation

Following is a description of the constructs and relationships between them as well as theories that support the conceptual frame. This research study is on understanding how advisors account for culture during leadership development efforts and how their own understanding of these constructs serves to enable leadership emergence. Key constructs for this research study are culture and leadership, with a subordinate construct of learning which is operationalized through mentoring by the advisors, mentors and teachers during their leadership development efforts. This study will utilize Hofstede’s (1980) definition of culture comprised of values, norms and artifacts (Schein, 1985) and the concepts of cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 1980); social learning theory (Bandura 1963, 1971), transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 1981) and learning orientations to include learning in adulthood (Merriam and Caffarella,

1999); and emergent leadership as a social process (Moss and Kent, 1996; Mahar and

Mahar, 2003) as elements in a frame of inquiry to operationalize the overarching constructs.

The theoretical frame is intended to serve as a basis of investigating how advisors and mentors through their leadership development efforts act as enablers for leadership emergence in transformative societies and post-conflict countries. Consistent with the key constructs for the proposed research of culture, leadership, mentoring/advising, and developing leadership emergence, each complements Bennis (1989) assertion that leadership is learning and is justified when combined with leadership development as a

mechanism for knowledge transfer.

In applying a qualitative approach, the constructivist and participatory knowledge

claims will be used; a social constructivist lens supports the goals of the research, which

are to increase scholars’ and practitioners’ understanding of how culture impacts

leadership development with regard to leadership emergence and the multiple participant

meanings that may exist. In addition, the research will use inductive and interpretive

approaches using qualitative analysis of advisors and mentors perceptions of culture’s

impact on leadership emergence during leadership development efforts.

National Culture

Research for the past three decades has sought to understand culture both within a

single society and across multiple societies (Dickson et al., 2000; Hofstede, 1980, 2001;

House et al., 2004; Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998; Triandis, 1994). Given the

turmoil in Afghanistan beginning in the mid-20th century, the country’s national culture significantly influences leadership at the Ministerial (national and provincial) levels.

Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) defined national/societal culture as the “collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others” (p. 4). Collective programming implies that societal culture is learned or absorbed through education, social interaction and daily life, and that it is transferred from one generation to the next. Societal culture comprises basic assumptions, values and beliefs taught and learned in the society in which individuals originate.

Collective assumptions and values are transferred to organizational life through the sheer nature of societal culture (Hofstede et al., 1990; Hofstede and Peterson, 2000). Important

in this respect is that societal culture can strongly influence any individual member of the

respective society, and when considered on an individual leader perspective, and for the

purposes of this study, personal culture could also influence how advisors and mentors

conduct leadership development.

Mentoring

Grounded in social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), mentoring is an effective

means toward higher levels of cognitive development as championed by Vygotsky

(Wertsch, 1985). According to Kram (1983, 1985), mentors provide mentees with both career functions and psychosocial functions. Career functions help the mentoree learn the ropes, advance in the organization, and provide for sponsorship, visibility, protection and challenging work assignments. Psychosocial functions address interpersonal aspects of the mentoring relationship and enhance the mentees sense of competence, effectiveness, and identity. Mentors provide psychosocial functions by providing self-efficacy, and professional and personal development, friendship and acceptance to mentees (Ragins &

Cotton, 1999).

Mentoring is important because of the impact it can have on how adults learn.

Morton-Cooper and Palmer’s (1993) definition of a mentor will be used for the purposes of this paper. A mentor is someone who provides an enabling relationship that facilitates another’s personal growth and development; the relationship is dynamic, reciprocal and can be emotionally intense; within such a relationship the mentor assists with career development and guides the mentored through organizational, social and political networks (Morton-Cooper & Palmer, 1993).

Merriam and Caffarella (1991), in their discussion of learning orientations, identified social learning with its focus on the social setting in which learning occurs.

From this perspective, the mentoring relationship, outcomes and learning are all impacted by the environment in which the mentoring occurs. This being the case, and with

mentoring occurring in a social context with the purpose of education to model new roles

and behavior, formal and informal mentoring relationships need to be studied in that

context. Mentoring will continue to be an effective means of achieving higher levels of

cognitive development for adults. Many organizations recognize the important benefits of mentoring, and given the tangible benefits that accrue from informal mentoring, have attempted to replicate these informal mentoring relationships by creating more formal ones (Ragins & Cotton, 1999).

Learning

For this research study the constructivist orientation to learning provides a lens through which learning is framed since this orientation is well aligned with the phenomenological epistemology. From a constructivist view, people make meaning of their experience through communication and interaction with others in their organization

(Schwandt, 2005). As such, Hatch’s (1993) process interaction and interplay could be

manifested in experiential learning, self-directed learning, perspective transformation,

and reflective practice (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). As advisors and mentors conduct

leadership development in environments where emergent leaders perform where

uncertainty and ambiguity exists, these leaders need to engage in sensemaking to

establish some degree of certainty.

Merriam and Caffarella’s (1991) description of the behaviorist, cognitive, and

humanistic orientations to learning provides insight into how adults learn and how social

context shapes learning. Leaders reporting frequent use of specific learning tactics also

reported "engaging more frequently in leadership behaviors like challenging, inspiring, enabling, modeling, and encouraging" (Brown and Posner, 2001, p. 278). Learning, then, influences emergent leaders' ability to adapt to and perform in turbulent environments.

Specific to this research, social learning theory (Bandura, 1963, 1971) holds that learning is not purely behavioral, but rather a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and occurs purely through observation or direct instruction. In addition, learning can occur by observing behavior and by observing the consequences of the behavior, a process known as vicarious reinforcement or the observation of rewards and punishments. Social Learning theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual (Bandura, 1971). Social learning theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in order to provide a comprehensive model that accounts for the wide range of learning experiences that occur in the real world. Additional tenets of social learning theory as initially outlined by Bandura in 1963 and further detailed in 1977 are: learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making decisions about the performance of the behavior (known as observational learning or modeling); reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning; and the learner is not a passive recipient of information, but rather cognition, environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other (reciprocal determinism).

To describe more precisely the conceptual framework for this study, learning will be operationalized by the construct of developing leadership emergence. For this study, the broad term of development is defined as participating in activities, assignments or

experiences facilitated by advisors and mentors for the purposes of developing new

competencies and capabilities of emerging leaders.

Leadership Development and Leadership Emergence

Leadership development is most often referred to as activities that enhance the

quality of leadership within an individual or organization. However, a distinction is drawn between leader development from an individual or personal perspective, as

compared to leadership development which takes into account organizational setting,

culture, processes, systems and interactions. Traditionally, leadership development has

focused on developing the leadership abilities and attitudes of individuals. In the case of

leader development, emphasis is on individual-based knowledge, skills and abilities associated with formal leadership roles (Day, 2000). Leader development in this regard concerns training and development for employees to enhance and protect an organization’s human capital (Lepak and Snell, 1999). Leadership development, on the other hand, focuses on social resources embedded in work relationships that take the form of social capital (Brass and Krackhardt, 1999; Burt, 1992). The emphasis is on building networked relationships among individuals that enhance cooperation and resource exchange in creating organizational value (Bouty, 2000; Tsai and Ghoshal, 1998). The primary emphasis on leadership development is on building and using inter-personal competence (Day, 2001, p.585).

Leadership when applied to organizations can be characterized as being multi- faceted and occurs across all levels of the organization (Yukl, 2010). Emergent leadership aligns with distributed/shared leadership from the point of view that leadership can be distributed across members of a team and that leaders other than the appointed or

designated leader can emerge in a group. For groups, leadership can be shared or distributed among members of groups and teams. Barry’s (1991) conceptualization of the distributed leadership process relies on using multiple leaders concomitantly and/or sequentially within a group. Multiple leaders may be present in a group, and in order for emerging leaders to feel empowered, their understanding that leadership can be present in forms other than that possessed by the designated leader, their awareness of these constructs may in fact contribute to their emergence.

Summary of the Research Methodology and Procedures

In view of the research question, a phenomenological qualitative research approach represents the most appropriate methodology to study experiences, examine perceptions, and collect and analyze data. Phenomenology as a tradition of qualitative research aims to understand a given experience from the detailed accounts of those who have lived that experience. This approach supports the study’s goal of examining how advisors and mentors perceive and describe their experience of making sense of events in their daily routines associated with their activities. Further, to understand the experience of how participants perceive and describe their experiences within a leadership development context requires the study to consider a subjectivist, interpretivist world view (Burrell and Morgan, 1979).

The sections below briefly describe the phenomenological study strategy of inquiry, population, data collection and data analysis procedures. The methods employed in this research will allow the researcher to record interviewee’ perceptions and observations of their experience as they relate to the principal constructs of culture and leadership as they inform how cultural differences influence leadership emergence. The

research design will use a methodology comprised of the phenomenological approach

and then perform coding and thematic analysis to address the study’s areas of inquiry.

Creswell (1998) defines phenomenological research as a study that describes the

meaning of the lived experiences for several individuals about a phenomenon. Creswell

(1998) further provides a distinction between transcendental, dialogical, empirical, existential, hermeneutic, social and psychological phenomenology. In essence, different phenomenology holds different philosophical thoughts but come primarily from sociology and psychology (Creswell, 1998, p.53). Transcendental phenomenology is considered the field of phenomenological inquiry developed by Husserl (1931). Since this study examines the structure of individuals’ experiences, it will specifically utilize the transcendental phenomenology tradition. Husserl’s (1931) phenomenology is considered a transcendental phenomenology since it emphasizes the subjectivity and detection of experience and provides a systematic and disciplined methodology to transform conscious insights and experiences into knowledge (Moustakas, 1994). Moustakas’

(1994) method of inquiry will be used to gather data from each of the participants; and his phenomenological long interview method will be used to gather, organize, and analyze data.

Transcendental phenomenology, then, was chosen as an appropriate methodology for this research since its aim is to understand the meaning of participants’ experiences.

Additionally, the systemic procedures and detailed data analysis steps as presented by

Moustakas are consistent with this researcher’s philosophical view of balancing objective and subjective approaches to knowledge creation and thorough data analysis steps.

The study will be introduced to the subjects by providing them with a written

description of the research study. The researcher will provide each participant with a

consent form, and ask each participant to sign it if they consent to participate in the

interview and follow-up questions. The consent form will be discussed with each

individual participant prior to commencing the interview process. The consent form will

describe the purpose of the study, and will state that the participant has the right to withdraw from the study at any time. The researcher will also advise participants of the

steps that will be taken to ensure confidentiality.

The method of data collection for this phenomenological study will be

interviewing. The researcher will contact each participant before the interview either by

phone or email. The purpose of the interview is to gather data from participants that

reveals the experiences they report as being important to how cultural differences relate

to the phenomenon of leadership development of emerging leaders, what advisors and

mentors learned from the experiences they describe, and how their mentees as emerging leaders seemed to have best assimilated the leadership development efforts. The researcher will conduct at least one face-to-face interview at the participants’ settings of

choice. Interviews will be conducted over a three-to-six week period to maintain

continuity and momentum with the participants.

The phenomenological investigation will involve in-depth interviews during

which the researcher will present open-ended comments and semi-structured questions so

that the respondent can express his or her experience more freely, and the researcher will

be in a position to allow these new meanings to emerge from the dialogue. The focus of

the study will rely on personal reflection by the individual participants, to help provide

the necessary perception of their own expression of self during their advising/mentoring.

Face-to-face interviews with a cross-section of advisors and mentors will be included in this study. These interviews may be supplemented with follow up questions that allow participants to expand upon their experience. Potential follow-up questions will address various aspects of the experiences described. The interviewer may also ask additional, unanticipated questions to pursue more details that seem relevant or require additional description. The interview protocol will be developed using interview method guidelines recommended by Moustakas (1994). Participants will be interviewed either in person, via telephone, Skype or a similar communications tool.

The purpose of interviewing is to understand and not evaluate. In other words, in- depth interviewing aims to understand the experience of other people and the meaning they make of that description or experience (Seidman, 1998, p. 3). In a 60-90-minute interview, the researcher will ask participants to reflect on the meaning of experiences.

The researcher will ask the interviewee to identify an experience that they found to be effective with regard to mentoring others, and to then describe the experience. Follow-up, probing questions will also be used to obtain additional information and descriptions.

Participants will be identified through personal references, professional and service associations, and network organizations. The study sample will consist of a total of 8 to 12 participants utilizing purposive, criterion-based sampling (Patton, 1990). The sample population will have worked for at least six (6) months professionally as an advisor, mentor or trainer. Participants should be recommended by their colleagues for demonstrated superior performance in their respective role and have completed their initial assignment. Some participants may have served only one assignment while others may have previously engaged in multiple assignments. To be considered an assignment,

the advisor/mentor will have been selected by a U.S. Agency or non-governmental organization or another country’s similar criteria. The timeframe for prior performance is within three years which allows for a timely retrospective view of work performed in country. No more than three years seems reasonable when identifying research participants as this is considered the maximum time from which respondents could be able to provide accurate reflections on their past experience. Participant demographics will be included with the data as aggregated information.

Interview data will be analyzed through a content analysis, allowing themes to emerge. Triangulation of data from various sources will be performed (Lincoln and Guba,

1985) to ensure validity, along with member checks. The findings will be reported in a narrative form, with tables supporting and explaining the emerging themes. Moustakas’

(1994) phenomenological approach will be used to develop the essence of the phenomena from textural and structural descriptions of how participants make sense of their own experiences and of others experiences. The researcher will analyze the interview transcripts using phenomenological and qualitative analysis techniques to understand how study participants perceived cultural differences and learning orientations influencing emergent leadership in others and the groups/organizations represented. The researcher will employ specific techniques of analysis recommended by Miles and

Huberman (1994), including noting patterns and themes, memoing, clustering, and identifying implications. After identifying implications, the researcher will compare the findings to the cultural dimensions literature, leadership development and leadership emergence literature, and interpret the findings. All interviewee data, including demographic data, interview recordings, interview transcripts, and all other data collected

during this study will be stored in a secure location, and will be kept private.

Limitations of Study

This phenomenological study will confine itself to interviewing advisors and mentors that have participated in capacity building and developmental projects endorsing representation for all elements of a nation’s population and equal rights for marginalized and under-represented sectors of society (e.g., women, minorities), others that are professionally vulnerable or lack institutionalized opportunities to assume decision making and leadership roles in the private sector, civil society or government.

Understandably, this limitation results in the study not researching the emergent leaders themselves but rather those who develop and observe them. Rationale for interviewing the advisors and mentors rests in both their availability and access, and in the richness of their experiences of having performed in the countries where they have. Delimiting the focus of the research to how cultural differences influence leadership emergence makes the assumption that leadership can be distributed among different individuals (Brown and

Gioia, 2002; Gronn, 2002). By employing a phenomenological approach to examine how advisors and mentors make sense of their experience during international assignments, the study’s focus is on how they deal with the cultural differences between their own culture and that of the host nation in which they immersed themselves.

Limitations of the phenomenological study strategy of inquiry and procedures used may decrease the transferability/generalizability of the findings since the research will rely on perceptions of advisors and trainers rather than the trainees or mentees themselves. The study may not be transferable to all elements of society and/or to organizations that have already taken measurable strides to overcome discrimination or

prejudice based on race, religion, gender or ethnicity. Specifically, a limitation of the

proposed study is whether the research is transferable to all societies in general or whether it would be limited to elements of societies characterized as existing in post- conflict nations such as Afghanistan. By focusing on advisors and mentors that have worked in specific organizations and specific countries, the structural and methodological parameters may limit transferability to other countries and organizations since some aspects of culture are specific to each country, individual organization, or person.

A principal limitation also includes uncertainty with respect to whether and how findings across the group selected can be transferred due to the diverse nature of groups that exist within society, especially since the findings could be subject to different interpretations from other researchers. As transferability is more appropriate to qualitative research, findings may not be ‘generalized’ to all populations of interest. In qualitative research, any generalizing done would be by individuals who are in situations similar to the one(s) investigated by the researcher (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996). It is important to note that qualitative research does not consider generalization as a desired outcome. Since societal culture is an integral part of the study, findings may also not be transferable to other studies of cross-border leadership development because of differences in societal culture across the world. Additional limitations exist, and since phenomenological research focuses on identifying meanings and essences of experience, not measurements or explanations (Moustakas, 1994), findings that cannot be generalized for other populations will be identified as such.

In any qualitative research, the researcher is the primary mechanism of data collection and takes part in an active and interactive manner during the data-gathering

process. It is unclear if the presence of the researcher will impact participant perceptions, behaviors or responses. The researcher is also the interpreter of the data, which could lead to bias at some levels. Since the researcher is an American gathering and interpreting data regarding Afghanistan for instance, a Western perspective may influence researcher interpretations. Since it was not necessary, a translator was not used to interview any advisors and mentors that may have been non-English speaking. This researcher will have to assume any translations are accurate, and that the translator understood respective languages spoken by the participants. The presence of the translator may influence participant responses, and as a result, the study will aim to use English speaking participants.

Because participants will report on their own experience, the study relies on participants' level of self-awareness and ability to verbally describe and share their perspectives related to cultural differences and enabling leaders who emerge. The study also relies on participants' retrospective views and recollections of past events; however, the limited timeframe since advisors and mentors performed in their roles is intended to eliminate problems related to memory, interpretation, rationalization, and/or manipulation by participants. The study will also rely on interviewees participating in good faith, answering questions truthfully and openly, and not consciously or intentionally modifying their responses for any reason. Consistent with this limitation is that solicited data are from participants’ memories and reflection on those memories. As such, memories can sometimes be distorted, as individuals are subjected to autobiographical memories unconsciously (Schwenk, 2002, pp. 54-59). Since participants will self-report their experience, the study relies on participants’ self-awareness and

ability to examine and accurately describe their experience. As such, results of the study are dependent on participant candor and capacity to correctly recall their experiences and on the researcher’s ability to interpret them correctly.

The study relies on the participants having integrity in self-assessing their performance so as to ensure a relatively high degree of performance occurred. While each advisor or mentor may have a different concept of their success, variations of actual performance from this expectation will be determined by the researcher using evidence provided by the participants as it relates to peer or supervisor feedback that work performed met or exceeded expectations.

Creswell (2007) suggests that “gaining access to organizations, sites, and individuals to study has its own challenges” (p. 138). Any government or non- governmental organization poses unique difficulties to gain access due to any number of sensitivities regarding hierarchical oversight. However, in identifying professionals to serve as study participants, along with other aspects of population selection, it is anticipated they will not be unduly influenced from providing honest responses to interview questions. A related limitation is that there is no reasonable opportunity for on- site in-country observations.

Researcher Bias

The researcher’s personal beliefs, biases, values, and prior experiences related to leadership, culture, learning and emergent leadership may influence the planning and implementation of the research study, data collection process, interpretation of data, development of findings, and/or generation of conclusions. The researcher will attempt to minimize researcher effects throughout the research project, using epoche as described in

Chapter 3.

The study also relies on the researcher's ability to understand and interpret the

study participants’ descriptions of their experience correctly. To address this limitation,

the researcher will utilize epoche to set aside any preconceived notions, beliefs,

understandings, and biases to ensure that he explores the reported experiences with an open mind. Consequently, the researcher’s ability to employ epoche to set aside his own everyday understandings, judgments, and knowledge in order to revisit cultural

phenomena with an openness to new learning impacts the study. Prior to conducting data

collection interviews, the researcher will obtain participants' informed consent to

participate in the research project. This contact may influence the participants’ responses

and openness during the data collection interviews. This will be addressed by providing

participants with an opportunity to comment on copies of their transcribed interviews and

on the researcher’s interpretations.

Definition of Key Terms

The following key terms will be used throughout this dissertation:

Advisor: As it applies to the U.S. State Department programs in Afghanistan, an

advisor is a person who serves as a consultant to others and is an expert in a particular

field, e.g., rule of law, justice sector reform. For the purposes of this study, an advisor is a

person that offers professional advice to clients and possesses deep knowledge in a

specific area, has cross functional expertise, and directly interfaces with senior members

of nations’ ministerial staffs.

Cultural dimension: Empirically determined criteria by which different cultures

differ; these correspond to core cultural values that influence the form of social

arrangements, institutions, customs, and practices of any given society (Hofstede, 1980).

Culture: This dissertation study will use the definition provided in Project

GLOBE in which culture was defined as “shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectivities and are transmitted across age generations” (House et al., 1999, p. 13). It is important to note however, that Hofstede’s definition as “The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another” (Hofstede, 1984, p. 21), draws attention to the concept that culture distinguishes one group from another.

Emergence: The evolution and recombination of interactions into new actions

(Anderson, 1999) is both a phenomenon of complex systems (Hazy, 2008) and inherent as a property of the distributive perspective (Gronn, 2000).

Emergent leadership: How a group member emerges and maintains a leadership position. Based generally on Tuckman's (1965) group-development sequence: testing / dependence; conflict; cohesion, and functional maturity, Stein et al., (1979) proposed a

“valence model of emergent leadership” that proposed that the process of emergent

leadership passed through three distinct stages: 1) orientation; 2) conflict; and 3)

emergence. Generally defined as a type of leadership in which a group member is not

appointed or elected to the leadership role; rather, leadership develops over time as a

result of the group's interaction. For the purposes of this study, emergent leadership and

leadership emergence (defined below) will be used interchangeably; but it is important to

note that the former pertains to an individual’s emergence, while the latter is considered

as having occurred as perceived by other members of a group or team.

Environment: As it pertains to this study, the environment is the country of

Afghanistan during the period 2004 through 2015; during this time, various ministries

and departments in the Afghan government were in a transformative state, striving to

progress from an environment of government corruption to one of increased legitimacy as

it relates to rule of law being implemented, increased governance, and increased

transparency.

Leader development: Leader development from an individual or personal

perspective with emphasis on individual based knowledge, skills and abilities associated

with formal leadership roles (Day, 2001). Leader development in this regard concerns

training and development to enhance and protect an organization’s human capital (Lepak

and Snell, 1999).

Leadership: The definition of leadership for this research study uses Bass’ (1985)

approach of achieving performance beyond expectations, with leadership transforming

followers, creating visions of the goals that may be attained, and articulating for

followers the ways to attain those goals (Bass and Bass, 2008). Leadership is seen as a

process (Northouse, 2001) in which an individual influences a group to achieve common

goals. It is conceived as a focus on group processes, an instrument to achieve goals, the

effect of interaction, the initiation of structure, and as a combination of these conceptualizations.

Leadership development: Leadership development takes into account

organizational setting, culture, processes, systems and interactions. Leadership

development focuses on social resources embedded in work relationships that take for form of social capital (Brass and Krackhardt, 1999; Burt, 1992). The emphasis is on

building networked relationships among individuals that enhance cooperation and resource exchange in creating organizational value (Bouty, 2000; Tsai and Ghoshal,

1998). The primary emphasis on leadership development is on building and using interpersonal competence (Day, 2001, p.585).

Leadership emergence: The process by which individuals come to be seen as a leader by others in their group (Hogan, Curphy, and Hogan, 1994). It is related to the way status is accorded by group members to one another (e.g., Campbell, Simpson, Stewart, and Manning, 2002), and how systems of informal control and influence emerge within groups and organizations (Sell et al., 2004). One result of this process is the existence of informal leaders, individuals who are able to influence others, but who do not necessarily have the most formal power in the group (Friedkin, 1993; Wheelan and Johnston, 1996).

Learning: Learning has been defined as "a process by which behavior changes as a result of experiences" (Maples and Webster, 1980, p. 1). However, merely having an experience does not guarantee that one learns from that experience (Fiedler, 1970).

Learning for this study is defined as “the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action” (Mezirow, 1996, p. 162).

Learning orientations: Adult learning treats learning as a process, and learning theories comprised of ideas about how or why change occurs have as their focus different learning orientations (Merriam and Caffarella, 1991, 1999). Merriam and Caffarella’s

(1991) description of the behaviorist, cognitive, and humanistic orientations to learning, provides insight into how adults learn and how social context shapes the learning adults are engaged in.

Mentor: For the purposes of this study, a mentor is defined as a trusted counselor or guide, tutor, or coach; mentors to the Afghan leadership can be characterized as working in relatively close proximity to their mentees and in providing counsel from the standpoint of prior experiences, consequences of actions, and desired outcomes with respect to decision making processes.

National/societal culture: National or societal culture refers to the background, values, beliefs and assumptions of individuals which are influenced by the external environment in which they were raised. The GLOBE Study (House et al., 2004) defines culture as “shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives and are transmitted across age generations” (p. 15).

Phenomenology: The experience of being, perspectives, and views of social realities (McMillan and Schumacher, 1989). Creswell (1998) provided a similar, yet clearer definition that will be used in this study: “the meaning of the lived experiences of several individuals about a concept or a phenomenon” (p. 51).

Transformative learning: “The process by which we transform our taken-for- granted frames of reference to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide action…Transformative Theory’s focus is on how we learn to negotiate and act on our own purposes, values, feelings, and meanings rather than those we have uncritically assimilated from others – to gain greater control over our lives as socially responsible, clear-thinking decision makers” (Mezirow,

2000, p. 8).

Vulnerable groups: A variety of criteria exist for defining groups as vulnerable

and have to do with the way the groups are marginalized, socially excluded or have

limited opportunities. Since the definition of vulnerable groups pertaining to social

exclusion varies between theoretical perspectives, attempts to define vulnerable groups is

complicated due to the fact that group members have multiple identities, lack

homogeneity and membership of any group may be transient (Silver, 1994; Rogers, 1997;

Goldson, 2002). Since the definition of vulnerable groups also varies by social context,

and for the purposes of this research, the definition of vulnerable groups will focus on

their being marginalized and socially excluded due to race, gender, religion, or ethnicity

(Larkin, 2008/2009). Use of the term vulnerable groups was chosen in this study so as to

conceptually grasp the significance that emergent leadership can have in empowering change and achieving results.

Summary

Chapter 1 presented the context of the study, highlights of the conceptual and theoretical frameworks, a broad overview of the qualitative phenomenological study research design, the study’s problem statement, and identified the research question and sub-questions. The conceptual framework was identified as having the following principal constructs: culture, leadership, mentoring/advising, and developing leadership emergence, with a subordinate conceptual element of learning as it applies to advisors and mentors conducting leadership development of emerging leaders. A summary of the research design and procedures was presented along with delimitations/limitations and definitions of key terms. Chapter 2 presents a review of the literature on cultural dimensions and differences, the Afghan culture, mentoring, learning, leadership

development, and leadership emergence that serve as bases for the research. In order to

answer the research questions, the literature review examines the theoretical

understanding of the constructs related to the research problem. The chapter also includes implications of the forthcoming study. Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology and design for a qualitative study to examine these issues; the chapter also discusses research

procedures and include the following: the rationale for selecting the research tradition,

the research method, the interviewing procedure, the sample population, the data

collection procedure, the data analysis, the trustworthiness of the study, and ethics

precautions. Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study along with data and analysis.

Chapter 5 includes interpretations and conclusions of the study as well as implications

and recommendations for further research and practice.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction: Topics, Purpose, and Method of the Literature Review

This chapter provides a literature review of culture and leadership emergence. It will also initially, but only briefly, review literature related to leadership in a global context. The review on leadership in a global context is intended to view leadership emergence from the perspective of its occurrence throughout a multicultural world rather than to describe in detail global leadership and its characteristics.

The chapter begins with key aspects pertaining to the research, and identifies the various theoretical lenses through which this research will be conducted. Initially, discussion focuses on Mentoring and Advising, and this turns to Social Learning Theory.

Thereafter, brief discussions occur on Leadership Development, the Afghanistan Culture, and on Marginalized Societies.

Thenceforward, the chapter provides a review of the relevant literature with regard to cultural differences and cultural dimensions. The discussion of cultural differences is intended to highlight key research findings pertaining to how national and societal cultures across the world are unique and that leadership should take into account the context and nuances associated with national, societal, tribal, and local cultures.

Following the literature review of culture, relevant literature pertaining to leadership emergence is discussed. With regards to leadership emergence, this phenomenon will be discussed across its various views along with its interrelationships with emergent leadership in teams and cultural dimensions specifically. Brief synopses of each of the respective literature reviews for culture and leadership emergence, respectively, will be provided. The chapter will finish with implications for future

research.

The methods used to search for relevant journal articles, published dissertations,

and other relevant materials for this literature review began with the constructs previously

identified in the conceptual frame as key terms. Searches included the following key

words: culture, cultural dimensions, cultural differences, leadership emergence and

emergent leadership. Keyword searches were eventually extended to the broader term of leadership as it related to marginalized and vulnerable groups and leadership emergence.

In addition, key theorists and their findings were reviewed as the references in many journal articles proved useful to this researcher in identifying additional topics to

consider. Sources used in this review were numerous including ABI/INFORM, EBSCO

HOST, JSTOR, Dissertations and Theses, SCIENCEDIRECT, as well as various on-line

journals. Google Scholar was also used to locate relevant articles and books. Additional

articles and books were also identified through cited references of the articles retrieved.

The literature identified below is organized by descriptions and critiques of the

literature and is provided chronologically where it was deemed most appropriate except

where the research provided thematic concepts worthy of further examination. The

review of leadership in a global context demonstrates the significance of culture in

leadership studies. Since the meaning of leadership can vary across cultures (Dickson et

al., 2012) and conflicts exist in the literature between the quest for universals as

compared to the identification of cultural contingencies in leadership theory, it is

paramount that relationships between cultural dimensions and issues related to cross-

cultural leadership be reviewed. What follows below is a review of the literature as it

pertains directly to cultural dimensions and differences (collectively referred to as

cultural dynamics for this research study). Thereafter, and in follow-on sections of this

literature review, leadership emergence will be discussed in detail.

Description and Critique of Scholarly Literature

Mentoring/Advising

Grounded in social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), mentoring is an effective means toward higher levels of cognitive development as championed by Vygotsky (1980)

Cotton, 1999).

Mentoring is important because of the impact it can have on how adults learn.

Linking the concepts of Dewey (1916) and Lindeman (1926) that learning occurs through the reconstruction of life’s experiences, bridging the gap between what experienced, mature people know and what younger, aspiring learners want to know can go a long way towards reducing a lot of problems. Passing knowledge and wisdom from one individual to another in a much more rapid and funneled fashion can lead to enhanced learning for adults.

Merriam (1983) states that mentoring appears to mean one thing to developmental psychologists, another to business people, and a third thing to those in academic settings.

This being the case, in discussing mentoring it is important to understand the context and

setting in which it is applied. Various terms are associated with mentoring to include

preceptorships and coaching. For the purposes of this paper, key terms are defined as they

relate to learning with respect to personal growth and adult development rather than on

the setting in which they occur.

Morton-Cooper and Palmer’s (1993) definition of a mentor will be used for the

purposes of this paper. A mentor is someone who provides an enabling relationship that

facilitates another’s personal growth and development; the relationship is dynamic,

reciprocal and can be emotionally intense; within such a relationship the mentor assists

with career development and guides the mentored through organizational, social and

political networks (Morton-Cooper & Palmer, 1993).

Kram (1983) in a conceptual model identified the successive phases of mentoring as a developmental relationship for individuals. As such, a mentoring relationship can

significantly enhance development in early adulthood by facilitating work on the

developmental tasks that individuals encounter when entering the adult world of the

workplace (Kram, 1983). She demonstrates in her study that the mentoring relationship

has great potential to facilitate career advancement and psychosocial development in

early and in middle adulthood by providing a vehicle for accomplishing these primary development tasks of initiation and reappraisal (Kram, 1983). Consistent with Levinson’s

work on adult development, Kram (1983) identified activities that young adults are

engaged in that correlate with their need to learn – forming an occupational identity,

forming a dream, forming intimate relationships, and forming a mentor relationship. For

the more experienced adult at mid-life, activities they engage in are reassessment and

reappraisal during which time past accomplishments are reviewed, future dreams are

readjusted, and they come to terms with past accomplishments (Kram, 1983).

Burke et al. (1994) examined the benefits of mentoring relationships in organizations from the perspective of mentors and developed a model that included personal and situational antecedents of mentoring as well as personal and organizational consequences of mentoring. Specific findings revealed four significant and independent correlations (Burke et al., 1994). First, mentors closer in level to the president were more job satisfied; second, mentors identifying relationships with male mentorees were more satisfied; third, mentors whose mentorees initiated communication reported more job satisfaction; and fourth, mentors with greater frequency of communication with their mentorees reported greater job satisfaction (Burke et al., 1994).

Higgins & Kram (2001) introduced social networks theory and methods as a way of understanding mentoring in the current career context. Their theory introduced a typology of developmental networks using core concepts from social networks theory – network diversity and tie strength – to view mentoring as a multiple relationship phenomenon (Higgins & Kram, 2001). A framework was proposed illustrating factors that shape developmental network structures and propositions offered focusing on the developmental consequences for individuals having different types of developmental networks in their careers (Higgins & Kram, 2001).

Higgins and Kram (2001) also considered four mentoree career outcomes of significance for the mentoree’s personal and professional development: career change, personal learning, organizational commitment, and work satisfaction (Higgins & Kram,

2001). However, of these, and for the purposes of this paper, Personal Learning offers the

most relevance to adult learning. Personal learning as a developmental consequence for a mentoree is a larger umbrella term for the following outcomes: (1) increased clarity of professional identity (one's unique talents and contributions at work); (2) increased clarity of personal values, strengths, and weaknesses; and (3) increased awareness of developmental needs, reactions, and patterns of behavior (Kram and Hall, 1996).

Merriam and Caffarella (1991), in their discussion of learning orientations, identified social learning with its focus on the social setting in which learning occurs.

From this perspective, the mentoring relationship, outcomes and learning are all impacted by the environment in which the mentoring occurs. This being the case, and with mentoring occurring in a social context with the purpose of education to model new roles and behavior, formal and informal mentoring relationships need to be studied in that context. Mentoring will continue to be an effective means of achieving higher levels of cognitive development for adults. Many organizations recognize the important benefits of mentoring and with the tangible benefits that accrue from informal mentoring, have attempted to replicate these informal mentoring relationships by creating more formal ones (Ragins & Cotton, 1999).

Social Learning Theory

Bandura (1963) holds that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and occurs purely through observation or direct instruction. In addition to observing behavior, learning also occurs through a process known as vicarious reinforcement or the observation of rewards and punishments. Social Learning theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes

in the learning individual (Bandura, 1971). Social learning theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning that accounted for the wide range of learning experiences that occur in the real world (Bandura, 1977). Key tenets of social learning theory are: 1) Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context; 2) Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the consequences of the behavior (vicarious reinforcement);

3) Learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making decisions about the performance of the behavior (observational learning or modeling);

4) Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning; and

5) The learner is not a passive recipient of information since cognition, environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other (reciprocal determinism).

Social learning theory draws heavily on the concept of modeling, or learning by observing a behavior. Bandura outlined three types of modeling stimuli. They are: 1)

Live model in which an actual person is demonstrating the desired behavior; 2) Verbal instruction in which an individual describes the desired behavior in detail and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior; and 3) Symbolic in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio.

Stimuli can be either real or fictional characters.

Exactly what information is gleaned from observation is influenced by the type of model, as well as a series of cognitive and behavioral processes, including (Bandura,

1972) the following:

Attention - In order to learn, observers must attend to the modeled behavior with attention impacted by characteristics of the observer (e.g., perceptual abilities, cognitive abilities, arousal, past performance) and characteristics of the behavior or event (e.g., relevance, novelty, affective valence, and functional value).

Retention - To reproduce an observed behavior, observers must be able to remember features of the behavior; this process is influenced by observer characteristics

(cognitive capabilities, cognitive rehearsal) and event characteristics (complexity).

Reproduction - To reproduce a behavior, the observer must organize responses in accordance with the model; observer characteristics affecting reproduction include physical and cognitive capabilities and previous performance.

Motivation - The decision to reproduce (or refrain from reproducing) an observed behavior is dependent on the motivations and expectations of the observer, including anticipated consequences and internal standards.

An important factor in social learning theory is the concept of reciprocal determinism. This notion states that just as an individual’s behavior is influenced by the environment, the environment is also influenced by the individual’s behavior (Bandura,

1977).

Leadership Development

Leadership development is most often referred to as activities that enhance the quality of leadership within an individual or organization. However, a distinction is drawn between leader development from an individual or personal perspective, as compared to leadership development which takes into account organizational setting, culture, processes, systems and interactions. Traditionally, leadership development has

focused on developing the leadership abilities and attitudes of individuals. In the case of

leader development, emphasis is on individual-based knowledge, skills and abilities associated with formal leadership roles (Day, 2001). Leader development in this regard concerns training and development for employees to enhance and protect an organization’s human capital (Lepak and Snell, 1999). Leadership development, on the other hand, focuses on social resources embedded in work relationships that take the form of social capital (Brass and Krackhardt, 1999; Burt, 1992). The emphasis is on building networked relationships among individuals that enhance cooperation and resource exchange in creating organizational value (Bouty, 2000; Tsai and Ghoshal, 1998). The primary emphasis on leadership development is on building and using inter-personal competence (Day, 2001, p.585).

Development is more likely to occur when the design of the development program integrates a range of developmental experiences over a period of time (e.g. 6–12 months).

These practices may include 360-degree feedback, coaching, mentoring, networking, job assignments and action learning (Day, 2001). Discussing definitions of leadership development, Hart et al. (2008) drew the distinction between leader development and leadership development, citing McCauley and Van Velsor’s (2004), who defined leader development as mainly directed at expanding an individual leader’s capacity, and Day

(2001) who envisioned leader development as a process oriented towards developing individual leaders’ abilities associated with their formal roles. In another article, Hart,

Conklin and Allen (2008) further defined leadership development as a process of expanding an organization’s capacity to generate leadership potential within the organization to achieve organizational goals (Ardichvili and Manderscheid, 2008, pp

620-1).

2000, p. 605); and leadership is considered an emergent property of social systems

Afghan Culture

The culture of Afghanistan has existed for over two millennia, tracing its record to at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire in 500 BC (Library of Congress, 2008).

Afghanistan translates to "Land of the Afghans" or "Place of Afghans" in the nation's

official languages, Pashto and Dari (Banting, 2003; Constitution of Afghanistan, 2004).

The nation is mostly a tribal and rural society with different regions of the country having their own native language. Despite some differences, the majority of Afghans live by the same tradition and behave the same. For example, nearly all Afghans follow Islamic traditions, celebrate the same holidays, dress the same, consume the same food, listen to the same music, share the same view about the world and are usually multi-lingual.

In the southern and eastern regions, as well as western Pakistan which was historically part of Afghanistan, the Pashtun people live according to the Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali or way of the Pashtuns (US Library of Congress: Afghanistan -

Ethnic Groups (Pashtun)). The western, northern, and central regions of Afghanistan are influenced by neighboring Central Asian and Persian cultures (Institute for the Study of

War, 2010; National Geographic Society, 2003). Afghans living in cities, particularly

Kabul, are further influenced to some degree by the Indian culture through Bollywood films and music. Some of the non-Pashtuns who live in close proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called Pashtunization (or Afghanization) while some Pashtuns and others became Persianized.

Education in Afghanistan includes K-12 and higher education, which is supervised by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education in Kabul.

There are about 10,000 schools of which 4,000 were built in the last decade. More than

100,000 teachers were trained and recruited in the same period (USAID, 2011). It was reported in 2011 that more than seven million male and female students were enrolled in schools (USAID, 2011). Afghan school textbooks are written in Pashto language.

Since the country has one of the lowest literacy rates in the world, the United

States began establishing a number of Lincoln learning centers to help with this problem

and promote American culture in Afghanistan. They are set up to serve as programming

platforms offering English language classes, library facilities, programming venues,

Internet connectivity, educational and other counseling services. A goal of the program is

to reach at least 4,000 Afghan citizens per month per location (Lincoln Learning Centers,

2010). The military and national police are now provided with mandatory literacy courses

(Army.mil, 2011).

Higher education is provided by various universities throughout the country,

which include the American University of Afghanistan, Kabul University, Polytechnical

University of Kabul, Herat University, Balkh University, Nangarhar University,

Kandahar University, Khost University, Bakhtar University, and a repertoire of others.

There is also one military college, located in Kabul. Recently with help from UNESCO,

over 1,000 women have taken the university entrance exam. As of 2011, about 62,000

students were enrolled in different universities around the country (USAID, 2011).

Islam is the main religion of Afghanistan and over 99% of Afghans are Muslims.

Approximately 80–89% of the population practice Sunni Islam, while the remaining 10 -

19% practice Shi'a Islam, and 1% are followers of other religions (Library of Congress,

2008; Pew Research Center, 2009; Miller, 2009; World Factbook, 2010). Besides

Muslims, there are thousands of Sikhs and Hindus living in the country. They are usually

found in the major cities such as Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, and Jalalabad.

According the Asia Foundation’s Survey of the Afghan People 2014 (Asia

Foundation, 2014) the national mood in Afghanistan was characterized as one of cautious

optimism, reflecting uncertainty around the political transition and the economy, and

expectations for change. In 2014, most Afghans expressed concerns about insecurity,

corruption, and unemployment. An overwhelming number of Afghans identified corruption as a problem in the country as a whole and in their daily lives. Economic growth and employment issues play a major role in shaping Afghan public opinion about

the overall direction of the country.

Despite these concerns, public optimism has been gradually rising over the past

10 years. Many Afghans perceive progress in the areas of reconstruction, security, and

education, and they are satisfied with local provision of some public services, including

education and drinking water. A major driver of national optimism was the presidential

election. In 2014, around two-thirds of Afghans indicated the result of the recent election

would improve their lives, and a large proportion of Afghans believed that the

government’s reconciliation efforts with armed opposition groups would increase

stability.

The Afghan national mood of cautious optimism reflects citizens’ hopes and fears

across the country. The 2014 survey polled 9,271 Afghan citizens comprised of relatively

equal number of male and female respondents from 14 ethnic groups across all 34

provinces in the country. Results showed that a large proportion of the Afghan public

remained most concerned about insecurity, corruption, and unemployment.

In 2014, 54.7% of Afghans said their country was moving in the right direction,

down from 57.2% in 2013. Despite yearly fluctuations, the long-term trend since 2006

shows an increase in the perception that the country is moving in the right direction.

Overall optimism in 2014 is highest in the East, South East and South West regions.

Since 2013, the percentage of Afghans in the East and West regions who say the country is going in the right direction has increased. The largest decreases over the past year in the percentage of people who say the country is going in the right direction are found in the Central/Hazarajat and South West regions.

Reasons for optimism include reconstruction, good security, an improved education system, the active presence of the Afghan National Army (ANA) and Afghan

National Police (ANP), economic revival, and democracy/elections. Since 2006, good security and reconstruction have been consistently identified as the main reasons for optimism, concentrated in safer regions.

Reasons for pessimism include insecurity, corruption (in general, and administrative corruption in particular), unemployment, a bad economy, and election fraud. Since 2007 insecurity has been the most frequently cited reason for pessimism, and the proportion of people citing insecurity rose sharply from 2013 to 2014. At the national level, insecurity, corruption, unemployment, the economy, and access to education and illiteracy are the most frequently cited national problems.

Afghanistan’s biggest problems at the local level include unemployment which is the most frequently cited local problem. Services are next on the list, followed by security issues, education, and healthcare. While this list and its order has not changed significantly over the last eight years, the percentage of Afghans citing unemployment has risen from 26.0% in 2009 to 33.1% in 2014. Unemployment is the most common local problem in all regions except the East, where lack of electricity (34.3%) is reported as the most common local problem.

The biggest problems facing women today identified by the Afghans include education and illiteracy, a lack of job opportunities, domestic violence, forced marriages

and dowry payments, and lack of rights. Compared to men, women are significantly more

likely to report domestic violence, lack of rights, and lack of jobs as the biggest problems facing Afghan women.

In 2014 a majority of Afghans (65.4%) report always, often, or sometimes fearing for their safety or security or that of their family. The provinces reporting the highest levels of fear for personal safety are Faryab, Wardak, Farah, and Kunduz. Around three quarters of Afghans say they would be afraid when traveling within Afghanistan. A clear majority would be afraid to participate in a peaceful demonstration, run for public office, and encounter international forces.

Each year, the survey explores Afghan perceptions of how well the various levels of government are carrying out their responsibilities. This year, 75.3% of Afghans say the national government does a somewhat good or very good job. Around two-thirds say provincial government is doing a good job, followed by municipal authorities and district

government.

Most Afghans report corruption as a major problem in numerous arenas, ranging

from 53.3% in their neighborhood to 75.7% in Afghanistan as a whole. Importantly, all

long-term measures for both perception and exposure to corruption have risen. The perception of corruption as a major problem in daily life rose sharply from 2013 (55.7%) to 2014 (62.4%). Afghans in the South East and East regions are most likely to say that corruption is a problem (either major or minor) in their daily life.

Access to information is considered a fundamental right in Article 50 of the

Afghan Constitution. Despite this, Freedom House classifies media in Afghanistan as

“not free” relative to other countries. Reasons cited include the Afghan Ministry of

Culture and Information’s recently issued a letter to local media outlets ordering “self- censorship” of anything that is against the Islamic Shari’a laws. Journalists have been threatened, physically abused, or killed while carrying out their duties. Protections for press and activists may improve with the Access to Information Law, which was ratified in 2014 by the Lower House of Parliament (Wolesi Jirga). This law consists of 32 articles, and aims to protect journalists, civil society, and human rights activists from censorship when performing duties to disseminate public information. As of October

2014, the Upper House and president have not yet approved this law.

Marginalized Societies

Marginalized groups of people are particular groups of people in society exposed to problems because of economic, social and political backwardness (Basumatary, 2013).

According the Basumatary (2013), among these marginalized groups of people, women are the worst sufferers due to the patriarchal nature of many societies. Apart from experiencing gender vulnerabilities these women often face double discrimination for being a ‘woman’ and again for being a ‘woman of the marginalized group’. The status of many women in marginalized societies is the result of factors such as lack of education, traditional way of life, superstitious beliefs, or gender bias.

In every culture and tradition, the place and status of women differs, and in many places across the world women in society are oppressed by patriarchal hegemony

(Basumatary, 2013). For instance, women of India constitute 50 per cent of the country’s

human resource and their contribution is vital for the nation’s progress. However, in

many countries, women as marginalized groups are exposed to many problems due to

economic, social and political backwardness.

As for status of women in marginalized societies, social norms and cultural

practices are rooted in a highly patriarchal social order wherein women are expected to

adhere to strict gender roles about what they can and cannot do (Basumatary, 2013).

Factors contributing to women as members of a marginalized society include poverty,

hierarchical social division, lack of awareness and infrastructure facilities and rigid

adherence to conservative cultural values.

In other situations, ethnic tribes are also regarded as an underprivileged section of

people, and as such, they are socio-economically disadvantaged and constitute a large

proportion of agricultural laborers, casual laborers, plantation laborers, and industrial

laborers (Basumatary, 2013).

Political unrest can create further problems among the marginalized communities, as people who are adversely affected by political and ethnic unrest may be bound to leave

their homes and live in relief camps (Basumatary, 2013). The problems of the

marginalized groups are further complicated by the geographical isolation which is magnified due to a lack infrastructure resulting in inadequate growth of rural economies.

The greater impact on women is that of losing their sons and husbands to combating insurgency terrorism.

Marginalized populations are those excluded from mainstream social, economic, cultural, or political life (http://thesocietyofmarginalized.weebly.com). Examples of marginalized populations include, but are by no means limited to, groups excluded due to

race, religion, political or cultural group, age, gender, or financial status. To what extent such populations are marginalized, however, is context specific and reliant on the cultural organization of the social site in question (Given, 2008).

Marginalization defined means the process whereby something or someone is pushed to the edge of a group and accorded lesser importance

(http://www.businessdictionary.com). This is predominantly a social phenomenon by which a minority or sub-group is excluded, and their needs or desires ignored. It can include discrimination based on disability, race, ethnicity, religion, or gender.

"Marginalized" then, refers to the overt or covert trends within societies whereby those perceived as lacking desirable traits or deviating from the group norms tend to be excluded by wider society and ostracized as undesirables. Sometimes groups are marginalized by society at large, but governments are often unwitting. Marginalized people who lack self-sufficiency become, at a minimum, dependent on charity, or welfare. They lose their self-confidence because they cannot be fully self-supporting. The opportunities denied them also deprive them of the pride of accomplishment which others, who have those opportunities, can develop for themselves. This in turn can lead to psychological, social and even mental health problems.

Many of the barriers to overcoming marginalization and women's empowerment and equity lie ingrained in cultural norms. Many women feel these pressures, while others have become accustomed to being treated inferior to men (Nussbaum, 1995).

According to the World Survey on the Role of Women in Development (2009), even if men, legislators, and NGOs are aware of the benefits women's empowerment and

participation can have, many are scared of disrupting the status quo and continue to let

societal norms get in the way of development.

Recent studies also show that women face more barriers in the workplace than do

men (Sutton and Pollock, 2000). Gender-related barriers involve sexual harassment, unfair hiring practices, career progression, and unequal pay where women are paid less

than men are for performing the same job (Stein, 2009). Such barriers make it difficult

for women to advance in their workplace or receive fair compensation for the work they

provide.

Measures are being taken and in seeking to overcome the difficulties of marginalized societies, the "The Society of the Marginalized", a charitable, volunteer registered association under the Societies Registration Act 1860 with the Government of

Pakistan, serves as an exemplar for the promotion and protection of community

development and minority rights in neighboring Pakistan, responsible for overall

development of minority women, children and youth.

Leadership in the Global Context

Various approaches exist to viewing leadership in a global context and leaders

throughout an organization face a similar challenge, that of how to adapt their leadership

style to fit local circumstances while achieving objectives (Steers et al., 2012). In this

regard, Warren Bennis, a noted U.S. leadership expert and author, wrote “To an extent,

leadership is like beauty: it's hard to define, but you know it when you see it” (Bennis,

1989, p 1). Others suggest differently (Chen and Lee, 2008, Dickson et al., 2009; Osland

et al., 2009), with research demonstrating that some cultures prefer leaders who are

visible and assertive, while other cultures prefer leaders who are humble and work behind

the scenes (Aycan, 2008; Tsui et al., 2007). As leaders around the globe face the challenges of leading employees from different cultural backgrounds with divergent expectations about hierarchy, power, and interpersonal relations, it is important for formal and informal leaders to understand how cultural dynamics can influence effective leadership (Steers et al., 2012).

Leadership can be considered a generalizable, or universal, behavior regardless of where it is exercised; many Western theories of leadership are built on this premise. For example, transformational leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1993a/b) advocates that managers create a universally accepted vision of where the group or organization should go and then use moral persuasion (and often charismatic leadership) to reinforce this mission. Three approaches to global leadership have been identified: 1) universal, 2) normative, and 3) the contingency approach. Underlying the universal approach is the belief that leadership traits and processes are relatively constant across cultures with applicability that is universal regardless of location (Steers et al., 2012). The second, the normative approach focuses on enduring personal skills and abilities that characterize effective global managers; these models are prescriptive in nature, and suggest how managers should approach leadership in global settings (Steers et al., 2012). Here, the focus is on the leader as a global manager with certain sets of leader traits and abilities being common to all managers regardless of where they work. Examples of work on the

‘global mindset’ and ‘cultural intelligence’ serve to illustrate this approach (Earley and

Ang, 2003; Javidan et al., 2007; Mendenhall et al., 2008). The third approach, referred to as the contingency approach, begins with the assumption that there are no universals in describing effective leadership and looks at leadership as a culturally embedded process,

not a series of personal traits. Here the focus is on the leader as a local manager and it

assumes that the characteristics for success will vary with the situation (Steers et al.,

2012). An example of this approach exists in the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004)

whose principal finding is that leadership is culturally contingent and the qualities of

effective leaders often vary across cultures.

In their article: “Leadership in a global context: New directions in research and

theory development”, Steers et al. (2012) assert that while all three approaches add value

to understanding leadership in a global context, they are insufficient with regard to

explicating the leadership construct as it relates to global diversity. As a result, Steers et

al. (2012) suggest that focusing on the following two issues could advance understanding

of leadership processes: 1) the meaning of leadership as a cultural construct and 2) the variations in local expectations regarding leader behavior. Leadership then, as a cultural construct, is considered to be embedded in the diverse cultures where it is exercised and changes accordingly.

Approaches to Leadership Studies

The first approach to leadership studies primarily focused on the traits and

personal characteristics of those who became great leaders (Takahashi et al., 2012).

Researchers analyzed the characteristics of prominent leaders in terms of demographics

such as gender, height, appearance, education, and socioeconomic background and

psychological/personality traits including intelligence, need for achievement, need for power, and authoritarianism (Gibb, 1947; Jenkins, 1947). The early trait studies found

few, if any, personality variables that could consistently differentiate great leaders from

ordinary people (Mann, 1959; Stogdill, 1948). Subsequent meta-analyses, however,

revisited the role of personality traits in the emergence of leaders, as well as their

influence on the effectiveness of leadership (Lord et al., 1986). More recently, Judge et

al., (2002) meta-analyzed the correlations between leadership and personality traits using

the “Big Five factors” framework; they reported the corrected correlations of the Big Five personality traits with leadership as follows: neuroticism (ρ = −.24, n =8024), extroversion (ρ = .31, n = 1,705), openness (ρ = .24, n = 7221), agreeableness (ρ = .08, n

= 9801), and conscientiousness (ρ = .28, n = 7510). These findings from the meta- analysis suggested that although trait theories had first received a negative evaluation in terms of their potential in leadership research, the trait approach may still have the capability to link personality traits and leadership effectiveness (Takahashi et al., 2012).

Trait theories of leadership emphasize stable positive traits that can account for the emergence, role occupancy and effectiveness of exceptional leaders that “stand out”

(Arvey and Chaturvedi, 2011; Kirkpatick and Locke, 1991). However, the trait theories neither recognize the developmental potential of leaders over time, nor do they explain the processes and behaviors of the leader that mediate or moderate the exceptional outcomes of these traits; they also do not account for the characteristics of the followers or the context (Youssef and Luthans, 2012).

The second approach to leadership studies considered behavior as the origin of leadership, with two broad categories of leader behaviors: task-oriented and people- oriented. These behaviors were repeatedly identified by researchers at Ohio State

University (Fleishman and Harris, 1962), the University of Michigan (Likert, 1961), and

Harvard University (Bales, 1954). This approach defines leadership as an acquired, trainable behavior perceived by followers as well as leaders themselves; it has produced

diverse scales to measure leadership by measuring certain observable behaviors

(Takahashi et al., 2012). Both the task-oriented and people-oriented aspects of leader

behaviors were positively linked to various outcomes, such as subordinates’ and group

performance, turnover, and follower job attitudes, job satisfaction, and organizational

commitment (House and Aditya, 1997).

The third approach, referred to as the contingency approach (e.g., Fiedler, 1967), theorizes that there is an interaction between leadership behaviors or styles and the situations surrounding the leaders exhibiting those behaviors. The contingency approach

assumes leadership effectiveness depends partially on the nature of the situation. In

explaining how environmental factors place constraints on leader effectiveness, the

contingency approach takes into account situational factors, e.g., job characteristics,

positional power, group interpersonal relationships, and the strengths and weaknesses of

subordinates (Takahashi et al., 2012). Theories that emphasize the importance of

situational factors include Fiedler's contingency theory (Fiedler, 1967, 1971), the path–

goal theory (House, 1971; House and Mitchell, 1974/1975), and the theory of leadership

substitutes (Kerr and Jermier, 1978). Behavioral (Judge, Piccolo and Ilies, 2004) and

contingency (Fiedler, 1967 and House, 1971) leadership theories also identify several dimensions of global leadership, the most notable of which are the multiplicity, flexibility and adaptability of leadership styles over time and across situational factors. Further, behavioral and contingency theories are relatively silent regarding the long term, elevating impact of leadership (Youssef and Luthans, 2012). The contingency theory of leadership as proposed by Fiedler (1967) asserts that leadership occurs across cultures.

According to Dorfman (1996), the underlying logic behind Fiedler's theory is the fact that

the leader's context or situation moderates the relationship between the leader's personality traits and effectiveness. When the dynamics of the context is understood, then

the most effective leadership attributes and prototypes for that context can be defined

(Morrison, 2000).

The fourth approach, leader–member exchange (LMX) (Graen and Cashman,

1975; Dansereau et al., 1975; Graen, 1976; Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995) presented dyadic

theories of leadership. LMX is characterized as a relationship-oriented view in which

leaders develop different qualities of exchange relationship with their followers

(members). This theory prescribes that a high degree of mutual influence and obligation

between leaders and specific members provides several positive outcomes, including

higher subordinate performance, satisfaction, commitment, and citizenship behavior

(Takahashi et al., 2012). Exchange leadership theories (e.g., LMX) emphasize the

relationships between leaders and followers and incorporate the mechanisms through

which social exchanges between leaders and followers bring about mutual understanding,

trust, respect, appreciation, loyalty, and a sense of obligation (Graen and Uhl-Bien,

1995). These theories also emphasize outcomes of high-quality exchanges in terms of

follower attitudes, behaviors and performance (Chen et al., 2007; Graen and Uhl-Bien,

1995; Schriesheim et al., 1999). However, exchange leadership theories are often

criticized for their “unfairness” to the followers who are considered the “out-group” for

being treated formally and given limited feedback and support, in comparison to the “in-

group” receiving most of the attention of the leader (Youssef and Luthans, 2012).

The fifth approach, transformational leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1994), extends the traditional behavioral approach by considering emotional aspects of leaders who

solicit extraordinary efforts by subordinates. Transformational leadership has been

operationalized by measuring behaviors using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire

(MLQ) (Bass and Avolio, 2000) tool for measuring transformational leadership. In the

MLQ, four types of behavior are measured as components of transformational leadership:

idealized influence (charisma), inspirational motivation, intellectual simulation, and

individual consideration. Other relevant theories to transformational leadership (Bass,

1985; Burns, 1978) include charismatic leadership (Conger and Kanungo, 1987; House,

1976), and visionary leadership (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Kouzes and Posner, 2006;

Sashkin, 1988). As House and Shamir (1993) noted, these three theories are quite similar,

having common characteristics that include pursuit of outstanding accomplishment and

change, use of symbolic and spiritual appeals, and petition for extreme follower

motivation and commitment (Bryman, 1993).

Transformational (Bass and Avolio, 1994) and charismatic (Conger and Kanungo,

1998) leadership theories emphasize leaders’ abilities to influence their followers’ perceptions and actions in terms of rallying support toward a clearly articulated vision, inspiring them, and meeting their needs. In addition to the inspirational impact of

charisma of leaders due to perceived exceptional qualities by followers, transformational

leadership theories also include intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration

of followers with the purpose of developing them (Youssef and Luthans, 2012).

More recent leadership literature focuses on shared leadership, defined as an emergent team property resulting from the distribution of leadership influence across multiple members (Carson et al., 2007; Perry et al., 1999). Although the construct

“shared leadership” was proposed in North America, Ishikawa (2012) shows that sharing

of leadership behaviors among members in a global organization has a positive influence

on team performance.

Global Leadership

A variety of measures focusing on global leadership have emerged with our

ability to travel and communicate more readily across the world. Reichers and Schneider

(1990) referred to global leadership as a Phase I construct because of the debate at the

time and lack of an agreed upon definition across its different domains. The definition of

global leadership currently reflects a more holistic view of who global leaders are, what

they do, and the environment they operate in; this definition is not limited to certain

abilities leaders must have or behaviors they must display (Dickson et al., 2012).

Mendenhall et al. (2012) propose the following definition for global leadership: “The

process of influencing others to adopt a shared vision through structures and methods that

facilitate positive change while fostering individual and collective growth in a context

characterized by significant” (p 499). Their proposed definition of a global leader flows

from the above definition of global leadership, and follows: “An individual who inspires

a group of people to willingly pursue a positive vision in an effectively organized fashion

while fostering individual and collective growth in a context characterized by significant

levels of complexity, flow and presence” (p. 499).

Dickson et al. (2012) further assert that knowledge of what is valued in a leader in

different societies is useful in terms of personnel selection, and training and development

for individuals who interact with people from other cultures. For instance, selection and assessment of expatriates can be based on the extent to which their values, belief system,

and leadership concepts align with the values and expectations from the host country

(Dorfman et al., 2004). These concepts can also be applied to leaders who manage cross-

cultural teams; these leaders must have a basic understanding of the local culture and

culturally diverse team dynamics (Dickson et al., 2012).

Global leadership scholars describe the global context as characterized by a greater range of diversity (Gregersen et al., 1998), more frequent and far-reaching boundary crossing activities (e.g., Beechler and Javidan, 2007; McCall and Hollenbeck,

2002), a greater number of stakeholders to be considered (e.g., Beechler and Javidan,

2007; Mendenhall et al., 2008; Osland, 2010; Osland et al., 2007), greater competitive pressures (e.g., Brake, 1997; Caligiuri and Tarique, 2009), greater volatility and pressures for continuous change (e.g., Brake, 1997; Osland, 2008), greater ambiguity (e.g.,

Caligiuri, 2006; Osland et al., 2007), increased cognitive complexity (Levy et al., 2007a), social acuity and behavioral flexibility (Osland et al., 2012a/b), and greater need for integration (e.g., Caligiuri and Tarique, 2009; Osland et al., 2007; Suutari, 2002).

Mendenhall et al. (2012) assert that instead, global leadership is conceptualized to be a process that reflects how an individual engages in and fulfills global roles and responsibilities, and includes sense-making, the nature and quality of relationships a leader has, and the mechanisms through which a leader exerts influence. Global

leadership differs from domestic leadership in that what works in one part of the world

does not always work in another (Kabasakal et al., 2012). This difference between global

and local leadership depends on the role culture plays in the development of norms and values (Morrison, 2000). Leaders need to consider the cultural norms as reflected in business, relationships, hierarchies, ethics and risk in order to be effective (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961; Hofstede, 1980; Boyacigiller and Adler, 1991).

To date, cross-cultural research on leadership has relied on Hofstede's (1980,

2001) classic framework emphasizing country differences or more recent frameworks such as Project GLOBE (House et al., 2004). In a recent comprehensive review, Chen et al. (2009) question cross-cultural differences for advancing knowledge in the area of cross-national research. Chen et al. highlight the need for theoretical frameworks that go beyond finding cross-cultural differences (or similarities), to using cross-cultural research as a way to build more diverse perspectives that facilitate theoretical innovation which may also be applicable in single-culture contexts (Youssef and Luthans, 2012).

Cross-cultural research has confirmed that different cultural groups have different values (Schwartz, 1994a/b), which in turn lead to differing conceptions of ideal leadership processes (Dickson et al., 2003). As such, continued examination is necessary with respect to how cultural differences can impact leadership emergence. In cross- cultural management literature, the question “Does culture influence leadership, and if so, why and how?” has yet to have a definitive answer (Dorfman and House, 2004). Findings from the GLOBE study (Javidan et al., 2004) confirmed that many leadership attributes are culturally contingent; they are desirable in some cultures but undesirable in others.

For instance, humane-oriented leadership seems to be desirable in South Asia societies but not considered as important in Nordic Europe. Further, in some cultures, leadership is romanticized and leaders receive exceptional privileges and gain social status (e.g.,

United States), but in the Netherlands the concept of leadership is less romanticized

(Mittal and Dorfman, 2012).

As another example, a number of scholars attest that the majority of existing management theories were developed in the Western context and may not be applicable

globally (Hofstede, 1993). House and Aditya (1997, p. 109) previously pointed out that

“almost all of the prevailing theories of leadership and about 98% of empirical evidence”

came from the United States. At the same time, in attempts to identify culture-specific

and universal behaviors of leaders, scholars devoted increasing attention to cross-cultural

issues (Fu and Yukl, 2000; House et al., 2004; Silverthorne, 2001). For instance,

Dorfman and Howell (1988) examined charismatic leadership with regard to employee

satisfaction, finding that the impact was much stronger in the United States compared to

Mexico. In a more recent study, Shao and Webber (2006) found a positive relationship

between extraversion and transformational leadership (Judge and Bono, 2000), which

was empirically supported in the Western context, but which could not be established in

the Chinese context.

Leading global teams: Research on leading global teams (Zander et al., 2012) is

significant with regard to studies on culture. Global teams characterized by national,

cultural and linguistic heterogeneity and operate in a globally dispersed virtual

environment are becoming an established form of organizing work in multinational

organizations (Zander et al., 2012). Multinational teams of all shapes and sizes have been called the ‘heart’ of globalization (Snow et al.,1996) and are routinely used in the

increasingly competitive, complex and culturally diverse world of the 21st Century

(DiStefano and Maznevski, 2000; Ravlin et al., 2000). Global teams, as defined by

Maloney and Zellmer-Bruhn (2006), differ from other teams in two ways; they are

characterized by: 1) a globally dispersed work environment, and 2) heterogeneity on

multiple dimensions. Zander et al.’s. (2012) research focused specifically on national cultural heterogeneity as another characteristic of global teams, as nationality can

override other demographic and tenure-based categorizations in such teams (Butler,

2006; Earley and Mosakowski, 2000) and with respect to leadership (Zander and Romani,

2004). Especially for practitioners, leading global multi-cultural teams is relevant (e.g.,

Brett et al., 2006; Maznevski, 2008; Miller et al., 2000; Steers et al., 2010). Brett et al.

(2006) also draw attention to four cultural barriers in multicultural teams; these barriers

are: conflicting decision-making norms, conflicting attitudes toward hierarchy, direct

versus indirect communication, and trouble with language fluency and accents. Steers et

al. (2010, p. 265) single out “mastering intercultural communications by listening for

contextual messages behind content messages” as a key leadership challenge for

multicultural team leaders since these leaders must facilitate communication among team

members, make communication norms explicit, and help build mutual understanding

(Steers et al., 2010). To help identify the competencies team leaders need to effectively

lead MCTs, Hajro and Pudelko (2010) conducted 70 interviews with MCT leaders and members from five multinational firms. Specific findings included that knowledge management and transfer were the most important MCT leader competence, with cross- cultural awareness following closely (Hajro and Pudelko, 2010). In another study, the positive effects of transformational leadership on outcomes such as employee motivation, satisfaction and performance were found by Kearney and Gebert (2009) in a team setting in their study of 62 research and development teams in a multinational company.

As companies become more global and increasingly use multicultural virtual teams for instance, employees who have the cognitive aptitude and experience to think and act ‘globally’ are increasingly sought after (Zander et al., 2012). As people are

exposed to more and more cultures (Friedman and Liu, 2009; Tsui et al., 2007), three

identifiable streams of research have developed around globalization. The first research stream is the multi-faceted construct of the ‘global mindset’ (e.g., Javidan et al., 2006).

Global mindset is argued to be crucial for global leaders to be able to influence individuals, groups and organizations, and global leaders may be perceived as being more international (e.g., Anthias, 2001) or cosmopolitan rather than being bound by a single or few cultures. The second research stream is when people adapt easily and well in emotional, behavioral, and cognitive terms to new cultural contexts, displaying what

Earley and colleagues (Earley, 2002, Earley and Ang, 2003 and Earley et al., 2007) term cultural intelligence. The third stream of research developed pertains to people identifying with two (or more) cultural identities so as to demonstrate biculturalism, a process of intrapersonal cultural diversity switching easily between two or more cultures

(Bunderson and Sutcliffe, 2002; Hong et al., 2000; LaFromboise et al., 1993).

Global mindset is related to cultural intelligence and biculturalism (Earley et al.,

2007) in that an individual can also develop and refine at least some its elements, an example of which is developing cognitive competency that leads to intercultural empathy.

Global mindset (Hitt et al., 2007; Javidan et al., 2006; Javidan et al., 2007; Jeannet, 2000;

Levy et al., 2007a/b; Murtha et al., 1998; Redding, 2007) is also argued to bring competitive advantage to organizations through its dual focus on cultural competence and strategic organizational impact. Levy et al. (2007b) synthesis of the literature helped to define global mindset as a multidimensional individual level “highly complex cognitive structure characterized by an openness to and articulation of multiple cultural and strategic realities on both global and local levels, and the cognitive ability to mediate and integrate across this multiplicity” (p. 27).

Cultural intelligence, on the other hand, consists of meta-cognitive, cognitive,

motivational, and behavioral components (Ang and Van Dyne, 2008; Ang et al., 2007;

Van Dyne et al., 2008). Cultural intelligence has been shown to be a key predictor of

integration in multinational teams (Flaherty, 2008), and of international assignment

effectiveness (Kim et al., 2008), expatriate adjustment and performance (Shaffer and

Miller, 2008), and task performance in culturally diverse settings (Ang et al., 2007).

Project GLOBE remains an influential effort exploring the impact of cultural values on leadership effectiveness. In attempting to develop an empirically based theory of cross-cultural leadership (House et al., 2002), its empirical evidence supports the

important role of culture in shaping different leadership behaviors and predicting

leadership effectiveness. More recently, the GLOBE study of chief executive officer

leadership behavior and effectiveness (House et al., 2014) analyzed managerial attributes,

styles, behavior, and outcomes of senior executives and CEOs in terms of their leadership

paradigms and behavior effectiveness across cultures. Significant among the findings

were 22 leadership attributes considered universally desirable, 8 leadership attributes

considered universally undesirable, and 35 leadership attributes considered culturally

contingent (House et al., 2014). These findings bode well for increased scholarly

understanding of leadership in the global context and should be considered beneficial in

research concerning leadership emergence.

Culture Research and Cross-Cultural Issues

National and Societal Culture

National culture has moved from its anthropological roots to making a significant

contribution to studies in cross-cultural business, management and leadership (Bhagat et

al., 2002; Hofstede, 2001; House et al., 2004, 2014; Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner,

1998). With our conceptualization of globalization continuing to advance and cross- cultural relationships becoming the norm, an understanding of the values, beliefs, and behaviors of diverse groups is becoming more and more important. The study of culture began with anthropologists seeking to understand differences in values and behaviors of people and societies in various geographic regions (Hofstede, 2001; Trompenaars and

Hampden-Turner, 1998). Ethnographic studies confirmed that differences in people’s values and behaviors result from the history and traditions of the societies in which they live (Benedict, 1934; Geertz, 1973; Mead, 1928). As Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) state,

“there is no normal position in cultural matters” (p. 363). As such, a review of the literature on culture will serve to identify cultural dimensions and differences since understanding culture helps to explain differences in lifestyles, perceptions, interactions, and leadership.

Kroeber and Kluckhohn’s (1952) anthropological definition of national culture is:

patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values (p. 181).

Kluckhohn also used an analogy to conceptualize culture: “culture is to society what memory is to individuals” (Kluckhohn, 1954, in Triandis and Suh, 2002, p. 135). Kroeber and Parsons developed a cross-disciplinary definition of culture as “transmitted and created content and patterns of values, ideas, and other symbolic-meaningful systems as factors in the shaping of human behavior and the artifacts produced through behavior”

(Kroeber and Parsons, 1958, in Hofstede, 2001, p. 9). Triandis (1994) stated that “culture imposes a set of lenses for seeing the world” (p. 13). The respective lenses are developed

through language, ethnic heritage, history, and ideological beliefs which include religion

and political beliefs (House et al., 2004). While various definitions of the term culture

exist, the majority of them contain three analogous characteristics: 1) culture is determined to emerge in adaptive interactions, 2) there are shared elements to culture, and 3) culture is transmitted from one generation to another (Triandis, 1994).

Culture is and remains a single word with myriad meanings (Dickson et al.,

2012). Herskovits (1955) identified culture as an agreement that members of the society come to and something that new members can learn; culture specifies individuals’ natural and societal settings such as thought patterns, government structure and values of possessions. Hofstede (1980, p. 260) defined culture somewhat more colloquially, as “the collective programming of the human mind that distinguishes the members of one human group from those of another.” The definition of culture provided by Hampden-Turner and

Trompenaars (1993) suggests that members of a given culture share common history and therefore hold common attitudes. More recently, culture has been described as a set of values adapted by the group of people that define the way of life for that particular group; cultural values translate into norms, beliefs and morals, and are reflected in laws and practices of the society (Adler, 2008). Schein's definition of culture (focused at the organizational level), is: “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems that has worked well enough to be considered valid and is passed on to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those

problems” (Schein, 1992). Given the longitudinal and geographical breadth of Project

GLOBE, this current dissertation study will use the definition provided therein in which culture was defined as “shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or

meanings of significant events that result from common experiences of members of

collectivities and are transmitted across age generations” (House et al., 1999, p. 13).

Cultural Dimensions: Much of the cross-cultural research in management, human

relations, and psychology in the last 30 years has been based on identifying and

measuring cultural dimensions, which cluster common societal values and beliefs

(Dickson et al., 2012). In Variations in Value Orientations, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck

(1961) presented the cultural orientations framework; Table 2.1 identifies and describes

their dimensions. Anthropologists’ study of culture can be characterized as attempts to

gain insight into individual cultures. In attempts to operationalize culture, scholars have

taken a dimensional approach to understanding cultural differences and values (Hofstede,

1980, 2001; House et al., 2004; Schwartz, 1999; Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner,

1998). One of the most widely used cultural frameworks is work by Hofstede (1980).

Table 2.1 provides a summary of relevant cultural dimension studies, and summarizes the

respective scholars, providing a concise description of their contribution to culture

research. Table 2.2 shows results of Project GLOBE’s most recent work, and identifies

Global Leadership Dimensions. These dimensions serve to illustrate the bond between

culture and leadership and provide the underlying framework of this study regarding cultural differences and leadership emergence.

Table 2-1. Cultural Dimension Studies

Cultural Dimension Studies Scholar(s) Dimensions Contribution Kluckhohn Nature of humans: Presented the and . Good/evil: The basic nature of people is essentially good (lower cultural orientations Strodtbeck score) or evil (higher score) framework; focused (1961) . Changeable/unchangeable: The basic nature of humans is changeable on complementing (higher score) from good to evil or vice versa, or not changeable the anthropological (lower score) study of culture as a Relationships among people whole by studying . Individual: Our primary responsibility is to and for ourselves as variance within individuals, and next for our immediate families cultures, to help . Collective: Our primary responsibility is to and for a larger extended understand cultural group of people, such as an extended family or society change and . Hierarchical: Power and responsibility are naturally unequally complexity distributed throughout society; those higher in the hierarchy have power over and responsibility for those lower Relation to broad environment . Mastery: We should control, direct and change the environment around us . Subjugation: We should not try to change the basic direction of the broader environment around us, and we should allow ourselves to be influenced by a larger natural or supernatural element . Harmony: We should strive to maintain a balance among the elements of the environment, including ourselves Activity . Doing: People should continually engage in activity to accomplish tangible tasks . Thinking: People should consider all aspects of a situation carefully and rationally before taking action . Being: People should be spontaneous, and do everything in its own time Time . Past: Our decision criteria should be guided mostly by tradition . Present: Our decision criteria should be guided mostly by immediate needs and circumstances . Future: Our decision criteria should be guided by predicted long term future needs and circumstances Space . Public: The space around someone belongs to everyone and may be used by everyone . Private: The space around someone belongs to that person and cannot be used by anyone else without permission Hofstede Individualism/ Collectivism: The relationship of individuals and groups Provided a (1980) Power Distance: The relationship of individuals and their superiors framework for Masculinity/Femininity: The division of emotional roles between men comparing cultural and women attributes between Uncertainty Avoidance: How society and individuals relate to the nations unknown Hofstede Long term/Short term: How members of a culture view Time Added 5th dimension and Bond to earlier work (1984)

Cultural Dimension Studies Scholar(s) Dimensions Contribution Trompenaars Universalism vs. Particularism: Emphasis on universal rules that apply In applying Parson’s and to all in focusing on relationships General Theory of Hampden- Individualism vs. Communitarianism: Self-promotion or achievement Action, provided a Turner or benefit of group or collective framework to view (1998) Affective vs. Neutral: Display emotions or not display emotions when the role of national interacting with others culture in the work Specific vs. Diffuse: The degree to which members of a society engage environment others on a personal level in work and social settings Ascription vs. Achievement: Assigning status on the basis of age, gender, class, education or on achievement Sequential vs. Synchronical: How time is managed – linearly or interrelated to past, present, and future Attitude toward the environment: Control nature or let it take its course Schwartz Conservatism: Maintenance of the status quo In assessing the (1999) Intellectual Autonomy: Individuals independently pursuing their own Universal Value ideas Structure, the study Affective Autonomy: Individuals pursuing positive experiences focused on national Hierarchy: Focus on power roles and resources groups, not nations; Egalitarianism: Commitment to promoting the welfare of others also focused on Mastery: Focusing on active self-assertion culture and work Harmony: Unity with the environment related variables House, Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which members of a collective Focus on societal Hanges, seek order, consistency, structure, and formalized procedures and organizational Javidan, Power Distance: Extent to which a society accepts and endorses culture; and culture Dorfman, authority influence on and Gupta Institutional Collectivism: The degree that organizations and societies leadership behavior (2004) The encourage and reward collective action in global GLOBE In-Group Collectivism: Degree that individuals express loyalty and organizations, used Study pride in their families and organizations Hofstede (1980) to Gender Egalitarianism: Gender role differences and the degree to delineate which they are minimized dimensions. Applied Assertiveness: Degree to which individuals are confrontational or implicit leadership aggressive in social relationships theory; value-belief Future Orientation: Degree to which individuals in organizations plan theory; implicit and invest in the future as opposed to immediate gratification motivational theory; Performance Orientation: Degree that an organization or society and structural rewards and encourages performance improvement and innovative contingency theory performance of organizational Humane Orientation: The degree to which individuals in organizations form and or societies encourage and reward others for being fair, altruistic, effectiveness. friendly, generous, caring, and kind to others

Table 2-2. Global Leadership Dimensions as Identified by Project GLOBE

Scholar(s) Global Leadership Dimensions Contribution House, Charismatic, Value-Based leadership – Broadly defined to reflect the Studied CEO Dorfman, ability to inspire, motivate, and expect high performance outcomes from leadership behavior Javidan, others based on firmly held core values. and effectiveness in Hanges, and Team-Oriented leadership – Emphasizes effective team building and 24 countries; as the Sully de implementation of a common purpose or goal among team members. latest phase of Luque Participative leadership – Reflects the degree to which managers Project GLOBE, (2014) involve others in making and implementing decisions. tested relationships The Humane-Oriented leadership – Reflects supportive and considerate between observed GLOBE leadership but also includes compassion and generosity. leadership behaviors Study Autonomous leadership – A newly defined global leadership dimension of CEOs, societal referring to independent and individualistic leadership attributes. leadership Self-Protective leadership – From a Western perspective, this newly expectations, as well defined global leadership dimension focuses on ensuring safety and as between security of the individual and group through status enhancement and face leadership and saving. organizational Culturally Contingent Leadership Dimensions effectiveness. Self-Sacrificial – Indicates an ability to convince followers to invest their efforts in activities that do not have a high probability of success, to Research focus forgo their self-interest, and make personal sacrifices for the goal or included CEO vision. leadership across Status Conscious – Reflects a consciousness of one’s own and others’ cultures; Culturally social position, holding an elitist belief that some individuals deserve endorsed implicit more privileges. A status-conscious leader adjusts their style of leadership theories; leadership and communication according to status of the individual(s) and identification of they are dealing with. global leadership Internally Competitive (formerly labeled conflict inducer) – Reflects dimensions; and the tendency to view colleagues as competitors and to conceal culturally contingent information due to a lack of willingness to work jointly with others. leadership Face-Saver – Reflects the tendency to ensure followers are not dimensions. embarrassed or shamed. A face-saving leader maintains good relationship by refraining from making negative comments and instead uses metaphors and analogies. Bureaucratic (formerly labeled procedural) – Emphasizes leaders who habitually follow established norms, rules, policies, procedures and routines. Humane orientation – Emphasizes empathy for others by giving time, money, resources, and assistance when needed. It reflects concern for followers’ personal and group welfare. Autonomous – Describes tendencies to act independently without relying on others, self-governing, and preferring to work and act separately from others.

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck.

In their book, Variations in Value Orientations, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)

focused on complementing the anthropological study of culture as a whole by studying

variance within cultures, and believed this approach would help researchers understand

cultural change and complexity at a different level. After conducting ten years of content analysis of field studies from around the world, they identified six culture dimensions

(along with respective cultural orientations); these were: nature of humans (good/evil; changeable/unchangeable); relationships among people (individual, collective; hierarchical); relation to broad environment (mastery; subjugation; harmony); activity

(doing; thinking; being); time (past; present; future); and space (public; private). Table

2.1 provides a description of each dimension. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's (1961) cultural orientations and dimensions resulted from a test of the framework with five different samples across different parts of the United States; the field test showed that the proposed dimensions and orientations discriminated among cultures and helped explain patterns in individual behaviors and other outcomes within cultures. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's

(1961) work heavily influenced the work of subsequent scholars who studied cultural dimensions. An example is the work of Hofstede (1980 and 2001) whose work is well- known as a framework for classifying countries based on work-related values.

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.

The framework proposed by Hofstede (1980) was based on a study he conducted with managers of IBM who were located in more than 40 countries. Originally, Hofstede identified four culture dimensions: individualism–collectivism, power distance, masculinity–femininity, and uncertainty avoidance. A fifth dimension was subsequently added: long/short term orientation (Hofstede and Bond, 1984). Hofstede's more recent studies have included other countries (e.g., Hofstede, 2001), and the dimensions he initially developed have been validated and used by a number of other researchers

(Dickson et al., 2012). The framework Hofstede (1980, 2001) developed for measuring

culture comprised four realms: 1) individual/collectivism, the relationship of individuals and groups; 2) power distance, which focuses on the relationship of individuals and their superiors; 3) masculinity/femininity, the “division of emotional roles between men and women” (Hofstede 2001, p. 29); and 4) uncertainty avoidance, which describes how society and individuals relate to the unknown (Hofstede, 2001). Additional studies, conducted with Bond in the early 1980’s, were designed to avoid a Western cultural bias.

The results of these studies added the fifth dimension, long term/short term, which is related to how members of a culture may view time (Hofstede, 2001). Hofstede’s work focused on national culture, measured cross-cultural values, and created country groupings that provided a common reference for viewing culture. While Hofstede’s study offered an initial framework for providing the level of comparison and understanding that it did, it has also been criticized as being limited because the samples were drawn from the same organizational culture (Smith et al., 1996).

Cultural dimensions of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner.

In seeking to understand cultural differences, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner

(1998) developed seven cultural dimensions for viewing the role of national culture in the work environment. Five of the seven orientations address the ways in which human beings deal with each other; Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner based these on Parsons and Shils’ (1951) General Theory of Action and its five relational orientations. The five dimensions are 1) universalism vs. particularism (the emphasis on universal rules that apply to all, vs. focusing on relationships with individuals); 2) individualism vs. communitarianism (the orientation toward self-promotion and achievement vs. the benefit of the group or collective); 3) affective vs. neutral (the propensity to display emotion or

not display emotion in dealing with others); 4) specific vs. diffuse (the degree to which members of a society engage others on a personal level in work settings and social settings; in specific cultures tasks and relationships are separate, while in diffuse cultures, tasks and relationships are intertwined in the communications process);

5) ascription vs. achievement (the assigning of status based on criteria such as age, gender, class, education, or achievements). The remaining two cultural differences identified address the way societies view time, and in attitudes to the environment. As such the sixth and seventh respectively are: 6) sequential vs. synchronical (how time is managed; the orientation of time from a linear series of events is determined as sequential, while the synchronical dimension describes the interrelation of past, present, and future); and 7) attitude toward the environment (either one of controlling nature or letting it take its course). From a structural perspective, employees in a controlling environment are expected to follow rules and procedures for an organization to function; the opposing view takes the approach that organizations emerge and thrive based on the environment. Most of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner dimensions overlay those developed by Hofstede (1980), with the exception of universalism and particularism.

Schwartz’s dimensions based on values.

In applying the theory of universal value structure, Schwartz’s (1999) theoretical approach viewed cultural values from the perspective of groups rather than national boundaries. According to Schwartz (1999), previous studies addressed limited aspects of culture “rather than seeking to capture a full range of potentially relevant value dimensions” (p. 24). Schwartz asserted that the Hofstede study lacked a theoretical basis and did not address important regions of the world, such as the Eastern Europe.

Schwartz’s study focused on national groups and individuals that shared a common

heritage, rather than national boundaries because of the fact that some societal groups transcend national boundaries. Schwartz considered national boundaries limiting from the perspective of being able to understand a homogenous society.

Schwartz’s value relations structure focuses on seven value types; they are:

Conservatism, Intellectual Autonomy, Affective Autonomy, Hierarchy, Egalitarianism,

Mastery, and Harmony (Table 2-1 provides additional details regarding each value type).

These value types are structured along three bipolar dimensions conveying contradictions between relations in a work environment. The three bipolar dimensions of 1) conservatism vs. intellectual and affective autonomy, 2) hierarchy vs. egalitarianism, and

3) mastery vs. harmony, are associated with dimensions of work in different cultures. The cultural value emphases are compared to dimensions of work to include work centrality

(contrast between leisure and family time), societal norms about working, and work values. Schwartz’s (1999) study contributed a new set of empirical tools to culture research, while maintaining a premise of cultural dimensions with a focus on work- related variables.

Cultural dimensions of Project GLOBE.

Project GLOBE represents a significant effort to develop and refine the set of dimensions used to assess cultures (House et al., 2002). Project GLOBE's descriptions of

64 cultures were based on a set of nine dimensions: 1) uncertainty avoidance, 2) power distance, 3) institutional collectivism, 4) in-group collectivism, 5) gender egalitarianism,

6) assertiveness, 7) future orientation, 8) performance orientation, and 9) humane orientation, of which several had their conceptual origins in the work of Hofstede

(Javidan and House, 2001). GLOBE researchers incorporated the work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) who suggested that different leadership styles would be received differently in various parts of the world, and the work of Kluckhohn and

Strodtbeck (1961) who emphasized the importance of values in the formation of cultures.

GLOBE researchers also suspected the five dimensions identified by Hofstede did not fully explain differences between organizational leadership across cultures (Dickson et al., 2012). The ninth dimension Humane Orientation, is similar to a follow-on dimension identified by Hofstede and Bond (1988) Kind Heartedness, and refers to the extent to which organizations or societies value the importance of being fair, friendly, generous and kind to others (House et al., 2002).

From a historical perspective, and as a result of GLOBE's empirical pilot studies

(Hanges and Dickson, 2004), the dimensions of uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and future orientation were deemed conceptually similar to the dimensions of the same names in Hofstede's model; the rest were changed somewhat. Hofstede’s individualism- collectivism dimension was separated into institutional collectivism which refers to the extent to which members of the society support collective distribution of resources and value collective action (House et al., 2002). In-group collectivism refers to the individual's expression of loyalty, pride and agreement with their organization and families (House et al., 2002). The masculinity–femininity dimension proposed by

Hofstede (1980) was divided into gender egalitarianism and assertiveness (House et al.,

2004). Gender egalitarianism refers to the way organizations perceive the impact of gender roles and choose to act according to gender biases (House et al., 2002).

Assertiveness refers to the social interaction styles and the degree to which people tend to

be aggressive, assertive, and confrontational when communicating with others (House et

al., 2002).

(House et al., 2004) extended Hofstede’s work, taking it a step further to study

societal culture in addition to organizational culture across multiple organizations in

multiple countries. An additional focus of Project GLOBE was to study culture’s

influence on leadership behaviors in global organizations. Project GLOBE, involving

17,300 managers, examined universally accepted leader behaviors or attributes across

cultures; it also investigated whether societal and organizational cultures could determine

which leader behaviors were acceptable. Project GLOBE was based on the “integration

of implicit leadership theory (Lord and Maher, 1991), value-belief theory (Hofstede,

1980; Triandis, 1995), implicit motivation theory (McClelland, 1985), and structural

contingency theory of organizational form and effectiveness (Donaldson, 1999; Hickson,

Hinings, McMillan, and Schwitter, 1974)” (cf House et al., 2004, p. 16). Project GLOBE

proposed that the values and beliefs that distinguish one culture or society from another

also determine the behaviors and practices of leaders viewed as being effective in that

society, and the effective practices of organizations within that society. GLOBE study

outcomes identified “universally desirable cultural dimensions like performance

orientation and the universally undesirable dimensions like power distance” (House et al.,

2004, p. 726). Project GLOBE also produced cluster scores on “cultural values, practices,

and implicit leadership theories” (p. 726). Although GLOBE researchers found negative

correlation between values and practices in seven out of nine cultural dimensions, their findings enriched theoretical development in culture studies and leadership research in both societal and organizational arenas.

Project GLOBE’s nine cultural dimensions of uncertainty avoidance, power distance, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, performance orientation, and humane orientation continue to provide insight into scholarly research and understanding of culture and its implications.

Since many of the cultural variables in the GLOBE dimensions are based on

Hofstede’s work, GLOBE findings face many similar limitations such as the lack of grounded, validated theory, and the limitation with respect to number of industries studied. However, GLOBE researchers believe its underlying strength is that there are no

“assumptions about how best to measure cultural phenomena” (p. 24). Bertsch (2012)

confirmed the strength of GLOBE through a study validating its societal dimensions.

Bertsch, in stating that cultural differences result from the variations given to different

values, also indicated that differing groups of people are different in part due to their underlying cultures or values. One of the criticisms of Hofstede’s (1980) study and other studies using cultural dimension is that individual work values, aggregated to the collective are characterized as representing societal or national culture (Hofstede, 1980;

Schwartz, 1999; Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). While based upon the cultural dimensions developed by Hofstede (1980), the GLOBE study (House et al.,

2004) measured the nine cultural dimensions in two formats: 1) as it is, and 2) how it should be. These formats allow for comparing values and practices and may provide insight into research and dialogue regarding convergence, divergence, and crossvergence of cultures.

Project GLOBE: Global leadership and culturally contingent leadership dimensions.

The major findings of GLOBE research with respect to leadership theory were labeled as the Culturally Endorsed Theory of Leadership (CLT). GLOBE built on the foundation of implicit leadership theory (ILT) (Lord and Maher, 1991) to develop a culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (House et al., 2004). Societal and organizational culture can shape the ILT of their members (Javidan et al., 2010).

According to the implicit leadership theory (ILT), individuals have certain types of beliefs about the kind of attributes, skills and behaviors that facilitate or impede outstanding leadership. According to Lord and Maher (1991) these belief systems, which appear as prototypes, cognitive categories, mental models, schemas and stereotypes, are assumed to affect the extent to which an individual accepts others as leaders (Javidan et al., 2006).

Further, regional clustering of GLOBE societies was based on a conceptual and empirical process (Gupta and Hanges, 2004). Ten groupings of the GLOBE societies surfaced: Anglo, Eastern Europe, Latin America, Latin Europe, Confucian Asia, Nordic

Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Asia, Germanic Europe, and Middle East. GLOBE researchers expected these cultural clusters would be helpful for understanding the CLT prototypes that exist in the societies comprising the ten cultural clusters (Dorfman et al.,

2012).

Universally desirable leadership attributes and dimensions: Attempts to understand how leadership differs across cultures have focused on identifying those leadership characteristics that are universal and those that are country specific (Bass,

1997; Den Hartog et al., 1999; Hofstede, 1983; House et al., 2002; Lonner, 1980; Smith and Bond, 1993). To identify both universal and culturally contingent characteristics,

several issues were taken into account. First, “Universal means a universally applicable

conceptualization” (Bass, 1997, p. 132) of leader characteristics perceived as important across cultures. Second, cultural contingencies occur because some universal concepts can be influenced by country (and societal) specific beliefs, cognitive schemas, or behaviors and result in culture specific characteristics of the leader being perceived as

necessary and important to be successful (Bass, 1997). As such, GLOBE addressed the

extent to which specific leader characteristics and actions are universally endorsed as

contributing to effective leadership. There were 22 leadership attributes rated as desirable

universally; GLOBE also found that five primary leadership dimensions were rated very

highly (Dorfman et al., 2012). Per Dorfman et al. (2012) the universally desired attributes

(e.g., trustworthy, just, and honest) comprise the primary leadership dimension of

integrity which was found to be one of the highly rated dimensions. Other leadership

dimensions such as performance oriented, visionary, inspirational, and team-integrator

were also highly rated. Contrary to the 22 universally desirable dimensions, 8 leadership

attributes were identified as being universally undesirable (Dorfman et al., 2012).

Culturally contingent leadership attributes and dimensions: From a cross-cultural

perspective, several attributes and dimensions were found culturally contingent –

desirable in some cultures, undesirable in others (Dorfman et al., 2012). While certain

countries shared some attributes for leadership effectiveness, other leader characteristics

were culturally contingent (Den Hartog et al., 1999). Leader characteristics identified as

culturally contingent include: risk taking, ambitious, self-sacrificial, sincere, sensitive,

compassionate, willful, and enthusiastic (Den Hartog et al., 1999). Viewed as effective in some countries, these attributes may not be deemed effective in other countries based on the magnitude they take in each given culture (Dickson et al., 2012).

GLOBE found seven primary leadership dimensions to be culturally contingent

(Javidan et al., 2010); they are:

 Status conscious – This dimension reflects a consciousness of one's own and

others’ social position holding an elitist belief that some individuals deserve more

privileges than others.

 Bureaucratic (formerly labeled procedural) – This dimension emphasizes

following established norms, rules, policies and procedures and habitually follows

regular routines.

 Autonomous – This dimension describes tendencies to act independently without

relying on others; may also include self-governing behavior and a preference to

work and act separately from others.

 Face saving – Reflects the tendency to ensure followers are not embarrassed or

shamed; maintains good relationships by refraining from making negative

comments, instead uses metaphors and examples.

 Humane – Emphasizes empathy for others by giving time, money, resources, and

assistance when needed; shows concern for followers’ personal and group

welfare.

 Self-sacrificial / risk taking – Indicates an ability to convince followers to invest

their efforts in activities that do not have a high probability of success, to forgo

their self-interest, and make personal sacrifices for the goal or vision.

 Internally competitive (formerly labeled conflict inducer) – This dimension

reflects the tendency to encourage competition within a group and may include

concealing information in a secretive manner.

GLOBE Phase 3 began approximately in 2000 and was recently completed. Phase

3 surveyed and interviewed 1,060 CEOs and surveyed more than 5,000 of their direct reports in 24 countries (Dorfman et al., 2010; Sully de Luque et al., 2011). Phase 3’s goal was to examine the relationship between national culture, culturally endorsed leadership theory (CLT), leadership behavior, and leadership effectiveness. In Phase 3, researchers studied the impact of national culture and CLTs on actual behavior and CEO effectiveness. The full description of Phase 3 is available in the book “Strategic

Leadership: The GLOBE study of CEO Effectiveness Across Cultures” (House et al.,

2014). In the earlier phases of GLOBE, House et al. (2004) argue that what is necessary in order to understand leadership styles and behaviors in a certain culture is an understanding of the idealized leadership in that respective culture.

A significant finding for Phase 3 was the stated need to understand more about the incorporation of emotions into the cross-cultural leadership process (House et al., 2014).

While traditional leadership research has often taken a cognitive and rational approach to understanding leadership-follower relationships, the past decade found the importance of emotions in these relationships has been increasingly recognized (e.g., Dasborough and

Ashkanasy, 2002). The ability to identify and regulate the emotions of oneself and others is a critical skill for forming, maintaining, and managing healthy interpersonal relationships (Dorfman et al., 2012).

Cross‐cultural leadership: The impact that culture has on leadership becomes

evident in how leaders are perceived in different cultures (Dickson et al., 2012). Hoppe

(2004) points out that in countries such as France, England, United States, and Russia people tend to publicly commemorate “macho”-like military leaders, while in countries such as Australia, Canada, Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand, and the German regions of Switzerland, those sorts of commemorations are rare (Hoppe, 2004). These latter cultures are more egalitarian and thus tend to give less emphasis to the role of the leader

(Dickson et al., 2012).

House (1995) points out that most leadership theories and measures reflect individualistic rather than collectivistic values; they emphasize assumptions of rationality rather than ascetics, religion, or superstition; focus on individual rather than group incentives; stress follower responsibilities rather than rights; and assume hedonistic rather than altruistic motivation.

Project GLOBE tested the relationship between societal culture and the content of leadership schemas and it was consistently found that societal cultures influence the content of leadership schemas of employees in organizations (Dorfman et al., 2004).

Apart from Project GLOBE, other researchers have investigated leadership across cultures. Dorfman et al. (2004) found leadership styles that emphasize participation are valued in the individual cultures in the West, whereas they are questionable styles in

Eastern collectivistic cultures. In terms of charismatic leadership styles, research has found that charismatic leaders may display a highly assertive manner, as in the case of

John F. Kennedy or Martin Luther King, Jr., or a quiet, nonassertive manner, as in the case of Mother Teresa (House et al., 1997). As shown in the GLOBE research project

(House et al., 2004), leadership is influenced by cultural factors. Leadership and effective

leadership styles are embedded in cultural contexts. In contrast, other researchers have

argued that some leadership style is effective across cultural boundaries (Bass, 1997).

Finally, Yukl (2010) points out that studies of leadership to date have been dominated by

Western academics; and notions of leadership have been developed mainly from a United

States perspective.

Cultural tightness: According to Gelfand et al., (2006), cultural tightness comprises two key components. The first aspect deals with the extent to which norms within societies are clear and pervasive, and the second concerns the strength of sanctioning (i.e., how much tolerance societies have for deviance from commonly held norms (Gelfand et al., 2006). Tight cultures are “rigid in requiring that ingroup members

behave according to ingroup norms” (Triandis, 1989, p. 511). Norms are clear and

reliably imposed with severe sanctions administered to those who deviate. Loose

cultures, on the other hand, have unclear norms, and are more tolerant of deviance from

the norms (Triandis, 1989). Out of the 33 countries studied by Gelfand and her

colleagues; Pakistan, Malaysia, Norway, and Japan score high on tightness; whereas

Ukraine, Israel, Netherlands, and Australia scored low on tightness (Gelfand et al., 2011).

The United States is below the mean in terms of tightness and considered a society that is

slightly loose (Toh and Leonardelli, 2012). On the other hand, a loose culture has greater

heterogeneity (i.e., groups with dissimilar norms and values), greater tolerance and

flexibility in dealing with deviance are applied as sanctioning or rejecting ingroup

members can become quite costly (Triandis, 1989).

Gelfand et al. (2011) demonstrated that there was a high degree of within nation

agreement, between-nation variability in terms of tightness, and that cultural tightness

was distinctive from some cultural values. It was uncorrelated with Hofstede's (2001)

uncertainty avoidance and masculinity index values, with Schwartz's (1994a) values of harmony, mastery, and intellectual and affective autonomy, and with measures collected in the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) regarding power distance, assertiveness, and uncertainty avoidance. Tightness has conceptual similarities with collectivism in that both cultural dimensions act on individuals through the institution of ingroup norms, clear role definitions, and the use of sanctions (Toh and Leonardelli, 2012).

For norms that might otherwise be challenged by international efforts to encourage equal rights or fair treatment for women, tightness can create a resistance towards changing existing cultural practices (Gelfand et al., 2011). Toh and Leonardelli

(2012) research further argues that cultural tightness provokes a resistance to changing the traditional and widespread view that leadership is masculine. The assertion that cultural tightness impedes change in the tradition of the masculine leaders, and thus prevents the emergence of women as leaders, is certainly relevant to our understanding of national and societal culture.

Societal and Organizational Culture Relationships

The national or societal culture in which an organization resides influences its organizational culture (Adler, 2008; Dickson et al., 2000; Heidrich, 2002; Hofstede,

1980, 2001; Hofstede et al., 1990; Laurent, 1983). “Because national culture is an integral part of the environment in which organizations function, organizational culture by implication should be influenced by the broader societal culture” (Dickson et al., 2000, p.

455). Societal values have also been shown to lead to different practices at the organizational level (House et al., 2004). Laurent (1983) found that managers, working in

multinational organizations outside of their home country, showed stronger traits and behaviors of their national culture than managers working in domestic organizations.

Several scholars also argue that organizational practices globally are converging

(Fischer et al., 2005; Jamali and Neville, 2011; Khilji, 2002; Meyer, 2007; Nelson and

Gopalan, 2003; Pudelko, 2006; Sarala and Vaara, 2010). For decades, researchers have noted “structural, cognitive, and behavioral patterns within organizations that appear to converge across nations” (Nelson and Gopalan, 2003, p. 1117). This convergence could be the result of the spread of Western education and business practices, a more culturally diverse workforce, technology, and travel opportunities. Khilji (2002) proposes that deregulation of the global economy has brought about a blending of practices across borders which may suggest a weakening of cultural effects on organizational practices, and thus, the development of a global organizational culture. While this convergence of organizational practices would indicate a moderation of national culture by organizational culture, Adler (2008) argues that this is not the case. According to Adler’s (2008) research, convergence of cultures is occurring on the macro-levels such as organizational structure and technology. Adler (2008) contends that the behavior of people within organizations is “maintaining its cultural uniqueness” (p.62) and concludes that organizational culture does not moderate national culture.

Convergence can be described as becoming more similar, and is in response to economic factors (Khilji, 2002; McGaughey and DeCieri, 1999; Ralston et al., 1997).

Divergence, on the other hand, is becoming dissimilar, implying that societal cultural values influence and dominate organizational practices despite economic factors that might exist (Hofstede et al., 1990; McGaughey and DeCieri, 1999; Ralston et al., 1997).

Jamali and Neville (2011) contend that corporate practices appear to be converging, at

least in developing countries. Jamali and Neville (2011) focused on the adoption of corporate social responsibility policies, and noted that organizations in developing

countries are converging towards a Western model; however, this may not be a widely

held view among all scholars.

While conformance to organizational practices may be occurring in organizations

globally, values, beliefs, and basic assumptions are determined by societal culture

(Hofstede et al., 1990; Hofstede and Peterson, 2000; House et al., 2004; McGaughey and

DeCieri, 1999). This notion is referred to as crossvergence (Andrews and Chompusri,

2005; Khilji, 2002; McGaughey and DeCieri, 1999; Ralston et al., 1997; Ralston, 2008;

Sarala and Vaara, 2010) or the blending of societal cultural values and influences and

economic factors “to form a unique value system that is different from the value set

supported by either national culture or economic ideology” (Ralston et al., 1997, p. 183).

As such, societal culture continues to influence many employees (Hofstede et al., 1990;

Hofstede and Peterson, 2000; McGaughey and DeCieri, 1999; Ralston et al., 1997).

More recently, many leadership researchers have drawn attention to the global

context in which leadership is exercised, and especially important for the global context

is culture and cultural differences (Chen and Lee, 2008; Tsui et al., 2007). With regard to organizational culture, Shim and Steers (2012) question what organizational research can tell us about systematic variations in national cultures and contexts as they relate to leadership style and the creation of high performance organizational cultures. In their study, Shim and Steers (2012) explore this relationship by comparing variations in national cultures and contexts as they potentially relate to leadership style and the

creation of supportive organizational cultures. While variance in behavior can be

attributed to differences in national cultures, differences across these cultures may help

explain why teams respond in different ways (House et al., 2004). In addition, variance in

behavior can be explained by differences in the prevailing leadership patterns within each

firm (Shim and Steers, 2012). Finally, variations in behavior in one organization’s culture

as compared to another can be caused through a combination of these factors (e.g., both

national cultures and leadership patterns) (Shim and Steers, 2012).

Implications of Cultural Constraints and Cultural Differences

For some time now, cross-cultural studies have been criticized by simply using a nation

as a proxy for culture (Tsui et al., 2007). Because of this constraint, scholarly research

should focus on cultural dimensions, rather than nations, as antecedents or moderators,

with the research conducted in an actual cultural contact situation (Wang et al., 2012). In addition, with leadership effectiveness at the strategic level determined to be contingent on culture, leadership behaviors and styles should be exposed to different cultural backgrounds, and training and development programs should be designed to help aspiring and emerging leaders gain knowledge of cultural differences and the nature of specific leadership behaviors, styles and patterns that would fit in specific cultures or across multi-cultural teams.

Furthermore, leadership patterns (Shim and Steers, 2012) should be studied from the standpoint of cultural constraints that exist and cultural differences that dictate any set of leader activities to create a more harmonious approach to leadership. This is especially important given previous research findings about the active role leaders play in creating and sustaining organizational cultures (Osland et al., 2010; Schein, 1992; Sorensen,

2002).

Hofstede's (1980) framework and Project GLOBE (House et al., 2004), while they

have promoted cross-cultural comparisons, would be well served in studying culture as a

moderator. In this regard, researchers might be able to take advantage of meta-data

analysis in search of variables or attributes that influence or promote more effective

leadership. Another area of research related to the role of culture is indigenous studies in

a specific culture so as to better identify the role of culture and its impact.

To understand leadership better, emergence and development patterns of leaders

given cultural differences should be included in research on how leaders emerge and

develop from different countries. Hollander (1978) once defined leadership as the union of leaders, followers, and situations, from which we can see the significant role of followers. Followers may show systematic differences across cultures, and these differences can influence the effectiveness of leadership. Followers also differ across cultures in their preference and stereotypes of leaders (Earley, 1984). Better understanding the socio-economic environments influencing the emergence of leaders and a greater awareness of cultural differences could also positively impact leadership emergence. For example, DeRue and Ashford (2010) have suggested that the leader's identity cannot be developed without collective endorsement.

Another area in need of research is cultural constraints on the emergence of

women as leaders (Toh and Leonardelli, 2012). In this regard, women, who have

historically been less represented than men in leadership positions, emerge as leaders in

some societies more than others. Unlike previous cultural explanations for this effect

(rooted in differences in values, practices, or gender roles), Toh and Leonardelli (2012)

argue that a culture's tightness – its strength of norms and social sanctions – can provoke

a resistance to change practices that historically placed men in leadership positions.

Tighter cultures will yield fewer women represented among top leadership positions.

Moreover, cultural tightness moderates the degree to which egalitarian practices – where

individuals from both genders are treated equally – lead women to emerge as leaders

(Toh and Leonardelli, 2012). Specifically, differences in egalitarian practices are more

likely to predict the emergence of women as leaders among tight rather than loose

cultures because such practices are more strongly implemented in tight than weak

cultures (Toh and Leonardelli, 2012). Regardless of culture, men more than women

emerge as leaders, but there is a high degree of variability in emergence rates. Although cultural explanations for these phenomena tend to originate in explanations of cultural values or practices (Eagly and Karau, 2002; Emrich et al., 2004; Paris et al., 2009;

Wrangham, 2009), continued research on cultural tightness (Gelfand et al., 2006; Gelfand

et al., 2011; Triandis, 1989) has implications for women to emerge as leaders.

Several remaining research trends and questions for future research emerged in

Zander et al.’s (2012) literature review. As much of the research on global team

leadership concentrates on the leader's competencies and challenges in leading teams,

research on the multiple roles of global team leaders should include boundary spanning

activities and bridge making activities across cultural and linguistic differences between people within the team. Boundary spanning was identified as a leader competence important in virtual teams (Davis and Bryant, 2003; Joshi and Lazarova, 2005) and multicultural teams (Hajro and Pudelko, 2010). Wiesenfeld and Hewlin (2003) argue that boundary spanning is the most important role of managers. Bridge making is the essence

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of the leadership strategy proposed by Chevrier (2003), who argues that mere interaction between team members will not release synergy effects from drawing on different cultures. As such, better understanding of both of these topics would prove useful for emerging and in-place leaders of multicultural teams.

Another related area for future research identified by Caligiuri and Tarique (2012) is to further explore the non-work cross-cultural experiences. As noted by Caligiuri and

Tarique (2009), it is possible that intercultural experiences that help develop cross- cultural competencies may not necessarily occur in the workplace, and can occur in non- work environments or may have occurred in childhood or young adulthood as a result of being a member of a multicultural household. Non-work organization-initiated developmental experiences include involvement in global teams (Maznevski and

DiStefano, 2000), global travel that encourages learning from colleagues in different countries (Oddou et al., 2000), in-country training or coaching (Mendenhall and Stahl,

2000), cross-national mentors (Mezias and Scandura, 2005), global rotational programs

(Caligiuri and Di Santo, 2001), and international assignments (Dickmann and Doherty,

2010; Kreng and Huang, 2009; Yan et al., 2002). These areas are suitable for future research and researchers should continue to look into different facets of non-work cross- cultural experiences (Caligiuri and Tarique, 2012). One additional area that can provide interesting insight is international experiences gained from living outside the country of one's citizenship as a child (Cottrell and Useem, 1993). This type of research would expand upon what Caligiuri and Tarique have recently conducted in the realm of cross- cultural competencies and global leadership effectiveness.

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Synopsis of the Literature on Culture

This section of Chapter 2 reviewed the relevant literature relating to leadership in a global context, national and societal culture, organizational culture, the relationship between national and organizational culture, and cultural dimensions. A review of literature related to Project GLOBE and cross-cultural leadership as it pertains to emerging leaders was also included.

Societal culture and its effects on organizations have been studied through cultural dimensions since Hofstede’s (1980) earlier research. His study, based on anthropological research, was the first to define national and societal cultures in a framework that practitioners could use to determine cultural differences within organizations globally. While Hofstede’s (1980) work has been criticized for its lack of a theoretical basis as well as for its methodology (Ailon, 2008; Schwartz, 1999), there have been multiple follow on studies, including Project GLOBE that have spanned both

decades and multiple cultures across different regions of the world. These and other

studies have provided keen insight into national, societal, personal, and organizational

cultures (e.g., Schein, 2004).

A significant finding in the literature review of culture and its various dimensions

was Toh and Leonardelli’s (2012) study regarding cross-cultural perspectives on leader

emergence among women. Toh and Leonardelli’s proposition that the emergence of

women as leaders arises from two processes serves as an excellent segue into the

literature review of leadership emergence. First, according to emergent leadership theory,

individuals emerge as group leaders by fitting the shared conceptions of followers

(Hollander and Julian, 1969; c.f. Smith and Foti, 1998) and then being perceived by

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followers as leader-like (Lord and Maher, 1991). Second, leader emergence involves the

target individuals’ intention to lead; evidence shows that even when possessing and

demonstrating leadership behavior that is superior to others in the group, women leaders

may sometimes prefer to cede the leadership role to men because of cultural beliefs or

norms that being male or masculine is more leader-like (Gershenoff and Foti, 2003; Ritter

and Yoder, 2004). Toh and Leonardelli’s (2012) approach to gender and leadership

emergence deviates from other approaches by offering an understanding of how cultural

forces facilitate or prevent the emergence of women as leaders. Whereas other research

considers cultural values to be the determinant, Toh and Leonardelli’s approach is rooted

in trying to understand how culture contributes to the leadership emergence process.

The next section of this chapter provides a literature review of leadership

emergence studies and related findings.

Leadership Emergence

The initial section of this literature review on leadership emergence is presented

from a chronological historical standpoint, presenting findings on informal team leaders

from the early 20th Century through to the turn on the 21st Century. This retrospective

view shows that scholarly research on leadership emergence has matured over the years,

and also that with enhancements to technology and social media, more thorough meta- analyses can be performed regarding leadership and emergent leadership. Following the

retrospective description, specific topics relevant to leadership emergence are presented

so as to focus on those elements most relevant to this researcher’s dissertation study.

Retrospective View of the Study of Leadership Emergence

In past research, much of scholarly leadership study has focused on formal,

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established leaders within groups and organizations. More recently, research has focused on the role of emergent leaders within groups (De Souza and Klein, 1995; Neubert, 1999;

Pescosolido, 2001; Taggar et al., 1999; Wolff et al., 2002). Emergent leaders can be defined as group members who exercise influence over the group (Hollander, 1961;

Hollander, 1964; Hollander, 1985). The key distinction between emergent leaders and formal, established leaders is that emergent leaders do not have formal organizational authority or power (De Souza and Klein, 1995; Pescosolido, 2001); rather, the emergent leaders lead by influencing group processes, beliefs, and norms. For the purposes of this research, the terms “teams” and “groups” may be distinguishable, but consistent with

Guzzo and Dickson (1996), this researcher will use the two terms interchangeably.

Dominating the first half of the 20th Century was the notion that individuals possess certain qualities or traits that result in their emergence in positions of leadership, and to their effectiveness as leaders (Reichard, et al., 2011). As early as 1927, Bingham

(1927) defined a leader as a person who possesses the greatest number of desirable traits of personality and character. Bass and Bass's (2008) review of the literature suggested that nearly every possible trait or characteristic has been explored in the early research, including physical traits (e.g., age, height, weight, physique, health, athletic prowess), cognitive abilities (e.g., intelligence, scholarship, insight), and particularly personality traits (e.g., extraversion, self-sufficiency, dominance, initiative, ambition).

Early research on traits and leadership, however, yielded inconsistent results

(Reichard et al., 2011) potentially due to the different conceptualizations and measures.

As a result of criticisms about the inconsistency of results, the search for leadership traits was nearly abandoned mid-century following Stogdill's (1948) review, which argued that

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individual traits, situational conditions, and the interaction of traits and situations were

important when predicting leadership emergence and effectiveness (Reichard et al.,

2011). As a result, the focus shifted from leader traits to leader behaviors e.g., initiating

structure (Judge et al. (2004b) / task, and consideration / relationship, with traits being

regarded as abstract predictors of leadership outcomes (Reichard et al., 2011).

Early research on leadership emergence also suggested that emergent leaders were

skilled at taking in and understanding emotional information (Wolff et al., 2002).

Research by Chowdhry and Newcomb (1952) revealed that emergent team leaders were

socially perceptive and uniquely able to identify and understand unstated team needs.

These emergent leaders also used their perceptiveness to address team needs in ways they

knew would be acceptable to the team (Steiner, 1972). This was highlighted in an

observational study on leader emergence in children's playgroups where those who

emerged as leaders first spent time watching, listening, and figuring out the rules that

governed other's actions and then stepped in to take the lead in facilitating (Merei, 1949).

Consistent with this description, Yammarino (1996) indicated that when compared with

formal team leaders, emergent leaders have been rated as more responsive to follower

needs. Lewin (1947) and Homans (1950) also identified the potential of informal

dynamics; however, follow-up studies of their findings revealed that such informal

dynamics were problematic for achieving organizational goals (Roy, 1954; Selznick,

1957).

Wolff et al. (2002) literature review presenting skilled behaviors related to

emergence of informal team leaders, and cognitive skills that support those behaviors, proposed emotional skill as the basis for leadership emergence. In discussing behaviors

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predicting leader emergence, Wolff et al. (2002) acknowledged that leadership resides in

the situation; and that every situation has specialized demands that call for certain

leadership behaviors (Kozlowski et al., 1996a; Kozlowski et al., 1996b; Stogdill, 1974).

Further, prior studies on emergent leadership in self-managed work teams also identified

behaviors that support a team member's ascension into the informal leadership role

(Bales, 1950; Hollander, 1961; Lord, 1977; Taggar et al., 1999). Bales (1950) early

research on emergent leader behavior in leaderless teams found that team members who

emerged as informal leaders were able to identify and address the most pressing problems

facing a team. Thereafter, Bales and his colleagues (1950) produced a list of 12

categories of behavior demonstrated by group members that fell into two clusters: task-

focused and socioemotional behavior (Bales and Hare, 1965; Bales and Slater, 1955).

Task-focused behaviors assisted the group in achieving its goals. Socioemotional

behaviors reinforced and guided group behavior (positively or negatively). Bales (1950)

and subsequent research of group interactions (Bales and Slater, 1955; Bales and Slater,

1957; Bales and Hare, 1965) also consistently found that two informal leaders often emerged per team. The most influential leader exhibited task-focused behaviors, while

the second most influential leader exhibited behavior focused on group members’

socioemotional needs (Wolff et al., 2002; Pescosolido, 2002). Other studies based on

leadership behaviors also raised the issue of the management of group emotion. For

example, the Ohio State leadership studies identified the behavior factor of consideration for group members (Bass, 1990); and Michigan State studies identified the factor of

employee-oriented behavior (Kahn and Katz, 1960). In both cases, a leader was described

as engaging in behaviors that could at some level affect the emotions of group members

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(Pescosolido, 2002).

In a review of research on emergent leadership, Hollander (1961) drew a similar conclusion to Bales in that the attainment of informal team leadership status required two sets of behavior. First, the emergent leader must alleviate team task concerns by being perceived as competent at the team's central task and being able to coordinate the fulfillment of the team's task goals. Second, the emergent leader must be perceived as being able to build trust and thereby alleviate the team's social concerns (Wolff et al.,

2002).

Mann's (1959) early research on leadership emergence offered three explanations for how an individual might emerge as a leader: 1) through contributing to satisfying the needs of others, 2) through fulfilling roles necessary for a group to function successfully, and 3) through exhibiting traits that are associated with or trigger socially defined leadership expectations of others. Throughout the 1960s and subsequent decades, leadership researchers focused on interaction models, such as Fiedler's Contingency model (Fiedler, 1964; Fiedler, 1967), Situational Leadership Theory (Hersey and

Blanchard, 1969), and models of leader decision making (Vroom and Yetton, 1973).

More recent research on emergent leader behavior supported the relevance of behavior focused on task coordination and relevance of behavior focused on member support and development (Lord, 1977; Stein and Heller, 1979; Taggar et al., 1999). Lord

(1977) identified three behaviors associated with being rated an informal team leader: 1) coordinating behavior, 2) developing orientation, and 3) facilitating evaluation. Taggar et al. (1999) also identified three behaviors that served to predict team member’s identification of an emergent leader: 1) performance management, 2) goal

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setting/achievement, and 3) synthesis of member ideas.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, leadership as a field of study had reached an impasse: little new theory was being developed, and scholars were asking whether leadership even mattered (Pfeffer, 1977). Notable exceptions included the early work by

House (1977) on charismatic leadership and Lord (1977) on implicit theories of leadership. It was argued that emergent leaders should be considered to be as important as the assigned leaders in groups and organizations (Stogdill, 1974). At the time, Schneier and Goktepe (1983) provided a definition of emergent leaders as group members who exert significant influence over other members of the group, even though no formal authority has been vested in them.

Evidence was also presented that cognition and cognitive analyses precede emergent leader behavior (Bandura, 1982; Lazarus, 1991). Bandura's (1982) social cognitive theory posited that cognitive processes underlie the behavioral strategies an emergent leader chooses and the skill with which they are executed. Lazarus (1991) also recognized that behavior is dependent upon cognitive interpretations of situations.

Research also suggested that pattern recognition, defined as the ability to synthesize information and identify patterns in a collection of unorganized information (Boyatzis,

1982) was important. Research on the behaviors that predict leader emergence further suggested the skill to synthesize ideas (Taggar et al., 1999) and orienting the team (Lord,

1977). In their research on managerial competencies, Boyatzis (1982), and Spencer and

Spencer (1993/2008), found pattern recognition to be a key competency for successful leadership. Wolff et al. (2002) believed that pattern recognition was essential to exhibiting skilled group task coordination because of its relevance for identifying the

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source of team strengths and weaknesses, and for recognizing functional and dysfunctional routines (Gersick and Hackman, 1990) requiring attention. Lord et al.

(1986) and Kenny and Zaccaro (1983) led a resurgence of trait-based explanations of leadership emergence by empirically rebutting earlier research that failed to identify traits that consistently differentiated leaders from non-leaders across situations (Mann, 1959;

Stogdill, 1948). The Lord et al. (1986) meta-analysis demonstrated that intelligence

(general mental ability), adjustment, dominance (determined, directive, inflexible, and uncooperative), masculinity (assertive, decisive, and unemotional), and extraversion

(verbal and outgoing) were positively related to perceptions of leadership (Neubert and

Taggar, 2004).

Aronoff and Wilson (1985) complemented this research and explained sources of status as either ascribed or achieved. Ascribed sources of status stemmed from a process whereby readily observable individual differences, such as gender or personality, result in attributions of competency and leadership ability that affect status within a group. Thus, status is ascribed based on implicit theories, schemas, or societal stereotypes, with or without accompanying behavioral support (Neubert and Taggar, 2004). In contrast, achieved sources of status stem from a process over time whereby valued behaviors and tangible contributions to the group result in a person earning status within that group

(Neubert and Taggar, 2004). Neubert and Taggar (2004) asserted that by integrating

Aronoff and Wilson's theory of sources of status, Mann's three explanations for leadership emergence could be simplified into two pathways for informal leadership in intact teams: 1) team members are ascribed emergent leader status by means of identifiable individual differences; or 2) team members achieve emergent leader status by

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fulfilling valued roles within the team and providing valued contributions.

More recently, there has been a re-focus on the role that traits portray in leadership, particularly the roles of personality and intelligence (Reichard et al., 2011).

Some of the interest in the role of intelligence in leadership is fueled by the popularity of multiple forms of intelligence, particularly emotional intelligence (Caruso et al., 2002;

Goleman, 1996), social intelligence (Riggio et al., 2001), and practical intelligence or tacit knowledge (Hedlund et al., 2003). Regarding personality, the emergence of the Big

Five, or Five Factor Model of Personality (Barrick and Mount, 1991), helped to simplify and organize an otherwise complex mass of traits. The five factors consist of: 1) conscientiousness (dependable, responsible, and achievement oriented), 2) extraversion

(sociable, active, and assertive), 3) agreeableness (cooperative, flexible, and courteous),

4) emotional stability (calm, unemotional, and not neurotic), and 5) openness to experience (imaginative, original, and broad-minded) (Barrick and Mount, 1991;

Digman, 1990).

Given the definition of leader emergence as both an individual's completion of leader-like work duties and occupying positions of leadership or authority either within or outside of the work domain, a variety of theoretical arguments remain in the literature as to why leader traits are important predictors of leader emergence (Reichard et al., 2011).

Leader emergence, rather than effectiveness, is often a product of others' perceptions of an individual's abilities (Reichard et al., 2011). If the target individual is perceived to be

“leader-like,” then others will be more likely to elect or appoint the individual into leadership positions i.e., leader emergence (Reichard et al., 2011). This argument is in line with Lord and colleagues' concept of implicit leadership theory (Lord et al., 1984;

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Phillips and Lord, 1982) and the leader categorization theory (Lord and Maher, 1991).

These theories assert that as youths mature, over time these individuals develop a set of beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors of effective leaders, or their leadership prototypes (Reichard et al., 2011). These leadership prototypes serve as mental representations of the characteristics and traits of leaders and influence how the individual evaluates relevant information (Phillips and Lord, 1982). As such, people whose characteristics and behaviors match leadership prototypes are perceived more positively (Lord and Maher, 1991; Lord et al., 1984; Smith and Foti, 1998), and are more likely to be put into positions of authority (Reichard et al., 2011).

Two characteristics commonly included in western society's leader prototype are personality and intelligence (Reichard et al., 2011). Other researchers have asserted that the high-energy, assertiveness, and stamina of extraverts equates to most people's implicit leadership theory of how a leader is supposed to behave (Hogan et al., 1994; Kirkpatick and Locke, 1991; Lord and Maher, 1991; Lord et al., 1984). With this as the case, talkative, high-energy, assertive extraverts often emerge as leaders in contrast to quiet, reserved, shy introverts. A predominant finding from early studies also reflected that the person in the group who spent more time talking was often the one to emerge as group leader (Bass and Bass, 2008). In addition, meta-analysis by Judge et al. (2002) found that extraversion was the personality trait most consistently linked to leader emergence. Prior research has also demonstrated that conscientiousness is related to overall job performance (Barrick and Mount, 1991) as well as leader emergence (Judge et al., 2002).

Consistent with this line of reasoning, employees who are top performers, such as those high in conscientiousness, are often promoted into leadership positions regardless of

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whether they have the leadership competencies to be effective in the new position

(Reichard et al., 2011). Extraversion and conscientiousness, then, have been assessed to be positively related to leader emergence.

In their article ‘A Pattern Approach to the Study of Leader Emergence’, Smith and Foti (1998) extended past work by developing a multi-variable pattern approach, along with the traditional examination of individual trait measures. The personality pattern examined the variables dominance, intelligence and general self-efficacy; results found that all three trait variables were significantly positively associated with leader emergence. Individuals high in all three traits emerged significantly more frequently than other individuals while those low in all three traits emerged significantly less frequently.

The study demonstrated that the pattern approach is useful in the examination of emergent leadership.

Prior research also examined the degree to which both environmental and genetic factors play a part in determining who moves into leadership roles within organizations, as well as the degree to which the predictors of leadership are genetically based

(Chaturvedi et al., 2012). Research has also suggested that leadership emergence and performance of narcissistic personalities may depend on contextual factors (Nevicka et al., 2011). Of significance for Nevicka et al. were the contextual factors that pertain to the interdependence of work relationships; narcissists typically tend to “shine” in social settings where they can influence others. Studies also investigated leadership emergence and performance of narcissistic individuals in low versus high reward interdependent teams that participated in an interactive team simulation task (Nevicka et al., 2011).

Findings revealed that narcissists emerged as leaders irrespective of the team's level of

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reward interdependence and their individual performance (Nevicka et al., 2011).

Complementing the earlier discussion of contextual factors, the role of a social context is seen as being important in affecting narcissists’ leader emergence. Smith and Foti (1998) asserted that narcissists possess many of the prototypical leader qualities. Thus, a highly interdependent and interactive team setting, such as one of high reward interdependence, would be expected to impact leadership emergence of narcissists (Nevicka et al., 2011).

Previous studies have also compared implicit leadership theories across cultures and what constitutes an ideal leader with respect to leader prototypes and scripts (Ayman,

1993; Den Hartog et al., 1999; Gerstner and Day, 1994); however only a few studies have systematically examined information processing issues (Ensari and Murphy, 2003).

Ensari and Murphy’s (2003) study provides a cross-cultural assessment of the effects of two types of information processing on charisma attributions. Specifically, their study examined cross-cultural leadership and the importance of understanding cross-cultural context in social cognitive processing and issues of leadership diversity within the United

States. Another study also presented the integration of leadership, gender, trait, and team member network theories in exploring informal leadership in teams; this study provided insight into how men and women emerge as informal leaders in real work environments

(Neubert and Taggar, 2004). The findings extended prior research by elaborating on the role of gender in explaining the relationship of traits and team member network centrality to leadership.

Generally, and in research prior to the turn of the 21st century, the bulk of leadership research focused on formal, established leaders within groups and organizations. Within the last two decades, however, research has focused on the role of

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emergent leaders within groups (De Souza and Klein, 1995; Neubert, 1999; Pescosolido,

2001; Taggar et al., 1999; Wolff et al., 2002). With emergent leaders defined as group members who exercise influence over the group (Hollander, 1961; Hollander, 1964;

Hollander, 1985), the key distinction between emergent leaders and formal, established leaders is that emergent leaders do not have formal organizational authority or power (De

Souza and Klein, 1995; Pescosolido, 2001); rather, they lead by influencing group processes, beliefs, and norms.

Hooijberg et al. (1997) extended the ideas of behavioral complexity by placing leaders in a comprehensive framework that links behavioral complexity, cognitive complexity, and social complexity in the Leaderplex Model. The Leaderplex model maintained that behavioral complexity is informed by the cognitive complexity and social complexity (social intelligence) of leaders (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001). With the turn of the Century, Osborn et al. (2002) proposed moving leadership theory and research to another level, one that recognized that leadership scholarship at the time was not invalid but incomplete. Osborn et al. (2002) contextual theory of leadership, which stressed that leadership scholarship needed to be looked at in different ways and with various approaches for dissimilar circumstances, proposed the interplay of leadership comprised four contexts: 1) stability, 2) crisis, 3) dynamic equilibrium, and 4) edge of chaos. Recent initiatives also explored the potential of decentralized authority on leadership, including

Pearce and Conger's (2003) work with shared leadership, Gronn's (2000, 2002) work on distributed leadership, and Fletcher (2004) and Volberda (1996) work on flexible forms.

Uhl-Bien et al. (2007) however, asserted that none had developed a model that addresses the nature of leadership for enabling network dynamics, one whose epistemology is

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consistent with connective, distributed, dynamic, and contextual views of leadership.

In stressing that leadership scholarship needed to be looked at in different ways

and with various approaches for different circumstances, Osborn et al. (2002) encouraged researchers to reconsider temporality, causal relations, units of analysis, and dependent variables consistent with the social construction of human agency within a given context

to develop more robust models and leadership understanding. Shalley and Gilson (2004)

provided a review of research that examined contextual factors that can either foster or

hinder employee creativity at the individual, job, group, and organizational level. Their

examination consisted of the role of leadership and the use of different human resource

practices for developing a work context supportive of creativity (Shalley and Gilson,

2004). With the 21st Century also came increased use of technology which resulted in

work teams being able to work as geographically dispersed units using Internet collaboration and teleconferences as a way of producing work. As such, the issue of leadership in virtual teams took on increasing importance for many modern organizations, especially since many of these teams – typically project-based with a finite lifespan and specific deliverables – were frequently self-managed, and having no

designated leader (Carte et al., 2006). The results of the research suggested that high

performing self-managed virtual teams displayed significantly more leadership behaviors

over time compared to their low performing counterparts. Empirical evidence also

supported the notion that members of virtual teams do engage in emergent leadership behaviors (Yoo and Alavi 2004) similar to self-managed teams. Specifically, these teams displayed significantly more concentrated leadership behavior focused on performance while shared leadership behavior focused on keeping track of group work (Carte et al.,

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2006).

Boal and Hooijberg (2001) (albeit with respect to strategic leadership), in noting that theories of charismatic leadership stressed the personal identification of the followers with the leader, suggested that many of the new theories of leadership appeared context free and did not consider how environmental or organizational context influenced the leadership process. As for charismatic leadership, Shamir and Howell (1999) had previously suggested that nine factors influence the emergence and effectiveness of charismatic leadership: environmental circumstances, organizational life cycle, organizational technology and tasks, organizational structure, mode of governance, culture, leader succession, leader level, and organizational goals. Leaders, therefore, not only needed a large behavioral repertoire but also the ability to select the right roles for the situation (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001). To do so leaders needed both cognitive and behavioral complexity and flexibility (Boal and Whitehead, 1992). That is, a leader needs not only the “ability to perceive the needs and goals of a constituency but also the ability to adjust one's personal approach to group action” (Kenny and Zaccaro, 1983, p. 678).

Following the meta-analytic results presented by Judge et al. (2002), Paunonen et al. (2006) expected that emerging leaders should be relatively high in the Big Five personality factors of extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience, but low in neuroticism. The earlier meta-analysis of studies of personality and leadership by

Judge et al. (2002) reported that the Big Five factors of personality were strongly implicated in the prediction of leadership. Paunonen et al. (2006) in their research on narcissism noted that the best rated leaders exemplified the bright side of narcissism while suppressing the dark side; emergent leaders were measured to be high in egotism

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and self-esteem but low in manipulativeness and impression management. Their research

also showed that the Big Five personality factors were only marginally successful in

predicting emergent leadership (Paunonen et al., 2006). Specifically, good leaders were

typically found to be high in extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience,

and low in neuroticism. Judge et al.'s (2002) review was consistent with past studies

using peer evaluations and peer ratings. Findings revealed that leadership variables

related to self-confidence were important with regard to leadership emergence; however, interpersonal behaviors were deemed to play an especially significant role (Paunonen et al., 2006).

Having already noted that prior research on emergent leadership in self-managed work teams had functioned to identify the behaviors that support a team member's ascension into the informal leadership role (Bales, 1950; Hollander, 1961; Lord, 1977;

Taggar et al., 1999), Wolff et al. (2002) stressed the importance of emotional intelligence as the basis of leadership emergence in self-managing teams. Wolff et al.’s (2002) theory on leader emergence in self-managing teams highlighted the emotional and cognitive skills underlying selection as an informal team leader. Existing theory and research also revealed that informal leaders are selected because they display constructive task and team management behavior (Wolff et al., 2002). In proposing that specific cognitive processes and skills precede the enactment of behaviors by facilitating an accurate analysis of the task situation, Wolff et al. (2002) also proposed that empathy, an aspect of emotional intelligence, precedes and enables cognitive processes and skills by providing an accurate understanding of team and member emotions and needs.

Existing research, then, reveals that the behaviors predicting one's emergence as

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an informal leader can be organized into two categories, task-focused behaviors and

member-focused behaviors, and that task-focused behaviors (e.g., task coordination) are the strongest predictors (Bales, 1950; Lord, 1977; Taggar et al., 1999). Wolff et al.’s

(2002) introduction and testing of a model of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) that predict leadership emergence in self-managed work teams (SMWT) underscored the relevance of emotional and cognitive skills to exhibited behaviors that predict leader emergence. Their model combined three propositions drawn from previous leadership theory that served as the basis of the model: 1) that emergent leaders are socially perceptive and skilled at recognizing and understanding the feelings and emotions in their team (Chowdhry and Newcomb, 1952; Steiner, 1972); 2) that this understanding augments a leader's cognitive analysis and prioritization of issues facing the team

(Salovey et al., 2000; Zajonc, 1998); and 3) that the high quality cognitive analysis underlies and leads to the skilled behavior (Bandura, 1982) that predicts leader emergence. As such, Wolff et al. (2002) described the skilled behaviors most directly related to emergence as an informal team leader, presented the cognitive skills that support those behaviors, and also presented the emotional skill which formed the basis of leadership emergence.

Leadership Emergence Themes

The remainder of the literature review on leadership emergence is written from the standpoint of specific themes that emerged. This is done so as to delineate how scholarly research on leadership emergence has evolved and how it relates to cultural differences and cultural dimensions previously discussed in the section on culture.

Specific themes that emerged during the leadership review are:

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 Trait based leadership emergence

 Personality factors associated with leadership emergence

 Emergent leader behaviors

 Cognitive aspects of leadership emergence

 Group emotion and emotional response in leadership emergence

 Pattern and variable approaches to leadership emergence

 Social network analysis in leadership emergence

 Leadership emergence in multicultural teams

 Perceptions and leadership emergence

 Leadership emergence and gender bias

 Complexity and the leadership emergence process

 Task framing and leadership emergence

Trait based leadership emergence.

Early leadership studies focused almost exclusively on leader traits. As for leadership traits, the notion that individuals possess certain qualities or traits that led to their emergence in positions of leadership, and to their effectiveness as leaders, dominated the first half of the 20th Century (Reichard et al., 2011). Bingham (1927) defined a leader as a person who possesses the greatest number of desirable traits of personality and character. Bass and Bass's (2008) comprehensive review of the literature suggested that nearly every possible trait or characteristic has been explored in this early research, including physical traits (e.g., age, height, physique,), cognitive abilities (e.g., intelligence, scholarship, insight), and particularly personality traits (e.g., extraversion, self-sufficiency, dominance, initiative, ambition). In the 1980s, Lord et al. (1986) and

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Kenny and Zaccaro (1983) led a resurgence of trait-based explanations of leadership

emergence by empirically rebutting early research that failed to identify traits that

consistently differentiated leaders from nonleaders across situations (Mann, 1959 and

Stogdill, 1948). The Lord et al. (1986) meta-analysis demonstrated that intelligence

(general mental ability), adjustment, dominance (determined, directive, inflexible, and

uncooperative), masculinity (assertive, decisive, and unemotional), and extraversion

(verbal and outgoing) were positively related to perceptions of leadership (Neubert and

Taggar, 2004).

In an introductory editorial in the Leadership Quarterly (August 2012),

Antonakis, Day and Schyns (2012) provided a brief overview of individual differences research in leadership. They explained major challenges that trait research faced and its revival primarily because of methodological advancements, and then they argued that leadership individual difference research is at a cusp of a renaissance (Antonakis et al.,

2012). More specifically, the area of research on individual differences has had a tumultuous history in psychology (Kenrick and Funder, 1988; Mischel, 1977a/1977b) as well as in leadership research (House and Aditya, 1997). There remains debate on what constitutes a trait (Jackson et al., 2012), whether personality is measured broadly enough

(Lee and Ashton, 2004; Lee and Ashton, 2008), whether Big-Five type inventories are casting a shadow over other individual differences that might also contribute to predicting outcomes (Day and Schleicher, 2006), and whether alternative conceptions of intelligence matter (Fiori and Antonakis, 2011).

The idea of quantifying individual differences to predict leadership outcomes

began in earnest in the 20th Century (Zaccaro et al., 2004). Individual differences are

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usually conceived as “psychological or biological characteristics that exhibit four essential properties. [They] (a) are measurable, (b) vary across individuals, (c) exhibit temporal and situational stability, and (d) predict attitudes, decisions, or behaviors and consequently outcomes” (Antonakis, 2011, p. 270). As Antonakis et al. (2012) suggested, the context must also be considered.

Early research on traits and leadership yielded inconsistent results (Reichard, et al., 2011) likely due to the different conceptualizations and measures. For example, early trait studies used a wide range of measures for personality constructs due to the lack of a generally accepted and integrated model for personality at the time (Bass and Bass,

2008). As a result of criticisms about the inconsistency of results, the search for leadership traits was nearly abandoned mid-century following Stogdill's (1948) review, which argued that individual traits, situational conditions, and the interaction of traits and situations are important to consider when predicting leadership emergence and effectiveness. Consequently, the focus of leadership researchers shifted from leader traits to leader behaviors (e.g., initiating structure/task and consideration/relationship), with traits being regarded as “too abstract” and “distant” predictors of leadership outcomes

(Reichard et al., 2011). Other reasons also contributed to the demise of trait perspectives

(Antonakis et al., 2012): there was no method to integrate research findings given the rudimentary meta-analysis capabilities at the time; personality theory was fragmented and not studied from a multivariate perspective; and some researchers may have found the thought of traits predicting leadership as being unacceptable because such findings implied a deterministic perspective of leadership, that is, leaders were “born” with certain characteristics and not made. While the “made” argument has found support (Avolio et

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al., 2009a/b), research has extensively demonstrated that traits do matter as do “deep”

determinants going back to genes (Arvey et al., 2006; Arvey et al., 2007; Ilies et al.,

2006).

In recent years, there has been a re-focus on the role that traits play in

leadership—particularly the roles of personality and intelligence (Reichard et al., 2011).

Interest in the role of intelligence in leadership revolved around multiple forms of

intelligence being identified, particularly emotional intelligence (Caruso et al., 2002;

Goleman, 1996), social intelligence (Riggio et al., 2001; Zaccaro et al., 1992), and practical intelligence or tacit knowledge (Hedlund et al., 2003). Regarding personality,

the emergence of the Big Five, or Five Factor model of personality (Barrick and Mount,

1991), helped to simplify and organize the numerous traits. As such, the Five Factor

model of personality provided researchers with clear direction on the core personality to

investigate. Hence, trait-based leadership research has continued to use the generally

accepted five-factor taxonomy of personality comprised of conscientiousness,

extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability, and openness to experience (Barrick and

Mount, 1991; Digman, 1990).

A long and complex history of research exists on the relationship between traits

and leadership (Bass and Bass, 2008 and Zaccaro, 2007). Reichard et al. (2011)

addressed the long-standing question of the role of traits, particularly personality and

intelligence, in predicting leadership qualities using a longitudinal design to study the

relationship of emotional intelligence and leadership emergence in small groups.

Reichard et al.’s (2011) empirical study sought to contribute to the body of research by

examining the role that personality and intelligence play in the emergence of leadership

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in a general sample of individuals not selected on the basis of their leadership roles.

Results indicated a significant relationship between adolescent extraversion and adult workplace leader emergence and transformational leadership above and beyond adolescent intelligence (Reichard et al., 2011).

The Reichard et al. (2011) study defined the concept of leader emergence and identified the theoretical rationale and research support for the relationship between leader traits of personality and intelligence with leader emergence. Reichard et al. (2011) also provided a discussion of transformational leadership, its definition, theory and research in order to support the linkage between traits and transformational leadership.

Traits and leadership emergence: Reichard et al. (2011) define leader emergence as both an individual's completion of leader-like work duties and occupying positions of leadership or authority either within or outside of the work domain. Leader emergence, rather than effectiveness, is also often a product of others' perceptions of an individual's abilities (Reichard et al., 2011); if the target individual is perceived to be “leader-like,” then others will be more likely to elect or appoint the target individual into leadership positions.

This argument is in line with Lord and colleagues' concept of implicit leadership theory (Lord et al., 1984; Phillips and Lord, 1982) and the leader categorization theory

(Lord and Maher, 1991) which assert that as young children, individuals gradually develop a set of beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors of effective leaders, or their leadership prototype. These leadership prototypes, or mental representations of the characteristics and traits of leaders, in turn influence how the individual evaluates relevant information (Phillips and Lord, 1982). As such, individuals whose characteristics

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and behaviors match leadership prototypes are perceived more positively (Lord and

Maher, 1991; Lord et al., 1984; Smith and Foti, 1998), and are more likely to be elected to or selected for positions of authority (i.e., leader emergence) (Reichard et al., 2011).

Although leadership prototypes may vary, there are leadership prototypes that are held consistently across most individuals (Epitropaki and Martin, 2004). Two characteristics commonly included in our society's leader prototype are personality and intelligence

(Reichard et al., 2011).

Various authors have also argued that traits such as high-energy, assertiveness, and stamina of extraverts equates to many people's implicit leadership theory of how a leader is supposed to behave (Hogan et al., 1994; Kirkpatick and Locke, 1991; Lord and

Maher, 1991; Lord et al., 1984). A predominant finding from early studies reflected that the person in the group who spent more time talking was often the one who emerged as group leader (Bass and Bass, 2008). In addition, previous meta-analysis by Judge et al.

(2002) found that extraversion was the personality trait most consistently linked to leader emergence. Prior research has also demonstrated that conscientiousness is related to overall job performance (Barrick and Mount, 1991) as well as leader emergence (Judge et al., 2002).

Trait based arguments can also be made with regard to leadership prototype, intelligence, and leader emergence. First, when examining leader prototypes, Lord et al.

(1984) found that of 59 characteristics, intelligence was viewed as a critical leadership quality that must be possessed by all leaders. In addition to intelligence fitting the leadership prototype, Judge et al. (2004a) asserted that intelligence was important for leadership due to the following: 1) the complexity of the leadership position requires

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higher levels of intelligence, 2) intelligent leaders are better problem solvers, and 3)

intelligent leaders are more creative and also motivate their followers to be more creative.

With regard to intelligence, Lord et al. (1986) used meta-analysis to examine the

relationships between traits and perceptions of leadership, a precursor to leader

emergence; the strongest relationship found was between intelligence and leadership

perceptions (r = .50), with leaders scoring higher on intelligence tests also being rated by

followers as better leaders.

Recent meta-analyses have found support for the connection between intelligence

and leadership emergence (Judge et al., 2004a; Lord et al., 1986), and certain personality

traits (e.g., extraversion) and leader emergence and transformational leadership (Bono

and Judge, 2004; Judge et al., 2002). Further, meta-analyses of the relationship of the Big

Five personality dimensions and leader emergence suggest that personality significantly

relates to who emerges as a leader, with Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and

Conscientiousness as positive predictors of leader emergence and Neuroticism having a significant negative correlation with emergence (Judge et al., 2002). Reichard et al.

(2011) contributed to the literature by examining the longitudinal relationship between

traits and leader emergence and transformational leadership. Further, employees who are

consistently top performers, such as those high in conscientiousness, are often promoted into leadership positions regardless of whether or not they have the leadership competencies that it takes to be effective in that position (Reichard et al., 2011).

A principal reason why individual difference research has been recently revived is because studies using meta-analysis have shown that intelligence matters for leadership

(Judge et al., 2004a); Lord et al., 1986). Other studies using fixed-effects type designs

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demonstrated systematic person-level variance in leadership, irrespective of the context or team composition that were manipulated (Kenny and Zaccaro, 1983; Zaccaro et al.,

1991). These studies found that up to 80 percent of the variance in leadership ratings depended on systematic (though unobserved) person-level effects (Antonakis et al.,

2012).

As for leader personality, current models have mainly been grouped around the

Big Five factors (cf. Ashton et al., 2004; Digman, 1989; Goldberg, 1990), which seek to measure the most salient aspects of personality. In combination with meta-analysis, it has become clear that leader personality also matters for leader outcomes (DeRue et al.,

2011; Judge et al., 2002). The key issue that is problematic is the notion that many people tend to manifest all trait levels during the course of everyday behavior (Antonakis et al.,

2012). As such, scholars need to do a better job of linking theory and research outcomes with more dynamic notions of traits as well as to the context (Antonakis et al., 2012), which can trigger or inhibit leader prototypes and trait-induced behaviors (Lord et al.,

2001; Lord et al., 1984), and continue to question the viability of the Big Five factors

(Paunonen and Jackson, 2000).

Finally, Zaccaro's (2012) review on individual difference research highlights the issues that individual differences research faced; his identification of “tipping points” as major shifts in thinking reveal that three shifts have occurred. The first, when trait research was not taken seriously in the mid-20th Century; the second, the revival of trait research; and third, the future of individual-difference models as they relate to leadership models. Specifically, according to Zaccaro (2012), the third tipping point reflects the use of more multivariate perspectives such as multiple leader attributes, multistage models,

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pattern and profile approaches as each of these could result in more robust theorizing and

methodologies when studying individual differences and leadership. As such, while trait

theory pertaining to leadership emergence may be perceived as having a storied past,

trait-based leadership research remains viable given the potential for more complex

analyses using multivariates.

Personality factors and leadership emergence.

The Big Five, or Five Factor model of personality (Barrick and Mount, 1991), is

considered a generally accepted five-factor taxonomy of personality, and it has provided

leadership researchers with direction on core personality factors to investigate. The five factors consist of Conscientiousness (dependable, responsible, and achievement oriented), Extraversion (sociable, active, and assertive), Agreeableness (cooperative, flexible, and courteous), Emotional Stability (calm, unemotional, and not neurotic), and

Openness to Experience (imaginative, original, and broad-minded) (Barrick and Mount,

1991;Digman, 1990). One investigation, by Judge and Bono (2000), used 14 samples of

leaders from over 200 organizations; they found small-to-moderate relationships between

transformational leadership and agreeableness, openness to experience, and extraversion.

However, in a multiple regression, only agreeableness, and to a lesser extent, extraversion, were significantly related to leadership. Judge and Bono suggest that the importance of agreeableness is rooted in its positive association with transformational and charismatic leader characteristics of trust, compassion, and empathy. The relationship of agreeableness to informal team leadership is less clear, although agreeableness has been found to positively influence the quality of team interactions and relationships

(Barrick et al., 1998). More recently, Judge et al.’s (2002) research used the five-factor

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model of personality as an organizing framework and meta-analyzed 222 correlations

from 73 samples. Overall, the positive correlations with leadership were

extraversion=.31, conscientiousness=.28, openness to experience=.24, and

agreeableness=.08. Extraversion was the most consistent correlate of leadership across

study settings and leadership criteria (leader emergence and leadership effectiveness).

Personality characteristics associated with the Big Five have also been assessed with the

Personal Characteristics Inventory (Barrick and Mount, 1995). The Big Five traits have also been used in studies concerning both emotional intelligence (e.g., Cote and Miners,

2006) and leadership emergence ratings (Judge et al., 2002).

Schneier and Goktepe (1983) defined emergent leaders as group members who exert significant influence over other members of the group although no formal authority has been vested in them. Aronoff and Wilson (1985) in explaining sources of leadership status as either ascribed or achieved, posited that ascribed sources of status stem from a process whereby readily observable individual differences, such as gender or personality, result in attributions of competency and leadership ability that affect status within a group; as compared to achieved sources of status which stem from valued behaviors and tangible contributions resulting in a person earning status within the group. Balthazard et al. (2009) later asserted that if status were ascribed based on implicit leadership theories, schemas, or societal stereotypes, then the accompanying leader behavioral actions may be unnecessary. In extending this argument, personality factors, from the standpoint of implicit leadership theories, could indeed be a precursor for team members’ perceptions of leader emergence.

Barry and Stewart (1997) noted that personality might be particularly important in

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self-managed teams because of how leadership roles evolve through interpersonal interactions and can be affected by personality. Furthermore, there is evidence that personality is predictive of emergent leadership in terms of the early identification of leadership potential (Hogan et al., 1994). Research to date has dealt with the etiology of transformational leadership in groups and organizations and has dealt with the role of personality. Judge and Bono (2000) linked traits from the five-factor model of personality to the prediction of transformational leadership behavior, specifically in face-to-face contexts; their analysis revealed that extraversion and agreeableness positively predicted transformational leadership. Openness to experience also predicted transformational leadership, but its effect disappeared when the other personality factors were controlled.

They further found that emotional stability and conscientiousness were unrelated to transformational leadership, although both factors were predictive of more general leadership emergence in other work (Judge et al., 2002).

The meta-analysis of studies of personality and leadership by Judge et al. (2002) reported that the Big Five factors of personality were strongly implicated in the prediction of leadership; specifically, good leaders were typically found to be high in extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience, and low in neuroticism.

Following the meta-analytic results presented by Judge et al. (2002), Paunonen et al.

(2006) expected that emerging leaders would follow the same pattern. The latter research, however, showed that the Big Five personality factors are only marginally successful in predicting emergent leadership (Paunonen et al., 2006). While Judge et al.'s (2002) review indicated consistency with past studies in predicting leadership with variables related to self-confidence, Paunonen et al. (2006) did find that peer evaluations and peer

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ratings were seen as important to leadership emergence and that interpersonal behaviors were deemed to play an especially significant role.

Balthazard et al.’s (2009) study found that the information processing approach to research provides insight as to how transformational leadership perceptions are formed with regard to potential emergent leaders in face-to-face versus virtual contexts.

However, the personality-based behavior suggested in conventional measures of personality considered predictive of transformational leadership in a face-to-face context were not as predictive in a virtual context (Balthazard et al., 2009). This being the case, two personality variables were identified, both of which can be linked to follower information processing and implicit leadership theories: (1) leader activity level, and (2) written linguistic quality as a surrogate for communication / expression in a pure virtual setting (Balthazard et al., 2009). Thus, activity level should be in line with follower perceptions since it provides information indicating confidence, conviction, and influence

on the part of the leader (Balthazard et al., 2009). Further, through extensive personal

participation, the leader is able to demonstrate intellectual stimulation by showing how

problems can be viewed from different angles (Balthazard et al., 2009). These findings

are consistent with Morris and Hackman (1969) earlier findings that emergent leaders

were not only those who expressed more ideas, but also those individuals who initiated

the process and asked more questions than others within the group.

Balthazard et al. (2009) focused specifically on the individual emergence of

transformational leadership; results suggested the potential relevance of trait-based

predictors, as well as more behaviorally-oriented variables (Balthazard et al., 2009).

Transformational leaders articulate strongly-held beliefs and values, stimulate thinking

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that fosters innovative solutions to problems, and generate high degrees of follower

confidence, trust, and admiration (Bass, 1997; Bass and Avolio, 1994). In seeking to

identify predictors of the emergence of transformational leadership in virtual decision

teams and examine the etiology of transformational leadership in these contexts,

Balthazard et al. (2009) showed how personality characteristics were relevant to transformational leadership emergence in face-to-face teams. This was in line with prior

findings. In addition, the linguistic quality in one's written communication was found to

predict the emergence of transformational leadership in virtual teams (Balthazard et al.,

2009).

While it may be debated whether narcissism should be considered a trait,

personality, or behavior, for the purposes of this dissertation research, it is discussed in this section on personality factors associated with leadership emergence. Evidence has indicated that narcissistic individuals tend to emerge as leaders (e.g. Brunell et al., 2008;

Judge et al., 2006). However, prior research of narcissistic performance revealed somewhat inconsistent results (e.g., Chatterjee and Hambrick, 2007; Farwell and

Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Gabriel et al., 1994; John and Robins, 1994; Raskin, 1980;

Robins and John, 1997). The source of these inconsistencies was linked to contextual

factors, such as the amount of task challenge, situational pressure, and the presence of an

evaluative audience, all of which provide opportunities for self-enhancement (Wallace

and Baumeister, 2002). Other research suggested that leadership emergence and

performance of narcissistic personalities may depend on contextual factors. Nevicka et

al.’s (2011) recent investigation of leadership emergence and the performance of

narcissistic individuals in low versus high reward interdependent teams found that

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narcissists emerged as leaders irrespective of the team's level of reward interdependence and their individual performance. With respect to narcissism then, particular contexts, for example, may promote superior individual performance and collaborative coordination among followers (Nevicka et al., 2011). However, the deterioration of the positive impression that others have of a narcissistic individual appear to be isolated to communal features, such as warmth and kindness, and these features are not prominent characteristics associated with leader emergence (Nevicka et al., 2011). People continue to perceive the narcissistic individual as high on agentic traits such as intelligence and confidence (Paulhus, 1998), which are the primary characteristics associated with leader emergence (Smith and Foti, 1998).

The Big Five personality factors have demonstrated utility in leadership studies in general, and are also relevant to leadership emergence. Of the five broad categories of personality (Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and

Openness), people continue to share a set of general beliefs about the characteristics related to leadership in varied situations (Smith and Foti, 1998). While not necessarily inclusive of all five factors, chief characteristics synonymous with leadership emergence include intelligence, dominance, high self-esteem, extraversion, confidence and generalized self-efficacy (Judge et al., 2002; Paunonen et al., 2006; Smith and Foti,

1998).

Emergent leader behaviors.

Bales (1950) research on emergent leader behavior in leaderless teams found that team members who emerged as informal leaders were able to identify and address the most pressing problems facing a team. Bales and colleagues (Bales and Hare, 1965; Bales

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and Slater, 1955) produced a list of 12 interaction categories of behavior demonstrated by

group members that fell into two clusters: 1) task-focused and 2) socioemotional

behavior. Bales Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) comprised of the 12 system categories

range from: showing solidarity, to giving suggestions, to asking for orientation, to

showing antagonism. Task-focused behaviors were directed toward assisting the group in

achieving its goals. Socioemotional behaviors were used to reinforce and guide group

behavior (positively or negatively) and played a role in creating or eroding satisfying

intermember relations and group solidarity. Bales (1950) and Bales and Slater (1955) also

consistently found two informal leaders emerging per team; the most influential leader

exhibited task-focused behaviors, while the second exhibited behavior focused on the

socioemotional needs of group members.

Hollander (1961) came to a conclusion similar to Bales' and found that attainment

of informal team leadership status required two sets of behavior: first, the individual must alleviate team task concerns by being perceived as competent at the team's central task and at coordinating the fulfillment of the team's task goals; and second, the leader must be perceived as able to alleviate the team's social concerns by building trust.

More recent research on emergent leader behavior supported the primary relevance of behavior focused on task coordination and the secondary relevance of behavior focused on member support and development (Lord, 1977; Stein and Heller,

1979; Taggar et al., 1999). Taggar et al. (1999) went a step further and identified three behaviors that predicted whether a member was identified by teammates as an emergent leader; they are: performance management, goal setting/achievement, and synthesis of member ideas. These differed slightly from Lord’s (1977) three behaviors identified

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earlier and associated with a team member being rated an informal team leader; Lord’s behaviors are: coordinating behavior, developing orientation, and facilitating evaluation.

Whether considered a style or behavior, charismatic leadership is a popular and much researched approach to understanding effective leadership (Hughes, 1993).

Sociologist Max Weber (1947) described charismatic individuals as possessing magical abilities and supernatural power of the mind and speech (Etzioni, 1961). A number of researchers have produced complementary conceptualizations of charismatic leadership

(House, 1976; Sashkin, 1988; Shamir, House, and Arthur, 1993) as well as incorporating charisma as a part of transformational theory of leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1994). One of the most useful and well-researched models for studying the behaviors of charismatic leaders and how followers attribute charismatic leadership is Conger and Kanungo’s

(1994) theory that focuses on six behavioral factors exhibited by a leader: 1) strategic vision and communication behavior, 2) sensitivity to the environment, 3) unconventional behavior, 4) personal risk, 5) sensitivity to organizational members’ needs, and 6) a deviation from the status quo. Past research that utilized this model used both the composite and separate analyses of these behavioral factors (Conger and Kanungo,

1998). This model is important to the study of emergent leadership because it focuses on the behavioral aspects of charismatic leadership that form the basis for followers’ attribution of charisma rather than a set of traits associated with charismatic leadership

(Conger and Kanungo, 1987). As such, behaviors associated with charismatic leadership are equally relevant to leader emergence, e.g., demonstrating heightened sensitivity to environmental constraints and followers’ needs, or formulating and articulating an ideological vision different from the status quo.

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With respect to identifying and measuring leadership emergence, research with groups working on similar projects revealed that leaders emerge in these groups and that leadership emergence can be reliably measured (Taggar et al., 1999). A large amount of evidence, accumulated over decades of research, has consistently established behavior aimed at the coordination of team tasks (e.g., task analysis, planning, structuring, goal setting (Taggar et al., 1999 and Yukl, 2010) as particularly influential for leader emergence. Carter et al. (1951), for example, found task coordination behavior to distinguish emergent leaders from a team's other members. Likewise, Lord (1977) demonstrated that directing others' actions, developing orientation, and facilitating evaluation formed “the basis for … leadership perceptions” (p. 126). Dobbins et al.

(1990) and Eby et al. (2003) underscored these findings by demonstrating relationships between behaviors aimed at coordinating team tasks and leader emergence. Theorists have argued that this pivotal role of task coordination may arise because behavior conforms to individuals' implicit notions of leadership, such that a team member is regarded as a leader to the extent he or she facilitates team task accomplishment (Neubert and Taggar, 2004).

De Souza and Klein (1995) examined the relationships between group goal setting and the emergence of leadership. Results indicated that the nature of the assigned goal did not influence leader emergence. Emergence was, however, related to individual task ability and commitment to the assigned group goal (De Souza and Klein, 1995). Findings revealed that groups in which leaders emerged outperformed groups without emergent leaders and the emergent leader's personal goal for the group strongly influenced the group’s chosen goal for the group (De Souza and Klein, 1995).

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Kickul and Neuman (2000) investigated the theoretical underpinnings of individual differences in emergent leadership behaviors and their relationships to teamwork processes and outcomes. Both personality and cognitive ability were utilized to examine behaviors of leadership emergence, team performance, and knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA) (Kickul and Neuman, 2000). Results revealed that extroversion, openness to experience and cognitive ability were predictive of emergent leadership behaviors (Kickul and Neuman, 2000), while conscientiousness and cognitive ability were associated with team performance. Wolff et al. (2002) in extending Hollander's

(1961) conclusion that trust building and task coordination help to attain informal leadership status, suggested that trust building (obtained through supportive/developmental behavior) is a prerequisite for skillful group task coordination.

As described in Emergent leadership in virtual teams: what do emergent leaders do?, Yoo and Alavi (2004) conducted an exploratory study to examine the behaviors and roles that are enacted by emergent leaders in virtual team settings. The study indicated that overall, emergent leaders sent more and longer email messages than their team members did and that the number of task-oriented messages, particularly those that were related to logistics coordination, sent by emergent leaders was higher than that of non- leaders (Yoo and Alavi, 2004). However, there were no differences between emergent leaders and non-leaders in terms of expertise-related messages (Yoo and Alavi, 2004).

Findings also revealed that no significant differences in relationship-oriented and technology management messages between emergent leaders and other team members existed (Yoo and Alavi, 2004). Conclusions of the study drawn from quantitative and qualitative data analyses to identify differences between team members who emerged as

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leaders as compared to non-leaders (as manifested in electronic mail messages) indicated that overall, the emergent leaders enacted three roles: initiator, scheduler, and integrator

(Yoo and Alavi, 2004). These findings, when extended to team performance, are relevant to findings from studies on self-managed virtual teams. For instance, Carte et al. (2006) suggest that high performing self-managed virtual teams displayed significantly more leadership behaviors over time compared to their low performing counterparts.

Specifically, these teams displayed significantly more concentrated leadership behavior focused on performance (i.e. “Producer” behavior) and shared leadership behavior focused on keeping track of group work (i.e. “Monitor” behavior) than the lower performing teams (Carte et al., 2006).

Research around proactivity as a behavior and an individual difference motivational construct also has potential, particularly for leadership research (Parker,

1998; Parker et al., 2010; Parker et al., 2006). Proactivity type studies maintain that there are important individual differences in terms of the tendency to make things happen as part of one's' work role (Antonakis et al., 2012); this proactivity variable could be considered a relevant individual difference that could help reconnect the fields of leadership and motivation. Specifically, a leader's ability to initiate or otherwise enhance followers' proactivity behaviors could be an interesting pathway to study leadership influences on follower motivation (Antonakis et al., 2012).

In the context of work teams, then, individual members with no formal authority often provide leadership on various tasks (e.g., Foti and Hauenstein, 2007). Because such emergent leaders are known to influence important team processes and outcomes (Bass,

1990), researchers have sought to better understand the factors that predict leader

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emergence (e.g., Lord et al., 1984; Neubert and Taggar, 2004). This brief discussion on emergent leader behaviors has identified task oriented and socio-emotional behaviors, as well as proactivity as a construct, as being important to identifying how leaders emerge.

The next section addresses cognitive ability (Judge et al., 2004a) and how it assists in explaining why individuals are more or less likely to be regarded as leaders by others.

Cognitive aspects of leadership emergence.

With respect to scholarly research on a person’s intelligence, evidence shows that cognition and cognitive analyses precede behavior (Bandura, 1982; Lazarus, 1991). For example, Bandura's (1982) social cognitive theory reveals that cognitive processes underlie the behavioral strategies an emergent leader chooses and the skill with which they are executed. Lazarus (1991) also recognized that behavior is dependent upon a cognitive interpretation of a situation.

Taggar et al. (1999) conducted a study that considered leadership emergence in teams and standard individual differences; they found that general mental ability contributed the most to leadership emergence in teams, followed by conscientiousness, extraversion, and neuroticism. While their student teams demonstrated many characteristics of autonomous work teams, they acknowledged the need to extend research on emergent leadership to actual work environments (Neubert and Taggar,

2004).

Although a number of specific cognitive skills may lead to skill at group task coordination, research suggests that pattern recognition, defined as the ability to synthesize information and identify patterns in a collection of unorganized information

(Boyatzis, 1982), is of central importance. Research on the behaviors that predict leader

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emergence suggests the necessity for skill at synthesizing ideas (Taggar et al., 1999) and

orienting the team (Lord, 1977). Skill at analyzing and recognizing patterns underlies

those behaviors. Boyatzis (1982) and Spencer and Spencer (1993/2008) consistently

found pattern recognition to be one of the most central competencies to successful

leadership. Wolff et al. (2002) believe that pattern recognition is essential to the

exhibition of skilled group task coordination because of its relevance for identifying the

source of team strengths and weaknesses, and for recognizing functional and dysfunctional routines (Gersick and Hackman, 1990) that require attention.

Research also suggests that the cognitive skill of perspective taking is central to

the behavioral skill of supporting and developing others. Perspective taking is defined as

analyzing, discerning, and considering the merits of another's point of view (Boland and

Tenkasi, 1995). It has been argued that successful conversation and successful problem

solving require perspective taking (Schober, 1998). Wolff et al. (2002) believe that when

conversation and problem solving focuses on team member support and development, the

need for cognitive perspective taking increases in importance. Indicating that a team

member's perspectives are understood allows a leader to build rapport and interpersonal

trust (Dirks, 1999).

Researchers have determined that emotion precedes or at least accompanies

cognition and thus, emotion and affective information provides a unique source of

information that can improve cognition (Dickman and Stanford-Blair, 2001; Zajonc,

1998). While individuals vary in their ability to take in and understand affective

information; strength in this ability has been labeled emotional intelligence (Salovey et

al., 2000). Emotional intelligence involves the integration of emotion with thoughts,

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enabling one to understand what others are feeling, while cognitive skills involve the integration, organization, and ordering of thoughts themselves (Goleman, 2001). Early research suggested emergent leaders are skilled at taking in and understanding emotional information, and revealed that emergent team leaders were socially perceptive and uniquely able to identify and understand unstated team needs (Chowdhry and Newcomb,

1952). Emergent leaders also used their perceptiveness to address team needs in ways acceptable to the team (Steiner, 1972). Merei (1949) depicted this in an observational study on leader emergence in children's groups; those who emerged as leaders first spent time watching, listening, and figuring out the rules that governed other’s actions and then took the lead in creating and facilitating activities.

Wolff et al. (2002) proposed that what underlies an emergent leader's ability to perceive and understand the team's task and member's needs is a critical component of emotional intelligence labeled empathy (Goleman, 1996; Mayer et al., 1990; Salovey and

Mayer, 1990). Emotional intelligence is defined as one's ability to accurately identify, appraise, and discriminate among emotions in oneself and others, understand emotions, assimilate emotions in thought, and to regulate both positive and negative emotions in self and others (Mayer et al., 1999, 2000; Salovey and Mayer, 1990). Empathy is defined as actively seeking to identify with another's emotions so that one experiences oneself to be similar to or nearly identical with the other person (Sally, 2000). Overall, Wolff et al.

(2002) findings supported the fundamental premise that empathy enables the cognitive skills of pattern recognition and perspective taking, which form the foundation for the leadership behaviors used by emergent leaders.

The basic premise of Wolff et al.’s (2002) model, that empathy serves as the

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foundation for the cognitions and behaviors that support leader emergence, was supported. As such, selection as informal leader was influenced by group task coordination skills as predicted, but it was not directly influenced by supporting or developing others (Wolff et al., 2002). Wolff et al.’s (2002) finding that supporting and developing others indirectly supports being chosen as informal leader through its effect on group task coordination is consistent with those of Bales (1950), Bales and Slater

(1955), and Taggar et al. (1999) that task-focused behavioral skill is most predictive of leader emergence. The exploratory findings also revealed that the cognitive skill of perspective taking was directly related to being chosen as an informal leader (Wolff et al.,

2002). Overall, Wolff et al.’s (2002) research suggests that emotional intelligence, and in

particular empathic skill, play a significant role in leadership emergence within self-

managing teams. This may be because emergent leaders need to understand, coordinate,

and motivate individual team members without the benefit of formal rewards and

punishments (Wolff et al., 2002).

Several studies have revealed that relying on external leaders to give governance

and guidance to self-managing teams may be problematic because of the tendency for

external leaders to over control their self-managed work teams (SMWT) (Beekun, 1989;

Cohen et al., 1996; Druskat and Kayes, 1999). Emergent leaders, however, have been shown to have influence over the performance and processes of self-managing teams (De

Souza and Klein, 1995; Pescosolido, 2001). Abilities such as empathy, perspective

taking, supporting/developing others, and group task coordination not only contribute to

leadership emergence, but may also strengthen team member participation and engagement because they convey a sense of inclusion, support, and respect (Druskat and

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Wolff, 2001). As such, it may be that a role of the emergent leader is to both improve

task coordination and build a sense of belonging, support, and optimism within the team

so that team members can engage their full attention in their performance of the team's

task (Wolff et al., 2002).

Literature and research on leadership emergence includes emergent leadership

and social influence (Hollander, 1959; Petrullo and Bass, 1961), the description of a

pattern approach to the study of leader emergence (Smith and Foti, 1998), and

antecedents and outcomes related to leadership emergence in autonomous work teams

(Taggar et al., 1999). Kickul and Neuman (2000) also identified emergent leadership

behaviors related to the function of personality and cognitive ability in determining

teamwork performance and KSAs. Kickul and Neuman’s (2000) investigation of the theoretical underpinnings of individual differences in emergent leadership behaviors and their relationships to teamwork processes and outcomes demonstrated that both personality and cognitive ability could be utilized to examine behaviors of leadership emergence, team performance, and KSAs. Results revealed that extroversion, openness to experience and cognitive ability were predictive of emergent leadership behaviors

(Kickul and Neuman, 2000).

Group emotion and emotional response in leadership emergence.

The discussion immediately above not only emphasized cognition but also

focused on how emotional intelligence and empathy serve as a foundation for cognitive

ability. In removing ambiguity and obtaining clarity, use of the term emotional

intelligence would have been equally accurate had it been referred to as emotional

intelligence quotient. The discussion that follows deals with an emergent leader’s ability

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to deal with emotion; in those instances where emotional intelligence is referred to, it

pertains to an emerging leader’s ability to handle group emotion and emotionally

intelligent individuals. Interest in emergent (or informal) leaders was partially attributed

to the rise in research regarding self-managing work teams (SMWTs) (Lawler, 1986;

Lawler et al., 1998) and the consequent need for leadership to emerge from within groups

rather than being imposed upon them externally (Beekun, 1989; Cohen et al., 1996;

Druskat and Kayes, 1999). Research on emergent group leaders previously focused

primarily on either the conditions that allow an individual to emerge as leader (e.g.

personality traits and behaviors) (Taggar et al., 1999) or on the outcome effects of

emergent leader behavior upon the group (e.g. effects upon group goals and group

efficacy) (De Souza and Klein, 1995; Pescosolido, 2001).

Consistent with the notion that “leadership is an emotion-laden process” (George,

2000, p. 1046), individuals are more likely to emerge as leaders if they are adept at

effectively dealing with their own and others' feelings (Caruso et al., 2002; Humphrey et

al., 2008; Prati et al., 2003). In a recent review of this literature, however, Walter, Cole,

and Humphrey (2011) located only a handful of studies that have empirically examined

relationships between emotional abilities and emergent leadership (i.e., Cote et al., 2010;

Higgs and Aitken, 2003; Kellett et al., 2002; Kellett et al., 2006; Offermann et al., 2004;

Wolff et al., 2002).

Theory and research on emotion has historically focused on: 1) relatively stable or

low-level affective states such as liking, satisfaction, and commitment, or 2) emotions during specific critical organizational events such as organizational change and corporate

layoffs (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995). For example, early studies of group interactions

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performed by Bales (1950), Bales and Hare (1965), and Bales and Slater (1957)

consistently identified two emergent leaders within the group, one who was primarily

task focused and a second who was primarily socioemotionally focused. Other studies

such as the Ohio State leadership studies identified the behavior factor of consideration for group members (Bass, 1990); similarly, the Michigan State studies identified the factor of employee-oriented behavior (Kahn and Katz, 1960). In both of these studies, the leader is described as engaging in behaviors which could at some level affect the emotions of group members (Pescosolido, 2002).

Early attempts to identify the characteristics of emergent leaders took a highly cognitive approach, focusing on behaviors such as gathering information, seeking opinions, and initiating ideas (Fisher, 1974 and Stogdill, 1950). Failing to include emotional concepts in models of leadership emergence, however, may have been a serious omission (Pescosolido, 2002). Only a relatively few studies had examined whether some emotional abilities were associated with leadership emergence in groups

(Kellett et al., 2002; Kellett et al., 2006; Offermann et al., 2004; Wolff et al., 2002).

Pescosolido (2002) proposed a new role for emergent group leaders, that of the manager of group emotions, suggesting that individual group members take on leadership by providing certainty and direction during times of ambiguity. As such, they assume a leadership role by making an interpretation of an emotional response that serves group's

needs, and then modeling that response (Pescosolido, 2002). By modeling a particular emotional response, the leader resolves ambiguity and catalyzes the group to act and simultaneously increase group solidarity by creating shared emotion within the group

(Pescosolido, 2002). Pescosolido (2002) developed the idea of emergent leaders playing

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the role of “emotional manager” for the group in that one form of emergent leadership is

to help group members resolve and make sense of ambiguous events by modeling

particular emotional reactions to those events. Past leadership theory has also focused

more on the leader's individual attributes and behavior than on the role the leader fills in

the group (Pescosolido, 2002). Jones (2001) highlighted the difficulty of focusing on the

traits and behaviors of individuals when he asserts that leadership occurs only when

followers believe they have found in some individual a solution to the problems that

confront them. This suggests that a given group may require very different and distinct

traits and behaviors from its leadership over time, and that one role of a group leader,

especially an emergent group leader, is to interpret ambiguous situations and then to

model an appropriate emotional response (Pescosolido, 2002).

Pescosolido (2002) proposed that group leaders manage group emotional

responses by initially empathizing and identifying with the collective emotional state of

group members, and then by understanding what factors in the situation are causing this

emotional state. There are several factors thought to influence an emergent leader's ability

to influence group emotions. These factors serve as determinants of managing group

emotion and fall into three main categories: factors regarding the group's context, factors

regarding the group's norms, and factors regarding the leader's individual abilities and

characteristics (Pescosolido, 2002).

When an ambiguous event occurs within a group context, group members often

look to the group leader to help make sense out of that event (Hollander, 1961). Emergent

leaders can then take advantage of particular group norms in order to establish and use their ability to manage group emotion and establish norms of emotional expression

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(Pescosolido, 2002). Empathy then becomes one important factor in an emergent leader's

ability to manage the emotional state of a group (Pescosolido, 2002); this is because

empathy allows the leader to read, interpret, and understand the emotional reactions of individual group members (Eisenberg and Miller, 1987). Empathy remains important to

an emergent leader's ability to manage group emotion because it allows a leader to read

and to understand group member emotional reactions and because it helps the leader craft

an appropriate emotional response (Batson and Coke, 1981; Hoffman, 1984). Because

they are emergent rather than formal, emerging leaders rely upon this type of influence

process rather than upon formal processes of rewards and punishments (Pescosolido,

2002). Additionally, emergent leaders are thought to be especially empathetic and

responsive to follower needs (Wolff et al., 2002 and Yammarino, 1996).

Riggio et al. (2003) further explored the role that basic social and emotional

communication skills play in leader emergence and effectiveness. Results revealed the

following: 1) Groups elected leaders who spoke most and were extraverted but were not

more socially skilled; 2) Leaders were selected on the basis of their possession of

communication skills and led small groups, but skilled communicators were only rated as

more effective leaders rather than leading more productive groups; and 3) Leaders social

skills were related to satisfaction with the leader but related to leader performance only

for higher level leaders (Riggio et al., 2003).

Cote et al. (2010) examination of the association between emotional intelligence

and leadership emergence in small groups found that overall emotional intelligence and a

number of its dimensions were associated with leadership emergence over and above

cognitive intelligence, personality traits, and gender. Among the dimensions of emotional

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intelligence, the ability to understand emotions was most consistently associated with

leadership emergence (Cote et al., 2010). Past research had shown that emotional

intelligence is associated with task performance (Cote and Miners, 2006). Emotional

intelligence is defined as a set of abilities concerned with processing emotions and

emotional information (Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Salovey and Grewal, 2005; Salovey

and Mayer, 1990). Some researchers have questioned its validity (Landy, 2005; Roberts

et al., 2001), and emotional intelligence remains controversial, in part, because there are

only a few studies that tested whether it is associated with criteria over and above two

extant predictors, cognitive intelligence and personality traits (Cote et al., 2010). Cote et

al.’s (2010) research extends prior studies in a number of significant ways. First, it

provides a stronger test of the incremental validity of emotional intelligence with respect

to leadership emergence (Cote et al., 2010). Second, Cote et al. (2010) focus on both the

broad construct of emotional intelligence and the specific abilities that comprise it to

pinpoint how emotional intelligence may contribute to leadership emergence.

Emotionally intelligent individuals and leadership emergence: Roles typically

evolve in small groups, allowing some individuals who do not possess formal authority to stand out and exhibit leadership; this is termed leadership emergence (Lewis, 1972;

Slater, 1955). Past research has found that individual differences such as cognitive intelligence, traits of personality, and demographic characteristics predict who takes on a leadership role (Eagly and Karau, 1991; Smith and Foti, 1998; Taggar et al., 1999). Cote et al. (2010) proposed that emotional intelligence explains variance in leadership emergence that is not accounted for by these individual differences.

Emotionally intelligent individuals may exhibit more leadership emergence in

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small groups than their counterparts because of several complementary mechanisms

(Cote et al., 2010). The first mechanism concerns accurate social perception (Chowdhry

and Newcomb, 1952). Equipped with the ability to perceive others' emotions and to

understand the distinctions among them, emotionally intelligent individuals may gain

considerable knowledge of other group members' attitudes, goals, and interests (Cote et

al., 2010). This knowledge should allow them to influence the other group members by

identifying, understanding, and addressing their unstated needs (George, 2000; Wolff et

al., 2002). This knowledge should also help them influence the other group members by

creating goals that they might accept (Conger and Kanungo, 1998). This influence should

contribute to emotionally intelligent individuals' emergence as leaders in small groups

(Cote et al., 2010).

Emotional intelligence may also be associated with leadership emergence in small

groups via the direct influence of emotions on cognitive activities, such as the amount of

risk people are willing to take and how systematically people process information

(Loewenstein and Lerner, 2003; Schwarz, 2002). Equipped with the abilities to

understand the consequences of emotions and to use emotions to facilitate thinking,

emotionally intelligent individuals may process information deeply and make decisions

that improve the performance of their groups (Cote et al., 2010). The effective

management of emotions is an additional process by which emotional intelligence may be

associated with leadership emergence in small groups (Cote et al., 2010). On the basis of

the preceding arguments, Cote et al. (2010) predicted that emotional intelligence is

positively associated with leadership emergence. Overall emotional intelligence and the

abilities to perceive and understand emotions, measured with the ability test, were

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significantly and positively correlated with leadership emergence (Cote et al., 2010).

Finally, the analyses of the dimensions of emotional intelligence identified the ability to

understand emotions as the most consistent predictor of leadership emergence (Cote et

al., 2010).

Emery (2012) later investigated how different emotional abilities affect the

emergence of task and relationship leaders in a group. To conduct the investigation,

leadership was envisioned as a dynamic network of leadership perceptions; the

emergence of leadership and the role played by emotional abilities in this process were

analyzed using Stochastic Actor Oriented Models (Emery, 2012). The results suggested

that emotional abilities play complementary roles in emergent leadership. Whereas the

abilities to perceive and manage emotions facilitated the emergence of relationship leaders, the abilities to use and understand them facilitate the emergence of task leaders

(Emery, 2012). Highlights of the investigation included the following: 1) Emotional

intelligence was related to the emergence of relationship and task leadership,

2) Leadership was envisioned as a dynamic network of leadership perceptions, 3)

Abilities to perceive and manage emotions facilitated the emergence of relationship

leaders, 4) Abilities to use and understand emotions facilitated the emergence of task

leaders, and 5) Leaders need emotional intelligence (Emery, 2012).

Walter et al.’s (2012a) study on unraveling mediating mechanisms and boundary

conditions pertaining to emotion recognition and emergent leadership examined the

complex connection between individuals' emotion recognition capability and their

emergence as leaders. Walter et al. (2012a) hypothesized that emotion recognition and

extraversion interactively relate with an individual's task coordination behavior which, in

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turn, influences the likelihood of emerging as a leader. Task coordination was identified

as a mediating mechanism in the joint relationship between emotion recognition and

extraversion and leader emergence (Walter et al., 2012a). In Walter et al.’s (2012a)

investigation, emotion recognition was defined as the ability to accurately identify others'

emotional expressions (Nowicki and Duke, 2001). In integrating trait and behavioral approaches to leadership (Avolio, 2007; DeRue et al., 2011), Walter et al. (2012a)

proposed that emotion recognition may indirectly relate with leader emergence through

an individual's task coordination behavior (Morgeson et al., 2010; Wolff et al., 2002).

Walter et al. (2012) also posited, however, that emotion recognition is a necessary, but

not sufficient, prerequisite for successful interpersonal interaction (Nowicki and Duke,

2001). Hence, building on previous work by Judge et al. (2002) and Rubin et al. (2005),

Walter et al. (2012a) cast individual's extraversion as a crucial factor that shapes the indirect relationship between emotion recognition and leader emergence (via task coordination). All in all, Walter et al.’s (2012a) investigation contributed to the leadership literature in various ways. First, it offered additional insight into the relevance of emotional abilities for leader emergence — a heretofore “underrepresented” leadership criterion (Walter et al., 2011, p. 53). Moreover, Walter et al. (2012a) aimed to broaden their theoretical understanding of the emotion recognition — leader emergence linkage by examining both why and under what conditions this relation occurs. As such, the

Walter et al. (2012a) study advanced contemporary thinking on emotional abilities and emergent leadership by illustrating that this relationship is more complex than previously believed. Consistent with this notion, recent research has asserted that individuals' internal attributes (e.g., abilities and traits) are indirectly linked with leadership outcomes

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(DeRue et al., 2011) and, in particular, scholars have highlighted the relevance of emotional abilities “to the exhibition of the behaviors that predict leader emergence”

(Wolff et al., 2002, p. 506).

Theorists have also characterized emergent leaders not only by the ability to

accurately perceive team members' problems and preferences, but also by their inclination to respond to such perceptions (Zaccaro et al., 1991). Furthermore, as previously discussed, task coordination has consistently been shown to predict a team

member's emergence as leader, because an individual engaging in such behavior is

“fulfilling valued roles within the team and/or providing valued contributions” (Neubert

and Taggar, 2004, p. 117). Walter et al. (2012a) proposed that a consideration of

behavioral mediators is crucial to fully understand the linkage between emotion

recognition and emergent leadership, and therefore proposed a conditional indirect

relation that cast task coordination behavior as a mediating mechanism that transmits the

joint relationship of emotion recognition and extraversion with leader emergence. As

such, increased levels of extraversion will strengthen the positive indirect relationship between emotion recognition and leader emergence, through task coordination behavior

(Walter et al., 2012a). Walter et al. (2012a) also suggested a conditional indirect

relationship, whereby the strength of the indirect association between emotion

recognition and leader emergence, through task coordination, is conditional on an

individual's level of extraversion. The Walter et al. (2012a) study provides support for

their conceptual scheme, illustrating that emotion recognition and extraversion are

interactively associated with a team member's task coordination behavior, and that task coordination behavior mediates the joint relationship of emotion recognition and

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extraversion with leader emergence. Walter et al.’s (2012a) findings make several contributions that span both theoretical and methodological domains: 1) the study adds to the literature demonstrating that emotional abilities are important for leading others; 2) the study draws on key insights from this line of inquiry (e.g., Rubin et al., 2005) to examine a fundamentally different phenomenon, illustrating how emotional abilities may aid individuals without assigned authority to emerge into informal leadership roles; and

3) the study opens the “black box” of the emotional ability — leader emergence linkage

(Walter et al., 2011, p. 53).

Pattern and variable approaches to leadership emergence.

The emergence of leaders from leaderless groups is a relatively well-documented phenomenon (e.g. Ansbacher, 1951; Bass, 1949; Bass, 1954; Cattell and Stice, 1954).

Cattell and Stice (1954) found that not only did leaders emerge from leaderless discussion groups, but they also found two types of leaders: those who were regarded as the leaders overall by the group members and the technical leaders. Each type of leader displayed a distinctive set of personality traits; however, as expected, most group members were not identified as leaders. Past research on the emergence of leaders in groups examined relationships between individual trait variables and emergence. Many of the leadership emergence studies utilized the variable approach, searching for individual difference variables correlation with leadership emergence criteria (Foti and

Hauenstein, 2007). Over the last decade, Foti and colleagues have suggested that the pattern approach should be considered as complementary to the variable approach in explaining the dynamics and processes related to leadership emergence outcomes

(Gershenoff and Foti, 2003; Foti and Hauenstein, 2007; Smith and Foti, 1998). The

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pattern approach looks specifically at the combination of patterns and relationships

among variables.

Smith and Foti (1998) extended work of the past by developing a multi-variable

pattern approach, along with the traditional examination of individual trait measures, in

the domain of emergent leadership. The personality pattern examined used the three

variables of dominance, intelligence and general self-efficacy (Smith and Foti, 1998) to

demonstrate that the pattern approach is useful in the study of emergent leadership. In

their study, all three trait variables were positively associated with leader emergence; with individuals high in all three traits emerging significantly more frequently than all other individuals while those low in all three traits emerged significantly less frequently

(Smith and Foti, 1998). As such, studies on leadership emergence now included approaches that looked specifically at the patterns and relationships among the variables in leadership emergence and effectiveness (Foti and Hauenstein, 2007).

In his article on non-linear dynamics and leadership emergence, Guastello (2007) described how non-linear dynamical systems concepts of attractors, bifurcations, and self-organization culminate in a swallowtail catastrophe model for the leadership emergence process. The process of emergence, considered a black box until recently, could now apply non-linear dynamical systems (NDS) concepts of self-organization

(Bak, 1996; Haken, 1984; Holland, 1995; Kauffman, 1993; Kauffman, 1995), phase shifts, and catastrophe models for discontinuous changes in events (Thom, 1975/1989;

Zeeman, 1977) to unravel the part of the process whereby leadership emergence and other social phenomena occur (Guastello, 1995; Guastello, 2001). Guastello’s (2007) article recounts recent theoretical and empirical studies that resulted in a generalizable

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non-linear model for the emergence of leaders. Three distinct types of control parameters

— asymmetry, bifurcation, and bias — are involved in leadership emergence dynamics

(Guastello, 2007). The catastrophe models for discontinuous changes in events (Thom,

1975/1989; Zeeman, 1977) involve combinations of attractors and bifurcations. An attractor is a stable state of behavior; elements of a system (objects, people) gravitate toward these stable states and tend to remain there unless a powerful force is applied

(Guastello, 2007). A bifurcation is a pattern of instability; the bifurcations involve the differentiation of a system into multiple stable and unstable states (Guastello, 2007).

The non-linear theory behind leadership emergence (Guastello, 1998) was grounded in the rugged landscape model of self-organization (Kauffman, 1993;

Kauffman, 1995). As leaderless groups interact while performing a task, their members become differentiated into primary leaders, secondary leaders, and the majority of the group who remain non-leaders after the differentiation process has occurred (Guastello,

2007). According to Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995), the building block of leadership is the dyadic relationship between the leader and each of the members, and the quality of the social exchange and reciprocity among them. A high-quality interaction would be characterized by four principles — loyalty, respect, contribution, and positive affect — that comprise a single indicator of Leader Member Exchange (LMX) (Liden and Maslyn,

1998).

When enough interactions have occurred, some people will attract more interactions than others will, and leaders and other roles will emerge from the group

(Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995). The local interactions give rise to global phenomena (Zaror and Guastello, 2000). For instance, the complexity of interaction is observable as a

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variety and quantity of conversational behaviors such as asking questions, offering creative ideas, expanding on the ideas of others, and facilitating the expression of others

(Guastello, 2007). Asymmetries in members' interaction patterns eventually occur whereby some group members become more central to the group's interaction pattern than do other members (Guastello, 2007). When this asymmetry occurs, group members will have self-organized into roles that exhibit broad leadership or secondary leadership

(Guastello, 1998; Guastello et al., 2005; Zaror and Guastello, 2000). This principle is consistent with leader-member exchange theory (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995), which characterized the dyadic communications between a would-be leader and individual members of the group as the basic building blocks of the leadership process (Guastello,

2007).

The fact that particular leaders emerge in a given situation is predicated on the task complexity, information requirements, performance verifiability (Hirokawa, 1990), and the group's preferences for dominant, considerate, or radical thinking on the part of the emergent leaders (Bales, 1999). The type of task governs what traits or behaviors are most relevant for leadership emergence (Barge, 1996; Guastello et al., 2005; House and

Mitchell, 1975; Kolb, 1992; Neuman and Wright, 1999). Further, empirical studies illustrated that the swallowtail catastrophe model was an excellent fit for leadership

emergence data (Guastello, 1998; Guastello and Bond, 2007a, 2007b; Guastello et al.,

2005; Zaror and Guastello, 2000). As a result of examining the various facets of a generalizable non-linear model for the emergence of leaders, Guastello’s (2007) study showed that goal realism and tension reduction both contributed to the asymmetry parameter for leadership emergence in production groups. Further, two variables

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contributed to the bifurcation parameter, which contributes to the strength of the separation of the two modes for primary and secondary leaders: task control and creative control (Guastello, 2007). Creative control was a combination of creative ideas and controlling the conversation during the first phase of the activities; task control was a combination of task orientation, clarifying responses and ideas, gatekeeping, following, and controlling the conversation (Guastello, 2007). As such, leadership emergence was found to be a self-organizing process that starts with bilateral interactions among group members (Guastello, 2007). Eventually a phase shift (described by the swallowtail catastrophe model) occurs wherein a group structure emerges with a primary leader, secondary leader, and non-leaders (Guastello, 2007).

Social network analysis in leadership emergence.

Understanding social networks and acknowledging distributed leadership in teams also provides great insight into leadership emergence. There is a long history of research that uses social network analysis to understand distributed leadership in team settings.

One of the first collections of systematic sociometric data on social network analysis occurred when Moreno et al. (1932) and Jennings (1943) used network diagrams to identify patterns of leadership within groups. Evidence on leader emergence from both the field (Jennings, 1943; Whyte, 1943/1993) and the laboratory (Shaw, 1964) suggested that leadership tended to be relatively centralized in human groups whereby only a very small percentage of group members actually emerge as leaders within a group at any point in time (Guetzkow and Simon, 1955; Krackhardt, 1994; Simon, 1981).

Mehra et al. (2006) reinvigorated this line of work by extending some of its key insights to the study of distributed leadership in teams. Social network analysis is

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especially well suited to the study of distributed leadership because it is an inherently relational approach that allows for the possibility that there can be multiple leaders within a group, and because it provides methods for modeling both vertical (i.e., between formal leader and subordinates) and lateral (among subordinates) leadership relations within a team (Mehra et al., 2006).

Social network analysis by Sutanto et al. (2011) also sought to advance the understanding of the use of social software systems for knowledge-sharing practices in project work by attempting to identify and understand how leadership emerges in virtual collaboration settings to organize participants’ interactions. The results show that the most effective emergent leaders are those who primarily assume a mediating rather than directing or monitoring roles during virtual collaborations (Sutanto et al., 2011). In contrast to more traditional face-to-face settings, leadership in virtual contexts is less contingent on hierarchical structures and the leader’s level of formal power (Bell and

Kozlowski, 2002; Shamir, 1999); rather, mainly because of a lack of contextual cues available in the face-to-face setting, an emergent style of leadership is especially important in virtual contexts (Yoo and Alavi, 2004). Social network analysis is concerned with the interconnections between individuals rather than being focused on individuals’ attributes (Wellman, 1983), and is thus an approach that allows for understanding leadership as a relational concept that entails processes of interpersonal influence

(Sutanto et al., 2011).

Sutanto et al.’s (2011) study provided two key contributions about the nature of effective leadership in virtual settings. First, it showed that a highly effective emergent leader in both social software systems is one who performs relatively fewer directing

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activities and more mediating activities, and avoids unnecessary monitoring activities

(Sutanto et al., 2011). Second, a more integrated understanding of the network structures enabled by advanced communication technologies provided valuable insights for managers considering adopting such technologies (Sutanto et al., 2011). Coupled with the lack of contextual cues in virtual contexts compared to those available in face-to-face settings ( Yoo and Alavi., 2004), leadership in such contexts is primarily emergent, entailing spontaneous influencing efforts by individual members toward facilitating the group in attaining the desired goals (Sutanto et al., 2011). As such, a social network perspective allows for the understanding of leadership as a relational concept entailing interpersonal influence processes (Sutanto et al., 2011). From this, it was deemed that in social network terms, it is possible to investigate the leadership processes of directing, mediating and monitoring by examining the socio-structural positions occupied by group members, while a focus on network positions can be used to identify “emergent leaders”

(Balkundi and Kilduff, 2006). The analysis by Sutanto et al. (2011) also shows that the patterning of interactions that constitute the structure of a social network is a significant predictor of whether a specific group member is perceived as a leader by others. A closer analysis of the emergent leaders’ directing and mediating roles revealed that increasing their mediating activity seemed to be nearly twice as effective in increasing virtual group members’ perception of them as leaders as did the same level of increase in their directing activity (Sutanto et al. 2011). Taken as a whole, these results meant that a highly effective emergent leader in a social software-mediated collaboration setting will be one who performs more mediating activities, relatively fewer directing activities, and one who avoids unnecessary monitoring activities (Sutanto et al. 2011).

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Leadership emergence in multicultural teams.

Cultural factors themselves also affect the basic processes underlying leadership relations (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Leadership prototypes and conceptions vary from one culture to another (Bass, 1990), and they have dramatically different implications in different cultural contexts (Chemers and Ayman, 1993). Specific research has looked at how dimensions of leader behaviors, such as task structuring behavior, might remain the same across cultures, but the specific behaviors within that dimension varying in meaning (Misumi and Peterson, 1985). For example, Smith and Peterson

(1988) showed that with respect to the Performance-Maintenance (PM) model of leadership (Misumi and Peterson, 1985), criticizing someone privately was seen as considerate in an individualistic culture (e.g., United States) but inconsiderate in a collectivist culture (e.g., Japan).

Very few studies of emergent leadership have emphasized the importance of using the pattern approach (Lisak and Erez, 2014). These studies have demonstrated that patterns of high levels of intelligence, dominance, self-efficacy (Smith and Foti, 1998) and self-monitoring (Foti and Hauenstein, 2007) are related to leadership emergence while patterns of mixed- or low-levels of these attributes are not related to leadership emergence. A basic tenet of the pattern approach is that the individual is an active part of an integrated, complex, dynamic and adaptive person-environment system (Foti and

Hauenstein, 2007). With regard to a specific pattern for emergent leadership to occur in a multicultural team, Lisak and Erez (2014) propose that an emergent multicultural team leader should be able to simultaneously understand the complex multicultural team context, have a sense of belongingness to the global team, and show tolerance and

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acceptance of the cultural variation of the team. These three characteristics, also known as cultural intelligence, global identity and openness to cultural diversity, were found to be positively related to each other, and they positively influence multicultural team performance (Ang et al., 2006; Shokef and Erez, 2006; Shokef and Erez, 2008). Cultural intelligence is defined as an individual's capability to deal effectively in culturally diverse settings (Ang and Van Dyne, 2008; Earley and Ang, 2003); cultural intelligence pertains to the cognitive aspects of cultural awareness and cultural knowledge, as well as to the motivation to adapt to various cultural contexts and to behave accordingly (Lisak and

Erez, 2014). Global identity pertains to a person's self-concept, and as such, it reflects an individual's identity as shaped by a sense of belongingness to the global work context

(Erez and Gati, 2004; Shokef and Erez, 2006). Openness to cultural diversity, is “the degree of receptivity to perceived dissimilarity” (Härtel, 2004, p. 190) and reflects the basic attitude of the individual toward diverse others (Fujimoto, Hartel, and Hartel,

2004).

Following a holistic pattern approach, Lisak and Erez (2014) propose that multicultural team members who integrate all three global characteristics will be recognized more easily by their peers as emergent leaders.

Many previous studies assessed perceived leadership emergence by asking team members to evaluate each other on perceived leadership scales (e.g., Kickul and Neuman,

2000; Taggar et al., 1999), and these criteria allowed them to estimate the level of perceived leadership of each of the team members. However, these criteria did not examine team members’ perspectives regarding the most appropriate member for the leadership role as there was no need to elect the most appropriate member to an actual

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leadership position (Lisak and Erez, 2014). Only a limited number of studies allowed

team members to elect the emergent leader to lead them in accomplishing their team task

(Hollander et al., 1977; Pillai and Meindl, 1991a/b; Van Vugt and De Cremer, 2002). In

their study, Lisak and Erez (2014) allowed the team members to elect their emergent leader whose role was to coordinate the team members’ activities, integrate their contributions and motivate them to complete their assigned task on time. A multicultural team member with high levels of openness to cultural diversity, global identity and cultural intelligence (H-H-H pattern) was deemed more likely to emerge as a leader.

Consistent with the multi-level model of culture (Erez and Gati, 2004), Lisak and

Erez’s (2014) study referred to the multicultural team context as nested in the global work culture in which people from different national cultures establish a new cultural environment and create a new global cultural entity. Lisak and Erez (2014) results demonstrated that global characteristics are important for leadership emergence in this context and that the fit between global leadership characteristics and the global multicultural team context predicts leadership emergence. Further, developing a sense of belongingness to the multicultural team reflects the global identity, which emerges independent of the local national identity (Erez and Gati, 2004). As such, leaders who exhibit high global leadership characteristics are perceived by their team members as having a better fit to the global work context and therefore are identified by their team members as the team leader (Lisak and Erez, 2014). Having a better fit to the global work context enables leaders to serve as role models and to unite the culturally diverse team members into a single coherent global team (Lisak and Erez, 2014). Additionally, the

Lisak and Erez (2014) study supports the growing trend of looking at patterns or

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configurations of personal characteristics rather than examining the independent effects of isolated personal traits on behavior (Foti et al., 2012; Miron-Spektor et al., 2011).

Lisak and Erez’s (2014) study also supports the assertion of Bergman and

Magnusson (1997) that variables in themselves have a limited meaning, and it is the pattern or profile of these variables operating in the system that takes on meaning. In addition, since leaders and members of virtual multicultural teams operate in a global cultural context in which values and norms are likely to differ from those in their respective local cultures (Shokef and Erez, 2006), they should strive to build norms and values in their multicultural teams that will be shared by all culturally diverse team members to facilitate their adaptation in the global work context (Lisak and Erez, 2014).

Thus, by taking a global focus rather than a cross-cultural focus as it examines the global characteristics of emergent leaders on multicultural teams, Lisak and Erez (2014) demonstrated that the characteristics of cultural intelligence, global identity and openness to diversity enable the global leader to better navigate the team in the global context.

Findings also showed that consistent with the person-environment (P-E) fit model

(Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005), the likelihood of emerging as a leader is significantly higher for team members with global characteristics that fit the global context (Lisak and Erez, 2014). The study also highlighted the strong predictive power of the pattern approach compared to the predictive power of independent traits (Lisak and

Erez, 2014). Lisak and Erez (2014) assertion that these global characteristics have a synergetic power was substantiated. Multicultural team members who are culturally intelligent, who perceive themselves as members of the global work context and who accept their team members’ diversity, are more likely to emerge as leaders of these teams

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than other members. Accordingly, Lisak and Erez’s (2014) study contributes to the understanding of leadership emergence in multicultural teams by identifying the global characteristics of emergent leaders that dovetail with the global work context and by examining the pattern of the combination of these three global characteristics in emerging global leaders over their independent effects.

Leadership emergence in multicultural teams. One of the most comprehensive studies of cross-cultural leadership, Project GLOBE, sought to understand how implicit leadership theories vary across cultures (Den Hartog et al., 1999; House et al., 1999). In general, this research reveals large common themes, but as in previous research, more specific differences regarding the details of leader behavior exist (Ensari and Murphy,

2003). The GLOBE study found that three factors of leader behavior, charismatic/value based, team-oriented, and participative, were prototypical for leaders across 60 different cultures. This is consistent with other studies (Bass, 1997; Bass and Avolio, 1993a; Carl and Javidan, 2001) that showed that transformational leadership components, including charisma, are found consistently across many cultures, and that charismatic leadership is valued in many different countries (Ensari and Murphy, 2003).

Although multicultural teams and local teams (comprised of members from the same national culture) share many characteristics, they also differ in a number of important ways (Lisak and Erez, 2014). As opposed to local teams whose members share basic national values and beliefs regarding the appropriate way to behave and respond to each other (Hofstede, 2001), multicultural team members bring different cultural perspectives to their teams with respect to work norms, procedures, expectations and decision making styles (Lisak and Erez, 2014).

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In studies regarding multicultural virtual teams, it takes longer to establish team trust and

team identity than co-located teams (Earley and Mosakowski, 2000; Webster and Wong,

2008). The ability of a leader to communicate effectively in a virtual environment and to phrase their messages in a conversational and personal manner is critical for team effectiveness (Kayworth and Leidner, 2002; Yoo and Alavi, 2004). Moreover, geographic

dispersal can be a challenge for multicultural team leaders because of the need to design

teamwork in a manner that can overcome different time zones, different regulations and

different team member expectations (Avolio and Kahai, 2003a/b; Cascio and Shurygalio,

2003).

Separate from the geographical dispersion element, leaders and emergent leaders

of multicultural teams face the challenges of overcoming cultural differences and

communication channels in building the shared understanding and team unity that are

necessary for team cooperation, coordination and performance (Avolio et al., 2001). In addition, team members search for a leader (or potential leader) who displays confidence

in the complex global environment, who seems well adjusted and capable of

communicating with the entire team and who helps to further the creation of shared

understanding and trust among team members; a team member with such qualities is

likely to emerge as a multicultural team leader (Lisak and Erez, 2014).

Cultural intelligence (CQ), defined above as an individual's capability to

effectively address culturally diverse settings requires three types of fundamental

interactive components, which are categorized as mental, motivational, and behavioral

(Ang et al., 2006). The mental component refers to the ability to perceive and understand

new cultures using various types of cultural cues; the motivational component refers to

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self-motivation and the commitment to adapt and adjust to a diverse cultural environment; and the behavioral component encompasses the capability to exhibit appropriate verbal and non-verbal actions when interacting with people from different cultures (Ang and Van Dyne, 2008; Ang et al., 2007). Individuals with high CQ effectively manage multicultural situations, and make correct cultural decisions in a timely manner (Chen et al., 2012; Chua et al., 2012)

Research findings have also shown that members of multicultural teams who have high CQ levels integrate into and adapt to their teams more smoothly (Flaherty, 2008;

Shokef and Erez, 2008), and they develop more interpersonal trust among team members

(Rockstuhl and Ng, 2008) than those with low CQ. CQ is therefore considered to be an essential learning capability that leaders use to translate their global experiences, characteristics and behaviors into experimental learning, adjustment and effectiveness

(Kim and Van Dyne, 2012, Lovvorn and Chen, 2011 and Ng et al., 2009). Furthermore,

CQ is related to the leadership effectiveness of expatriates (Deng and Gibson, 2008) and

to leadership effectiveness in multicultural teams (Groves and Feyerherm, 2011).

Lisak and Erez (2014) propose that CQ differentiates emergent global leaders

from other team members. Potential global leaders with high CQ should be sensitive to

different practices and conventions (Cognitive CQ), should have the motivation to

resolve team conflicts and maintain team identity (Motivational CQ), should have the

capability to exhibit appropriate verbal and non-verbal behaviors (Behavioral CQ), and

should be able to reflect upon their own behavior using the cultural context as a guide

(Meta Cognitive CQ) (Lisak and Erez, 2014).

Because individuals are motivated to become valued, they strive to maintain

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positive relationships with their team members and avoid being rejected (Markus and

Kitayama, 1998). Members of multicultural teams in global organizations who share a common interest to accomplish a team goal are motivated to overcome cultural barriers and maintain positive relationships with other team members (Erez and Gati, 2004;

Shokef and Erez, 2006). This sense of belonging to others with diverse cultural

backgrounds who are working in the same global organization reflects a person's global

identity (Shokef and Erez, 2006).

Individuals with high levels of openness to cultural diversity view differences as

positive, are open to learning from dissimilar others, and make an effort to understand

dissimilar perspectives (Lisak and Erez, 2014). Thus, individuals who are open to cultural

diversity are motivated to actively seek new cultural experiences; they are also curious

about other national cultures and they are non-judgmental about other cultural behaviors

and expectations (Hartel and Fujimoto, 2000; Shokef and Erez, 2006). These individuals

are willing to adopt and express behaviors that indicate tolerance, they respect dissimilar

individuals, and they are motivated to reduce the possible negative effects of cultural

misunderstandings (Fujimoto et al., 2004; Härtel, 2004; Hobman et al., 2004). Openness

to cultural diversity serves as an important intercultural competency among multicultural

team members that leads to positive outcomes such as satisfaction, commitment and trust

(Lloyd and Härtel, 2005).

In summary, Lisak and Erez (2014) proposed that multicultural team members

who are open to cultural diversity are more likely to emerge as leaders. These emergent

leaders will actively seek to interact with other team members and will regard these

cultural interactions as interesting and challenging instead of threatening. Such members

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will initially show more respect to – and trust in – other team members despite national

cultural differences and will actively and voluntarily create positive relations with

dissimilar members (Lisak and Erez, 2014). This, in turn, facilitates cross-understanding

among team members (Huber and Lewis, 2010).

Perceptions and leadership emergence.

While the idea that leadership can be distributed across a number of individuals,

rather than being focused in a single leader, is at least 60 years old (Gibb, 1954; Gibb,

1958; Bowers and Seashore, 1966), the idea of distributed leadership continues to receive

attention (Gronn, 2002 and Pearce and Conger, 2003). Recent scholarly research has

conceptualized (and operationalized) distributed leadership in a number of different ways

(Day et al., 2004), with broad consensus on two issues: 1) leadership is not just a top-

down process between the formal leader and team members; and 2) there can be multiple

leaders within a group (Mehra et al., 2006).

The topic of perceptions as they relate to leadership emergence is especially

relevant in different cultural settings. Leadership perception is based on 1) a recognition- based process that involves categorization of leaders’ characteristics into relevant stereotypes; and 2) an inference-based process that involves making attributions for leaders’ characteristics based on outcomes of salient events (Lord and Maher, 1991).

Carter et al. (1951) analyzed 53 categories of behavior and found that providing advice

(giving information on how to carry out a task and making interpretations based on diagnosing the situation) clearly distinguished between those who emerged as leaders and those who did not. Additionally, those who provide support are likely to be perceived as leaders, because group members consider supportiveness to be a role of leadership

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(Hamblin, 1958). For instance, in a study of role dimensions, a leader's interest in other

group members' personal well-being was positively related to his or her acceptance as a

leader (Julian and Hollander, 1966). In other words, occupying central support and advice roles within the team (referred to herein as team member network centrality) satisfies the needs of group members (Forsyth, 1990/2009). Thus, even low-status members of a group can enhance their power if they foster group dependency by performing critical roles or offering valued contributions (Kanter, 1977; Mechanic, 1962). Sorrentino and

Field (1986) also found a strong relationship between giving task-related advice and leadership emergence.

An important advance in the study of leadership traits has been the

acknowledgment of the role of perception in explaining leadership emergence (Lord et

al., 2001). Research on leader perceptions has emphasized the role of cognitive

structures, such as implicit personality theories (Lord et al., 1986; Lord et al., 1984;

Sedikides and Anderson, 1994), prototypes (Rosch, 1978), schemas (Fiske and Taylor,

1991), and exemplar representations (Smith and Zarate, 1992) in assessing leadership.

Observers are fairly good at assessing the characteristics of others (e.g., McCrae, 1982;

McCrae and Costa, 1987) and appear to share a set of general beliefs about the

characteristic behaviors and traits of a leader (Eden and Leviatan, 1975; Lord et al., 1984;

Lord and Maher, 1991). Categorization theory suggests that a judgment of another

individual is made on the basis of the congruence or match between the stimulus person

and a prototype or exemplar (Fraser and Lord, 1988; Lord et al., 1984; Lord and Maher,

1991). In ascribed informal leadership, if a target individual's traits strongly match the

perceiver's leader prototype or exemplar, that individual is more likely to be viewed as a

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leader (Neubert and Taggar, 2004).

The power of leaders is largely dependent on how they are perceived by others

(Hollander and Julian, 1969; Maurer and Lord, 1991; Pfeffer, 1977). The extent to which an individual is perceived as a leader can increase employees’ acceptance of organizational decisions and policies, followers’ organizational commitment, and positive affect among employees (Pfeffer, 1977). Positive perceptions help leaders accentuate their important characteristics to manage their public impressions (Foti et al., 1982).

Perceptual processes are also important influences on the measurement of leader behavior

(Hogg, 2001; Maurer and Lord, 1991). Research on leadership perceptions expands our views of how leaders gain and maintain power, helps leaders to improve their abilities to execute and manage their roles in organizations, and guides applied psychologists and managers in the use of behavioral measurements (Ensari and Murphy, 2003).

To understand how people perceive leaders, it is essential to understand how they process information and interpret organizational performance in different cultural contexts (Ensari and Murphy, 2003). Ensari and Murphy (2003) investigation of leadership perceptions compared recognition-based and inference-based information processing, and examined how their co-occurrence increases attributions of charisma to leaders in collectivistic and individualistic cultures. Ensari and Murphy (2003) sought to obtain experimental evidence for the interactive effects of these two alternative forms of information processing on the attributions of charisma to the leader; the other purpose was to investigate both the moderating and mediating processes involved. In particular, culture was examined as the potential moderator, and dispositional attributions as the potential mediator (Ensari and Murphy, 2003). The examination considered the

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interactive effects of the two alternative processes of leadership perceptions on attributions of charisma cross-culturally, with results showing that the co-occurrence of these two processes produced optimal attribution of charisma to the leader (Ensari and

Murphy, 2003).

In work groups even with a formally appointed leader, informal leaders can emerge for a variety of reasons (Judge et al. 2002). What may be important though from the perspective of group performance is whether the formal and emergent leaders are able to coordinate effectively. When formal and emergent leaders perceive one another as leaders, they should be better able to synchronize their leadership efforts so that decision making and action are more effectively channeled within the group. The kind of distributed and coordinated leadership described is similar to what Gronn (2002) described as “conjoint agency,” in which a few individuals emerge as leaders within a group and are able to synchronize their actions through reciprocal influence.

Shortly thereafter, Mehra et al. (2006) built upon on the work of Lord and Maher

(1991) on implicit leadership theories and the focus on the match between the content of followers' leadership schemas and leader characteristics, behavioral style and demographic attributes. The study sought to find out who emerged as leaders by investigating the possibility of leadership in teams being a shared, distributed phenomenon in which there can be several (formally appointed and/or emergent) leaders.

By focusing on the emergent network of leadership perceptions within work teams and re-conceptualizing leadership as a team-level construct, Mehra et al. (2006) attempted to extend theoretical work on distributed leadership at the network level of analysis (Mayo et al., 2003; Seibert et al., 2003) by conceptually distinguishing between prototypic

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structural forms that the network of leadership perceptions within a team can take, and by

providing a rationale for how these different network structures are related to both objective (e.g., team sales) and attitudinal (e.g., team satisfaction) measures of team performance.

Peoples' leadership schemas, which consist of beliefs about leader behaviors and traits, also influence the process whereby individuals come to attribute leadership to certain members (Mehra et al., 2006). As such, why teams come to develop certain patterns of leadership perceptions results from team members' implicit theories about leadership, and the manner in which certain individuals come to display the attributes that cause others to see them as leaders (Mehra et al., 2006). Findings showed that certain forms of distributed leadership structures may be associated with superior team performance relative to traditional leader-centered structures (Mehra et al., 2006; Mayo et al., 2003; Pearce and Conger, 2003). More specifically, of the four forms identified, the distributed team leadership structure was shown to be more effective than the traditional leader-centered structure; and the distributed coordinated form was more effective than the distributed fragmented form (Mehra et al., 2006).

Perceptions of leadership emergence, then, whether ascribed or originating from implicit leadership theories, or the result of stereotypes of people’s leadership schemas, can differ dramatically, especially when multiple cultures are involved.

Leadership emergence and gender bias.

Widely researched topics regarding leadership itself and leadership emergence have included the role of sex, gender roles, and attraction in predicting emergent leaders

(Goktepe and Schneider, 1989); the effects of proportional representation and gender

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orientation of the task on emergent leadership behavior in mixed gender work groups

(Karakowsky and Siegel, 1999); the effects of sex and gender role on leader emergence

(Kent and Moss, 1994); and gender and other predictors of leader emergence (Kolb,

1997). Further, when teams are given more autonomy and decision-making responsibility

(Guzzo and Dickson, 1996), informal or emergent leaders impact how team members work together and how teams perform (Luft, 1970/1984; Neubert, 1999). These informal leaders emerge and wield influence even when the team has a formally designated leader or supervisor (Hackman, 1992; Wheelan and Johnston, 1996). Thus, even if women are hindered in attaining formal positions of leadership, they can exert considerable influence on team performance as informal leaders (Neubert, 1999). Although there is a substantial debate regarding the effect gender plays on leadership, the investigation of how gender interacts with other variables to explain leadership emergence in “real” teams has been limited (e.g., Vecchio, 2002).

Whether the research on the differences between men and women is biological

(e.g., Archer, 1996; Maccoby and Jacklin, 1980; Reinisch et al., 1991) or sociopsychological (e.g., Beal, 1994; Eagly, 1987), there seems to be consensus that gender differences exist and are accompanied by differing expectations. Leadership emergence may be explained through individual team members achieving informal leadership status by performing important roles or making valued contributions (Mann,

1959; Zaccaro et al., 2002). Social structures within teams stem from the negotiated roles or relationships between team members (Seers, 1989). Stable social networks develop as team members repeatedly interact with specific team members who help satisfy individual or team-related needs (Granovetter, 1973; Hackman, 1992). Mullen et al.

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(1991) found in their meta-analysis that network centrality, reflecting self-reported group

member interaction with other group members, positively related to leadership

emergence. However, the proportion of unexplained variance across studies in previous

meta-analytic research suggests that gender may moderate the relationship between

individual differences and leadership emergence in intact teams (Pearlman et al., 1980).

Previous research on social role theory (Eagly, 1987) found that men are

generally socialized from a young age to be outgoing, assertive, task oriented, adventurous, chivalrous, and achievement oriented; while women are generally taught to

be emotional, nurturing, communal, and socially oriented in their interactions with others,

to respect male power and authority, and to refrain from expressions of aggressiveness or

assertiveness (e.g., Eagly and Johnson, 1990; Eagly and Wood, 1991; Fennell et al.,

1978). In a similar vein, Fiedler's (1967) contingency theory of leadership was both

developed and has been tested solely in situations characterized by appointed leaders.

The theory has also rarely, if ever, been tested for female leaders (Schneier, 1978;

Schneier and Goktepe, 1983). Schneier’s (1978) field study was designed to extend the

contingency model to situations in which leaders emerged from their groups (i.e., no

leader was designated a priori) and to assess its predictability in this situation for both

male and female leaders.

Research on actual and stereotypical female behavior agrees that women, in

comparison to men, are more oriented toward social activity and tend to occupy nurturing

and supportive roles in a social context (Eagly and Steffen, 1986; Gilligan, 1982;

Reinisch et al., 1991). In their meta-analysis, Eagly and Karau (1991) report that women

attained higher levels of leadership status than men when the team task required greater

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levels of social interaction. On the other hand, in actual work contexts, providing advice was the most frequently cited helping behavior for both male and female leaders (Bowes-

Sperry et al., 1997). Conversely, the helping orientation of women is well suited to intact teams, where in the context of long-term relationships, women offer socioemotional support as well as advice to further the goal achievement of others (Eagly and Crowley,

1986; Vaux, 1988). In addition, women may be more likely to provide advice and support within a mixed-gender team because the chivalrous orientation of men is oriented toward primarily helping women while women were helpful to both genders (Eagly and

Crowley, 1986). In regards to communication, men are socialized to gain status through conversational strategies of interrupting and dominating the talk time (Cameron, 1997;

Tannen, 1990; Tannen, 1995). Perhaps because men generally gain status by being assertive and dominant (Baird, 1976), their intelligence is perceived by others as overbearing. On the other hand, women are socialized to express themselves in an egalitarian manner (Owen, 1986; Tannen, 1990; Tannen, 1995) and therefore, may express their intelligence in a manner that is more humble and unassuming. It seems then, that in comparison to men, women have an advantage in that their social orientation and stereotypical expectations lend themselves to achieving status through engaging in helping interactions within the team and that a substantial amount of leadership activity occurring within the team is performed by informal leaders (Neubert and Taggar, 2004).

Women and men experience the world differently based upon their genetics in addition to cultural differences and often use gender as a proxy for those different experiences (Gelman et al., 1981; Smith, 1980). Women may face more challenging environments in their work-life than do men (Eagly and Karau, 1991), suggesting a

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possible difference in genetic influences on leadership roles, behavior, and emergence compared to men. Moreover, previous research has shown that people perceive successful leaders to possess more “masculine” traits (Druskat, 1994), putting women in a less favorable position for senior leadership roles, potentially resulting in greater prejudice against them (Eagly and Carli, 2007; Eagly and Karau, 2002). In terms of emerging as senior leaders, females and males face different developmental opportunities

(Ohlott et al., 1994), which favor males’ leadership development over females, including such factors as having more available mentors.

Historically, prevalent opinion was that women were inferior to men in occupying leadership positions and/or emerging as leaders (Bowman et al., 1965). Some scholars even posited that women do not have sufficient skills and traits to perform successfully as a leader (e.g. Hennig and Jardim, 1977). Nothing could be further from the truth. More contemporary views of leadership scholars is that while women often face more barriers to becoming leaders than do men (Eagly and Karau, 1991; Eagly and Karau, 2002), women are not inferior to men in leadership positions, and in certain cases women exhibit superior performance compared to men (Helgesen, 2011; Kellerman and Rhode, 2007).

Females do tend to be more democratic and participative in their style when compared to males (Eagly and Johnson, 1990). Recent work has replicated these earlier results (e.g., van Engen and Willemsen, 2004) and extended them to some of the newer leadership models such as transformational leadership (Eagly et al., 2003). Specifically, women have consistently been shown to be more transformational than men in terms of exhibiting individualized consideration, although these gender differences or effect sizes have been relatively small (Chaturvedi et al., 2012). On the topics of effectiveness, Eagly

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and colleagues concluded that women and men were equally effective leaders (Eagly et

al., 1995).

Goleman (1998) argued that emotional intelligence is strongly related with

leadership. Furthermore, there is research evidence suggesting that females have a higher emotional intelligence index than males (e.g. Brackett et al., 2006; Petrides and Furnham,

2006), which in turn suggests higher chances of genetic influences on females (Goleman,

1998). Therefore, it is highly likely that females genetically might have an edge in comparison to males to emerge as a successful leader in an organization with respect to the emotional or self-regulatory aspects of leadership (Chaturvedi et al., 2012).

Given that the focus of most team leadership research has been on formal leaders or emergent leadership in short-term laboratory settings or assessment centers (Hogan et al., 1994; Wheelan and Johnston, 1996), Neubert and Taggar (2004) investigated the potential moderating role of gender in explaining the relationship of individual differences and team member network centrality (support and advice network nominations) to informal leadership emergence within intact manufacturing work teams.

The intent of Neubert and Taggar’s (2004) study was to ascertain how men and women in intact teams differ in their use of ascribed and achieved pathways to emerge as informal leaders. Combining the meta-analytic research on leadership perceptions with recent research using the five-factor model of personality and general mental ability, Neubert and Taggar (2004) identified a general leadership prototype. The evidence points toward team members with high levels of general mental ability, extraversion, conscientiousness,

emotional stability, and openness to experience as more likely to be ascribed leadership

(Neubert and Taggar, 2004). Although there is consensus regarding traits that make up a

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general leadership prototype, it is not clear if mirroring the traits of the leadership prototype has universal utility in influencing how men and women emerge as informal leaders within teams (Neubert and Taggar, 2004).

Societal stereotypes can disadvantage women in the emerging process of informal leadership (Neubert and Taggar, 2004). In integrating research on gender stereotypes and leadership prototypes, Neubert and Taggar (2004) hypothesized that team members with traits that are consistent with the general leadership prototype and their gender stereotype are likely to be ascribed leadership due to perceptual congruence. Whereas a high level of conscientiousness, emotional stability, and team member network centrality predicted informal leadership more for men than for women, a high level of general mental ability predicted informal leadership more for women than for men (Neubert and Taggar, 2004).

Of the personality variables, only extraversion was significantly related to informal leadership such that those who are more extraverted (both males and females) are more likely to be considered informal leaders (Neubert and Taggar, 2004). Consistent with meta-analytic research, gender was associated with emerging as the informal leader within the team with males being more likely than women to emerge in these intact teams

(Neubert and Taggar, 2004). Team member network centrality also was significantly and positively associated with informal leadership emergence (Neubert and Taggar, 2004).

Gender moderated the relationship between conscientiousness and informal leadership such that for men, increases in conscientiousness substantially improved the likelihood of being considered the informal leader, whereas for women, increases in conscientiousness slightly decreased their likelihood of emerging as the leader (Neubert and Taggar, 2004).

Contrary to their theory, for men, increases in general mental ability decreased the

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likelihood of being considered informal leaders, while for women, increases in general

mental ability improved the likelihood of being considered the informal leader (Neubert

and Taggar, 2004). As such, gender moderated the relationships between informal

leadership emergence and conscientiousness and emotional stability such that when men

fulfill expectations for a leader to be conscientious and emotionally stable, they are more

likely to emerge as informal leaders than are women who fulfill the same expectations

(Neubert and Taggar, 2004).

Although being included in other team members' networks of advice and support

was important for the leadership emergence of men and women, Neubert and Taggar’s

(2004) results indicate that it was more instrumental for men than for women. This

finding is the opposite of the hypothesized advantage women may have over men in their

proclivity to achieve leadership through providing valuable contributions to the team

(Neubert and Taggar, 2004). In this case, the expectations of women as being social and

nurturing may work against women receiving recognition as leaders (Neubert and

Taggar, 2004).

With respect to informal team leadership, results suggest that some of the traits

and contributions of women remain relatively unappreciated (Neubert and Taggar, 2004).

Women who have traits typically associated with male leadership, or those who alter their

behavior to be more consistent with male stereotypes (Eagly and Johnson, 1990; Ely,

1995) may receive less leadership credit than their male counterparts who possess some

similar traits (Neubert and Taggar, 2004). Shared leadership is defined as a dispersion of

leadership within the team such that multiple team members influence one another and the rest of the team (Neubert, 1999; Pearce and Sims, 2002; Taggar et al., 1999). For

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Neubert and Taggar’s (2004) study, results also showed that implementing shared

leadership was likely to increase the opportunity for women to take leadership roles and,

in turn, to expand team members' perception of leadership to be more cognizant of

women's contributions..

In a related article, Furst and Reeves (2008) proposed that the concept of ‘creative

destruction’ can help in understanding why some women ascend to leadership positions,

especially at the higher leadership ranks. Joseph Schumpeter’s (1942), Capitalism,

Socialism and Democracy, described the process called “creative destruction” that has

emerged in capitalist market economies. Using empirical research and anecdotal evidence from the experiences of several high-profile female executives, Furst and Reeves (2008) argued that women may rise to leadership positions in turbulent environments that are receptive to new talent and open to innovative, bold ideas. Further, under these conditions women may be seen as especially likely candidates to guide organizations because women are perceived to utilize a leadership style that promotes openness and inclusion, and facilitates change (Furst and Reeves, 2008). Regretfully, women remain largely excluded from positions of power where they have the ability to influence organizational behavior and strategy (Burgess and Tharenou, 2002; Oakley, 2000).

Furst and Reeves (2008) also identified barriers to the advancement of women in management, and subsequently explained how the concept of “creative destruction” could be used to demonstrate how women, by exploiting the conditions of creative destruction, can assume leadership positions. For example, social role theorists argue that men and women adopt stereotypical gender roles to be socially accepted (Eagly, 1987).

Men are more likely to engage in behaviors that emphasize dominance, aggression, and

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achievement (Eagly and Carli, 2003). In contrast, women are more likely to display feminine behaviors that emphasize affiliation, nurturance, deference, and abasement,

traits traditionally associated with supporter or “follower” roles (Rigg and Sparrow,

1994). Gender stereotyping also occurs with respect to work-family issues in ways that

can impede the advancement of women (Furst and Reeves, 2008).

In a meta-analysis of emergent leadership and gender, Eagly and Karau (1991)

found that male leadership was particularly likely in short-term, task-oriented groups that

did not require complex social interaction; in contrast, women emerged as social leaders

slightly more than did men. Furst and Reeves (2008) interpreted these findings using

gender role theory. Specifically, gender differences in leadership stem from the role-

induced tendencies of men to specialize more in task-oriented behaviors and of women to specialize in relationship-oriented, socially facilitative behaviors (Furst and Reeves,

2008), with the latter behaviors being especially effective in turbulent times because they encourage open communication, trust building, and collaboration (Bligh et al., 2004;

Hunt et al., 1999; Weber, 1947).

Empirical evidence regarding whether men or women are more likely to be charismatic or transformational leaders is mixed. A number of researchers have also demonstrated the effectiveness of charismatic or transformational leadership during times

of crisis and turbulence (e.g., Hunt et al., 1999; Mumford et al., 2006). Two types of charismatic leadership seem to be central to a leader's success: visionary and crisis

responsive leadership (Hunt et al., 1999). Visionary leadership involves an ability to

create an ideal future scenario for an organization and to effectively communicate this

vision to followers. Crisis responsiveness concerns the leader's ability to effectively

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manage a crisis and instill confidence in his or her followers during periods of uncertainty

and turbulence. Leaders often emerge during a crisis because the disruption, turbulence

and general confusion caused by the crisis call for an individual who can define the

situation and gain acceptance for a strategy to deal with the situation (Mumford et al.,

2006). While some studies have found no differences in the leadership styles of men and

women (e.g., Van Engen et al., 2001), others find that women tend to be rated as more

transformational (e.g., Groves, 2005). For instance, in a recent meta-analysis of 45

studies, Eagly et al., (2003) found that women were rated higher on all transformational

factors.

Thereafter, Furst and Reeves (2008) further argued that perceptions regarding the

tendency for women to exhibit charismatic or transformational leader behaviors

contribute to their advancement. Indeed, a number of studies indicate that women are

perceived by others, and perceive themselves, as using transformational leadership styles

more than men (Bass et al., 1996; Druskat, 1994; Rosener, 1990). Women also often

communicate and make decisions differently than men in ways that may be more

compatible with the complexity and uncertainty inherent in turbulent environments (e.g.,

Tannen, 1995). Communication skills and the ability to manage a diverse group of people

are critical skills for leading in rapidly changing environments (Fiol et al., 1999). Women also demonstrate a range of communication styles that can be tailored to fit the context,

from politeness, formality, and indirectness to informality and directness (Furst and

Reeves, 2008).

Another trait often attributed to women's leadership that also may contribute to

their advancement opportunities is self-sacrificing behavior (Furst and Reeves, 2008). In

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particular, self-sacrificing occurs when a leader abandons or postpones his or her own personal preferences, perks, or bonuses (Furst and Reeves, 2008). As Choi and Yoon

(2005) note, followers tend to attribute charisma to leaders based upon their superior competence as leaders and on their self-sacrificing behavior. It is also apparent that many successful women leaders act aggressively by seizing unique and challenging opportunities in their careers (Furst and Reeves, 2008). The risk-taking behaviors of these women contradict conventional wisdom and empirical evidence that women are more risk averse than men (Dwyer et al., 2002). However, evidence continues to show that women leaders may be more likely to ignore rules and take risks than men (Greenberg and Sweeney, 2005). For instance, Ragins et al. (1998) found that many women leaders attributed their own upward mobility to their willingness to take on risky assignments.

Furst and Reeves (2008) also argue that because of their diversity of experience, successful women executives employ a variety of complex behaviors and provide new approaches to leadership that make them particularly effective during turbulent and uncertain times. Women's emergence as leaders is therefore due to the interaction of perceived personality characteristics, leadership styles, and accumulated experiences with the demands of a turbulent business environment (Furst and Reeves, 2008). The net effect is that women may be viewed as the best candidates during times of crises because they are perceived to exhibit these characteristics more often than men; further, in turbulent environments, the lack of stability means that non-traditional, fresh ideas and approaches to leadership will be valued and outweigh gender-related biases including self-sacrificing behaviors (van Knippenberg and van Knippenberg, 2005) and transformational leadership style (Bass and Avolio, 1994). In summary, the women Furst and Reeves (2008) profile,

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combined with existing empirical data, suggested that women need to be aggressive, unpredictable, and develop a complex set of skills and behaviors to ascend to leadership positions.

In an earlier yet related study, European women were often deemed more effective than men as managers because they utilize intuition and empathy and are perceived to be loyal (Van der Boon, 2003). In addition, women expatriates from the

United States assigned to other countries in Asia or the Middle East often report that they are judged based on their competencies and communication skills rather than their gender

(Grove and Hallowell, 1995).

Consistent with the findings identified above, researchers recently shifted their attention to examining the degree that both environmental and genetic factors play a part in determining who moves into leadership roles within organizations, as well as the degree the predictors of leadership are genetically based (Chaturvedi et al., 2012).

Chaturvedi et al.’s (2012) research followed earlier studies that examined heritability.

Arvey et al. (2006) in using a sample of male twins to estimate the heritability of leadership role occupancy (i.e., the extent to which individuals occupied positions of formal leadership in organizations) showed that 30 percent of the variance in leadership role occupancy was accounted for by genetic factors (Arvey et al., 2006).

Chaturvedi et al. (2012) examined the moderating influences of gender and age with respect to testing the heritability of leadership emergence. To determine whether there are gender differences in heritability estimates of emergent leadership, Chaturvedi et al. (2012) investigated how heritability estimates vary across the working life span and heritability estimates of leadership in national/cultural settings. Using behavioral genetics

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methods, Chaturvedi et al. (2012) examined gender differences in leadership to determine the influence of genes versus environmental factors in male and female leadership emergence. The study sought to understand how both gender and culture matter to leadership and more specifically leadership emergence (Ayman and Korabik, 2010).

Ayman and Korabik (2010) previously suggested that, “different outcomes will be obtained by men and women leaders under certain conditions” (p. 159), which the authors attributed in part to different levels of status and privilege for men to emerge in

leadership roles versus women, especially across different cultures.

Chaturvedi et al.’s (2012) investigation of critical questions pertaining to the

nature of genetic influences on self-reported perceptions of leadership emergence

addressed different cultural settings than those used in previous heritability research since

much of the prior research involved samples drawn from North America. Results

affirmed that the heritability estimate of self-reported leadership emergence is relatively

similar across national boundaries with approximately 40 percent of the variance being

attributable to genetics (Chaturvedi et al., 2012). These findings show that females appear to be as genetically prone to emerge as a leader as males, at least in terms of self-reports

(Chaturvedi et al., 2012); results also suggested the importance of environmental factors

for both men and women in terms of leadership emergence.

Chaturvedi et al. (2012) results further suggested that assistance from the

environment, such as leadership training and organizational interventions, may be most helpful during child rearing years, where it appears that genetic factors have the largest influence on leadership emergence. Based on the strong heritabilities observed for both men and women, ‘nature’ is an important determinant of an individual's leadership

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behavior, and this tends to be true for both men and women, although women experience some variation in terms of the importance of nature at different points in their life-span

(Chaturvedi et al., 2012); findings also suggested that belief in the idea that leaders are born may indeed inhibit an individual's ability to emerge into a leadership role (Avolio,

2005).

Complexity and the leadership emergence process.

Work on cognitive complexity dates back more than 60 years (see Bieri, 1955), and a steady stream of research has followed (e.g., Harvey et al., 1961; Schroder et al.,

1967; Schroder and Suedfeld 1971; Streufert and Nogami 1989; Streufert et al., 1988;

Streufert and Streufert 1978; Streufert and Swezey 1986). The underlying assumption of the cognitive complexity perspective is that cognitively complex individuals process information differently and perform certain tasks better than cognitively less complex individuals. This is because cognitively complex individuals use more categories or dimensions to discriminate among stimuli and see more commonalities among these categories or dimensions (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001). Cognitively complex people search for more information (Tuckman, 1964) and spend more time interpreting it (Dollinger

1984; Sieber and Lanzetta 1964). As such, Boal and Hooijberg (2001) envisioned cognitive capacity as a key individual difference variable underlying absorptive capacity at the individual level. Absorptive capacity refers to the ability to learn and involves the capacity to recognize new information, assimilate it, and apply it toward new ends (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001). Cognitive capacity was developed by Jaques and his colleagues

(e.g., Jacobs and Jaques 1987; Jaques 1989; Jaques and Cason 1994; Jaques and Clement

1991). It too has a lengthy history going back to the middle and late 1970s (e.g., Jaques

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1976; Jaques et al., 1978). For Jaques, cognitive capacity/power connotes those mental processes used to take information, pick it over, play with it, analyze it, put it together, reorganize it, judge it, reason with it, make conclusions, plans, and decisions, and take action.

Additionally, Hooijberg (1996) demonstrated that managers who have a broad repertoire of leadership roles and who perform those roles frequently are seen as more effective by both their subordinates and also by their peers and superiors. As such, leaders not only need a large behavioral repertoire but also the ability to select the right roles for the situation (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001). To do so leaders need both cognitive and behavioral complexity and flexibility (Boal and Whitehead, 1992). That is, a leader needs not only the “ability to perceive the needs and goals of a constituency [but also the ability] to adjust one's personal approach to group action accordingly” (Kenny and

Zaccaro, 1983, p. 678).

In their article on strategic leadership, (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001) identified the essence of strategic leadership as the creation and maintenance of absorptive capacity

(Cohen and Levinthal, 1990) and adaptive capacity (Black and Boal, 1996; Hambrick

1989) coupled with managerial wisdom (Malan and Kriger, 1998). Perhaps sufficient rationale exists to extend these strategic leadership concepts to emergent leadership since they appear equally applicable in this regard. For instance, emerging leaders’ absorptive capacity could be demonstrated by their ability to learn and recognize and assimilate new information and apply it. Further, adaptive capacity requires that leaders have cognitive and behavioral complexity and flexibility (Boal and Whitehead 1992; Hooijberg et al.

1997; Zaccaro, 1996) coupled with an openness to and acceptance of change (Black and

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Boal, 1996). Managerial wisdom involves the ability to perceive variation in the environment (cf. Osborn et al., 1980) and an understanding of the social actors and their relationships.

Significant in Boal and Hooijberg’s (2001) analysis was the role of context as many of the theories of leadership appeared context free in that they did not consider how environmental or organizational context influence the process. As an extension to understanding how context can influence leadership emergence, Bartunek and Neochea’s

(2000) concept of Kairos time is relevant since it involves the capacity to take the right action at a critical moment.

While cognitive complexity reflects a concern with how an individual constructs meaning or organizes information, as opposed to the knowledge content or what of the thinking (Streufert and Nogami, 1989), there are differences among how an individual thinks, a person's thinking and action preferences, and the content of what the individual thinks (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001). As such, there is evidence that cognitively complex individuals use a broad variety of leadership components, are more capable of using collaborative leadership, use feedback more, tend to receive more favorable follower ratings, lead more effective groups, and also tend to score higher on Fiedler's Least

Preferred Co-worker (LPC) scale (e.g., Arnett 1978; Merron et al., 1987; Mitchell, 1972;

Nydegger, 1975; Schneier, 1978; Streufert and Castore, 1971; Vecchio, 1979; Weiss and

Adler, 1981). Emergent leaders, then, need to exhibit interpersonal skills including empathy, motivation, and communication in addition to the cognitive skills mentioned above while also having an understanding of their social setting.

The understanding of one's social environment has been referred to as social

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intelligence (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001). While social intelligence has been defined as the ability “to notice and make distinctions among other individuals … in particular, among

their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions” (Gardner, 1985, p. 239) and as

“the ability to monitor one's own and other's feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990, p. 189), one of the key components of social intelligence is the capacity to differentiate emotions in self and others (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001). Social

intelligence allows the leader to develop and use social capital (Brass, 1995; Coleman,

1988), manage leader-member transactional exchanges (Graen and Scandura, 1987;

Scandura and Lankau, 1996) and other types of social exchanges (Blau, 1964), uncover

gaps in existing social structures (Burt, 1992), evolve strategies to fill them (Sayles 1993;

Sayles and Stewart 1995), and display appropriate emotional expression in adult social

interaction (Clark et al., 1996).

Boal and Hooijberg (2001) further suggest that cognitive and behavioral

complexity and social intelligence form the foundation for absorptive capacity, capacity

to change, and managerial wisdom. And as Zaccaro et al. (1991) put it, effective

leadership requires that leaders have “encoded knowledge structures” and that the

“knowledge structures, joined with … effective social perceptiveness, form the basis for a

leader's social competence within the organization” (p. 323). It is in this regard that an

understanding of the environment, Kairos time, and social perceptiveness as examples of

an individual’s understanding of context, aid in that individual’s emergence as a leader.

Complexity Science: Complexity science on the other hand, suggests a different

paradigm for leadership, one that frames leadership as a complex interactive dynamic

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from which adaptive outcomes (e.g., learning, innovation, and adaptability) emerge (Uhl-

Bien et al., 2007). Complexity Leadership Theory is a leadership paradigm that focuses

on enabling the learning, creative, and adaptive capacity of complex adaptive systems

(CAS) within a context of knowledge-producing organizations (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007).

CAS’s conceptual framework includes three entangled leadership roles (i.e., adaptive

leadership, administrative leadership, and enabling leadership) that reflect a dynamic

relationship between the bureaucratic, administrative functions of the organization and

the emergent, informal dynamics of complex adaptive systems (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007).

Using the concept of complex adaptive systems, Uhl-Bien et al. (2007) proposed that

leadership should be seen not only as position and authority but also as an emergent,

interactive dynamic — a complex interplay from which a collective impetus for action

and change emerges when heterogeneous agents interact in networks in ways that

produce new patterns of behavior or new modes of operating (cf. Heifetz, 1994, Plowman

et al., 2007; Plowman and Duchon, 2008). It is in this regard that complexity science is

applicable to the process of leadership emergence (Hollander, 1961; Hollander, 1974;

Lord et al., 1984; Moss and Kent, 1996; Sorrentino and Field, 1986).

The Complexity Leadership perspective is premised on several critical notions

(Uhl-Bien et al., 2007). First, the informal dynamic is embedded in context (Hunt, 1999;

Osborn et al., 2002); CAS and leadership are socially constructed in and from this context

(Uhl-Bien et al., 2007) — a context in which patterns over time must be considered and

where history matters (Cilliers, 1998; Dooley, 1996; Hosking, 1988; Osborn et al., 2002).

Second, a complexity leadership perspective distinguishes between leadership and leaders

(Uhl-Bien et al., 2007). Complexity Leadership Theory, then, adds a view of leadership

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as an emergent, interactive dynamic that is productive of adaptive outcomes (called

adaptive leadership, cf. Heifetz, 1994). Third, complexity leadership perspectives help to

distinguish leadership from managerial positions (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007) or bureaucratic

notion “offices” (Heckscher, 1994). Finally, complexity leadership occurs in the face of adaptive challenges (typical of the Knowledge Era) rather than technical problems (more

characteristic of the Industrial Age) (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007); these adaptive challenges

(defined by Heifetz, 1994; Heifetz and Laurie, 2001) require new learning, innovation,

and new patterns of behavior. Complexity Leadership Theory (CLT), then, is a

framework for studying emergent leadership dynamics in relationship to bureaucratic

superstructures (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007). By focusing on emergent leadership dynamics,

CLT implies that leadership only exists in, and is a function of, interaction; despite this,

there are roles for individual leaders in interacting with (i.e., enabling) this dynamic (Uhl-

Bien et al., 2007).

Complexity research literature also distinguishes between appointed and emergent

leaders; an appointed (or assigned) leader is a member who is designated by a superior

authority to a leadership position. The emergent leader is a team member who is

perceived by his or her peers as a leader or is elected to become the leader through an

interactive process (Hollander, 1974; Hollander et al., 1977). Therefore, unlike other

leadership phenomena (such as leadership effectiveness) which is measured by between-

group comparisons, leadership emergence is a within-group phenomenon, and the

emergent leader is an individual perceived by other team members as a potential leader

who has the ability to exert more influence than other members of the same group (Cote

et al., 2010).

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Task framing and leadership emergence.

Framing, defined as the way in which information is presented (Loke, 1989), has been argued to affect people's behaviors in profound ways (Goffman, 1974). Ho et al.

(2012) found that perceived competence is the mechanism through which task framing affects leadership emergence. While leadership emergence research has examined how leaderless groups come to have a leader (Mann, 1959) and conceptualizes emergent leaders as group members who exhibit high levels of leadership behaviors, thereby attaining status in the initially equal status group (Berdahl, 1996), it remains a concern that framing has not been sufficiently applied to the study of leadership emergence (Ho et al., 2012). Leadership emergence has been assessed through group (or dyad) member perceptions of other group members (Berson et al., 2006; Cronshaw and Lord, 1987;

Gershenoff and Foti, 2003; Lord et al., 1984; Watson and Hoffman, 2004) or the coding of emergent leadership behaviors of individuals in groups (and dyads) by outside observers (Foti and Hauenstein, 2007; Guastello, 2007; Karakowsky and Siegel, 1999).

The issue is one of whether task framing can affect leadership emergence because while tasks given to teams are not usually malleable, frames are highly malleable and thus can be an important and practical tool to spur leadership emergence (Ho et al., 2012). Further, much of the research on leadership emergence has focused on the traits and individual differences that predict the emergent leader in dyads and groups (Cote et al., 2010; Judge et al., 2002; Kellett et al., 2006; Smith and Foti, 1998; Taggar et al., 1999; Wolff et al.,

2002) rather than on whether task framing singularly influences who emerges as leaders in groups and teams.

The research most relevant to the question of whether task framing might affect

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leadership emergence is in the domain of gender and leadership; in this area of research, it has been found that varying tasks can affect leadership emergence outcomes (Ho et al.,

2012). Specifically, the gender type of the task (i.e., whether a task is stereotypically male or female, also known as masculine or feminine) has been found to affect whether males or females are more likely to emerge as leaders (Carbonell, 1984; Eagly and Karau,

1991; Hall et al., 1998; Lips and Keener, 2007; Megargee, 1969; Ritter and Yoder, 2004).

Ho et al. (2012) built on these past studies by examining how framing a task as masculine or feminine may impact leadership emergence in mixed-gender dyads. For instance, framing anagrams tasks as masculine or feminine has been shown to impact female performance in a competitive environment (Lee, 1987; Makosky, 1976). Ho et al. (2012) hypothesized that task framing would be related to leadership emergence; specifically, males would be more likely to emerge as leaders in mixed-gender dyads when a task was framed as masculine relative to feminine; and females would be more likely to emerge as leaders in mixed-gender dyads when a task was framed as feminine relative to masculine.

Expectation states theory (Berger et al., 1980; Driskell and Mullen, 1990) provides a rationale for why task framing may affect leadership emergence in mixed- gender dyads. This theory predicts that, in task-oriented groups, individuals pay attention to social hints regarding the potential task competence of themselves and their group members (i.e., status cues), such as gender, race, and education. These cues are used to form expectations regarding each member's competence level (i.e., expectation states) during interactions (Berger et al., 1986). In turn, these expectation states lead to a social hierarchy whereby those individuals perceived as highest in competence wield the greatest influence (Berger et al., 1985). Expectation states theory has been utilized as a

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framework to understand gender differences in leadership emergence (Lockheed and

Hall, 1976; Ridgeway and Bourg, 2004). Specifically, males exhibit an increased likelihood of emerging as leaders in masculine tasks relative to feminine tasks because they are perceived to be more competent at masculine tasks (Ho et al., 2012). In the same way, females exhibit an increased likelihood of emerging as leaders in feminine tasks relative to masculine tasks because they are perceived to be more competent at feminine tasks (Ho et al., 2012). Ho et al., (2012) also believed that demonstrating that competence perceptions cause gender differences in leadership emergence is crucial in testing for expectation states theory's applicability to studies in gender and leadership emergence

(Wood and Karten, 1986). Thus, as the framing of a task shifts, perceptions of competence will be altered, which may ultimately affect leadership emergence (Ho et al.,

2012).

Research also suggests that task-oriented behaviors are associated with leadership emergence in task-oriented groups (Carter et al., 1951; Kirscht et al., 1959; Morris and

Hackman, 1969; Stein and Heller, 1979; Mullen et al., 1989a/1989b), and are perceived as the most appropriate form of leadership behavior under time pressure (Kerr et al.1974). Framing of the task can significantly impact patterns of emergent leadership

(Misiolek and Heckman, 2005) behaviors because the likelihood that the male or female partner would be the first to make a suggestion and to contradict their partner. For instance, research has found that individuals are biased in their evaluations of competent women (Heilman et al., 2004), the contribution of women in teams (Heilman and Haynes,

2005), and are even biased in their perception and encoding of female leadership behaviors (Johnson et al., 2008; Scott and Brown, 2006).

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Ho et al. (2012) findings provide a theoretical contribution in connecting the

framing literature (Chong and Druckman, 2007; Liberman et al., 2004; Small et al., 2007;

Stone et al., 1999; Tversky and Kahneman, 1981) with the leadership emergence

literature (Lord et al., 1984; Riggio et al., 2003;Turetgen et al., 2008). This linkage is important because there has been a recent resurgence in the view that individual differences and traits (e.g., extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism) can explain much of the variance in the emergence of leaders in human groups (Berson et al., 2006;

Judge et al., 2002).

Moreover, in addition to demonstrating that framing has consequences for leadership emergence, Ho et al. (2012) demonstrated that framing can affect expectation states (i.e., individuals' perceptions of competence of themselves or their group members). While Ho et al.’s (2012) findings suggest that expectation states theory is

operant, the effects are consistent with other important theories. For instance, implicit

leadership theories (Lord et al., 2001; Lord et al., 1986; Lord and Maher, 1991) argue that

individuals are more likely to perceive a leader if there is a match between a target individual and the perceiver's mental representation of a leader. As such, research has demonstrated that as individuals in a group become more highly identified with the group, leadership emergence becomes increasingly based on prototypicality (i.e., the degree to which individuals are congruent with ingroup norms and characteristics (Hogg et al., 1998; Hogg, 2001; Hogg et al., 2006).

In summary, while much research on leadership emergence has focused on

individual differences and traits as predictors (Berson et al., 2006; Judge et al., 2002), the

studies discussed herein elucidate the power of the situation and task framing in

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explaining leadership emergence. Specifically, Ho et al. (2012) demonstrate that the

framing of a task given to a mixed-gender dyad can affect whether males or females

emerge as leaders.

Synopsis of the Literature on Leadership Emergence

The literature review on leadership emergence began with early scholarly research

on the topic by Bales (1950). Emergent leaders were initially defined as group members

who exercise influence over the group (Hollander, 1961; Hollander, 1964; Hollander,

1985), with the key distinction between emergent leaders and formal, established leaders being that emergent leaders do not have formal organizational authority or power (De

Souza and Klein, 1995; Pescosolido, 2001); rather, the emergent leaders lead by influencing group processes, beliefs, and norms. Given the varied scholarly research

studies that have been conducted, the vast amount of literature on leadership emergence

was synthesized using key themes, such as traits, behaviors, gender, and task framing.

The first theme discussed, Trait Based Leadership Emergence, revealed that early

leadership studies focused almost exclusively on leader traits and the notion that

individuals possess certain qualities or traits that led to their emergence in positions of

leadership, and to their effectiveness as leaders. As early as 1927, Bingham defined a

leader as a person who possesses the greatest number of desirable traits of personality and

character. Bass and Bass's (2008) comprehensive review of the literature suggested that

nearly every possible trait or characteristic has been explored including physical traits, cognitive abilities, and personality traits. Though trait based research diminished as a

result of Stogdill’s (1974) findings, a resurgence of trait studies occurred as the 21st

Century approached and technologies now existed to do more thorough metadata analysis

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of these traits and their relationships. Second, Personality Factors associated with

Leadership Emergence, and the Big Five, or Five Factor model of personality (Barrick and Mount, 1991), provided a generally accepted five-factor taxonomy of personality, and its identification of core personality of conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability, and openness to experience allowed researchers to identify personality factors most suited to leadership emergence. A review of Emergent

Leader Behaviors, as a thematic element, found that team members who emerged as informal leaders were able to identify and address the most pressing problems facing a team. Bales and colleagues (Bales and Hare, 1965; Bales and Slater, 1955) produced a list of 12 interaction categories of behavior demonstrated by group members that fell into two clusters: task-focused and socioemotional behavior.

The review of literature related to Cognitive Aspects of Leadership Emergence demonstrated that evidence exists that cognition and cognitive analyses precede behavior

(Bandura, 1982; Lazarus, 1991). Specifically, Bandura's (1982) social cognitive theory revealed that cognitive processes underlie the behavioral strategies an emergent leader chooses and the skill with which they are executed. Taggar et al. (1999) also found that general mental ability contributed the most to leadership emergence in teams, followed by conscientiousness, extraversion, and neuroticism. Another theme that re-occurred throughout the literature was Group Emotion and Emotional Response in Leadership

Emergence. Scholarly research shows that an emergent leader’s ability to deal with emotions and to handle group emotion was important to their acceptance by group members and in team performance. In addition, while many of the leadership emergence studies utilized the variable approach, Foti and colleagues suggested that the Pattern and

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Variable Approaches to Leadership Emergence should be considered as complementary in explaining leadership emergence outcomes (e.g., Gershenoff and Foti, 2003; Foti and

Hauenstein, 2007; Smith and Foti, 1998). As for Social Network Analysis in Leadership

Emergence, understanding social networks and acknowledging distributed leadership in teams also provides great insight into leadership emergence. Mehra et al. (2006) by extending key insights to the study of distributed leadership in teams, found that social network analysis is especially well suited to the study of distributed leadership because it is an inherently relational approach that allows for the possibility that there can be multiple leaders within a group, both appointed and emergent.

Regarding Leadership Emergence in Multicultural Teams, cultural factors themselves also affect the basic processes underlying leadership relations (Markus and

Kitayama, 1991). While leadership prototypes and conceptions vary from one culture to another (Bass, 1990), they have dramatically different implications in different cultural contexts (Chemers and Ayman, 1993). Specific research has looked at how dimensions of leader behaviors, such as task structuring behavior, might remain the same across cultures, but the specific behaviors within that dimension varying in meaning (Misumi and Peterson, 1985). Perceptions and Leadership Emergence, as another theme, showed that leadership can be distributed across a number of individuals, rather than being focused in a single leader (Gibb, 1954; Gibb, 1958; Bowers and Seashore, 1966). The topic of perceptions as they relate to leadership emergence is especially relevant in different cultural settings. As such, leadership perception is based on a recognition-based process that involves categorization of leaders’ characteristics into relevant stereotypes; and an inference-based process that involves making attributions for leaders’

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characteristics based on outcomes of salient events (Lord and Maher, 1991).

Leadership Emergence and Gender Bias topics have included the role of sex, gender roles, and attraction in predicting emergent leaders (Goktepe and Schneier, 1989); the effects of proportional representation and gender orientation of the task on emergent leadership behavior in mixed gender work groups (Karakowsky and Siegel, 1999); the effects of sex and gender role on leader emergence (Kent and Moss, 1994); and gender and other predictors of leader emergence (Kolb, 1997). There remains substantial debate regarding the effect gender plays on leadership, and the investigation of how gender interacts with other variables to explain leadership emergence in real teams needs to continue. In addition, regarding the influence of Complexity on the Leadership

Emergence Process, while work on cognitive complexity dates back more than 60 years

(Bieri, 1955), a steady stream of research (e.g., Streufert and Nogami 1989; Streufert et al., 1988; Streufert and Streufert 1978; Streufert and Swezey 1986) has revealed that cognitively complex individuals process information differently and perform certain tasks better than cognitively less complex individuals. Boal and Hooijberg (2001) envisioned cognitive capacity as a key individual difference variable underlying absorptive capacity at the individual level. For emerging leaders, cognitive complexity, behavioral complexity, and emotional complexity are all important as they pertain to the leadership emergent process. In addition, complexity science suggests a different paradigm for leadership, one that frames leadership as a complex interactive dynamic from which adaptive outcomes (e.g., learning, innovation, and adaptability) emerge (Uhl-Bien et al.,

2007). Complexity Leadership Theory as a leadership paradigm reinforces the idea that leadership emergence as a phenomenon exists and possesses learning, creative, and

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adaptive capacity characteristics.

The final theme, Task Framing and Leadership Emergence, reveals that framing,

defined as the way in which information is presented (Loke, 1989), has been argued to

affect people's behaviors in profound ways (Goffman, 1974), especially in the context of

emerging leaders. Ho et al. (2012) found that perceived competence is the mechanism through which task framing affects leadership emergence. While leadership emergence

research has examined how leaderless groups come to have a leader (Mann, 1959) and

conceptualizes emergent leaders as group members who exhibit high levels of leadership

behaviors, it remains a concern that task framing has not been sufficiently applied to the

study of leadership emergence (Ho et al., 2012). The issue is one of whether framing can

affect leadership emergence because while tasks given to teams are not usually malleable,

frames are highly malleable and thus can be an important and practical tool to spur

leadership emergence (Ho et al., 2012).

Implications for Research

Ho et al.’s (2012) study on task framing complemented other notable theories on

emergent leadership. These theories include pattern and variable approaches in leadership

emergence and effectiveness (Foti and Hauenstein, 2007; Smith and Foti, 1998); the role

of context in leader emergence and gender roles (Gershenoff and Foti, 2003); the role of

sex, gender roles, and attraction in predicting emergent leaders (Goktepe and Schneier,

1989); the effects of proportional representation and gender orientation of the task on emergent leadership behavior in mixed‐gender work groups (Karakowsky and Siegel,

1999); the effects of sex and gender role on leader emergence (Kent and Moss, 1994); and gender and other predictors of leader emergence (Kolb, 1997). Other theorists studied

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the role of social and emotional communication skills in leader emergence and

effectiveness (Riggio et al., 2003); leadership emergence in autonomous work teams

Taggar et al., 1999; and whether culture makes a difference given the effects of gender

role and personality traits on leadership emergence (Turetgen et al., 2008). While these

studies demonstrate detailed understanding of the leadership emergence phenomenon,

few of them were conducted using actual field experience of leadership development that fully takes into account cultural differences.

Research has also demonstrated performance advantages for teams in which leadership is shared among multiple members (Carson et al., 2007 and Taggar et al.,

1999). Ensari et al.’s (2011) research focused on individual differences as predictors of leader emergence in leaderless group discussions. The meta-analyses were consistent with general research on leader emergence and effectiveness, whereby they found a number of individual differences predictive of leader emergence in leaderless group discussions, most notably extraversion and authoritarian personality (Ensari et al., 2011).

This is especially noteworthy for vulnerable groups; as such, continued research on leadership emergence is necessary to understand how culture dimensions should be taken into account in order to identify ways in which disenfranchisement can be overcome by having emerging leaders feel more empowered.

On the whole, previous research has emphasized adult leadership development

(e.g., Day, 2000, Hrivnak et al., 2009; Murphy and Riggio, 2003), while ignoring the developmental antecedents of leadership emergence during childhood and adolescence

(Reichard, et al., 2011). Adult leader development has been the emphasis of many organizational training efforts over the years with organizations spending tens of billions

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of dollars on adult leadership development each year (Lockwood, 2006; Training, 2005

[cf Armstrong and Fukami, 2009]). Organizations such as the Center for Creative

Leadership and the Gallup Organization center their businesses on developing adults into better leaders. However, Reichard et al., (2011) argue that waiting until adulthood to attempt to develop leadership is less than optimal and recommend not only providing leadership opportunities for extraverted children but also for introverted children, who may not emerge as leaders as naturally. All children, especially introverted children, should be able to benefit from scholarly research initiatives aimed at enhancing youth leader development programs in order to increase adolescents' level of active engagement in their communities, assertiveness and confidence in the veracity of their opinions, energy levels through increased physical fitness, development of sophisticated social skills, and an optimistic attribution style (Reichard, et al., 2011).

Within their current study, Ensari and Murphy (2003) only chose to examine the effects of one specific type of cultural value, collectivism/individualism. While it is important to limit research questions in this way to understand specific cultural variation, future research should expand this effort by examining how other cultural dimensions

(such as power distance, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1980) affect the social cognitive processing of leadership information (Ensari and Murphy, 2003).

Understanding these deeper processes will inform future cross-cultural research on leadership (Ensari and Murphy, 2003). Culturally diverse analysis of attribution can also offer much in understanding the social cognitive factors affecting leadership judgment, and in turn, cognitive processes involved in leadership perceptions of different cultures

(Ensari and Murphy, 2003) and how leaders emerge.

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The Neubert and Taggar (2004) study on gender moderating leadership emergence presents a novel integration of leadership, gender, trait, and team member network theories in exploring informal leadership in teams, especially since it illuminates the pathways in which men and women emerge as informal leaders in a real work environment. More work in this area obviously remains justified. As such, further research should focus less on gender as a preeminent variable, and more on the collective characteristics of men and women that support their emergence as leaders.

A plethora of research on emergent leadership has studied the general characteristics of emergent leaders in teams, such as general intelligence (e.g., Ilies et al.,

2004; Kickul and Neuman, 2000), personality traits (e.g., Taggar et al., 1999) and emotional responses (e.g., Cote et al., 2010; Kellett et al., 2006). However, most of these studies on emergent leaders were conducted in local (culturally homogeneous), co- located teams, not in multicultural, virtual or geographically dispersed teams (Lisak and

Erez, 2014). Hence, there remains somewhat limited published research on emergent leaders of multicultural teams (Lisak and Erez, 2014) and more studies should be conducted in this regard.

Lisak and Erez (2014) assertion that the selection measures and training programs for multicultural team members and leaders should focus on global characteristics, such as openness to cultural diversity, global identity and cultural intelligence, bodes well for future adaptation to the global context. Future research should also strive to generalize their present findings by examining the same global characteristics in stable, long-term multicultural teams in multi-national organizations (Lisak and Erez, 2014). Future research could also take a longitudinal approach to examine how these global

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characteristics develop over time and how they influence leadership emergence across

generations (Lisak and Erez, 2014). To overcome the perception that there are only a

limited number of empirical studies on global leadership (Osland et al., 2009), meta-

analysis should continue in this regard, especially with respect to leader emergence in

developing nations and in vulnerable groups where rule of law and genuine human rights

efforts are lacking. Most of the research on leadership and culture has assumed a cross- cultural perspective to examine differences and similarities in leadership characteristics across cultures (e.g., Atwater et al., 2009; House et al., 2004; Wendt et al., 2009). This approach may not work in multicultural teams, however, where leaders must simultaneously manage a culturally diverse workforce (Lisak and Erez, 2014). Hence, global leadership research in general and multicultural team leadership, along with

leadership emergence in particular, should attempt to identify those attributes that enable

team members to effectively lead others who are culturally diverse and often located in

different geographical areas (Osland, 2008).

Summary

Chapter 2, Literature Review, provided an in depth look at prior and current

scholarly studies and research on culture and leadership. The chapter began with an

overarching discussion of leadership in a global context that recognized the need for

established and emerging leaders to take cultural differences into account as they strove

to lead and manage multicultural groups and teams in a multitude of settings worldwide.

Thereafter, research studies on societal, national and organizational culture were

discussed. In reviewing the literature on culture, studies on cultural dimensions (e.g.,

Hofstede, 1980; House et al., 2004) provided a framework for identifying cultural norms,

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values, beliefs and differences as they impact leadership and its emergence across regions

of the world. The second emphasis of the literature review addressed various facets of leadership study, and then discussed leadership emergence studies from a historical

perspective. The review of the literature on leadership emergence revealed a variety of

themes that emerged to include trait based leadership emergence, personality factors,

emergent leader behaviors, cognitive aspects of leadership emergence, group emotions in

leadership emergence, and pattern and variable approaches to leadership emergence.

Additional themes related to emergent leadership and respective studies then focused on leadership emergence in multicultural teams, perceptions, gender bias, complexity, and finally task framing and how it can influence leadership emergence. The chapter finished

with a synopsis of leadership emergence literature and also provided implications for

future research. Chapter 3 addresses the research design, methodology, data gathering,

and the interview protocol for this phenomenological study of cultural differences and

leadership emergence. In Chapter 4, research findings are presented along with the results obtained.

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CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Overview

This chapter describes the research design and methods that were used in this study. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to understand how an awareness of cultural differences and sensitivities impact how leadership emergence develops for members of marginalized societies in post-conflict settings. In seeking to close a gap in the extant literature and research about what we know about leadership, the methodological approach proposed for this purpose is a phenomenological study that focused on leadership development, culture bias, leader behavior, mentor/trainer perceptions, implicit leadership theory, and other considerations that impact the emergence of leadership. This chapter presents qualitative analysis techniques used to supplement the phenomenological analysis using Moustakas’ (1994) methodology.

This research utilized a phenomenological approach in order to understand how leadership emerges in post-conflict marginalized societies from the perspective of advisors and mentors participating in host nation capacity building activities. This chapter begins with a section on the phenomenological research tradition itself and rationale for selecting this research tradition. The chapter then describes specific research methods that were utilized. Phenomenological research focuses on understanding participants’ experience and their interpretation of those experiences rather than descriptions of overt actions or behavior by the researcher.

Special emphasis is placed on the phenomenological interview method as a data collection mechanism with its related procedures. The remaining sections of this chapter, in order of sequence, concentrate on the study’s research design, a description of the unit of analysis, the study’s population and sample selection, data collection, data analysis,

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trustworthiness, and ethical and human subject considerations.

The primary research question sought to understand what perceptions exist as to how cultural differences/sensitivities influence how leadership emerges, the meaning of leadership emergence, and its structure and essence, for members of societies that have been marginalized by oppressive regimes and/or governing hierarchies characterized as patriarchal. The research question thus sought to understand the process of how leadership emerges for individuals, and how that may affect leadership emergence in societal elements comprised of these individuals.

Since naturalistic inquiry tends to operate within an open system (Lincoln and

Guba, 1985), as an inductive study this researcher attempted to discover the meaning of lived experiences. It is also important to understand the difference between

‘methodology’ and ‘methods’. The underlying logic that provides the foundational elements of a research study is referred to by scholars in different ways, e.g. naturalism, social constructionism, etc. (Warren and Karner, 2005.) ‘Methodology’ is concerned with problems of the epistemological and theoretical perspective of the study, while

‘methods’ refer to research procedures or techniques used in the study. As such, methods involve a set of research procedures or techniques, but also an underlying logic sometimes referred to as epistemology (Warren and Karner, 2005). Procedures or techniques make a method; they provide a direction that moves the research study into action (Moustakas, 1994, p. 104). As such, the research method is a system of research activities or actions using research techniques and/or procedures to investigate a certain phenomenon.

The implication then is that subscribing to different methodologies results in

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using different research methods in a research study (Yates, 2004, pp.3-12). This of

course also depends on the research question; and depending on the research question, the

epistemological position (e.g. positivism or naturalism) the researcher subscribes to

reflect the perspective in which the research data were gathered and evaluated for any

particular social phenomenon.

The methodological approach for this research was a phenomenological study

conducted from an interpretivist perspective. As a paradigm, this perspective entails a

range of philosophical and sociological thoughts, but its overarching characteristic is that

it sought to describe and understand the social world primarily from the point of view of

the actors (participants) directly involved in the social process (Burrell and Morgan,

1979).A qualitative phenomenological study was well suited for this research because the

focus was on understanding how Participants make meaning from their own experiences.

As Conger (1998) points out, the extreme and enduring complexity of leadership as a construct makes it fitting for a qualitative approach (Conger, 1998). Furthermore, since surveys alone tend to be one dimensional and fail to account for contextual or situational factors, qualitative research methods allow for researchers to become more immersed in the experience of participants (Conger, 1998).

In this research study, the interest is also in understanding the manner in which

Participants perceive subjective experiences and make meaning of those experiences, so the most meaningful epistemological position would be a constructivist position where truths are relative to contextual meaning.

The following sections in this chapter identify research and interview questions and describe in greater detail the research procedures, epistemology and theoretical

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perspective that guided the research, the research design, the methodology, and how the inquiry proceeded. Additional sections describe specific methods and detailed procedures and protocols that were employed, specifically for data collection and data analysis.

Research Questions

This study explored the following primary central exploratory research question:

How does culture influence the lived experiences of advisors/mentors engaged in developing leadership emergence in post conflict societies?

Exploratory interview research questions were as follows:

1) What were the major challenges in developing leadership skills in

Afghanistan?

2) How would you describe your role as a mentor and advisor?

3) How did the national culture influence what and how you developed the

local leaders?

4) How did the national environment impact the type of leadership skills

needed?

5) How did the national environment impact the approaches you used in

developing leaders?

6) What enabled you to be successful as a mentor and advisor?

7) How did you change/improve during your time as a mentor/teacher?

The questions were posed during this research to explore the phenomenon of cultural differences impact on leadership development for emerging leaders. Questions to the Participants provided for their responses containing data to determine what perceptions existed and determined what descriptors were used to identify when

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leadership emergence is manifested. Specific questions asked to Participants are

identified above and contained in the interview protocol (see Appendices).

Research Procedures

Described herein are the study’s research procedures. Provided initially is

information regarding the epistemology and theoretical perspective related to, and

rationale for selecting, the research process itself. Following that is a detailed description of the research design comprised of the transcendental phenomenological study methodology, interview methods, and data collection and analysis procedures and protocols. Trustworthiness and its various aspects of the qualitative approach are discussed followed by ethics considerations.

Epistemology

The term epistemology is from the Greek language meaning ‘knowledge, understanding’, and logos, meaning ‘study of’. It is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge (Collins, 2010; Myers, 2008/2013) and is also referred to as ‘theory of knowledge’. Epistemology seeks to question what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which knowledge regarding a particular phenomenon can be acquired.

Generally speaking, in epistemology, the kind of knowledge usually discussed is propositional knowledge, also known as ‘knowledge that.’ Epistemology, then, refers to the body of philosophy that involves the presence of knowledge and indicates that we know about something occurring because of the knowledge that we have about it. It

answers the questions that begin in ‘how’ or ‘what’.

The interpretive paradigm seeks to explain the stability of behavior from the

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individual's viewpoint. Researchers in this paradigm try to observe on-going processes to

better understand individual behavior and the spiritual nature of the world (Burrell and

Morgan, 1979). Interpretivism involves researchers interpreting elements of the study, and therefore integrates human interest into a study. Interpretivism studies usually focus on meaning and may use multiple methods in order to reflect different aspects of the issue.

Broadly defined, interpretivism is a socially constructed notion of reality and the nature of reality is considered multi-faceted. The goal of interpretivist research seeks understanding rather than prediction. The focus of interest is what is specific and unique, rather than general. Knowledge generated is through meanings which are relative to a time, context, culture, and are often value bound. The researcher-participant relationship is considered interactive, cooperative, and participative; with desired information being sought including what people think and do, what kind of issues they are confronted with, and how they deal with them.

Since this study attempted to examine how mentors/trainers and members of marginalized societal elements perceived and described their experiences associated with leadership and its emergence, the epistemology of this study was concerned with understanding meaning as compared to obtaining facts. Seidman’s (1998) philosophy regarding interviewing was consistent with the study’s objectives. Participants were engaged using in-depth interviews to understand their own and the experiences of others

and the meaning they each derive from it rather than to obtain directed answers to

specific questions or to test a specific hypothesis. The goal was to understand the essence

of the phenomenon being studied from the participants’ perspective (Moustakas, 1994;

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Creswell, 1998), which is consistent with Schutz’s (1967) interest in understanding how

ordinary members of society develop meaning out of their social environment. This

epistemology is also supported by Mezirow (1981), who based his work on, Husserl

(1931), Schutz (1967) and Habermas (1972). For this study, by engaging Participants in

lengthy, in-depth interviews, this researcher sought to understand each Participant’s

experience and the meaning of that experience as it pertains to their activities as they

relate to leaders emerging or the process of leadership emergence itself.

Burrell and Morgan’s (1979) assertion that it is characteristic of humans as individuals to engage in after-the-fact reasoning to explain, attribute or make sense of behavior, suggests that this is one manner in which individuals construct reality. In recognizing this constructivist notion of reality, interviews were the primary source of collecting data. As Seidman points out, “the purpose of in-depth interviewing is not to get

answers to questions, nor to test hypotheses, and not to ‘evaluate’ as the term is normally

used; at the root of interviewing is an interest in understanding the experience of other

people and the meaning they make out of that experience” (Seidman, 1998, p. 3). As

such, interviews with individual Participants were conducted to achieve an understanding

of their own experiences.

Theoretical Perspective

Theoretical perspectives are frameworks or models used to help understand issues

and phenomena in society. As a non-explanatory general framework, a theoretical

perspective is intended to define a point of view within a discipline, which may include

basic assumptions about specific aspects of a phenomenon. With the theoretical

perspective identified and used as a frame of reference, it can help to generate questions

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about a phenomenon. The theoretical perspective for this research was phenomenology.

Phenomenology “refers to knowledge as it appears to consciousness, the science of describing what one perceives, senses, and knows in one’s immediate awareness and experience” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 26). Moustakas (1994), considered the founder of phenomenological research as a qualitative methodology, posited that research should focus on the wholeness of experience and a search for the essence of the experiences.

Phenomenology is derived from the disciplines of philosophy, sociology, and psychology. There are strong ties between phenomenology and constructivism (Chiari and Nuzzo, 1996), which is concerned with how the world appears to a particular person based on their personal views and experience.

As a qualitative methodology, the primary objective of phenomenology studies is the explication of meaning, structure and essence of the lived experiences of a person or group around a specific phenomenon (Christensen et al., 2011) whereby the researcher attempts to understand human behavior through the eyes of participants in the study. This has been called ‘verstehen’, which is German for the interpretive understanding of human interaction. A phenomenologist’s worldview is consistent with the belief that all perceptions and constructions are ultimately grounded in a particular perspective in time and space. As such, phenomenology does not begin with a theory, but instead begins with a phenomenon under consideration.

A phenomenological research method was selected for this research because it supports the study’s goal of examining how advisors/mentors perceive and describe the experience of making sense of events in their daily routines associated with their activities as they provide leadership development mentoring to members of marginalized

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societies.

Meaning-making theory (Schutz, 1967) supports the research study’s orientation, which is consistent with the phenomenological research tradition known for being less concerned with matters of fact and more concerned with describing meanings. Husserl

(1931) initially suggested that knowledge is derived by making meaning from lived experiences. Additionally, the research study applies Mezirow’s (1981) transformative learning theory based on a constructivist world view, which suggests that learning and knowledge is derived by making meaning of one’s experiences. Mezirow’s theory is viable as a complementing framework to the phenomenological methodology in examining how mentoring takes into account cultural differences/sensitivities during leadership development for members of marginalized societies and as these members relate to leadership in their quest for everything from recognition, human rights, and freedom, to equivalency and respect.

As for organizing and analyzing data in a phenomenological qualitative study, several approaches exist. Given the multiple phenomenological approaches available to a qualitative researcher, he/she must decide on what method is best suited to the research enquiry and to the researcher. Phenomenology approaches draw on German philosophy, seek to understand the life world or human experience as it is lived (Laverty, 2003), and have similar and complementary end-points in description (Hein and Austin, 2001). Two major approaches – hermeneutic phenomenology and transcendental phenomenology – represent philosophical assumptions about experience and ways to organize and analyze phenomenological data. These two approaches differ in their historical advocates (e.g.,

Heidegger or Husserl), methodological procedures (Laverty, 2003), and their current

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proponents. Among the foremost proponents are van Manen (1990) for hermeneutic phenomenology and Moustakas (1994) for transcendental phenomenology. Meaning is at the core of transcendental phenomenology, which by design provides for acquiring and collecting data that explicates the essences of human experience. Considered non- optimum for this specific study, hermeneutics requires reflective interpretation of a text or a study in history to achieve a meaningful understanding (Moustakas, 1994).

Transcendental phenomenology, then, based on principles identified by Husserl (1931) and translated into a qualitative method by Moustakas (1994) serves as a viable procedure for phenomenological research. The procedures for transcendental phenomenology are described in detail in the sections that follow pertaining to data collection, organizing and analyzing that data.

Rationale for Selecting the Phenomenological Research Tradition

Phenomenology

A qualitative research tradition that examines the lived experience is phenomenology. Phenomenology as a tradition of qualitative research aims to understand a given experience from the detailed accounts of those who have lived that experience.

This qualitative research approach “seeks to disclose and elucidate the phenomena of behavior as they manifest themselves in their perceived immediacy” (Van Kaam, 1966, p.

15). Use of the term phenomenology dates to the eighteenth century texts of Kant, Hegel and other philosophers (Moran, 2000), with the German philosopher Edmund Husserl

(1931) promulgating the phenomenological movement (Stewart and Mickunas, 1974).

Kockelmans (1967) suggested that Hegel was first to provide a comprehensive definition of the term phenomenology. The phenomenology tradition is an effort to understand and

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describe the meaning of the lived experiences of a phenomenon (Creswell, 1998, p. 51).

Phenomenological research study is defined essentially as a study that describes the

meaning of the lived experiences for several individuals about a phenomenon (Creswell,

1998, p. 51).

Moustakas (1994) noted, “For Hegel phenomenology referred to knowledge as it appeared in the consciousness, the science of describing what one perceives, senses and knows in one’s immediate awareness and experience” (p. 26). Ultimately, Husserl’s

(1931) development of a method of inquiry for deriving knowledge from lived experiences resulted in further refinement of the phenomenological research tradition

(Cloonan, 1995; Moustakas, 1994). The transfer of individual or empirical experience

into essential insights can be achieved through a process Husserl referred to as ‘ideation’

(cited in Kockelmans, 1967). Through this ideation process, meanings result from blending objects that appear in the conscious with the same or similar objects that appear

in nature; in this manner knowledge is extended. As such, ideation as a process

establishes a relationship between what exists in one’s consciousness and what exists in

the world.

As one of many types of qualitative research, phenomenology helps researchers to

understand the meanings of lived experiences. Phenomenological research, then,

describes the meaning of particular experiences as they are lived by individuals.

Phenomenological research begins with the ‘things themselves,’ or the individual(s) who

experienced them. According to Atkinson (1972), the task of a phenomenological

researcher is the descriptive investigation of the contents of conscious phenomena (both

objective and subjective) or of consciousness.

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Phenomenologists believe that human experience generally shows a certain

essential structure in the everyday world (Rinofner-Kreidl, 2003). In effect,

phenomenologists believe that truth can emerge from people's life experiences, and

although this belief is shared by phenomenologists, scholars have developed more than

one approach to gain an understanding of human knowledge. Creswell (1998) provides a

distinction between transcendental, dialogical, empirical, existential, hermeneutic, social and psychological phenomenology. While different phenomenology holds different philosophical thoughts, it should be noted that they come primarily from sociology and psychology (Creswell, 1998, p. 53).

Transcendental Phenomenology

Transcendental phenomenology is considered the field of phenomenological inquiry developed by Husserl. Husserl’s (1931) phenomenology is considered a transcendental phenomenology since it emphasizes the subjectivity and detection of experience and provides a systematic and disciplined methodology to transform conscious insights and experience into knowledge (Moustakas, 1994). In describing the individual elements of the combined term transcendental phenomenology, the approach is referred to as ‘phenomenology’ because it transforms the essence of experience and objects into phenomena. Likewise, the approach is considered transcendental as it relies on what can be discovered, through reflection, from consciousness and from the environment. By way of explanation, transcendence refers to an object (or a property of an object) as being comparatively beyond that of other objects, with such objects (or properties) transcending other objects (or properties) in some way. Transcendental phenomenology is therefore a phenomenology of consciousness as it serves to be an

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intentional analysis and constitutive.

Moustakas (1994) suggested that intentionality is a critical aspect of transcendental phenomenology, describing the internal experience of being conscious of

something. Knowledge of intentionality requires an awareness of oneself, of things in the

world, and that recognition of this self-awareness of the world is in distinct elements of

meaning. As such, intentionality becomes essential to describing the relationships

between consciousness and nature, which leads to discovery and the eventual expansion

of knowledge.

Kockelmans (1967) also posited that consciousness requires openness and

attention to other, where ‘other’ refers to the world and its inhabitants. Being conscious is

to be in an ongoing relationship between self and other. Intentionality (described above)

directs consciousness toward something (whether it actually exists or not), and

individuals resultantly perceive something, think something, remember something

whether it is real or imagined. In every intentional experience there is a material side and

an ideal side. Critical aspects of intentionality are noema and noesis. Noema (the what) is

the material side of intentionality, what is actually seen or experienced; and noesis (the

how) is the ideal side that is perceived (Moustakas, 1994). Husserl (1931), in introducing

the concepts of noesis and noema, suggested that noesis constitutes the mind and spirit of

what is in perception, and noema the physical. Noesis gives meaning to the noema, which

is the physical part of the experience. Noema is that which is experienced, and noesis is

the sensory way in which it is experienced.

Husserl differentiated between the actual object and the intentional object as it

appears in the consciousness using the following example:

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The tree plain and simple, the thing in nature, is as different as it can be from the perceived tree as such, which as perceptual meaning belongs to the perception, and that inseparably. The tree plain and simple can burn away, resolve itself into chemical elements, and so forth. But the meaning of this perception, something that belongs necessarily to its essence-cannot burn away; it has no chemical elements, no forces, no real properties. (Husserl, 1931, p. 260)

Transcendental phenomenology, then, was chosen as an appropriate methodology for this research since its aim was to understand the meaning of participants’ experiences.

Additionally, the systemic procedures and detailed data analysis steps as presented by

Moustakas were consistent with this researcher’s philosophical view of balancing

objective and subjective approaches to knowledge creation and thorough data analysis

steps. As a research methodology, transcendental phenomenology serves to explain how

the meanings of things are constituted in and by consciousness (the cogito).

Transcendental phenomenology, based on principles identified by Husserl (1931) and

translated into a qualitative method by Moustakas (1994), was appropriate for this study

as it presents viable procedures for phenomenological research, especially given the

several approaches that exist for organizing and analyzing data in a phenomenological

qualitative study.

Two additional aspects of phenomenological reflection deserve mention: 1) the

methods of reduction and 2) the constitution of meaning. First, the transcendental

reduction is the moment of withdrawal from the natural attitude and from the everyday

world toward the intersubjective level of the transcendental ego. Second, the constitution

of meaning is the moment of returning to the world from consciousness as it shows itself

in consciousness. As a result, transcendental phenomenology is also referred to as

constitutive phenomenology. Transcendental phenomenology, then, worked well for this

research as this methodology provided the logical, systematic, and coherent design

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elements that led to a fundamental description of the experience. Transcendental phenomenological research shares certain common features with ethnographic approaches, grounded theory, hermeneutical approaches, empirical phenomenology, and heuristics — qualitative research approaches whose features differentiate them from traditional, quantitative research theories and methodologies.

Common features of qualitative research approaches (Moustakas, 1994, p. 21) that serve to rationalize its use include the following:

 Recognizing the value of qualitative designs and methodologies for studies of

human experience that are not approachable through quantitative methods,

 Focusing on the whole of the experience rather than solely on its objects or

parts,

 Searching for meanings and essences of experience through first-person

accounts in informal and formal conversations and interviews,

 Obtaining descriptions of experience through first-person accounts in informal

and formal conversations and interviews,

 Regarding the data of experience as imperative in understanding human

behavior and as evidence for scientific investigations,

 Formulating questions and problems that reflect the interest, involvement, and

personal commitment of the researcher, and

 Viewing experience and behavior as an integral and inseparable relationship

of subject and object and of parts and whole (Moustakas, 1994, p. 21).

Even though the transcendental phenomenology research tradition is guided by the features just described, it differs in that the transcendental researcher utilizes the

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epoché process to set aside prejudgments pertaining to the investigated phenomena.

Epoché

“Epoché is a Greek word that means to refrain from judgment, to abstain from or

to stay away from everyday, ordinary ways of perceiving things” (Moustakas, 1994, p.

33). Succinctly stated, it is the setting aside of any prejudgments. Thus, the process is

called transcendental because the researcher sees the phenomenon “freshly, as for the

first time” and is open to its totality (Moustakas, 1994, p. 34). Epoché is also referred to

as bracketing because the world of the researcher is bracketed and put out of action

(Moustakas, 1994). For the purposes of the proposed study and prior to each interview, the researcher sought to set aside biases, prejudgments, and preconceived notions in preparing to derive new knowledge. This process of setting aside preconceived ideas, biases, and predispositions allows things, events, and people to enter one’s consciousness so that these things, events, and people may be examined after the fact with an open mind. As such, ordinary thoughts about the phenomena being studied were set aside by the researcher, and epoché ended up challenging preconceived understanding of the world and its populace and results in looking at phenomena from a fresh perspective.

Epoché as an initial step of the phenomenological reduction process and when done at the beginning of the study by researchers enables them to set aside views of the

phenomenon and focus on those views reported by the participants (Moustakas, 1994).

Moustakas suggests that “no position whatsoever is taken...nothing is determined in advance;” the researcher remains present and focuses on one’s own consciousness “by returning to whatever is there in…memory, perception, judgment, feeling, whatever is actually there” (p. 84).

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Sallis (1982) noted that the phenomenological researcher is a perpetual beginner, constantly returning to beginnings. While it is a difficult to be transparent to oneself, the aim is to allow whatever enters the consciousness to disclose itself so as to see it with fresh eyes. The goal becomes one of looking, noticing, and becoming aware without imposing one’s preconceived notions on what is seen, thought, imagined, or felt.

Described as a genuine way of viewing, it precedes reflecting, judging, or reaching conclusions. The intent is for the researcher to suspend anything and everything that interferes with a fresh view. In epoché, the investigator should simply allow everything to appear, viewing it from multiple dimensions and perspectives without taking any position. Moustakas (1994) remarked, “I envision a rhythm of being receptive, of being struck with the newness and wonder of just what is before me and what is in me while also being influenced by habit, routine, expectation and pressures to see things in a certain way until at last, with effort, will and concentration, I am able to perceive things with an open presence” (p. 89).

Since this study used transcendental phenomenology to understand how cultural differences influence leadership emergence from the perspectives of individuals actively participating in mentoring and activities directly related leadership development, the concept of epoché helped to identify the essences of the experience of Participants in the way they viewed their activities and themselves. As such, the researcher freed himself of any prior pre-conceived understanding of leadership emergence, and separated personal knowledge of how leadership should emerge from the life experiences of the participating members in this study, so as to provide an objective essence of the phenomenon as experienced by the Participants.

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In phenomenological research tradition, epoche is also described as bracketing.

As part of the ‘bracketing’ process, the researcher first had to remain open-minded and

suspend all judgment in working with the data. This was to ensure the researcher was open to ideas. Based on the Participant’s account of their experience, the researcher set aside initial prejudices, biases and assumptions to bracket the primary data and allow the data to disclose itself. Put another way, in the initial stage of looking at the primary data,

the researcher abstained from any existing presuppositions.

The researcher benefitted from spending some time in Afghanistan in 2012 and as

a result gained an appreciation for the geographical and physical environment in which

mentors and advisors described. This allowed the researcher to understand the conditions in Afghanistan while at the same time maintain an objective view of the experiences the

Participants described.

This researcher employed epoche by meditating before each interview to set aside personal bias regarding the phenomena. He began by bracketing his preconceived ideas about the phenomenon so as to understand it through the accounts of Participants. He accomplished this by reflecting on each of the questions contained in the interview protocol. To clear his mind of influences of personal biases, the researcher also considered and set aside his past experiences.

Moustakas (1994) also suggested that reflective meditation as a dimension of the epoché process opens the researcher to be more receptive. Through this reflective mediation process the researcher allows all preconceived notions and biases to enter his or her mind but then to leave completely. A caveat though is that the researcher must repeat this process until he or she has brought closure to preconceived notions and ideas.

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At this point, the researcher should experience an internal sense of closure and a

readiness to enter afresh, to encounter situations, issues, and persons, and to accept what

is offered on its own terms. In this manner, the knowledge of the researcher is expanded.

Moustakas posited that epoché is rarely perfectly achieved, yet the intention that informs

the process, the time and energy dedicated to reflection and self-dialogue, and the

intentions and commitment to the process all significantly reduce the preconceived thoughts, judgments, and biases. Additionally, Moustakas (1994) noted that the regular practice of epoché increases the researcher’s ability to set aside preconceived notions and

judgments and to accept what is being presented.

Moustakas’ (1994) transcendental phenomenology and analysis procedures

embrace the common features of human science research such as the value of qualitative research, a focus on the wholeness of experience and a search for essences of experiences, and viewing experience and behavior as an integrated and inseparable relationship of subject/object. The transcendental emphasis includes these features, but

“launches” (p. 22) a phenomenological study with the researcher setting aside prejudgments as much as possible and using systematic procedures for analyzing the data. The way of analyzing phenomenological data, according to Moustakas, follows a systematic procedure that is rigorous yet accessible to qualitative researchers.

As mentioned earlier, this study adopted the transcendental phenomenological tradition as a research method to examine the research questions. The research instrument was the researcher himself, as humans can also uniquely qualify as the research instrument in a naturalistic inquiry (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, pp.192-195). Consistent with using a transcendental phenomenology approach is the concept of epoché as it

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relates to the research procedure, where the researcher brackets his or her experience to understand through the voices of the informants (Creswell, 1998, p. 54). As such, to best understand the phenomenon of leadership emergence, this researcher removed himself from the natural attitude of his subjective relationship with the world, questioning his own presuppositions about the world (Stewart and Mickunas, 1974). By doing so, the search for meanings was able to surface.

Various benefits exist when using the transcendental phenomenology methodology. One of the strengths of transcendental phenomenology based on

Moustakas (1994) is that it provides a systematic approach to analyzing data about lived experiences. It allows researchers to develop an objective ‘essence’ by aggregating subjective experiences of study participants. Another strength is that it is useful when the researcher has identified a phenomenon and has individuals who can provide a description of what they have experienced. Consistent with its epistemology, the two questions, ‘how’ and ‘what’ is experienced provide a sound framework for interview questions and the respective responses. Since this approach relies on individual experiences, it results in the stories being told from the participants’ voices and not those of the researcher or from individuals reporting studies in the literature.

The transcendental phenomenology research method, however, also presents challenges. One such challenge is that a common thread should flow between significant statements, the meaning units, and the essence descriptions since the intent of the researcher is to build a composite description of the phenomenon. Although the data analysis process flow works from the detailed descriptions provided to more general findings, there is no guarantee that this flow actually occurs. Another challenge is that the

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essences of any experience may never be totally exhausted. Since the essence statement should reflect a particular time, place, and the experiences of the individuals interviewed, the essence of the experience may be difficult to develop if the group of participants is too heterogeneous; while all have experienced the phenomenon, their experiences may significantly vary due to their own cultural or historical backgrounds. Furthermore, the process of epoché is difficult to achieve a pure state of being consciously present for perceiving and experiencing in a fresh way (Moustakas, 1994). As such, it remains difficult for a researcher to completely set aside all biases, pre-conceived notions, and personal experiences so as to focus solely on the participants’ experiences.

Transcendental phenomenology also requires researchers to apply a specific language of research and to understand the philosophical issues embraced by Husserl

(1931). Further, the phenomenological method also has a unique language, using words such as epoché, horizonalization (aka horizontalization), imaginative variation, intuitive integration, and textural and structural descriptions. As such, it requires an openness to understanding these unique terms and how they are applied for a specific study. Finally, as mentioned by scholars that embrace a hermeneutical phenomenology, absent from transcendental phenomenology is a reflection on the historical, cultural, and social contexts in which individuals read and interpret texts. This being the case, Moustakas

(1994) is not clear as to how these are negotiated or included in a phenomenological study. One way to compensate for this is that some writers on phenomenology include a vast array of texts (e.g., poetry, arts, music) in their data collection procedures (Riemen,

1986). It is not clear from reading Moustakas, however, as to how these texts used to supplement the interviews can or should be used. Still, for the qualitative researcher,

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transcendental phenomenology provides a systematic approach with delineated

procedures identified by Moustakas (1994) so as to take researchers through detailed

analysis steps and illustrative procedures. All things considered, transcendental phenomenology worked well for this study as this methodology provides logical, systematic, and coherent design elements that led to a description of the essence of the experience.

Research Design

The research design presents the strategic plan for a research study and identifies the overarching outline and key features of the effort, including the methods of data collection and analysis. This discussion of the research design shows how the research strategy addresses goals of the study and aspects of the research issues that are theoretically oriented. The design is also intended to identify the process of developing the study’s documentation, the logic associated with choosing between alternative types of study, and potential to adjust plans to available resources and timeline.

Four key practices distinguish phenomenology from other qualitative designs; these practices also serve as a framework for data analysis. These four key practices are:

(1) epoché, (2) phenomenological reduction (3) imaginative variation (4) and synthesis.

The first, epoché (as described above), involves the suspension of prior beliefs.

Proponents of the phenomenological approach maintain that suspension is vital to understanding the essence of a phenomenon being investigated. By attempting to eliminate prejudgments, set aside presuppositions, and reach a transcendental state of openness, the researcher is able to establish a readiness to see in an unfettered way, and remains unconstrained by the customs, beliefs, and prejudices of “normal science”

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(Moustakas, 1994, p. 41). In a similar vein, Sanders (1982) stated that:

The basis of phenomenology as a procedure is the belief that when individuals ask certain metaphysical questions they do so burdened with the mental baggage of assumptions — unquestioned definitions, categories or opinions that separate the scholar from the truth of things. The essential phenomenological attitude is the temporary suspension of all existing personal bias, beliefs, preconceptions or assumptions in order to get straight to the pure and unencumbered vision of what a thing “essentially is. Husserl referred to this as “epoché” or bracketing. (p. 355)

This researcher strove to set aside presuppositions as each interview occurred, and then again as transcripts of the interviews were reviewed and analyzed. This continuous examination of self-held beliefs as part of the epoché process aided the researcher in attempting to identify his assumptions about the experience under investigation and set aside common interpretations.

The second practice is phenomenological reduction, which Moustakas (1994) described as “returning to the self.” From “the vantage point of self-awareness, self- reflection, and self-knowledge,” phenomena can be experienced as if for the first time

(Moustakas, p. 95). By describing perceptions in rich, textural language, the researcher allows each perception to add to the whole of his knowledge of the phenomenon. With each successive view or angle of perception, the researcher attempts to acquire deeper knowledge of the phenomenon and understanding of its distinctive characteristics.

During phenomenological reduction and in a process called “horizonalizing”

(Moustakas, 1994), statements that are deemed irrelevant, or overlapping and repetitive should be removed, leaving only those that become the invariant constituents of the phenomenon. As this researcher became satisfied that the core essence of the phenomenon was accessed, the statements or horizons that represent those perspectives were reviewed with attention to what is central or thematic to the experience. This

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process was accomplished by analyzing the language used by the Participants that described their experience, and excluding comments within and across interviews that have similar essences. The invariant core constituents of the phenomenon were then clustered into themes that represented the various dimensions of the phenomenon. It is this process that facilitated the development of follow-on individual textural descriptions. Then, a composite textural description can be written as a singular or limited few final composite statements. By “horizonalizing” information, or viewing all statements as equal in value, and building rich descriptions from statements, phenomenological reduction interweaves “person, conscious experience, and phenomenon” (Moustakas, p. 97).

The third practice, imaginative variation, resulted in the researcher offering possible meanings from divergent perspectives that were systematically and reflectively explored. After the researcher completed the individual and composite textural descriptions, he engaged in imaginative variation as a means of arriving at “the underlying and precipitating factors that account for what is being experienced”

(Moustakas, 1994, p. 98). In this step, the researcher varied possible meanings of statements regarding the experience by using imagination and free association. At the heart of this practice, the researcher treated it as an intuitive process, remaining open to and mindful of what was being revealed. By considering the various perspectives of the phenomenon from different views, angles, and vantage points, the researcher was able to discern structural elements emanating from the textural descriptions previously developed. This practice included “varying the frames of reference, employing polarities and reversals, and approaching the phenomenon from divergent perspectives, different

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positions, roles or functions” (Moustakas, 1994, pp. 97-98). The challenge for the

researcher was to discover the ‘how’ of the experience. As such, some of the questions

not explicitly asked to the participants that help to reveal the phenomenon included: How

is it that this experience is? What are the elements that have provided the conditions for

this experience to emerge? As Moustakas stated, “consider…the universal structures that

precipitate feelings and thoughts with reference to the phenomenon, such as the structure

of time, space, bodily concerns, materiality, causality, relation to self, or relations to

others” (p. 99) as avenues of access to the invariant structural themes. During its

application then, this practice involved both data and the consciousness of the researcher.

Through the imaginative variation activity, the researcher sought to penetrate the

underlying dynamics of the experience and identify qualities that helped to understand

how the experience was experienced by the Participants. By facilitating the development

of individual structural descriptions, the activity allowed for a composite textural-

structural description to be written. This composite represents the most fundamental and

essential core structures that seek to explain what was experienced, describing key

elements that are foundational to the experience.

The fourth practice that differentiates a phenomenological study from others is synthesis. Through synthesis, the researcher integrated the composite textural/structural descriptions into statements that clearly and meaningfully describe the essences of the phenomenon under investigation. These statements serve to reflect the experience of all participants that can be viewed as the foundational expression of what is timeless in the experience being investigated. The researcher synthesized the themes into a description of the experiences of the individuals (textual-structural descriptions), and then

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constructed a composite description of the meanings and the essences of the experience.

The researcher crafted the synthesis of the composite textural-structural description that

responded to all themes. In this step it was important for the researcher to blend textural themes in with structural themes as a means of exemplifying in tangible elements what was a fairly abstract interpretation of the experience.

The phenomenological research tradition, then, seeks to search for the ‘essence’ of an experience and emphasizes the intentionality of consciousness. For the phenomenologist, experiences contain both outward appearance and inward consciousness that is based on memory, image, and meaning. The reader of a phenomenological study should feel that “I understand better what it is like for someone to experience that [phenomenon]” (Polkinghorne, 1989, p. 46).

Furthermore, in attempts to describe the most objective meaning of lived experiences, researchers must seek to understand the structure of subjective experiences.

In this regard, and as part of an objective process that seeks to understand a subjective experience, phenomenological researchers must search for the essential structure of those subjective experiences and highlight the individual intentionality of consciousness to draw an objective induction (Creswell, 1998). With this as the premise, this study’s

Participants were asked to provide the context of their personal experiences for their reflections as an integral part of the phenomenology research method. In addition, and as the need arose during this phenomenological research, different experiences and reflections offered by Participants provided a basis to further explore the research question(s).

Further, thick, rich descriptions were made prevalent in the research report; this is

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also consistent with the qualitative design approach. Researcher bias is certainly likely, and attempts to reduce researcher bias included creating an awareness of the researcher’s own personal experiences and identifying these biases in the research report. Further, limitations of the study were identified and attempts were made to ensure that practices of the researcher were consistent with the qualitative research design. In order to ensure the researcher’s position was sufficiently identified with respect to the research, the participant, and collected participant meanings, the personal values of the researcher were identified in the research (Creswell, 2003). In addition, the researcher’s own interpretations of the data and collaboration with the research participants (Creswell,

2003) was also discussed in order to reflect an appreciation for the nature of qualitative design and respective methods being used.

There are numerous paradigmatic systems (e.g., positivist, post-positivist, constructivist, naturalistic, and critical) proposed by researchers such as Denzin and

Lincoln (1994), Lincoln and Guba (1985), and Patton (1990). This study focused on the interpretive paradigm. The methods employed in this research allowed the researcher to record Participants’ perceptions and observations of their experience as they related to cultural differences that influence leadership emergence.

As participants in scholarly research, it is important to grasp that peoples’ lives vary and no person’s life replicates another’s. Given the reality that humans each have their own individual identity and way of life, people live their lives differently.

Information from various Participants, in-depth interviews, and observations during these interviews, were used to obtain data. Research under the interpretive paradigm recognizes that “what is constituted as knowledge by a particular group is also a social construction,

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the product of interpretive processes” (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). As the researcher

sought to understand the individual’s life experiences, engaging in reflective consciousness allowed a better understanding of the particular phenomenon. Consistent with Weber and Varela (2002), theories about humans can only be conceived from the concerned perspective of the living itself.

Since the purpose of the present research study was to understand the

Participants’ perceptions of how an awareness of cultural differences influenced how leadership emerges for members of marginalized societal elements, the focus was on the individual ‘lived experience’ of Participants (advisors/mentors/trainers) in this process. In employing a qualitative, phenomenological study design, and consistent with Schutz

(1967), the study adopted the approach that individuals construct meaning from their experience in a constitutive manner, and assumed that individuals construct meaning

(knowing) based on a collection of prior experiences that have been layered, one on top of the other. As a result, a qualitative research design in the phenomenological tradition was the most appropriate for use in this study.

The research design used a methodology comprised of the phenomenological approach and then performed coding and thematic analysis to address the study’s areas of inquiry. Upon identifying significant statements in the data from participants, the researcher clustered these statements into meaning units and themes. Moustakas’ (1994) phenomenological approach was used to develop the essence of the phenomena from textural/structural descriptions of how Participants made sense of their own experiences and of others experiences. The textural descriptions describing the ‘what’ (noema) of the

experience served as attempts to capture virtually every aspect and also give equal

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attention to every detail. Structural descriptions requiring the study’s participants to reflect on their experience serve the purpose of their describing the ‘how’ (noesis) of the lived experience. In the textural-structural description, the apparent (explicit) and the hidden (implicit, latent) came together to create a fuller understanding of the whole essence of a phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994).

In summary, this chapter identifies a composite methodology consisting of a coding and thematic analysis and phenomenological analysis to elicit Participants’ perceptions. Mezirow (2000) posited that one uses context to justify much of what one knows and believes — one’s values and feelings depend on the biographical, historical, and cultural context in which they are embedded. Coding and thematic analysis methods were employed to examine the significance of participants’ experiences. Moustakas’

(1994) phenomenological reduction method was used to develop a composite textural- structural description of mentors and advisors experiences in Afghanistan.

The methods described herein reflect an interpretive approach, accentuated by a certain degree of pragmatism since leadership has been considered by some to be a relatively mature academic discipline (Kiggundu, 1981). With the goal of understanding the impact of how cultural differences influence leadership emergence itself in the context of field research, the interview process was semi-structured, open-ended, interactive, and somewhat informal to allow for more flexibility in capturing the unique experiences of the individual participants. Maximum saturation was desired during data collection. To achieve saturation, interviews and observations associated with these interviews occurred over a three month period.

Adopting an interpretive approach to the research and systematically collecting

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the interpretations of people (Gioia and Pitre, 1990) promotes the views of participants by

representing their understanding in their own terms. This interpretive approach can be

more appropriate than traditional methods of employing existing theory, making

deductions, and testing hypothesis with regard to offering new explanations for how

cultural differences/dimensions influence how leadership emerges.

Research Methods

Congruence between the choice of the design and methods, problem statement,

research questions, and conceptual frame was essential for the proposed research. For this

qualitative approach, the literature review was consistent with the inductive process so as

to not overly guide and direct the research (Creswell, 2003, p. 31). Moustakas (1994)

identifies the use of literature in a phenomenological study as framing the research

problem and setting the stage for the inquiry.

Literature, then, has been presented in a separate section as a ‘review of the

literature’ since the audience for the proposed study results are most familiar with

traditionalist, positivist approach to literature reviews (Creswell, 2003). As themes

surfaced during this dissertation’s research and analysis, these themes were detailed using

descriptive language and where possible using verbatim quotations from the Participants

themselves. This researcher also found that metaphors were used to aid in the eventual

readers’ understanding of the concepts presented. In a similar fashion, contextual themes and any substantive themes that occurred from the dissertation research were identified so

as to provide descriptive elements that helped to understand and to identify distinctive

characteristics and requirements for how cultural differences enable leadership

emergence to occur.

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Interviews.

This study examined how leadership emerges in marginalized and vulnerable

elements of society in post conflict environments. The goal of the research study was to make explicit the tacit knowledge that individuals have gained in the course of their mentoring efforts to enable leadership for others. Seidman’s (1998) phenomenological in- depth interview method was used in this study to gather data and make sense of actual events involving members from organizations promoting human rights, recognition, and equality.

Spinelli asserts that while the process of any experience is taking place there can be no description given (Spinelli, 1989). It is only once the experience has taken place that one is able to describe and explain it. Simply said, the experience cannot be described as it occurs but only after it has occurred (Spinelli, 1989, p. 23). Describing the experience involved the Participants bringing the experience to a certain level of consciousness since it was difficult to create a description in the moment of the experience.

As a result, interview questions were open-ended so Participants could express their experience freely, allowing the researcher to be in a better position to have new meanings arise from the interviews. This allowed the participants in the study to freely draw on the details of their individual experience from their stream of consciousness, so as to articulate their lived experiences (Seidman, 1998, p. 1). It is this process of selecting, ordering and reflecting the constitutive details of those “lived” experiences that makes a meaning-making experience for both the participant and the researcher

(Seidman, 1998, p. 1).

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Given this information, the recommended method of inquiry for this

transcendental phenomenological study was interviewing. The purpose of interviewing

was to understand and not evaluate. This being the case, the researcher needed to be

equitable during the interviewing process, considering what was fair and just to the

participants and the researcher himself (Seidman, 1998). In-depth interviewing

techniques were used to search for emerging meanings. Justification for using an in-depth

interview technique is that in-depth interviewing allows the researcher to develop an

interest in understanding the experience of other people, and the meaning they make in

their description of that experience (Seidman, 1998, p. 3).

This researcher proposed to conduct in-depth interviews during three sessions for

each participant as advocated by Seidman. Seidman’s (1998) in-depth interviewing

method, grounded in Schutz (1967), seeks to understand individuals’ experiences and the

meaning they derive in their telling of the experiences. While the Seidman method

consists of three interviews with each participant, some Participants were available for

only one or two interviews. The majority of Participants were able to hold two or more

interviews, to include member checks. Conducting the interviews in this fashion given

the constraints that existed, allowed the Participants to reflect on the experiences and

develop trust with the researcher, which produced richer data (Seidman, 1998). Initial

interview sessions provided the opportunity for the Participant to recollect the context in

which their experience occurred; it served to put the experience in context by providing a

historical background where the Participant described how he/she was involved with the

phenomenon. Follow-on interviews directed the Participant to reconstruct the details of the experience in the context in which it occurred; these sessions allowed the Participants

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to reconstruct their past detailed experiences and reflect on the meaning of those experiences.

Consistent with Seidman (1998), a follow-up interview promoted clear understanding by the researcher of the Participant’s perceptions and thoughts. By encouraging the Participant to reflect on the meaning of their experience, final interviews further developed trust and enabled Participants to more freely share their perceptions and feelings (Seidman, 1988). Interview sessions last approximately 50 to 60 minutes.

Between interviews, Participants were given time to think about the preceding interview; in most cases, no more than a week elapsed between interviews to ensure Participants retained information from prior interviews. The researcher’s application of Seidman’s method is further described in the subsection below on data collection.

Procedures.

Research procedures contained in the proposal also include descriptions of ontological assumptions, epistemology, and methodology rationale. Due to the nature of the qualitative study, any data collected and eventually prepared remains confidential and not attributable to the Participants. In the case where the potential exists to attribute data to the Participants, the Participants were notified and the researcher sought their approval to do so. It was anticipated that software for the qualitative data analysis would be used to complement the researcher’s efforts since open-ended semi-structured questions usually prompt lengthy detailed responses by the participants; for these data, qualitative analysis software was deemed useful for both the data entry and data analysis (Barry, 1998). As

appropriate, transcripts were entered into the software and coding occurred and was

analyzed; of the two widely used software packages Nudist and Atlas.ti (Barry, 1998), the

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researcher for this study used Atlas.ti. Table 3-1 depicts where Atlas.ti was used by the

researcher. The procedures and steps used for data gathering, analyses, phenomenological

reduction and imaginative variation are also identified in Table 3-1.

Table 3-1. Data Gathering, Analyses, Reduction & Imaginative Variation

Procedure Steps  Identify participants Data gathering  Conduct interviews  Transcribe interviews  Import transcribed interviews into Atlas.ti  Identify key words and phrases Coding & thematic  Code transcribed interviews analysis  Export Atlas.ti code co-occurrence, report options  Build database and file repository; MSxcel, MSword  Epoche  Bracketing  Horizontalization Phenomenological  Delimited horizons reduction  Invariant meaning horizons  Initial database analysis  Cluster themes  Individual, composite textural descriptions  Database analysis (continuous)  Vary possible meanings Imaginative  Develop structural themes variation  Composite textural-structural description  Synthesis of composite textural-structural description  Statement of essences

Unit of analysis.

The unit of analysis for this research was the individual. The sample population in this study was comprised of 10 Participants representing trainers, advisors, mentors, teachers and consultants, many of which performed work in countries characterized as post-conflict nations which is the focus of this study; demographics were provided for

Participants as a demonstration their suitability for the study. While it was anticipated

many participants now residing in the United States could be used, a portion of the

Participants were assigned overseas (i.e., OCONUS) which required adjustments to the

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interview protocol. The sample population was estimated to be career professionals, who

have performed in a capacity which results in their having an understanding of the

cultural nuances of societal elements being investigated. Consistent with rigorous

qualitative approach procedures, the criteria for determining the numbers of participants

depended upon the degree of sufficiency and saturation of information in order to achieve

in-depth understanding of the phenomenon (Seidman, 1998), and it was estimated that

individual participants could be added to the sample population until saturation occurs

(Miles and Huberman, 1994).

Population.

While choosing a sample for qualitative inquiry can be difficult as compared to

quantitative studies because definitive rules may not always exist, in selecting the

Participant population for this study, identification was possible based on their having

worked Afghanistan. The Participants interviewed depended on what the researcher

wanted to know, the purpose of the inquiry, what was deemed useful, what was more

credible, and what could be done with the available resources. With fixed resources,

which is normally the case, researchers can choose participants based on the specific

phenomenon. In-depth research usually results in using a smaller sample size while a

larger population may be necessary when seeking breadth of responses. Using purposeful

sampling, this researcher strove to seek consistency based on the purpose and rationale

for the study and the sampling strategy used to achieve the study’s purpose. The

meaningfulness and insights obtained as a result of qualitative inquiry had more to do with the information-richness of the Participants selected and the observational

capabilities and analytical skills of the researcher rather than with the size of the sample.

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Everyone in the sample population participated in in-depth interviews with the

researcher. While three interviews were scheduled for each of the Participants, frequency

and times of the interviews varied according to the quality of and content provided by the

interview, with most Participants conducting two to three interview sessions of

approximately 50 minutes each. Consequently, total recorded interview time for most

Participants was at approximately 90 minutes each. All of the Participants related their experience in a first-person account, describing their advising and mentoring experiences in Afghanistan. All of the interviews were conducted using the English language. The interviews were also electronically recorded, and the digital audio recordings later transcribed verbatim by a professional transcription service.

For the research location, countries characterized as post-conflict and comprised of patriarchal societies (e.g., Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, Liberia) were the target of the study. While the specific country may not be the determining factor, participants that have worked with marginalized or vulnerable elements of societies were the focus of this study. Obviously, Participant availability, and their willingness to participate, were contributing factors in the purposeful sampling. Several potential sites and activities were considered in determining Participants’ suitability for the study. Discussions were held with various advisors, trainers and consultants with experience in the respective countries and with the societal elements being considered. The discussion provided by the researcher included a brief summary of the research and whether the research was conducted in a manner consistent with the Participants’ experience and knowledge. In addition, in seeking to obtain a high degree of objectivity by the Participants, they were asked to separate themselves from the members of the societal elements being addressed

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so as not to disrupt the natural settings in which their own experiences occurred.

Recruitment of participants.

According to Moustakas (1994), there are no advance criteria for locating and

selecting participants for a phenomenological study because the aim of the study is to

uncover the necessary structural invariants of the experience itself. Phenomenological

researchers maintain that such invariants are fully discoverable in an individual situation.

However, Dukes (1984) suggested that there is a danger that the researcher would see only what he or she wants to see. Therefore, in this study, a purposeful sample of 10 adults was chosen to provide “information-rich cases for in-depth studying” (Patton,

1990, p. 169). Criteria for the Participants included performing in a capacity whereby they worked directly with marginalized and/or vulnerable members of societies impacted by political conflict, oppressive regimes or discrimination on the basis of race, gender or beliefs. The obvious additional criterion was a willingness to participate in the series of interviews.

The Participants were identified through personal references and professional networks, and in some cases electronic means (e.g., LinkedIn). Initial contacts were asked to identify other colleagues with experience related to supporting efforts in post- conflict nations whose members have been marginalized, but yet aspire to be considered as viable members of their society, private and public infrastructures, or governmental elements.

As anticipated, the sample population was from different professional fields, for profit and non-profit organizations, and represented a variety of industries and/or institutions; this ensured a high degree of representation of the wider population. An

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important element to understand was that this study would focus on how the Participants perceive cultural differences, dimensions and sensitivities with respect to leadership emerging or occurring for the targeted societal elements as a result of their mentoring efforts, and how they saw themselves performing with respect to their own roles and responsibilities given how cultural bias could contribute to their own work efforts. In selecting participants, Weiss (1994) suggests researchers focus on people who can provide information the study requires. Participants identified for this study were discussed with a subject matter expert in international justice sector reform and capacity building who agreed to perform the role of a knowledgeable insider; she was knowledgeable of a portion of the Participants identified and was able to both facilitate and validate selection of interview Participants that had a relatively high degree of intimacy with leadership development in post-conflict or developing nations with vulnerable or marginalized populations. Weiss also suggests that an insider can help orient the researcher to the sites, but would need to be confident in the researcher’s ability to act in the most unbiased manner possible. In the present study, the knowledgeable insider was a trusted colleague and she has previously proven to be very forthcoming and candid when sharing information on others that have worked with the target audiences.

A purposeful sample of ten mentors and advisors was interviewed for this study.

The sample consisted of male and female Participants with various professional and socio-economic backgrounds who had different career experiences prior to being assigned as mentors, advisors or trainers. Among them were lawyers and teachers who were selected by the Department of State or various non-governmental stateside or international organizations to perform on capacity building programs in the country of

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Afghanistan.

Pseudonyms were not used; instead, simple identifiers were used for each of the

participants and tracked in tabular form. As appropriate, information was accumulated

pertaining to interview dates along with specifics regarding Participants’ roles in

relationship to one another and to the respective organizations in which they were members. To ensure confidentiality during and after the research, numbered codes were given to each Participant in the order in which they were interviewed. Table 3-2 shows

how participants were tracked in order to maintain confidentiality.

Table 3-2. Study Participants’ Roles and Respective Codes

Code Profession Role P1 Criminal Defense Lawyer Advisor & Mentor P2 Defense Lawyer; Adjunct Professor Advisor & Mentor P3 Teacher, Educator; Consultant Advisor & Mentor P4 Lawyer; Financial Planning Strategic Planner, Advisor, Mentor P5 Subject Matter Expert Advisor & Mentor P6 Prosecutor; Public Defender Advisor & Mentor P7 Attorney, Prosecutor; Adjunct Professor Advisor & Mentor P8 Professor; Overseas Education Programs Mentor & Teacher P9 Lawyer; Military Officer Advisor & Mentor P10 Educator Mentor & Teacher

Sample selection.

The sample population in this study and demographics of the Participants were

identified as candidate participants were finalized. Details captured consisted of demographics that include age, race, gender, ethnicity, etc. In addition, curriculum vitae or resumes were obtained for Participants (names and contact information sanitized) with data aggregated in order to display additional demographic elements. In all cases, additional information were obtained during the interview process to ensure that personal information of the Participants with respect to their life and work was provided as part of the research. Demographic data obtained from each of the Participants, included but was

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not limited to place of birth, marital status, educational background, tenure with their organization(s), number of overseas assignments, location and duration of foreign assignment(s), access to and relationships with citizens of foreign countries that have experienced conflict and whose societal elements may be considered marginalized.

Aggregated data on research Participants was intended to demonstrate their tendencies related to examining long-held beliefs as they could impact their observations on the target audience cultures.

Interview Participants with more than six months to two years’ experience in target countries were preferred for this study because this time period allowed for an initial assimilation period with respect to local culture and an opportunity to accumulate work, community, and social experiences in the host country. Afghanistan was being targeted as the host country studied because of its unique dimensions of culture

(Hofstede, 1980) and the fact that post-conflict turmoil was for all intents and purposes stabilized, allowing for an emphasis on the leadership phenomenon being studied rather than a tendency toward uncertainty. However, there was a resurgence of terrorism in the

2015 to 2016 time period which was taken into consideration with regard to uncertainty that existed with the target country populace. Creswell (1998) suggested that purposive criterion-based sampling is effective when a researcher is interested in studying individuals who have lived through the same phenomenon and who can articulate their conscious experiences. Hence, purposive and criterion-based sampling were utilized to select final participants.

While study Participants were not be required to be conversant in the host nation language, access to translators and interpreters was considered to facilitate addressing any

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host nation audiences in their native language should the need exist; it did not. Further,

some degree of understanding or having the ability to comprehend the nuances of the host

country language were established as a parameter because the study concentrated on how

interview Participants make meaning of their experiences in the host country through

rational discourse, listening, and observation. Further, while research has shown that

language competency is necessary for discourse and listening and contributes to the

interpretation of nonverbal cues (Kim, 1988), many foreign consultants and trainers and

members of the target societies demonstrated a high degree of proficiency in the English

language which enhanced this researcher’s ability to conduct the interviews. While in

country, many Participants had developed a rudimentary understanding of the local

languages.

Data collection.

Data were collected primarily through interviewing advisors, mentors, trainers

and consultants who had performed in a capacity where they were able to articulate

cultural attributes and their potential influence on leadership emergence. In addition, all

Participants consented to be interviewed. This data collection procedure was further

supplemented by other sources of information such as concurrent observation and

reviewing documentation relevant to the research study. Prior to data collection, the researcher sought the approval of the Institutional Review Board and assured The George

Washington University board’s approval.

To begin the data collection procedure, and as an initial contact, the researcher either personally called the prospective participant or sent an email inviting possible candidates for this research. In this initial contact, an overview of the research was

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detailed for the potential participant. A sample of the letter is provided as an Appendix to

this dissertation.

Once potential candidates consented to participate in this research, the

Participants were required to sign the Voluntary Informed Consent form (provided as an

Appendix). The researcher provided each Participant with a consent form, which each

signed. Seidman (1998) suggests that the process of seeking informed consent requires

the researcher to be explicit about the purpose of the study in a way that provides

participants with a clear understanding of the commitment they are making. Additionally,

this process provides the interviewer with protection against potential misunderstandings.

The consent form was discussed with each Participant prior to the first interview. The

form described the purposes and parameters of the study, including the right to withdraw from the study at any time. The researcher also advised Participants of the steps that were

taken to ensure confidentiality.

The researcher prepared an interview protocol for the purpose of conducting the

interviews. Interview questions were open-ended and semi-structured. The questions

were designed to explore Participants' experiences so as to probe into their thoughts,

feelings, concerns, and observations. Participants' narratives and interview transcripts were subsequently used to provide perspectives related to this study. The Participant

narratives and interviews provided for rich and thick descriptions of their feelings,

thoughts and perceptions about themselves and/or their advisees, mentees, or trainees. All

interviews were digitally recorded for transcription and analysis. Once the digital recordings were transcribed, they were analyzed to identify prevailing themes by coding and categorizing the essential meanings from the Participants' responses.

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Data collection methods.

In qualitative research, the researcher is the primary instrument for data collection

and analysis. For this study, additional approaches were considered to collect data for

analysis; these included reflection forms, written narratives, and potentially limited

observations of the advisors/mentors with their mentees. Some written narratives

provided by only a few Participants via email were incorporated into the interview

transcripts and subsequently coded.

For this study, the primary method of collecting data were interviews with the

Participants described. These interviews provided the main source of data. Each

Participant was interviewed at least once; follow-on interviews were scheduled as

determined by the interviewee and researcher to ensure the Participant had been afforded

the opportunity to fully share their perceptions and complete all interview questions. Any

additional interviews were recorded and transcribed appropriately and included in data collection. Any Participants electing not to participate in the first round of interviews were rescheduled at their convenience and afforded the opportunity to complete the interview process. It was initially anticipated most interviews could be conducted face to face at locations conducive to the Participants sharing their perceptions and where they would not be distracted by their daily business or other commitments, on a day when

Participants were available, including those that may be at a location not in close geographical proximity to the researcher. However, the majority of the interviews were conducted telephonically with the above considerations in mind. To fully understand the

Participants’ perceptions provided to the interview questions, follow up interviews were conducted with Participants. The interviews and questions were open-ended how, what

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and why questions due to the complex nature of culture and the leadership phenomenon being studied. As for the adequacy of research design and technical competence in

execution (Cooper and Burgoyne, 2006), the interview and question formats were semi-

structured yet open enough to allow interpretations to be captured, the distinctive

characteristics to be identified, and unique aspects of leadership to be discussed. Asking

the same questions to all the interviewees was intended to ensure that an adequate amount

of data existed for the analysis. Using digital recorders during each interview session was

the manner in which the researcher ensured reliability of the data. Interviews were

digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim by a professional transcription service within

hours of completing respective interviews, and used for the primary database. During the

interview process, the possibility existed of using an observer to record nonverbal

responses by the participants. Anyone attending interviews as a secondary attendee was

to be briefed on the purpose of the study, sensitivity of the information, and asked to sign

a consent form acknowledging their participation. However, the use of an observer was

deemed unnecessary due to the maturity of the interview Participants and the fact that

with the exception of one interview conducted face-to-face, remaining all interviews were

completed using telephone or via Skype. The need did not exist for an observer as no

participants requested one, so there was no need for a confidentiality agreement to be

signed addressing purposefully divulging any sensitive information regarding the

research. The use of secondary data sources included information that existed in the

public domain which was deemed relevant by the Participants, other documentation

provided by the interviewees, and government and/or civilian reports regarding related

events in countries where mentors and trainers have worked. Mitigating variables were

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identified and discussed as part of the research as they pertained to factors that could

influence leadership emergence in vulnerable or marginalized societal elements.

Qualitative data analysis (i.e., Atlas.ti) of the transcripts was used in coding the data; and

its applicability continually assessed for responses to the open-ended questions provided by interview participants.

Transcribing the interviews.

Since qualitative researchers suggest multiple sources of information and a combination of data collection strategies provide researchers the means to validate and cross check findings (Conger, 1998; Creswell, 1998; Merriam, 1998), where possible, data was collected from visual/audio observations during the interviews themselves and a review of relevant documents identified by the Participants to complement the interviews.

Data collection entailed limited document reviews and other physical artifacts, especially if documents and artifacts were identified as being relevant by the Participants. Data collection also included electronic media such as emails since much of today’s communication is performed using electronic means. However, formal observations other than of the Participants’ interviews themselves were not anticipated due to the nature of the work the Participants perform, often in hostile areas of the target country.

A research protocol served to assist in data collection and as a guide throughout the data collection process. In preparing the protocol in a purposeful manner, complete with descriptions of the process and use of documented questions, it compelled the researcher to anticipate problems that might arise and preclude participants from diverging from their responses to the questions. The interview protocol (Creswell, 2003) included a brief introduction regarding the purpose of the research, instructions, key

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research question(s), the potential for follow-on questions, and documentation to record

interviewer comments. Data recording procedures (Creswell, 2003) included an

observational protocol aimed at capturing researcher observations during the study; this observational protocol included only informal templates that contained areas for descriptive notes and reflective notes (Creswell, 2003). Demographic information of the

Participants was also be documented appropriately to ensure time, place, and date of the interview settings referred to were tracked (Creswell, 2003).

Each of the interviews was recorded using a digital recorder; additionally, handwritten notes were taken during the interviews. Subsequently, each of the interviews was professionally transcribed by a professional transcription service (i.e., Rev.com). The company Rev relies on a network of hand-picked freelancers that work as transcriptionists using a proprietary technology platform for transcriptionists, captioners,

and translators. As interviews were completed, the transcripts were provided to the

respondents for member checks; the researcher also listened to and validated each of the

transcriptions of the digital recordings. All of the documentation, i.e., digital recordings,

handwritten notes, and other material were then either maintained in an access controlled

computer or sealed in envelopes.

Consideration was given to use of a pilot for data collection before the actual

collection of data whereby the researcher would conduct an interview with a colleague

with similar experiences to those of the participants. The pilot was to focus on any necessary adjustments to syntax in order to ensure the clarity of the specific subject in

each interview question. Regrettably and despite numerous attempts to contact the

designated candidate for the pilot, he was unavailable. However, interview questions

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were vetted with University professors and through a series of iterations, eventually considered appropriate.

Qualitative analysis software (e.g., HyperResearch, Nudist, Atlas.ti) has proven useful in other research efforts and was selected since it was deemed necessary and recommended by one of the Participants to facilitate the identification of meaning units and for data coding during the data analysis. Consideration was given to Atlas.ti or the

NVivo© 7 (2007) computer software to sort and store data; Atlas.ti was selected. Trade- offs using Internet research with other software were enumerated in order to justify the selection of final software.

Member checks were used to establish credibility and ensure consistency with the research design approach and open-ended interview procedures to ensure accuracy of any transcripts and to validate the content of the final transcribed material. These member checks served to ensure the integrity of the data collected. Member verification checks were performed by providing Participants with transcripts after their interviews; the researcher asked Participants to reflect on their remarks and provide clarifying comments regarding the transcripts, as well as any other thoughts or feelings they had about the interviews or the experience.

In-depth interviews.

Phenomenological investigation involves in-depth interviews during which the researcher presents open-ended and semi-structured questions and comments. To promote honest comprehensive responses, the participant must feel comfortable during the interview. The researcher contacted each Participant before the interview by phone and/or email. As contained in the Appendices, participants received an explanation of the

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study’s purpose and data collection procedures as well as written informed consent forms at or before the first session.

The researcher attempted to conduct the initial interview at the Participants’ settings of choice provided it was convenient with regard to timing. The researcher strove for neutral professional settings so any distractions were minimized. As the need arose, electronic contact means including Skype were used to facilitate the interviews. The interviews were conducted over a period of approximately three months to maintain continuity and momentum with respect to the Participants and their interest. In each proposed 50-60 minute interview, the researcher asked participants to reflect on their experiences as they related to leadership development and mentoring. The researcher and

Participants also determined whether a session needed to be extended or shortened. This was necessary because a researcher conducting a phenomenological study must allow subjects to speak in their own way and at their own pace about the relevant aspects of the experience being studied (Dukes, 1984). Field notes were also created during the interviews to capture descriptive information that might not otherwise have been reflected in the digital recordings. Probing questions were used for clarification and increased understanding. Upon the completion of each interview, the researcher requested permission to conduct follow-up conversations by telephone or other electronic media in anticipation of the need existing. All interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed within approximately two days to ensure that appropriate meanings were preserved. In most cases the transcription service had less than a 24-hour turn-around time.

Key to any follow up interviews was to understand what perceptions may have changed over the course of time as additional rounds of interviews served to focus on

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Participants’ earlier comments that deserved clarification and follow up. This was

consistent with what Weiss (1994) offered regarding subsequent interviews; with

respondents potentially being made more sensitive to issues or concerns identified during

the first interview and thinking about as a result of the earlier interview. This also helped

as respondents often noted new incidents or observations that served to significantly

contribute to the research topic. Interview length was approximately 50 to 60 minutes; all interviews were digitally recorded. Interview protocols themselves are provided as

Appendices, but transcripts of the interviews are maintained as part of the researcher’s

data repository and files.

This approach to interviewing enabled the researcher to develop thick rich

descriptions of the Participants’ experiences. While a limited number of in-person

interviews were conducted, these and other interviews conducted via telephone helped in

understanding each Participant’s individual expectations of the phenomenon and to see

where there were congruencies and in-congruencies of perceptions. As the need arose,

electronic means including Skype were used to facilitate the interviews.

Seidman (1998) suggests that interviewing is both a research methodology and a

social relationship, and that the researcher essentially crafts an individual relationship with each person interviewed. Seidman further offers that this relationship cannot be separated from its context, and cautions the interviewer/researcher to be aware of social forces of class, ethnicity, race and gender that may impose on the relationship. These considerations were taken into account during the interview process in hopes of eliciting meaningful responses to questions. No Participants agreed to videotaping during the

interviews as it was deemed unnecessary by the Participants and researcher; it was noted

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it could have helped to keep written notes to a minimum as note-taking can sometimes either negatively impact the participant’s willingness to speak freely or detract from the session.

Seidman’s (1998) interview method allows for a prolonged engagement that gives the participants enough time to reflect on the phenomena, to develop trust in the researcher, and to consider their responses from one interview to the next. The 50 to 60 minute semi-structured interviews for data collection used Seidman’s (1998) model with each of the Participants. Participants were encouraged to contact the researcher via phone and/or email with any thoughts or questions they might have had between the interview sessions. The first interview established the context of the Participants’ experiences of being assigned or participating in activities related to leadership emergence of marginalized or vulnerable elements of host nation societies. Each Participant was asked to describe how he or she came to be familiar with the vulnerable societal elements and to provide basic information about his or her situation.

The follow-up interviews allowed Participants to reconstruct their experiences in the context in which they occurred. Their purpose was to concentrate on the concrete details of the participants’ present lived experience in the topic area of the study

(Seidman, 2012, p. 21). During these interviews, Participants were encouraged to reflect on how they interacted with the local populace and how they observed the leadership phenomenon among their advisees. They were asked to provide details of their experience and were encouraged to share experiences that presented particular challenges or that served as turning points for any of the societal elements being researched. They were encouraged to tell stories about their experiences and observations as a way to elicit

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details. In this way, the researcher attempted to obtain more in-depth and comprehensive

data.

The follow-up interviews encouraged Participants to reflect on the meaning that

their experiences held for them. During these follow-up interviews the Participants were

asked to delve into their experiences and to reflect on the meaning of how they felt and

what occurred. They were asked to consider how the experience impacted their thoughts

on culture, how leaders emerge, other aspects of leadership, and how cultural differences

impacted their mentoring. In addition, they were asked to comment on their views

regarding cultures other than their own, and how this affected the experiences.

Documentation such as information on the host country, historical reports, and surveys

that related to the experiences in host countries were also reviewed as made available by

the Participants. All interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim. While

Seidman (1998) indicated it was important to adhere to a three-interview structure

because there is a logic to the interview progression, this was explained to the

Participants prior to any deviations since each interview served a purpose both by itself

and as part of a series. Since the need existed deviate from the prescribed interview

structure, limitations were addressed and for those Participants affected, they were made

aware that it was possible to lose the power and benefit of the three-interview process

logic (Schutz, 1967). Therefore, in the process of conducting the interviews, the

researcher strove to maintain a balance between providing an open climate that

encouraged Participants to tell their stories and focusing enough to allow the interview

process to work. Since the three-interview protocol needed adjusting due to limitations of

Participants, deviations were noted in the number of transcriptions. Also, as Participants

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diverged from the established structure, they were respectfully redirected to the interview format and protocol. This study also followed Seidman’s suggestion that a phenomenological study should use open-ended questions. Follow-up questions were asked to delve into Participants’ responses and to gather greater understanding of responses.

Data handling.

All data collected were handled by the principal researcher. As Participants referred to documents and physical artifacts, they were archived in a research data repository as electronic files (e.g., scanned if necessary) so as to have the data readily available. Any documentation prepared and collected as hardcopies were safeguarded in a locked file cabinet and/or electronically scanned and then uploaded to a data repository using access controls and password protection. Data stored in this data repository was handled only by the principal researcher. Access were limited via file access privileges so as to safeguard the electronic data. Any sensitive information electronically stored were recorded using pseudonyms and numerical codes, and eventually sanitized by the principal researcher prior to public release and/or concurrent with the preparation of the written dissertation.

Data analysis.

Before the data analysis began, the researcher completed the in-depth interviews

with the selected Participants. Upon completion of the interviews, the data collected were

captured in a detailed document with verbatim transcripts of Participant responses; this

document also captured non-verbal signals and interruptions that may have been

recorded. To ensure credibility, the verbatim transcript were confirmed by the individual

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respondents of the research study using member checks. This provided study Participants

the opportunity to review the transcripts of their individual interviews and to give any

feedback they deemed necessary.

Moustakas (1994) indicated the steps in phenomenological analysis should occur

using a more structured approach than employed by hermeneutical writers (van Manen,

1990). As such, understanding the procedural data analysis steps applicable to

transcendental phenomenology used in this present study promoted a better

understanding of how transcendental phenomenology proceeded during the analysis

phase (Creswell, 1998).

Once transcriptions were completed they were confirmed via the member checks.

Based on the study’s examination of its key questions, the next procedural step in the

analytical approach and method of analysis was to reduce the data using an inductive

approach. Since the researcher possessed no predetermined expectations, an inductive

approach was well suited to examine the phenomena. As the analysis proceeded, utilizing

a combination of inductive and deductive techniques enhanced the analysis. While the

analysis was considered inductive in that no predetermined themes were used, deduction

was employed to analyze the interview transcripts for data to provide an enhanced understanding of key concepts related to leadership emergence.

Phenomenological studies’ methods of data analysis can be considered relatively consistent in their descriptions; however, prior to and during data analysis it was considered worthwhile by the researcher to review their recent evolution so as to clarify and seek greater understanding of the process. After interviews were completed, transcribed, and validated, this researcher found the steps for qualitative analysis

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recommended by Miles and Huberman (1994) useful in elucidating codes and themes.

These steps included:

1. Reviewing data for recurrent topics related to the phenomenon,

2. Identifying emerging themes and patterns in participants’ responses,

3. Constructing generalizations based on the data, and

4. Analyzing findings relative to theory.

In applying these steps, the researcher read through transcripts, coded the transcripts

using Atlas.ti software and exported the data to Microsoft Word documents and MS

Excel spreadsheets. Thereafter the researcher used customized sorting and filtering of

data content maintained in the MS Excel spreadsheets to identify recurring themes. The

researcher prepared findings in the form of annotations, comments, memos and reflective

notes to accompany the electronic manipulation of the data. Using this process, the data

was reduced to clusters, patterns, and themes, all maintained in the MS Excel

spreadsheets. The data was then organized and sorted into categories. Finally, the data

was interpreted in light of perspectives from current literature. As data was finalized, it

was transferred to MSWord documents and narratives were then prepared to present and

interpret the data. Finally, the researcher presented findings and any implications for

research and practice in Chapter 4 and associated Appendices.

As an extension to this method of data analysis and its related steps, this

researcher applied aspects of Moustakas’ (1994) modified van Kaam (1966) method of

phenomenological analysis to reduce and analyze the data, In using Moustakas’ (1994)

phenomenological method, the analysis employed the steps presented below as

recommended by Moustakas and Polkinghorne (1989). By utilizing this

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phenomenological data analysis method, the researcher sought to arrive at the essence of

the phenomenon while carefully examining the evolving data as they presented

themselves.

In adhering the steps in the phenomenological data analysis method, Table 3-3

describes activities the researcher conducted.

Table 3-3. Qualitative Research Activities

1. Epoché (Bracketing): The researcher needed to remain conscious of the need to approach the transcripts with an open mind in “suspending, re-directing and letting-go” (Varela, 2000) his personal knowledge and understanding. This step required the researcher to bracket and mark passages that appealed to him consistent with the research focus. This practice, otherwise known as phenomenological reduction, or epoché, is an attempt by the researcher to set aside as much as possible any presuppositions, prejudgment, prior experiences and biases. By setting aside their own prejudgments, biases, and preconceived ideas about the phenomenon, the researcher comes to understand it through the interview responses of study participants and thereby derive new knowledge. In doing so, the researcher may also provide a description of their own opinion of the phenomenon. 2. Horizonalizations: Early activities included identifying key statements in the interview transcripts. Identifying significant statements as part of the initial analysis is the process of horizonalization, in which specific statements were identified in the transcripts that provide information about the participants’ experiences. The researcher considered each statement for its potential significance in describing the experience. In recording relevant statements, the researcher considered each statement or horizon in the participants’ interview transcript with respect to significance for the description of the phenomenon being studied. Initially, every statement was treated as having equal value. These statements were then reviewed to avoid redundancy and to ensure that all key concepts were included in the horizons. Later, statements irrelevant to the topic or research questions and those that may have been repetitive or overlapping were dismissed. Listing each non-repetitive, non-overlapping statement allowed the researcher to identify which statements formed the meaning units, or horizons, of the experience. In identifying meaning units or themes, every significant statement was initially treated as possessing equal value, but this step deleted those statements irrelevant to the topic and others that were repeated or overlapping. The remaining statements are the horizons or textural meanings. The researcher carefully examined the identified significant statements, then clustered the statements into themes or meaning units (Moustakas, 1994). The manner in which these significant statements were gleaned from the transcripts was creating a table so that the researcher could identify the range of perspectives about the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). As statements representing non-repetitive, non-overlapping significant statements, these statements sometimes replicated entire sentences and comprised subjective extrapolations from the transcripts, with no attempt to group these statements or to order them in any way. Moustakas (1994, p. 95) describes the horizon as “the grounding or condition of the phenomenon that gives it a distinct character.” Using the reduced data, the researcher subsequently applied labels and determined relevant categories that corresponded to the nature of the study. As part of the coding process, theories and material from the literature review section of this proposal were used to identify relevant developing patterns, themes or categories that related to leadership emergence.

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3. Invariant Meaning Horizons: This step related and clustered the invariant meaning units into themes. The researcher reviewed all of the horizons to identify aspects of the experience that were common to all of the participants. These comprised the invariant meaning horizons that were clustered into themes. 4. Individual Textural Descriptions: From the thematic analysis, the researcher provided a description of “what” was experienced in textural descriptions using the Atlas.ti coding and grouping. (Textural description refers to the noema or “what” of the experience.) The horizons were used to develop textural descriptions describing the noema. As repetitive or overlapping data from the bracketing exercise above were clustered into themes, they were organized into coherent textural descriptions of the phenomenon to define essential constituents of the phenomenon for each respondent. This was an attempt to describe the essence of the “what” question(s). In synthesizing the invariant meaning units and themes into a description of the textures of the experience, the researcher included verbatim examples. These activities resulted in the researcher constructing a full description of each interviewee’s conscious experience as conveyed in the interview. It included thoughts, feelings, examples, ideas, and situations that comprise the experience. Textural descriptions were considered and additional meanings sought from different perspectives, roles, and functions (Moustakas, 1994). 5. Composite Textural-Structural Description (in lieu of Individual Structural Descriptions): Because of the Atlas.ti functionality, and when combined with the exported reports and data, the researcher was able to create a composite textural-structural description which contained all participants responses to interview questions. This was done in lieu of taking the thematic analysis and providing a description of “how” it was experienced in individual structural descriptions (the structural description refers to the noesis or “how” of the experience; and this step reflects on and thoroughly considers the personal textural descriptions and then constructs a description of the structures of the experience). By moving beyond the textural descriptions, the researcher sought out possible meanings of structural themes to develop the composite textural- structural description, preparing in written format a description of how the phenomenon was experienced by the research participants. During this step, the researcher sought to engage in conscious acts of assessing, judging, imagining, and recollecting, in order to derive the core structural meanings. The practice of imaginative variation (described earlier) led to the composite textural-structural description resulting in essential structures of the phenomenon. 6. Statement of Essences: The textual-structural description of the experiences was then synthesized into a composite description of the phenomenon through the research process referred to by Moustakas (1994, p. 100) as “intuitive integration.” This description became the essential, invariant structure of ultimate “essence” of the experience which captured the meaning ascribed to the experience. This final step resulted in a statement of essence, a final composite textural structural description representing a statement of essence of the phenomenon. In reviewing narratives of the descriptions, the researcher arrived at the shared meaning of the participants’ experience. With the composite descriptions, the researcher had an integrated textural-structural description to provide an overall description of the experience – a synthesis of the meanings and essences of the phenomenon. Having constructed a textural-structural description of the meanings and essences of the experience, the activity involved integrating individual textural-structural descriptions into a description that represents the group as a whole (Moustakas, 1994). Explanations of the reductions are contained herein and in Chapter 4.

With a full set of bracketed primary data, applying the rule of horizontalization,

the researcher treated each of the bracketed descriptions in the data with equal value and

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significance. Once statements were attached with an equal value, the researcher then

stripped away the irrelevant, overlapping and repetitive statements, leaving only the

horizons (Moustakas, 1994).

The researcher gave equal consideration to each statement in the verbatim

transcript of each of the Participants’ interviews, in order to examine each statement’s

significance in describing the experience of mentoring/advising in Afghanistan. Each

horizon, or statement, contributed to an understanding of the Participant’s experience.

These horizons informed the invariant horizons, the textural and structural descriptions, and finally the composite textural-structural description. This process of horizontalization produced the raw data for analysis. Excerpts from interview transcripts of Participants are maintained by the researcher as Annexes to the study and provide extracts of horizons.

Coding and thematic analysis methods were employed. The interview transcripts were coded using an inductive approach. To allow possible themes to emerge from the data, the researcher did not analyze the data using pre-determined codes. In line with

Moustakas’ (1994) approach to phenomenological analysis, the data analysis involved 1) exercising epoche - suspending, letting-go and re-directing judgement, 2) horizontalization - drawing the context that shaped the phenomenon, and clustering these constituents to develop invariant meaning horizons, 3) identifying clustered themes, crafting textural and textural-structural descriptions to capture the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ of the mentors’ experience, and subsequently preparing a composite textural-structural synthesis of the Participant’s experience in identifying the ‘essence’ of the phenomenon.

Each transcript was also reviewed by the respective Participant and requested changes made, i.e., member-checked (interviews are maintained by the researcher as

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Annexes to the study). The coding began only after the interviews were conducted and transcribed. All transcripts were imported into Atlas.ti and subsequent coding conducted using this software. Each interview transcript was reviewed and key words and phrases identified as codes. Then, transcripts were reviewed using Atlas.ti; all quotations identified are maintained by the researcher as Annexes to the study for the required time frame.

As a result of data collection and analysis using coding and categorizing processes, and with the synthesis of meanings completed, an overall inference was then drawn with regard to the leadership emergence phenomenon. Follow-on analysis of interview findings was also conducted to ensure complete understanding of any new meanings that surfaced from the interview process. As conclusions were reached, the researcher then checked the entire transcript to ensure themes were consistent with each other and were also consistent with Participant individual quotations.

To ensure the research is credible, findings were triangulated with established theories within the scholarly community. To further improve credibility of the research, an audit comparing coding, invariant meanings, and cluster themes was conducted once the data analysis was complete. Any relevant direct quotes from Participants were used to further enhance credibility of the research findings.

In attempting to achieve a high degree of trustworthiness, data gathering and data analysis emphasized emergent themes of each interview question. Since the need did not exist to alter the investigative structure of the interviews, the interim exploration and elaboration of emerging themes was unnecessary to help the investigation. While it was anticipated follow-on activities may have been involved, such as asking questions for

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clarification and elaboration, it became unnecessary during the research and data analysis

to engage a professional colleague familiar with the Participants’ experience to

participate and be provided access to the data so as to provide for an independent

perspective on analyses and interpretations.

Due to the inductive nature of the research, the researcher continually reflected on

the data, internalizing analytical questions, annotating notes and comments/memos in the

spreadsheets throughout the research (Creswell, 2003). The protocol established above

helped in capturing the essence of the open-ended data that were gathered and required

investigative inquiry by the researcher of the information provided by the participants

along with developing an analysis from the supplied data (Creswell, 2003).

Trustworthiness.

Analogous to quantitative research studies where researchers desire to assure

readers of ‘validity’, ‘reliability’ and ‘objectivity’, there are similar terms used for qualitative studies. For naturalistic inquiry and qualitative studies, the equivalents of these conventional research terms are ‘credibility’, ‘transferability’, ‘dependability’ and

‘confirmability’ (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p.300). Essentially, in qualitative studies, the issue of ensuring trustworthiness is important. Such trustworthiness is inevitably a concern to the reader of the research study, who must be convinced that the study is worthy of confidence (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p.328). Thus the criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability must be met in order to generate confidence for readers (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p.328).

Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggested that a qualitative study is of no value if its trustworthiness is disputed. Trustworthiness is defined as warranting trust.

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Trustworthiness serves to convince audiences that findings of a study are worth taking into consideration. Trustworthiness can also influence the amount of attention regarding research in the literature and among researchers in the field, who might include findings of the work in their own investigations. The trustworthiness of a project is also relevant to participants who have dedicated their time to the research since participants should feel they were adequately represented and their time was well spent.

Lincoln and Guba presented four questions to consider when addressing trustworthiness:

(1) Truth Value: How can the research establish confidence for the study

participants and for the context in which the research was implemented?

(2) Applicability: How can one determine the extent to which the findings are

applicable to other persons and settings?

(3) Consistency: How can one determine if the findings would be the same if the

study were repeated?

(4) Neutrality: How can one establish that the findings are free from bias,

motivation, interest, or perspective of the researcher and the extent to which

the findings are representative of the respondents?

Criteria related to these questions to ascertain trustworthiness were addressed in this study as described below.

Credibility.

Credibility (truth value) is crucial for two reasons: 1) the need to conduct the study in a manner to increase the likelihood that the findings are accepted by the general audience, and

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2) the need for the study participants to approve of the findings. In this study, the

researcher employed epoché (bracketing) to set aside preconceived notions about the

phenomena being studied. In lieu of a reflective journal, annotations in the spreadsheets and documents containing the data were used to differentiate between the researcher’s own ideas about the phenomena being studied and those of the participants. Member checks were also used to increase trustworthiness by providing Participants the opportunity to review and comment on transcripts of their individual interviews.

Transferability.

Transferability, defined as the ability to determine if the findings would be the same if the study were repeated, was part of this study’s research design. While Lincoln and Guba state that it is not the task of the naturalist researcher to provide an index of transferability, but it is his or her responsibility to provide the data base that makes transferability judgments possible (1985, p. 316), the data obtained from the purposeful sample had some limitations. However, in the researcher’s attempt to retain the degree of objectivity required in this study, the researcher developed thick descriptions in line with

Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) suggestions; as such, it was anticipated that providing these thick descriptions would enable anyone interested to draw their own conclusions on whether a transfer is probable (p.316).

Further, given that the sample used in this study comprised 10 Participants whose experience covers a broad spectrum of contexts, settings, countries, and implementations, it was expected that generalizability would not be more than usually limited and that findings were both transferable and generalizable.

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Dependability.

An audit conducted by an independent reviewer can increase the rigor of the study

in order to ascertain its dependability. In qualitative terms, to satisfy the criterion of

dependability, interview notes were prepared by the researcher during data collection, and the researcher also keep records pertaining to the inquiry to allow for an audit of the

material. With this audit trail, the reviewer would be able to audit the research procedures

with the aim of being able to describe the research decisions made during the study by the researcher and his responses to each step of the inquiry. Another purpose of the audit trail is to reveal critical thinking behind the various stages of the research process.

Dependability was also established by the following of epoché to ensure the appropriate distance was maintained between the researcher, the phenomena, and the

Participants. While the goal was to maintain the study free of values and/or bias of the inquirer, it is rarely perfectly achieved, and measures to include bracketing increased the likelihood of this occurring. In addition, the time between interviews allowed Participants to develop some degree of distance from their own responses which would contribute to added objectivity.

Confirmability.

Lincoln and Guba (1985) assert the major technique for establishing confirmability is a confirmability audit. With an audit trail, the reviewer would also be

able to determine and attest to the fact that findings were grounded in the data collected

and that these findings could be traced back to the raw data. In addition, and to ensure a high degree of trustworthiness for the study, the reviewer should review the appropriateness of any category labels used to map between the various main themes and

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their connected elements and also with each specific category theme label. With respect

to the quality of the interpretations, the reviewer should also review the introspection and

reflexivity generated by the researcher, as documented as part of the audit trail.

Confirmability can be established by maintaining an audit trail for the following:

1) raw data such as copies of interview tapes and transcripts of participants; 2) data

reduction and analysis products, and the researcher’s journals and theoretical notes; 3)

data reconstruction and synthesis products, such as individual notes taken during

participants’ interviews, horizonalizations, and textual structural descriptions; and 4)

process notes including any initial notes used to develop the design and to achieve

trustworthiness, as well as other information gathered at each stage.

In this study, the researcher attempted to compensate for potential bias by seeking

out subject matter experts to review data collection, coding, and instruments for

indicators of bias; remaining conscious of personal assumptions during interviews; and

conducting member checks as appropriate. The approaches described above were employed to increase trustworthiness and to establish confidence for the study

participants and for the context in which the research occurred. In addition, a stated goal

of the researcher was to increase the likelihood that findings were free from biases, motivations, interests, or perspectives of the researcher; and that the results are representative of the participants.

Protection of Human Subjects and Ethical Considerations

In addition to the maintaining a high degree of integrity for the study, ethical considerations were taken into account. In this regard, consideration was given to protecting the Participants, in other words ‘do no harm.’ Research is complicated, and

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consequently it may be easy for researchers to overlook the interest of the research

participants (Sieber, 1992, p. 1). The ethics of social research aim to help make it work

for all concerned (Sieber, 1992, p. 3).

While it may be difficult to address all of the various aspects of ethics precautions

that should be taken into account during research, this study’s approach was consistent

with and included practices espoused during scholarly research. The three ethical

principles that must guide human research are 1) beneficence, 2) respect and 3) justice

(Sieber, 1992, p. 18). Simply put, human research must be able to 1) maximize good outcomes for science, humanity and the individual research participants, while

minimizing unnecessary risk or harm, 2) protect the autonomy of people including those

who are not autonomous like infants or the mentally retarded, and 3) ensure carefully

considered procedures in conducting the research (Sieber, 1992, p. 18). As such,

understanding these ethical principles is vitally important, and especially crucial for the

researcher as a high degree of alignment should exist between these principles and the

moral code and conscience of the researcher. The bottom line is that an understanding the

application of these principles should serve as a foundation of the research plan.

To ensure these principles were employed and to ensure the research study respected the rights or needs of the Participants, a voluntary informed consent form was requested from each participant (the Appendices include the Voluntary Informed Consent form for this research study.) Furthermore, as part of the practices use in this study, the researcher also ensured this research preserved the anonymity and confidentiality of the detailed data collected.

Given the nature of the study, the researcher anticipated no adverse impacts to the

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Participants. Supplementing the information immediately above, the following procedures were followed to avoid possible ethical issues for the researcher and participants (Creswell, 1998). As mentioned above, an informed consent in agreement with meeting the requirements of The George Washington University were provided to the Participants to ensure their understanding of the researcher’s position on these ethical issues:

1. Each participant was required to sign an informed consent agreement in

accordance with The George Washington University requirements.

2. Participants’ anonymity was maintained throughout the study. Participants

were identified using letter/number codes to differentiate among responses

and data collection methods.

3. The researcher informed participants of the purpose of the study, the

procedures to be used in data collection, and their right to voluntarily

withdraw from the study at any time should they desire to do so. This

information was reiterated in the cover letters related to the research, informed

consent agreements, any verbal explanations of the study, or when

corresponding using electronic media.

4. The researcher also acknowledged responsibility for the safeguarding and

appropriate use of the data collected. Every effort was made to ensure

confidentiality in conducting the study and reporting results.

The recruitment of participants took into account these ethical considerations.

Stake (1995) asserts that it is the researcher’s obligation to thoroughly consider the ethics of a situation and take appropriate actions when interacting with participants. In this

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regard, it was necessary for this researcher to ensure the Participants agreed to voluntarily

participate. Therefore, as potential participants were identified, they were sent a cover letter, research information sheet and informed consent form. For those individuals that agreed to participate, no advance questions were posed to or by the researcher until the actual interview time.

Finally, assurances were made that Participants’ confidentiality was protected.

However, in the course of the research and as agreed upon with the University and the

Participants, any personal information that may be used to include resumes, curriculum vitae, biographies, or similar information (whether included in its raw form or aggregated) was protected and only utilized with written consent of the Participants.

Since the principal researcher was exposed to colleagues that work in advisor,

mentoring and coaching situations, and to cultural immersion training and leadership

development and training, he systematically reflected on his role in the inquiry, and

remained sensitive to his own personal biography and how it may have affected the

proposed research (Creswell, 2003).

In addition, since the research is retained (except for digital recordings),

consideration was given to the data’s open access for other researchers to use. The

participants were not put at risk (Creswell, 2003) and anonymity and non-attribution were

emphasized so as to protect the participants and prevent inadvertent harm. Confidentiality

was achieved by not sharing participant responses with others, and (more specifically)

until data were aggregated with other responses and names were disassociated with the

responses (Creswell, 2003). Finally, the integrity of the research was maintained by

following the protocols described above, by conducting briefings with the participants

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and allowing for member checks (Creswell, 2003) and by using the dissertation committee to review results and all facets of data collection, analysis, and preparation of the findings.

Summary

The overarching objective of identifying and employing a sound research methodology and procedures was to allow the phenomenon described by the study

Participants in their interviews to present itself in as pure a manner as possible while at the same time reflecting a coherent unbiased account of the perspectives offered.

Chapter 3 identified the research procedures for this study’s inquiry along with methods for gathering data from the research Participants. This chapter specifically described the research steps that were performed in order to address the research questions. The chapter provided information pertaining to the following: rationale for selecting the research tradition, research methods, interviewing procedures, sample population, data collection procedure, data analysis, trustworthiness of the study and ethics precautions.

With regard to theoretical underpinnings and research methodologies, the study’s use of the phenomenological method (Moustakas, 1994) to obtain perspectives on how cultural differences/dimensions influence leadership emergence included the use of coding and thematic analysis methods (Patton, 1990). The chapter also described

Seidman’s (1991) interview method (somewhat modified) to conduct interviews with each of the Participants in order to obtain relevant information and perspectives pertaining to the research topic.

The researcher engaged in epoche to set aside preconceived ideas before analyzing

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the data to refrain from making suppositions and to focus on the topic “freshly and

naively” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 47). During analysis of the interview transcripts, the

researcher utilized horizontalization, giving every statement in the transcript equal value,

and eliminating irrelevant and repetitive statements. This technique enabled the researcher

to identify horizons, and textural and invariant constituents of the phenomenon

(Moustakas, 1994, p. 97). Phenomenological analysis (Moustakas, 1994) was used to

explore the lived experiences of advisors and mentors in Afghanistan, how they

approached their leadership development work, and what they felt they learned from the

experiences. The phenomenological analysis was utilized to develop textural

descriptions, structural descriptions, and a composite textural-structural description.

The composite textural-structural description was developed to provide a synthesis

of both ‘the what’ and ‘the how’ of the Participants’ experience. The researcher then

utilized invariant meaning analysis, counting, patterns and themes, and clustering to

explore facets of the experience as provided by Participants. Finally, a textural-structural

synthesis (essence) of the research Participants’ experiences was done.

Prior research has examined a multitude of leadership traits, characteristics and

behaviors as both mediated and moderated by culture itself and leadership theory, but the conceptualization of cultural differences as they relate to leadership emergence merits continued consideration for field researchers because of its significance in the global context. This empirical leadership research discovered how culture and context and setting of the experience influence social structures as they pertain to leadership emergence. The research may also allow mentors/trainers and emerging leaders to potentially embrace these identified concepts in order to create conditions that stimulate

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leadership emergence. This research sought to understand the nature of how greater awareness of how culture and leadership moderate the relationship between advisors/mentors and developing leadership emergence, and more specifically how cultural differences influence leadership emergence in post-conflict nations where vulnerable and/or marginalized populations exist, in addition to how both mentors and aspiring leaders can contribute to each other’s success.

Chapter 4 presents findings and analysis using research methods described above.

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CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH FINDINGS

Purpose and Research Question

The purpose of this study was to explore the lived experiences of advisors,

mentors, and trainers that they identify as important in their performance during

leadership training and development efforts in Afghanistan. The study seeks to gain an

understanding of how cultural dimensions and cultural differences enable leadership

emergence.

Specifically, this study sought to illustrate how an enhanced understanding of

cultural contexts, through a phenomenological study, can uncover the key cultural

differences, national environment impact, and what and how mentors and advisors

navigated through leadership development efforts in order promote leadership emergence

among mentees and for leaders to emerge in post-conflict nations. By exploring the lived

experiences of advisors and mentors as they perform capacity building, the researcher

hoped to achieve a better understanding of how leadership emergence is enabled by a

better understanding of the impact that differences in cultures can have.

This study explored the following primary exploratory research question:

How does culture influence the lived experiences of advisors/mentors engaged in

developing leadership emergence in post conflict societies?

While the interviews were semi-structured and allowed for open-ended questions, principal questions used for the interview protocol in order to guide the Participants were:

1. What were the major challenges in developing leadership skills in Afghanistan?

2. How would you describe your role as a mentor and advisor?

3. How did the national culture influence what and how you developed the local

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leaders?

4. How did the national environment impact the type of leadership skills needed?

5. How did the national environment impact the approaches you used in developing leaders?

6. What enabled you to be successful as a mentor and advisor?

7. How did you change/improve during your time as a mentor/teacher?

Overview of Chapter

This chapter presents the findings and key themes that have emerged from the first-person accounts of Participants’ experiences to elicit the essence of the phenomenon.

Chapter 3 provided discussion of qualitative analysis techniques used to supplement the phenomenological analysis using Moustakas’ (1994) method of phenomenological reduction.

Phenomenological analysis (Moustakas, 1994) was used to investigate the lived experiences of advisors and mentors in Afghanistan, how they approached their leadership development work, and what they felt they learned from the experiences. The phenomenological analysis was utilized to develop textural descriptions, individual structural descriptions, a composite textural-structural description, and a textural- structural synthesis (essence) of the research Participants’ experiences.

The chapter comprises a composite methodology consisting of a coding and thematic analysis and phenomenological analysis to eliciting Participants’ perceptions.

Mezirow (2000) posited that one uses context to justify much of what one knows and believes — one’s values and feelings depend on the biographical, historical, and cultural context in which they are embedded. Coding and thematic analysis methods were

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employed to examine the significance of Participants’ experiences. Moustakas’ (1994)

phenomenological reduction method was used to develop a composite textural-structural

description of Participants’ experiences in Afghanistan.

The procedures and steps used for data gathering, analyses, phenomenological

reduction and imaginative variation are identified in Table 4-1. Findings for Chapter 4 are

presented using the interview protocol principal questions, with the structural essence

following the initial findings. Table 4-1 shows the research methodology and procedures

detailed in Chapter 3 and phenomenological reduction and imaginative variation used in this chapter.

Table 4-1. Data Gathering, Analyses, Reduction & Imaginative Variation

Individual Profiles

Following the exercise of attaching equal value to each statement and stripping

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away irrelevant and repetitive statements, themes began to emerge from the Horizons.

The researcher then crafted individual profiles of each participant from the emerging themes. To exhibit the basic constitution of the phenomenon, each individual profile using Atlas.ti quotations combined with Participants background experience below provides for rich textural descriptions of their experiences. For practical purposes and reference, interview transcripts of Participants are retained in the principal researcher’s date repository as Annexes to the dissertation.

Table 4-2 provides a synopsis of key characteristics of each interview Participant and a composite look at their experience in Afghanistan.

Table 4-2. Participants’ Profession, Age, Experience, Education and Role

Professions Age Experience Education Role Afghanistan Criminal Not-for-Profit Law Firm University of Wisconsin Advisor 2007-2008 1 Defense ~43 Department of State Rule Law School / Mentor 2012-2015 Lawyer of Law Programs New York Defense Defense Attorney, Arbitrator; Lawyer; State Department Rule of University of Cincinnati Advisor 2 ~38 2012-2014 Adjunct Law; International Law School / Mentor Professor Development Law Organization Doctorate, Department of State Rule Teacher, Organizational Learning of Law Programs, Educator; & Instructional Consultant; USAID; Advisor 3 Consultant, ~56 Technology; Masters, 2011-2016 Peace Corps Volunteer / Mentor Monitoring Harvard GSED; Non-Government /Evaluation Bachelors, University of Organizations New Mexico State Department of Rule Strategic of Law; United Nations Lawyer; Kabul University Law Planning Development Program; 4 Financial ~33 School; Masters of / 2007-2016 International Planning Business Administration Advisor Development Law / Mentor Organization Monitoring /Evaluation Masters, Bowie State Department of State Rule Subject University; Advisor 5 ~57 of Law Programs, 2012-2015 Matter Bachelors, Western / Mentor Monitoring & Evaluation Expert, International University Budgeting;

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Prosecutor; Department of State Rule University of Wisconsin Public of Law Programs; Federal Law School; Advisor 6 Defender; ~37 2008-2013 Emergency Management Bachelors, American / Mentor Ethics Agency University Advisor Attorney, Department of State Rule Prosecutor; University of Richmond Advisor 7 ~42 of Law Programs, Gender 2013-2015 Adjunct School of Law / Mentor Training Professor Non-Government Professor; Organizations, Ministry Overseas Masters, Mentor / 2004-2006; 8 ~53 of Education, Education Wheelock College Teacher 2009-2016 Afghanistan; Save the Programs Children Alabama Criminal Stamford University Law Lawyer; Defense Lawyer; School; Advisor 2011-2013; 9 Military ~62 International Bachelors, University of / Mentor 2015-2016 Officer Development Law Alabama Organization Afghanistan Development Foundation; United Kingdom Masters, Mentor / 10 Educator ~51 2013-2016 Department for University of Utah Teacher International Development

Participants Background Experience

Participant 1 – P1: Participant 1 is a lawyer from the northeast U.S. and has

worked in various capacity building and rule of law implementations in Afghanistan and

other countries. Throughout his career of active employment, he is proud of his ability to

serve others and in meeting diverse challenges. P1 graduated from the University of

Wisconsin Law School in 2002, and while attending conducted clinical work in criminal defense and with the administrator for the Center for Public Representation, a non-profit

law firm in Wisconsin run through the law school. P1 was also involved in the Wisconsin

International Law Journal and attributes this work as one of the things that fueled his

interest in international law. P1’s first assignment was in Afghanistan from September

2007 to March 2008. It was a shorter contract mentoring Afghan defense lawyers as part

of the Justice Sector Support Program. All of P1’s international assignments so far have

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been funded by the Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law

Enforcement. In addition, in 2011 and 2012, P1 worked for the American Bar

Association Rule of Law Initiative as the Deputy Country Director for a program in

Belize. Then, not long after P1 left Belize he went to work back in Afghanistan from

September 2012 until September 2015, and during that three year stint P1 basically split his time about evenly between two different programs. The first program involved working at the Justice Center in Parwan where P1 was the defense lawyer advisor, which was related to the Justice Sector Support Program. P1’s first exposure to the Justice

Sector Support Program was in 2007 to 2008. When P1 arrived back in Afghanistan in

2012, he was not part of Justice Sector Support Program, but rather part of the Justice

Center in Parwan, a different program that was through the company PAE (Pacific

Architects & Engineers) and funded by the State Department; it was here when he was doing the national security work.

Participant 2 – P2: Participant 2 has been a prosecutor since 2005 at the Brooklyn

Defense Attorney's Office, where he rose to the rank of Deputy Bureau Chief. In this capacity, Participant 2 focused on violent crimes, prosecuting a variety of allegations and crimes as a state prosecutor. P2 is also an adjunct professor at John Jay College of

Criminal Justice. Performing as an adjunct professor was suspended while in

Afghanistan. Since his return, P2 has taught at ASA College and teaches at Medgar Evers

College. P2 has also been an arbitrator since 2008 at New York Claims Civil Court, where he arbitrates disputes, small claims matters, etc. P2 also has had some experience outside of the prosecutorial field, performing immigration law and social security claims where he has worked as a litigator. P2 also has some immigration experience. P2 was in

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Afghanistan from 2012 to 2014 and worked with two companies while in Afghanistan.

P2 worked on two programs, the first with PAE and the second with IDLO (International

Development Law Organization), which is an intergovernmental organization. P2 worked with JSSP (Justice Sector Support Program) and also with the JTTP program, both

Department of State programs. JTTP was a successor to the JSSP. P2 worked in almost

every region of Afghanistan, including Kunduz, Kabul, and the eastern regions (with

which he is most familiar). P2 has also worked in Herat, and traveled throughout

Afghanistan, except for Kandahar, and the Helmand Province.

While in Afghanistan, P2 was the chairperson of the Rule of Law Committee on

the eastern region, which is along the Pakistan border, near Jalalabad. Jalalabad was P2’s

main hub, and he would also mentor and train out of the different provinces around the

area. While in Afghanistan, P2 was part of the Rule of Law programs, but also assisted

other programs so they could establish a foothold. P2 also assisted the US Army.

Further, P2 assisted NDS (Afghanistan National Directorate of Security). While with

IDLO, P2 was asked to create a program in Afghanistan for the Major Crimes Task

Force, which was outside his purview, but he was indeed asked to develop a confidential

informant program, which he did on his own with them as part of Department of State,

the Army, and the Major Crimes Task Force. He developed a program that created

confidential informants, taught others how to deal with intelligence, and eventually

implemented the program and caught several kidnappers and freed several hostages.

Participant 3 – P3: Participant 3 has a Doctorate degree in Organizational

Learning and Instructional Technology, receiving the degree rather late in life, by the

time she was 50. P3’s specialty is educational technologies and specifically distant

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education. Prior to receiving her doctorate, P3 received a Master’s Degree from the

Harvard Graduate School of Education, again in technology and education with a specialty in cross cultural education as it relates to technology and education. Prior to her time pursuing the advanced degrees, P3 attributes her whole life changing when she was a Peace Corps volunteer. From 1980 to 1982, P3 had decided to become a teacher, and actually went to Washington, DC, and to American University, where she studied

Development Management, with the University’s first cohort on the subject. Shortly thereafter, P3 then met her husband at USAID. P3 has been in and out of USAID and development since 1980, and in technology since the 1970's. P3’s passion is to empower people through technology and empower people now through soft skills and leadership and giving them the skills to succeed in work which gives them the skills to succeed in life. This has been P3’s theme for the past nearly 30 years. This researcher first met P3 while conducting business in Afghanistan in 2012.

Participant 4 – P4: Participant 4 is a graduate of Kabul University law school and recently obtained a Master's of Business Administration (MBA) degree from American

University in Afghanistan. P4 has been working approximately 10 years as an advisor, mentor, teacher, deputy leader, team leader and senior judicial advisor. On December 23,

2015, P4 joined the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) as a training and education officer. P4 is an Afghan citizen and permanently resides there. P4 as an Afghan national provided unique insights into the work he performed as a mentor and advisor, first performing as what was known as a legal advisor supporting expat advisors because of his status as an Afghan citizen, but later working directly as a mentor to other Afghans.

Participant 5 – P5: Participant 5 worked in Afghanistan from 2009 through 2011

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and her role there was a subject matter expert in budgeting. P5 also evaluated Iraqi programs from 2011 through 2012 where she performed financial monitoring and then national and financial monitoring for Baghdad and then all of Iraq. P5 had the opportunity to lead the Iraqi staff there and she also had a counterpart whose role was to do leadership training for the Iraqis; in this case her role was to guide him or to step in when necessary. While evaluating Iraqi programs from 2011 through 2012, there were a couple of opportunities because of her gender where women would come up to her in order to relay some of their questions and concerns to the staff. From 2012 until early

2016, P5 was the section lead mentor for the Afghan staff in Monitoring and Evaluation.

P5 stated that for both Iraq and Afghanistan she performed leadership roles in both countries, and that she established good friends with the former staff from Iraq and that the deputy she worked for in Afghanistan was disappointed she left. P5 indicated she did establish very close relationships with all of the staff she mentored who were all men; and whether they were Iraqis or Afghans, they were very strong in their own religious backgrounds. P5 stated it was very interesting that she was very well respected in both countries, and reiterated she was treated very well by everyone and very well respected.

P5 also indicated the mentees went on to be successful in their own right after she had left.

Participant 6 – P6: Participant 6 worked in Afghanistan from February 2008 and stayed there with PAE for five years. P6 then worked another law program at the Justice

Center in Parwan where she prosecuted the Taliban. After performing in that capacity for a year, P6 ended that mission in September 2014. In total, P6 was in Afghanistan from

2008 until 2014. P6 graduated from the University of Wisconsin Madison Law School in

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2004 and four months later became a public defender for the state of Wisconsin. P6’s career involved criminal law as a public defender and she performed as a public defender for felonies, misdemeanors, juvenile delinquencies, and mental commitment hearings for indigent people. This work began in 2004 and lasted until 2008 when P6 then began her work with PAE in Afghanistan. P6 went to American University in Washington DC for her undergraduate degree, and expressed that at the time she knew she was going to do other things, but was so happy to have a job out of law school at the time that she went

ahead and accepted the public defender job initially in 2004. P6 expressed that she loved

being a public defender, and stated that she thought it was the best experience to get real

court room experience. When she applied for the Afghanistan rule of law position as a

justice advisor with PAE for the Justice Sector Support Program she was 29 years old. P6

attributed her prior experience as a public defender as giving her an advantage for what

she ended up doing, serving in the Justice Sector Support Program leadership cadre and

working with a lot of younger Afghan lawyers.

Participant 7 – P7: Participant 7 left Afghanistan at the very end of July 2015 and

was there for 28 months. P7 worked with both the gender team and the legislative

capacity building team. Specific activities for P7 included working with programs that were trying to help with domestic violence against women, rewriting the criminal laws, and teaching Afghans how to implement them. P7 has been an attorney since 2001 and her experience includes being a prosecutor. P7 also teaches law courses part time at a university, but the bulk of her practice has been defending doctors and hospitals in medical malpractice cases.

Participant 8 – P8: Participant 8 is in her early 50’s. For 28 years P8 was an

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elementary school teacher, principal and professor of education in the United States on both the East and West coasts. Wanting to contribute in the global arena, P8 wanted to contribute more in the way of helping train teachers since she was mentoring a lot of teachers in the United States and also being a professor to thousands of them. With that skill set P8 decided to leave the practitioner's side of teaching young people and both undergraduate and graduate students. P8 passed her credentialing in Afghanistan almost

10 years ago. Prior to that time, P8 had been volunteering for a lot of different organizations during her school vacations, and training teachers in Central America and

South America. Having heard about a woman who was training teachers in Afghanistan in science, P8 volunteered for an overseas assignment since science is one of her areas of interest and skills. After speaking with the sponsor, six weeks later P8 was in

Afghanistan. While having spent a couple vacations in Afghanistan, the work there became her true vocation. Having decided to change from teaching in the United States,

P8 committed to longer term work and got a job in Afghanistan. P8 worked for two different National Non-Government Organizations (NGO), with funding sourced by the

Ministry of Education, while being managed by National NGOs. Engaged by the

Afghanistan Ministry of Education, P8 lived on the local economy and ‘outside the wire’ without United States direct oversight and protection by civil police or military forces.

Living on the local economy, P8 had a house of her own and had to learn how to perform some of the simplest tasks like opening a bank account in Afghanistan; her individual efforts included hiring her own staff and how to train her staff on how to do things the way she wanted to work and live. Because she had been to Afghanistan prior to her formal assignment with the National NGO, P8 did have the benefit of knowing local

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nationals and having friends. P8 lived almost six years all together in Afghanistan and traveled throughout the country; she traveled in taxis, rode donkeys and traveled via motorcycles and all kinds of other vehicles. After a few years in country, P8 took a another job with an International NGO, so she moved and started working within that organization; it was here that she considered herself trapped in the ‘expat world’, and considered a foreigner in another country. Prior to this job, P8 had been living in an

Afghan world, working and living only with local nationals and using a translator. At no time did P8 have the benefit of security protection, protocols or anything similar, so she

“got by and just had to be settled into a country that was so completely different than I knew”. Having moved over to the International NGO, P8 had to learn and adjust to how

International organizations with expats operated. Performing in this capacity for almost five years, P8 then decided to move back to the United States in April 2016. By way of clarification, and through her own admission, P8 was neither affiliated with the U.S. military (Army) nor with an international organization such as UNICEF. While these types of organizations have very tight security protocols, P8 had lots of autonomy regarding when she left the office and what she did on her weekends. Immersing herself in the local economy, P8 had to rent a house, get the electricity turned on, and get the internet running. Through her own admission, P8 “wasn't a guest in anyone's guest house.

I wasn't in a hotel. I was just a civilian, just an average person renting a house on the street. They were watching out for Afghans from [inaudible], so I was just living in and amongst all the Afghans.”

Participant 9 – P9: Participant 9’s international rule of law experience started when he graduated from the Army War College in 1995. While he stayed in the military

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until he retired in 1997, P9 returned to Alabama and worked as a criminal defense lawyer

until 2004. It was at that time when P9 first went to Iraq, and joined the coalition of provisional authority with the Ministry of Justice in Iraq. P9 was in Iraq from 2004, with a short break, until 2010. Thereafter, P9 joined the U.S. Department of Justice for a year, and then went to Afghanistan. P9 remained in Afghanistan from 2011 to 2013 when he went back to Iraq. Having spent 18 months again in Iraq, P9 returned to Afghanistan and is currently working with the International Development Law Organization (IDLO).

Altogether, P9 has 12 years in the international rule of law field which began in 2004.

Participant 10 – P10: Participant 10 has been working in education for 30 years and moved into educational development approximately 13 years ago. P10 has worked in

Kurdistan, in Algeria for the Ministry of Education, and in Somalia for the United

Nations (UN). P10 worked in Kurdistan both for the Soros Foundation and for the Asian

Development Bank, and also in Mongolia for the Asian Development Bank. At one point,

P10 moved into educational management rather than consulting, providing technical

expertise in her new capacity. P10 also worked as an education program manager in

Liberia and as an education project manager in Afghanistan. In her own words, P10

revealed: “There's been a lot of mentoring both in the consulting and technical advisor part of what I've done as well as in the management part of what I’ve done.” As for work in Afghanistan, P10 was in Afghanistan and returned in October 2015, spending two-and- a-half years there. P10 managed a project funded by the Department for International

Development (DFID), a United Kingdom government agency responsible for administering overseas aid; it is quite a large project with seven partners. P10 typically had between seven and nine staff members, most of whom were Afghans, some of whom

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were also expats. P10 was based in Kabul, and the project had work in 15 provinces, some considered very safe to some that were very high risk.

Phenomenological Reduction

The initial step of phenomenological reduction was horizontalization, the grouping of quotations and codes into horizons. The inductive nature of the study resulted in a large number of codes that evolved during coding of the interviews, attributable mainly to the ease with which Atlas.ti facilitated identification of codes. However, in applying the phenomenological reduction methodologies (Moustakas, 1994), the horizons identified were then eventually delimited into invariant meaning horizons.

Reducing Quotations and Codes into Invariant Meaning Horizons

Respective codes for each of the interview protocol questions and applicable

horizons are maintained in the principal researcher’s date repository as Annexes to the

dissertation. Because of the manner in which Atlas.ti allowed for quotations, codes, and

delimited horizons to be identified, only select examples are provided in the Table 4-3

below, with one example for each of the respective questions from the interview protocol.

This procedure was applied across all quotations and codes identified in order to delimit

horizons.

Table 4-3. Examples of Phenomenological Reduction for Quotations & Codes to

Horizons

Horizon Code Atlas.ti # Quote Content Description 1:57 … there wasn't just this sort of petty corruption 1:58 …you have essentially ingrained, fairly rampant corruption 1:61 … lawyers would become aware of the verdict and then try to reach the Corruption family and suggest that they could make that verdict happen through Corruption their influence (Question 1) 1:62 In terms of corruption in the Courts, outside of that one, it was fairly known to be rampant, 1:69 When you have everyone at rates of pay that just aren't sustainable, it's inviting corruption.

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1:120 … in the context of corruption, which we talked about before. The issues of, basically; how do I get a fair shake if I'm not willing to pay a bribe… 1:167 … a lot of the stakeholders, unfortunately, are in fact corrupt. 1:171 … many of them who were in fact corrupt… 1:200 … the corruption so impacted Rule of Law that many folks didn't believe that they could get fair justice within the Afghan court. 1:243 One of the key problems in Afghanistan was corruption. 1:510 … the reality of what us mentors were telling them and the corruption… 1:784 "Well this is why we're stuck." There's a lot more corruption than you think. 1:487 I think it was across the board at a lower level with the police. I'm sure as well with judges and other prosecutors because the thing is they're salaries are so small, that they would do it out of a survival mode, not Bribes so much to use their power, they were using their power but they had to put food on their families table, and they wanted to improve themselves. They just took advantage of, there's a lack of transparency. 1:20 … my title was defense mentor or defense lawyer mentor. That was more of a hands-on teaching position, Teaching Hands on 1:96 It's teaching, and being a good role model. teaching 1:492 My job initially was to start just teaching a lot of these little law (Question 2) position concepts, 1:528 A lot of that was teaching. 1:161 I started developing, and pretty soon I started developing, real Developed friendships that folks will tell me stuff and they'll describe certain things to me. I would try to get the language going so that I'll have relationship Relationships them try to teach me the language. I developed some good s relationships with that. People started giving me information. They started trusting me to do certain things and so on. (Question 3) 1:512 ... but the point of having contractors there for the long term is that you Relationship actually develop relationships, as opposed to short periods of time. building 1:546 I guess I spent a lot of time with socializing, other than get anything done. 1:686 There was very little independent thinking on the part of most Iraqi and Afghan citizens. 1:723 … and not with the kind of critical thinking skills that we would have liked. Critical 1:725 I was working with staff who were real survivors because there are so Critical Thinking few Afghans who have the opportunity to go to the university, even thinking though they knew a lot more than other Afghans, they learned what

skills they knew in an educational system that didn't expect them to develop (Question 4) critical thinking skills and maybe didn't want them to develop critical thinking skills. 1:726 I found in Afghanistan in particular that a lot of times I had to start by helping people, walking people really step by step through the critical thinking of the process. 1:503 …did something really great, because they were employing Afghans. Cultural Cultural That's what made it successful was that we can't go in there with our Awareness / sensitivity own approach, we need to learn from the Afghans. We needed to have Cultural the translations and be effective culturally. Acumen 1:699 They require that mentors understand the culture, not necessarily to Understand immerse themselves. For instance, I never wore Afghan clothing, and (Question 5) the culture many people believe that would've been a big deal for us to wear Afghan clothing, but I don't because I'm an American.

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1:444 … they figured out there's only certain people, certain personalities regardless of the skill, that's going to be able to work on our team. Team 1:446 So, for him to say that this person that wants to get onto our team will Teambuilding not survive on our team, I thought was a huge turning point into composition understanding that it isn't about who you know, it's about how well that person is going to fit into our group and how that person is going to (Question 6) contribute to the team in general. Promote 1:440 The other piece that I definitely bring in, which is a different aspect teamwork from their culture and I think maybe from ours is the idea of openness and teamwork. 1:506 … but what the Afghan's taught me was that, while we focus on superficial things, and the clothes we buy or cars, they're more worried about, even though they were not very wealthy and had very little money, they didn't come off like that. Less 1:524 I think we have to, especially as Americans, keep in mind that success in other people's eyes may not always be just money. It could be just materialistic helping their community. For instance, the Afghan who, he could have gone to the United States, the one who built the school. 1:527 I think that it's not to me all about cars, and I think I changed because Values of that. Seeing other cultures helped me realize that it's not just about Changed money, or certain goals, but keeping in mind that there's more to life. 1:712 I grew as a person. I grew more tolerant. I grew to understand Islam a (Question 7) lot better, and the fact of how important family is to them. It made it more important to me. 1:715 I've been able to understand that 99% of all Afghan citizens are not Importance supporting terrorism. They abhor terrorism. All they want is a better life for their family. They want peace. They want a job. They have very of family simple needs, and very simple ideals. They don't want or need material things. Very simple lifestyle, and it's wonderful. It really is. I've learned to appreciate the fact that people come to work, they work hard during the day, and then they go home to their families. It's family all the time.

Invariant Meaning Horizons and Cluster Themes

The next step in the phenomenological reduction process was identifying cluster

themes from the invariant meaning horizons. The research analysis in this study produced

a number of Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered Themes for each of the interview

questions. Tables 4-4 through 4-10 depict Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered

Themes from the coding and thematic analysis for Interview Questions 1 through 7,

respectively. Readers should note that in preparing findings, this researcher used the

interview questions themselves to identify Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered

Themes. Narrative descriptions of each of the cluster themes follow Tables 4-4 through

4-10, respectively, providing insight into Participants’ experiences and perspectives.

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While each Participant had a unique experience during his or her assignment and derived his or her own particular meanings, certain aspects of the experiences were found to be common to the Participants’ experiences. The verbatim transcripts of each of the ten participants were analyzed using phenomenological reduction and imaginative variation to find the significant, relevant, and invariant meanings shared by all participants. The constituents were clustered into themes. The themes that surfaced were referred back to the individual horizons for validation. Each participant’s horizon was examined to determine whether anything in the individual horizons was not accounted for in the clustered themes, and also whether the clustered themes contained topics that were not in the original horizons.

Provided below are tables pertaining to the respective interview questions and narrative descriptions of clustered themes. These theme clusters provide an appreciation of the environment mentors and advisors face as they attempt to negotiate an unfamiliar culture. The composite textural-structural description created uses the interview questions format and sequence based on the interview protocol.

Question 1 Findings: Major Challenges in Developing Leadership Skills in

Afghanistan

Table 4-4 shows Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered Themes from the coding and thematic analysis for interview Question 1, What were the major challenges in developing leadership skills in Afghanistan?

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Table 4-4. Summary of Interview Question 1 Invariant Meaning Horizons and Theme

Clusters

Question #1: What were the major challenges in developing leadership skills in Afghanistan? Invariant Meaning Horizon(s) Theme Cluster . Lack of critical thinking skills Lack of . Promoted discussions to encourage critical thinking critical thinking . Gender bias - woman in Islamic country . Gender discrimination . Gender justice issues . Male dominated society Gender bias . Men being condescending to women . Not used to having a woman lead . Adjusting to women in leadership roles . Leadership credibility Preconceptions . Different perceptions of leadership & . Leadership competency perceptions . Preconceptions prejudices . Had to have mentees understand preconceptions and misperceptions (leadership) . Lack of understanding (program objectives) . Lack of understanding (the legal process) Lack of . Lack of understanding of international rule of law . Lack of understanding of the local culture general . Lack of understanding the reality of the situation understanding . Afghan own sense of what's going on . Lack of transparency Lack of . No media to publish news transparency . Lack of confidence . Had to start with small successes to build confidence Lack of . Lack of self esteem confidence . Build self-esteem to build leadership capacity (& self-esteem)) . Had to build self-confidence to build self esteem . Lack of continuity by mentors Lack of . Lack of continuity of leaders . Military drawdown negatively impacted jobs and continuity of the program continuity . Lack of interaction Lack of . Inability to interact with honest stakeholders . Mentees rarely interacted with mentors in informal settings interaction . Language barriers . Lack of English skills Language . Language differences . Language translations led to different interpretation of laws barriers . Three different languages plus more dialects . Corruption . Bribes . Did not know how to deal with corrupt officials Corruption . Did not understand how to identify corruption . Lack of literacy - illiteracy Illiteracy . Low literacy rate (lack of literacy) . Lack of education . Lack of an education system . Different educational processes Lack of . Formal education not valued . Lack of formal education education . Lack of mature law education . Loss of institutional knowledge

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. Disparaging comments for showing initiative . Young being put down for taking the initiative Lack of . Had to encourage mentees to take the initiative . Had to promote continued interest in the mentees' jobs and their significance initiative . Lack of interest in growing and developing skills (interest) . Lack of interest in learning . Security concerns Lack of . National security environment . Security protocols security . Nepotism . Power elites put in place as a result of nepotism Nepotism . Brown stamp collectors Self-destruction . Self-destruct (brown stamp collectors) . National entity fractured by ethnic and regional entities . Ethnic identity; regional identity Ethnicity, . Local regional leaders had too much autonomy . Local regional stakeholders did not comply with national guidance regionalism . Regional diversity . Poor transportation . Lack of information technology infrastructure . Lack of computer skills Lack of . Lack of internet services infrastructure . Lack of Internet, TV, social media . Not familiar with technologies

Note: A complete textural-structural description of major challenges identified are retained in the principal researcher’s data repository to the dissertation as Annex H,

Challenges.

Narratives of the Theme Clusters are provided in the sections that immediately follow.

Based on the characterization of perceptions by Participants, mentors and advisors in Afghanistan faced a number of major challenges.

Major challenges.

(1) Lack of critical thinking

A lack of critical thinking skills was identified by the majority of Participants.

The inability to apply critical thinking impacted not only the technical nature of the work, but the leadership development aspect as well. Participants 2, 4, 10 and 9 felt a lack of critical thinking was attributed to poor education in Afghanistan, since rote memorization

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was emphasized rather than the Socratic Method. Participants overcame this challenge by promoting objective and activity based thinking among mentees for them to become independent thinkers. The lack of critical thinking negatively impacted the mentor- mentee relationship since creative and innovative thinking had to be used in virtually every difficult situation.

P2 felt the lack of critical thinking was a “fundamental weakness, in terms of Rule of Law and legality; they lack critical thinking skills.” For P2, it was so much of a problem that oftentimes “When they came to me, a lot of the things I had to do was go through the Socratic Method with them.” So, one of the first things P2 had to do was train his staff in critical thinking.

“I had to do was train the staff in terms of critical thinking-... so that they can go out there and train the folks, because they were doing the majority of training, and train their mentees in terms of critical thinking, which was a huge undertaking because they are a culture set by ... religious, and legal rules. Rules, and hardwired rules. Interpreting some of that stuff was really difficult. What I did was, in terms of getting them to do this stuff, was one, understand their culture, understand their law, and have discussions with them, not (quote) "legal" (unquote) discussions as we were having but just discussions on various things. Then, when the cases come up, I would have them go over these questions and have them come to the conclusions, using our critical thinking skills, so that they can come to the conclusions.”

P4 echoed similar sentiments (English was his second language):

“The other thing I mostly experienced is that you would see a lot of people in these organizations that they are solution-given-reactive people, rather than finding the solution themselves. That also goes back to the opportunity that if you have opportunity to critically think about the solution for a problem, then you yourself would try to develop your leadership skill. If you're always a solution-given-reactive person, always looking for someone to give you a solution, that's also one of the major challenges in developing the leadership skills.

P10 attributed the lack of critical thinking to the Afghan education system since it was “very rote memorization” based, and Afghans who attended universities “learned what they knew in an educational system that didn't expect them to develop critical thinking skills and maybe didn't want them to develop critical thinking skills.” P9 felt the lack of critical thinking made it “very difficult for people to be proactive in any

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leadership position because in the past if they stepped out and did something on their own

they would normally get slapped down for it.”

(2) Gender bias

Gender bias was cited by the majority of Participants and considered one of their

biggest challenges. Gender bias not only existed for the mentors themselves, but women

in Afghanistan often suffered from overt discrimination. In the male dominated society,

men were often condescending to women and were not used to having women as leaders.

As a result, for mentors, traditional perceptions of women had to be changed; and for

mentees, women mentees had to understand the implications of gender bias and find

work-arounds. Further, mentors had to instill cultural gender norms and had to push

gender issues to give women more responsibility.

P4 viewed “one of the biggest problems here in Afghanistan is most of the women

are deprived of most of the opportunity either in the educational area or either in the

working areas.” Of the 12 legal advisors P4 mentored, only one of them was female. P5

identified gender bias as a significant challenge, and as a woman herself, felt the Islam

religion negatively impacted women. P8 stated that because of her gender, she “had a lot

of men who would put a target on my back just to sort of take me down just to prove that

women probably can't do that task.” P9’s perspective was that because of the Soviet

occupation, followed by the Taliban, and now with the United States presence, it was

very difficult because the national Afghan psyche was Islam based and women having a

greater role was seen as disruptive. P9’s experience was that Afghan women were never intended to be part of the leadership cadre, and “as we tried to empower women, for instance, it was a very difficult concept for most Afghans to accept.” P1 felt gender

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discrimination varies by education, by where they grew up, and how they were brought

up; and that gender bias was not only detrimental to women, but for men too. P6

indicated that the “biggest challenge was taking concepts like human rights, gender

justice, equality and due process when you're accused of the crime.” P2 observed that as

gender justice issues were surfacing, so too was Taliban resurgence, so all of this had a negative impact and created a culture of reluctance to implement rule of law initiatives.

Collectively, Participants identified many gender bias issues. Additional gender bias included “men being condescending to women”, awkward beliefs that women are incapable of doing anything, and men’s desire to be dominant. Finally, P10 observed many Afghans had very traditional perceptions of women.

(3) Preconceptions regarding leadership and associated prejudices

Certain preconceptions were held by Afghans as to what leadership entailed, and as a result, various perceptions and prejudices were apparent. P2 felt challenges included preconceptions associated with 9/11 terrorist attacks that preceded U.S presence in

Afghanistan in 2004.

“…and this is where a country like Afghanistan or the Middle East is where you would raise this, is coming out of a generation that lived through 9/11 and going into this type of culture kind of responsible for 9/11. You have to ... It's not easy because we have the past decade painted either willingly or unwillingly, whether it's the media or Hollywood, whichever stimulant the stimulation comes from. Whichever vector brings it to us. We have a sense of us versus them. We are the good guys, they're the bad guys. We paint those with a broad brush. You have to hold yourself back many times just from looking at ordinary Afghans as others, as them versus us, as the enemy.”

As such, P2 felt expats needed to recognize “within yourself biases that you may

not think you have, ideas or concepts or perceptions that you do not think is prejudicial,

and dealing with these individuals that you come across of course as human beings and

not as potential enemies.” P2 also felt that due to military conflict in Afghanistan, it was

difficult to look at a Middle Eastern and want to reach out to them because of battlefield-

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like conditions. So, for P2, it was necessary to understand “At the same time our own

prejudices and perceptions, whether real or imagined, that we bring with us to the table.”

Further, in P2’s view, Afghan mentees had “their own prejudices and perceptions as

well” and once mentors recognized their biases, they could “cope with cultural

differences, because you look at cultural differences,” and were “able to admire things, as

opposed to looking at everything in a jaundice eye.”

Finally, participant 2 commented:

“For instance, one of the perceptions that is there still is the notion that we're trying to impose our own laws on the Afghans, and the laws that they have are not the laws that they created. Understanding that, when you approach individuals, and one of the things I would do would be, I would sometimes have them ... Find out what they know about their own laws, have them sort of teach me what their law is. Once they start teaching me what their law is, and I understand that they know where it came from, you have a better ability to start saying, "Okay, not only that I know it," but you now have an ability to know what your law is. You can have a better discussion on the law, because you know that this person you're dealing with is not someone who is under the perception that we imposed this law, but it's something that's organically Afghan. That was huge, because you had so many people in the government and educated who think that we imposed it.”

P9 offered additional insight on challenges associated with different leadership

perceptions: “for us in the West, to understand the culture that we were going into, and

how the perception of leadership was so much different in the host country than it was

where we're from.” In Afghanistan, it took P9 a while to realize that the life experiences

of the people he was working with were totally different, with totally different educational processes, and a totally different approach to interpersonal relationships than he was accustomed to.

(4) Lack of general understanding

A significant challenge was a general lack of understanding of the justice sector

reform objectives and a lack of understanding of the complex situation itself in

Afghanistan. For instance, despite working on a rule of law program, some mentees did

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not understand the legal process and related concepts, e.g., evidence gathering. Combined

with this general lack of understanding of legal concepts and State Department rule of

law mission, some Participants felt mentors did not grasp an understanding of the local

culture and that some mentees failed to understand the reality of the situation.

Consequently, many Afghans had their own sense of what was going on in a respective

province and for that matter across the country. As to its impact on mentoring, P7 felt

there was “a total lack of understanding of the process or knowability to move it along”,

spending “weeks on weeks on the same thing” and “trying to get consensus on what the

new law should say, and making a decision and then moving on, so many different

opinions.”

P9 echoed similar sentiments: “They didn't understand rule of law from an

international perspective, and so we had to literally start over, and as a result you couldn't assume that the people we were working with in Afghanistan understood anything we were saying.” This lack of understanding made the relationship between mentor and mentee tenuous, which slowed leadership development efforts and knowledge transfer.

(5) Lack of transparency

A general lack of transparency by the Afghan Ministry of Justice staff was challenging as Participants felt the lack of transparency resulted in ambiguity regarding the program’s vision and goals, causing consternation among the mentors and mentees.

The ambiguity, according to P6, existed with the police as well with judges and other prosecutors and resulted in them going into a “survival mode” with their focusing on maintaining an income rather than improving their leadership and rule of law skills. P6 also felt judicial proceedings were negatively impacted because with poor case

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management, suspects were often not even made aware of charges. Further, “the

scheduling of trials was often not public. The suspect didn't know what the charges were”, and the suspect became “lost in the system and they don't know what's going on, and then they're facing charges that are pretty serious potentially” without the benefit of knowing why. Further, according to P6, the overall lack of the public being involved and no public media severely impacted the quality of leadership development since too much time was spent acquiring rudimentary case and trial information that should have otherwise existed.

(6) Lack of confidence (and self-esteem)

As another challenge, many mentees suffered from a lack of confidence, and mentors had to consciously begin mentoring efforts with “small successes” to build mentee confidence. P8 attributed some of the mentee lack of confidence due to the fact that the mentee was not proficient in the English language. When necessary, P8 would ensure a translator was made available. P8 also had to ensure mentees understood that

critiques of technical aspects of work were just that, done from a purely technical point of

view so as not to diminish the mentee’s self-confidence. P3 began with “small

successes”; and she would tell them, “Look, you need to have small successes to gain

confidence.” She emphasized this because she viewed self-confidence as being

instrumental to developing future leaders.

A general lack of confidence was accompanied by a lack of self-esteem. So, to

build mentee self-esteem, mentors had to use friendly, positive approaches to increase

self-esteem and build mentee self-confidence. P3 felt “The major challenge

fundamentally is lack of self-esteem. With a lack of self-esteem it’s very difficult to have

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people in positions of leadership because they don't feel they belong there. They don't understand it. They don't feel they're worthy.” P3 went on, stating “the lack of self- esteem is epidemic in Afghanistan”.

(7) Lack of continuity

As a result of turnover with many mentors only working their assigned one year tour, continuity of training suffered. In addition, transition between mentors did not always go well as some mentors ended their assignments early without the benefit of a proper transition. P1 stated the tour length average was “something like 8 or 9 months,” and the military drawdown in Afghanistan beginning in the 2014 timeframe negatively impacted continuity of the Justice Sector Support Program mentors as uncertainty existed as to whether the program itself would continue. P2 felt the lack of continuity was especially prevalent in the more remote areas of the Afghan provinces. In P2’s view, the

Afghans “were very skilled at dealing with internationals in the sense that they knew, through years of experience” that turnover was high. Given this lack of continuity,

Afghans would often not assimilate legal, training, and leadership concepts as expected.

P7 echoed similar sentiments, commenting “It would be nice if the same internationals would continue to show up, but they always seemed to be leaving.” The international coalition’s military drawdown also negatively impacted jobs and continuity of the program according to P2 since the program started placing mentors and advisors into different locations since the coalition was shutting down bases due to consolidation of programs.

(8) Lack of interaction

The lack of interaction some Participants identified was attributed to mentors and

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mentees rarely interacting in informal settings away from work. For P1 who was a member of the initial transition-in cadre for the Justice Sector Support Program in the early 2000s, he did not feel “like we were able to bring in the most qualified people” and as a result of program growth and huge staff, it was “harder for the internationals and the local staff to interact with each other as effectively.” P2 also experienced situations where many mentees from Afghan provinces came to Kabul on either a rotating or temporary basis; so “one of the big problems in terms of the landscape, aside from the danger that's always there, is the ability to interact with the stakeholders, who were honest as opposed to corrupt.” This limited interaction created gaps in training and resulted in less than desirable results regarding leadership development. P2 also indicated that as time progressed, the location of the work moved to a highly secure camp with separate dining arrangements for Afghans and internationals. As a result, “folks rarely interacted. I didn't need to know my international folks.”

(9) Language barriers

Language barriers were identified as a significant challenge. The fact that at least three different languages/dialects existed in Afghanistan was problematic with respect to different interpretation of laws by mentees. Further, in the context of justice sector reform, language translations led to different interpretation of laws and the resolution of cases. In addition, a multiple language version library existed for the legal codes which only further complicated things. Finally, as viewed by P8, language dialects played a role in the ranking of different language and ethnic groups with respect to ruling entities across the provinces.

Sometimes too, the quality of translators impacted the mentor’s work as expressed

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by P1:

“I've been in meetings where I had a translator that I realized, unfortunately, wasn't very good, and it was somebody assigned to me that day, so I didn't have the opportunity to work with him in advance, or to realize this person's just not able to perform at the level that I need. Other people have had those stories. If we're not able to communicate, then in that interaction, we're not going to be effective.”

P10 also felt language differences presented a challenge since she did not speak Dari or

Pashto; “language was also a barrier to the learning process just because I didn't have the vocabulary in their language and they didn't have the level of fluency in English to facilitate interaction at the kind of high level that would have been perhaps more useful.”

P8 found that “a lot of their lack of confidence was around engagement around something that had to do with English” skills, so to overcome this lack of confidence she stressed that language barriers should not in themselves be the issue, so she simply reviewed and edited their emails to mitigate this challenge.

P1 also revealed there were multiple English translations of the same Afghan law, so the actual intent was sometimes misconstrued by the drafter when looking at different translations of the same document. Further, P8 “felt like a lot of times our conversations would end up being breaking down jargons, sort of technical jargon and I think it both came from the fact that these were not native English speakers engaged with a native

English speaker. We would go back and forth between Dari, Pashto and English.”

(10) Corruption

The majority of Participants viewed corruption in Afghanistan as a major challenge since it impacted how mentees interacted with local leaders, the Ministry of Justice, the judiciary and their respective staffs. Bribes were cited as a big problem; however, many

Participants stated rules of engagement were developed in order for mentors to know how to deal with corrupt individuals. A key constituent resulting from the corruption was that

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many mentors found it necessary to teach mentees how to identify corruption and make

the rules of engagement a part of their training routine. P1 felt corruption definitely

“impacts the day to day working environment, and people's motivations, and people's

morale due to the “fairly rampant corruption.” P2’s perspective was:

“a lot of the stakeholders, unfortunately, are in fact corrupt. Nevertheless, as part of your job, you have to deal with them. Most of the time, you have your rules of engagement, so to speak, on how to deal with them. To get anything done, you have to, you always go in with that notion of they're trying to get something from you, material or money. That was the rule of thumb. That was the standard that happened almost every time. They would always ask you for X, Y, and Z. At the same time they're asking, you pull for the same thing. They ask every program for the same thing. Even when they do get it, they still continue asking for it.”

P2 went on to say:

“The provinces are a little bit different. In the provinces, I found that the stakeholders, the leaders and the stakeholders; yes they also had, they were also many of them who were in fact corrupt but, they were, how should we say?”

P2 also felt another issue was “that the corruption so impacted Rule of Law that many folks didn't believe that they could get fair justice within the Afghan court. They went

back to Taliban courts because the Taliban tribal courts were giving them better justice.”

P6’s view was a bit different but also captured the uniqueness of the problem:

“There's a lot more corruption than you think. I think that the best thing was we try to keep them hopeful. That was the biggest, that was probably the hardest thing to do, but I was able to accomplish it because I was, I talked to them about, ‘There's going to be changes with your elections. I believe that Afghanistan is starting to get better.’”

(11) Illiteracy (lack of literacy)

Illiteracy across Afghanistan presented problems, especially for mentors doing

field work in remote areas of the provinces. Since many mentors worked in Kabul and

their mentees resided there, literacy was adequate in the city itself. However, many

lawyers (mentors and mentees) had to deal with a generally illiterate populace as legal

trial cases were heard, and the lack of literacy by clients was problematic. P2 observed

that many educated Afghans knew one another, but the general Afghan population

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remained illiterate. So, when mentors and mentees had to work with illiterate suspects

(and their relatives), much of the time was consumed conveying complex legal concepts

rather than on leadership development activities. P4 certainly seemed to understand the complexity of these challenges and their implications for his country. Based on P4’s assessment, the current education system and the huge percentage of illiterate children appeared quite overwhelming and discouraged many mentees.

For P10 the illiteracy issues were especially evident given the regional diversity that existed across Afghanistan:

“We were working in some really tough places like Kandahar that had a very low literacy rate, that had very traditional perceptions of women, and very negative perceptions of westerners all the way to a province like Bamyan where people were relatively more educated where women were relatively more likely to work and to participate in public life, and where they generally welcomed westerners. I think that definitely had a real impact on our ability to interact with staff, and sometimes just on our ability even to go to those areas.”

Given P10’s focus on education, her mentoring involved the full spectrum of

performing leadership development activities with well-educated mentees to having to

deal with some of the most mundane issues for those that were illiterate. With the vast

range of skills required, it put a physical and emotional strain on P10 in terms of her

mentoring.

(12) Lack of education

The lack of education was cited as a significant challenge. Formal education was

not valued and the lack of a mature law education negatively impacted mentoring. More significantly, the lack of education meant Afghans were not well versed in the Socratic

Method of inquiry which ties to the lack of critical thinking as another major challenge.

Further, since formal education was not valued by many Afghans, the intellectual level of some mentees detracted from legal proceedings efforts and institutionalizing rule of law

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across the Afghanistan. P6 expressed the view that

“Because the national culture is about respect, and just like other nations, but really out there it's all about respecting the elders and Mulahs, and the people in the villages have a lot of the power. They were often not educated. The educated people, they don't have the power. A lot of those educated people are the younger guys that we were working with. I say guys, because it was all mostly Afghans men I worked with,”

P4 reinforced the lack of leadership knowledge was a result of poor education.

“As you know, John, that for any kind of skills, especially when it comes to the leadership, knowledge is the first thing that will promptly make you understand of what leadership means or what a leader is, or how should a leader look like. The first challenge you would face here in Afghanistan, and I have experienced, is the knowledge level. The reason why is that if you go to ... everywhere, in most of the universities, you would not see most of the management or leadership subjects in the schools.”

P2 remarked:

“You can't train them as you would a student in college for two reasons. One, their education system sucks, completely. They are great at, the Afghans are great at memorizing. They learn the law as you would learn the Koran through memorization. Their fundamental weakness, in terms of Rule of Law and legality, they lack critical thinking skills.”

P9 commented:

“In Afghanistan formal education is not an important feature, or at least it was not until we came in 2001. Formal education was not highly valued among the citizens of Afghanistan. We ran into the issues in Afghanistan of lawyers and judges and rule of law professionals not being well educated. They didn't understand anything about international rule of law.”

Finally, participant 9 cited the lack of a mature law education was especially vital to leadership development for Afghan lawyer mentees:

“They didn't understand rule of law from an international perspective, and so we had to literally start over, and as a result you couldn't assume that the people we were working with in Afghanistan understood anything we were saying.” “…but especially in Afghanistan, a person goes through 4 years of university level law training and at the end of 4 years they become eligible to become a lawyer, as opposed to in the United States, of course, takes 7 years. …It’s 4 years of law school, Law University really, not really law school like we think of. They start out at a much lower level than we're accustomed to anyway.”

(13) Lack of initiative (and interest)

Participants stated mentors had to continually encourage mentees to take the initiative since some mentees received disparaging comments for showing initiative and

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younger mentees were often put down. P8 found some mentees were discouraged from asking “a deeper question or want to understand the background behind something” because of “other folks trying to kick them off the pedestal.” P8 also saw young people discouraged for taking the initiative because of the perception that older people were entitled to a position the mentee desired. P3 would have to encourage mentees to take the initiative; consequently, she would tell her budding leaders, “Don't be a baby bird. You need to go after things, take the initiative, don't wait for someone.” From P3’s perspective: “The fear factor prohibits, especially young leaders from acting, and this was a real challenge”. P7 attributed a lack of initiative to being lazy, and despite mentees being able to write and speak excellent English, “They would turn in these writings, projects, which was horrible, that looked like someone who barely had a comprehension of the language.”

Added to the lack of initiative was a general lack of interest in learning, in growing as leaders and developing the skills necessary for effective leadership. P2 felt it was a combination of challenges, i.e., gender justice issues, Taliban resurgence, and status of forces agreements; and with the United States military pulling out, it “started having negative impact in terms of how and what our local guys can do;” it also created a culture of “reluctance.” P10 specifically identified that for some Afghan staff it was simply “a job for them”, it “often didn't go beyond earning a salary”, and this “certainly impacted their interest in growing and developing their skills” and “made them less interested in learning.”

(14) Lack of security

Security and terrorism by the Taliban were a significant challenge. Security

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concerns ranged from terrorist threats to security self-protection protocols not being followed. Further, many Participants cited the inability to travel freely due to the security situation in Afghanistan. Due to these security concerns, P9 was precluded from meeting outside the office to develop relationships. While the mentees were able to go to meetings with mentors and observe how P9 handled meetings, “it was still not as effective as it would have been had we not had the security concerns that we do in Afghanistan.”

As for the national security environment, P1 expressed that it

“had a huge impact on what anyone could do or could accomplish. There were significant stretches of time where the national environment, in terms of their physical or security environment, would mean that we couldn't leave. Everything we're getting would be reports from our Afghan staff coming back to us, and maybe not knowing what questions to ask or what we were looking to find out. That had a huge, practical impact on how fast things moved, and how well they moved.”

P10 also cited security protocols as having an impact on her mentoring and leader development from the standpoint of where she was able to go. She avoided anything that

appeared to be military or that appeared associated with the government because that

increased risk level.

(15) Nepotism

Nepotism impacted the caliber of mentees selected and detracted from the

Department of State’s rule of law mission. In addition, some Afghan ‘power elites’ were

put in place as a result of nepotism, and this further detracted from having the most

qualified Afghans in leadership positions. Participants also observed that some power

elites occupied positions as Afghan Ministry officials and staff despite the observation

that many were minimally qualified. (In this instance, power elites are considered as

being members of a royal family or ruling tribe.)

P8 observed that due to allegiances to particular tribes, Afghanistan was fraught

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with people in power that would only hire others from their tribe, respective region or from their families. P8 commented: “A lot of nepotism, and a big challenge of sort of trying to support people on my team and to raise them up as leaders and thought provokers and that kind of thing.” While she had a lot of responsibility in her role supporting the Ministry of Education, P8 felt it was difficult to establish the right balance between selecting highly qualified candidates as compared to the pressures of nepotism where others were trying to impose their will.

P10 also felt there was a huge amount of nepotism and it negatively impacted her interactions with others:

“My staff definitely had a hard time understanding particularly when we were filling a position, that I needed to have a resume, that I needed to interview the person, that I needed to test them. That was a real struggle with the human resources department of the organization that I worked for because they had a cousin that they knew was going to be great, and I knew that we were going to be I think audited to be sure that people we had hired we had hired with cause.”

P2 described his experiences concerning power elites as “some patron who would

get them that position,” and in Afghanistan, “it's taken to a different level”. In his work,

P2 felt he had “to know who is connected to who”, what their motivations are, know how

strong or weak that person is” because you may stake everything on this particular

individual to develop a program, but that person's hold on a particular position is tenuous and will probably be removed. As a result, P2 had to routinely assess what his mentee was capable of, pushing the mentee only within the bounds of their capabilities, not

“beyond what they can or cannot do”

(16) Self-destruction (brown stamp collectors)

A prevalent view held by Participants was a disparaging concept labeled ‘brown

stamp collectors’; the term was equally appropriate to ‘self-destruction’ as a challenge.

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P3 felt that because the nation was overcome with continuous conflict, some members of

the Afghan society would try and discredit others, especially their superiors, as a way of

obtaining career advancement. This occurred until these individuals reached a point

where they examined their own self-worth, determining that it had diminished so much so

that they would essentially self-destruct. The analogy P3 made to collecting ‘brown

stamps’ was similar to families collecting Green Stamps in the United States in the mid-

20th century to earn purchasing credits. S&H Green Stamps were trading stamps popular in the United States from the 1930s until the late 1980s, and were distributed as a retail loyalty rewards program by the Sperry & Hutchinson (S&H) company. P3 cited Shepard and Bennis (1956) who looked into group dynamics and what makes people act or not act in a group. Making the analogy to purchasing credits, e.g., airline Honors Member, P3 felt “It's the same principal but in Afghanistan you have what is called "brown stamp collectors" so “If I, excuse my language, screw you over, that means I get a point.”

“Now I'm going to go to your project manager, I'm going to screw him over or her over as well. My God, I get two points for that. I'm going to fail at getting the data for this project. That's five points. So now I've had multiple back stabs, multiple failures and I'm filling up the sheet with brown stamps. The last item left is what? It's me isn't it? Now I'm killing off me, I'm a suicide bomber. That's it. That is Afghanistan.”

P8 had a similar experience where workers were spending extra time doing research on

their own, essentially showing initiative. Others misperceived the actions and asserted it

was a “suck up to the boss kind of thing” with these individuals “trying to kick them off

the pedestal.”

(17) Ethnicity, regionalism

From a cultural perspective, tribal identity and group ethnicity were challenges.

Mentors need to be aware that in Afghanistan, the national consciousness was fractured

by ethnic and regional entities, and as a result, mentors had to know familial, regional,

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ethnic and national power structures; so much so that mentors and mentees alike had to

tailor their approaches regarding legal proceedings to a particular ethnic tribe or entity.

Further, the perception existed that an informal system of justice was based on oral

tradition which often reflected views based upon a particular ethnic or regional entity. In addition, when dealing with the local populace, prejudicial biases were distractions to leadership development. Finally, tribal identity often resulted in local norms taking precedence since tribal relations were deemed more important from a loyalty viewpoint.

P2’s perspective of different tribes and regions in Afghanistan was “You have a national identity, which in Afghanistan is broken down by not just tribe, but by ethnicity.

For instance, Pashtun versus Tajik versus Uzbek.” Given this, mentors and mentees had

to work with local stakeholders who were conscious of their positions in the community

vis a vis the national party, remaining cognizant of “someone who has a greater influence

because jobs and positions are not given, generally speaking, based on ability, but by

familial and contacts and power needs.”

Numerous provinces and regions across Afghanistan also had their own identity.

In this regard, P10 and P2 noted that local regional leaders had too much autonomy

which resulted in a lack of consistency for mentors and mentees across the various

regions of Afghanistan. As to the impact it had on P10’s mentoring, she was “always

very surprised at the regional diversity”, working in places like Kandahar that had a very

low literacy rate, that had very traditional perceptions of women, and very negative

perceptions of westerners.

(18) Lack of infrastructure

Many Participants identified the lack of infrastructure across Afghanistan,

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involving everything from transportation to communications, from governmental to educational, from civil to military, and from social networks to information technology.

The lack of transportation was a challenge since it impacted the ease with which mentors could interact with their mentees, the local populace, and members of the Ministerial agencies they served. The lack of an information technology infrastructure was deemed challenging since host and donor organizations, i.e., Department of State, IDLO, had stringent reporting and monitoring and assessment activities. The lack of an IT infrastructure also made communicating with one’s own country difficult and this put a strain on families, so much so that some mentors terminated their contracts early. In addition, the physical distance issue, made all the more significant by poor transportation networks meant traveling consumed much more time than it should have which distracted from the quality time mentors and mentees had. For P1, a lack of resources, printers, paper, ink, computers, and physical infrastructure to be able to accommodate Internet service, created all kinds of issues with the judges, with the prosecution offices, with defense lawyers; basically every hurdle that you could think of would be there. For P6, implementing a case management system for the Ministry of Justice could not be done on a cost-benefit basis alone because even the most simple attributes of the system such as putting the name of the individual and the date of the arrest could not be easily done in

Afghanistan.

Other challenges

Other cultural challenges existed and ranged from a number of topics beginning with the hierarchical code of laws and their precedence to organizations that were too encumbering. As a result of the bureaucracies that existed in Afghan Ministries, not only

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did the Justice Sector Support Program suffer from a lack of creativity and innovation,

but individual mentees would become easily frustrated at the lack of progress being made. P8 expressed concern that because it is very hierarchical in Afghanistan, individuals are only responsible to the person who's directly above them. In addition, lesser challenges mentioned included the paternalistic nature of the Afghan society to punitive measures that sometimes beset people. In addition, the strong basis in religion and embedded values and beliefs oftentimes made things difficult to change. In this regard, the formal system of justice remained slow and legal interpretations of laws were sometimes premised on the results desired. Finally, the lack of an obvious work ethic was perceived to exist, presumably due to the continuous conflict and terrorism that existed.

Question 2 Findings: Descriptions of Advisors and Mentors Roles

By far, Participants perceived their primary role was one of teaching, followed by mentoring itself, and then providing training. Consistent with training needs analysis, P4

felt assessing knowledge, skills and abilities of mentees were an important part of his

work. As it pertains to teaching, knowledge transfer was viewed as large part of the

teaching role. Noteworthy among the Participants views was that decision making and

managing, along with providing clear directions, were seen as instrumental to their work.

These perspectives were followed by Participants seeing ‘encouragement’ and ‘helping’

as roles performed. In addition, posing questions and promoting critical thinking were

viewed as being important. Despite many Participants working as advisors, the following

activities were not prevalent: ‘setting the example’, ‘leading’, ‘growing a leader’ and

‘teaming’. However, building accountability was identified as a key role by P5 in her

work, and building accountability was seen by many Participants as an effective approach

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in their mentoring efforts. Finally, from the standpoint of institutional development and

as envisioned by many of the donor organizations, few Participants saw capacity building

and advisory assistance as principal roles; this may have been attributed to comments that

sponsoring and donor organizations were out of touch with the reality of the situation on

the ground in Afghanistan.

Table 4-5 shows Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered Themes from the

coding and thematic analysis for interview Question 2, How would you describe your role

as a mentor and advisor?

Table 4-5. Summary of Interview Question 2 Invariant Meaning Horizons and Theme

Clusters

Question: 2 How would you describe your role as a mentor and advisor? Invariant Meaning Horizon(s)] Theme Clusters . Critical thinking skills . Promoted discussions to encourage critical thinking Promoting critical thinking . Growing a leader . Improvement . Identify areas for self-improvement . Behind the scenes activities Leading . Promoted mentees drawing their own conclusions based on true value system . Community leader . Hands on teaching position . Give mentees the tools for them to do their job . Giving recommendations . Had to re-build core competencies in management and leadership . Knowledge transfer Teaching . Model active learning with adults . Teach mentees to be cognizant of pressures from above . Teacher role . Teaching pedagogy and methodology . Teamwork . Promote teamwork Teambuilding . Team setting . Clear directions . Providing guidance . Continuous need for guidance . Meetings Managing . Overseeing mentees . Responsible for managing . Working more in a managerial position

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. Assess knowledge, skills and abilities . Creating opportunities . Creative initiatives . Continuous encouragement . Handholding . Have mentees explain their discipline . Helped mentees to be their best within their cultural context . Role transition from being helped as mentor to helping the mentees . Self-perception of helping the host country Mentoring . Offer to help . Helping . Had to mentor stakeholders . Matriarch role . Mentor staff in specific skills . Show mentees how to apply laws equally with due process . Set the example . Decision maker . Had to be decisive Decision making . Promoted fact based decision making using laws vice customs . Build accountability Building accountability . Continuity Providing Continuity . Goal setting . Objective setting Goal setting . Ask questions in an appropriate way . Asked leading questions Questioning . Continuous questions . Start a training group . Technical skills . Train the trainer role Training . Train them to be more proactive . Worked as a trainer and set curriculum . Advisory assistance . Capacity building Capacity building . Increase proficiency of mentees

Note: A complete textural-structural description of roles Participants identified is retained

in the principal researcher’s data repository to the dissertation as Annex H, Mentor Roles.

Mentor roles.

Participants held varied perspectives in their roles as advisors, mentors and trainers.

Significant among the roles identified are: promoting critical thinking, leading, teaching,

teambuilding, managing, and mentoring. Additional roles are as follows, with some

participants identifying them as being secondary: decision making, building

accountability, providing continuity, goal setting, questioning, training, and capacity

building. Based on information about the Participants experiences, the perceived roles of

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mentors/advisors are described in the narratives below. Table 4-5 above lists roles identified and cluster themes are described below.

(1) Critical thinking

Developing critical thinking was seen as a key facet of work by the majority of

Participants. Promoting critical thinking and the Socratic Method were considered highly appropriate approaches. P5 pushed the development of critical thinking since she “knew that was something that could enhance what they already had.” In addition, P5 felt that based on the nature of the job and the nature of what she had to do to mentor, she had to teach mentees “why you need to have these skills, why you have to learn to analyze, what critical thinking is.” Acknowledging that these activities are not necessarily purely related to leadership development, P5 had to strike a proper balance between teaching mentees how to do their job and building their leadership prowess through critical thinking.

(2) Leading

Growing a leader and leading were seen as key aspects of many Participants roles. Based on the nature of the job and the nature of what she had to do to mentor, P5 expressed that her mentoring was different from another person's mentoring. So, in her capacity as a mentor, P5 was compelled to grow the mentees as leaders in addition to teaching them technically what the job entailed. Only after balancing mentees’ ability to do their jobs and after they became somewhat competent, could she build their leadership skills and develop them as leaders. P5 also viewed her role as being “like a vocational teacher in the beginning” because mentees did not know the trade; but that once they knew the trade, then she could elevate them to someone who could then teach the trade.

An additional role P5 identified was leading itself. In this capacity she oversaw mentees

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and performed behind the scenes activities in order to ease mentee transition into their formal leadership positions and alleviate pressures they might encounter. According to

P5, this approach helped the mentees understand that “they had somebody that was fighting their battles they didn't realize were going on in the scene.”

P2 also felt that leading was a key aspect of his role as a mentor and he advocated

better leadership competencies and individual autonomy. Essentially, P2’s goal was to

have mentees reach their own conclusions using a value system supported by their moral

values and proper interpretation of Afghan laws. In identifying areas for self-

improvement, P4, felt his role included identifying mentees’ strengths and weaknesses. In doing so, he attempted to elicit mentee weaknesses by drawing upon their strengths; expressing that he would use the equivalent of a building block approach: “What I mean by this is that once I was building someone's skills on certain issues, then I was giving them the chance to build others. I myself observed them and how they are performing, because that was a second cycle of my mentorship, to again work with those people in those areas that they are still weak in. That was the way that I was doing my mentorship.”

(3) Teaching

A preponderance of Participants viewed their role as teaching. Whether identified as “more of a hands-on teaching position” or one of “teaching, and being a good role model” the advisors on the Justice Sector Support Program were often involved with

teaching law concepts and training justice professionals in the classroom, but “also

mentor them and follow up with them”. Since a lot of the work was teaching”, advisors would often find themselves in a position where they would “give them the tools” for mentees to further their skills related to implementing rule of law initiatives. Another

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perspective of teaching offered by Participants was “helping” to give recommendations

for legislation as it pertained to mentees from different legal aid organizations

representing national security detainees. As such, P4’s view was one of teaching to re-

build mentee core competencies in management and leadership based on the perceived need to “work with those people in those areas that they are still weak in”. From the standpoint of knowledge transfer, P5 felt her “role was to impart upon them the knowledge, but not just the knowledge, but the confidence to do the work without me,” making mentees proficient enough to do the work themselves without her guidance.

Further, P8 felt compelled to model active learning with the adults she worked with by having regular weekly or bi-weekly meetings so as to try and “mentor and build up their leadership skills”. For P10, she viewed mentoring her staff in terms of their specific skills, and would “approach management very much like a teacher” with the assumption

that it was her responsibility to help mentees identify as well as look at gaps in what they

were doing. Finally, P8 displayed her own competencies in teaching as they pertained to

pedagogy and methodology and more modern concepts by promoting the idea that

mentees associated with the Afghan Ministry of Education should be enablers for active

learning.

(4) Teambuilding

P10 had her technical staff routinely discuss what they were doing in their

respective discipline as a way of increasing team collaboration. Further, P10 thought it

“was really useful in making sure that everyone on the team had at least a good general

understanding of what all of their colleagues were doing” across a broad spectrum of

activities related to mentee technical, financial, and monitoring and evaluation activities.

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P5 also offered an interesting perspective with respect to promoting teamwork; in asserting that “the culture did not respect teamwork, critical thinking, and the equality

and respect for each other”, P5 pushed for more collaboration across teams because “that

was something that could enhance what they already had.” P7 also thought her

responsibilities in a team setting were important since she worked with nine mentees in

her office and would help them based on questions that would come up, with some of the

mentees seeking additional help from others on the team.

(5) Managing

Participants described their role as having various management aspects to include

providing clear directions and guidance. In addition, overseeing mentees performance

and managing the team were cited as key facets of Participants’ roles. In addition, some

Participants expressed they were responsible for working more in a managerial position.

P1 viewed managing as an important part of his role based on his job responsibilities as a

juvenile justice mentor. In this capacity he managed a team of junior mentors from Camp

Gibson and would only be called upon “if they felt like an American would move

something forward.” Otherwise, his mentor team would go out for meetings as part of

their daily mentoring routine and report back to him when “there was something that we

talked about that it would make sense for me to get involved in”. P1, then, viewed his

work in the Justice Sector Support Program as more of a management position, where he

had a team of six Afghan lawyers working on juvenile justice issues across different

Afghan ministries that included the Attorney General’s office, the Ministry of Justice, and the Juvenile Rehabilitation Center.

In her role as a mentor, P8 saw the need to provide clear directions. This was

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especially prevalent as she revealed that “through very challenging situations, if you're

not clear and decisive about exactly what you want, it wouldn't get done because there's a

fair assumption of ‘well, you didn't tell me that’”. As for overseeing others in a formal

capacity and directly related to the justice sector reform efforts, P1 saw his role working

with the lawyers with the legal aid organization of Afghanistan as one of initially

“helping to give recommendations for legislation that created the legal aid law”. But as time progressed, he had a lot of direct contact with what he referred to as the end users, with mentees from different legal aid organizations in the Ministry of Justice that were representing the National Security detainees and overseeing the mentees that were representing detainees from a legal defense standpoint. As indicated by P7, she was responsible for leading mentees in virtually every project as a result of their continuous need for guidance. However, this was somewhat of a false expectation set by the mentees themselves rather than a pseudo-role as identified by P7.

(6) Mentoring

P1 and P2 viewed their primary role as mentoring itself, while P8 and P10 viewed it as a secondary role. More specifically, P2 stated that “When I first came in, my role as a mentor was two-fold. One, I had to mentor my staff, who would then go out there and mentor the stakeholders.” As he showed mentees how to apply laws equitably with due process, P2 described his role as follows:

“My job was to show them how to apply those laws equally, with due process, and with their constitution in mind, which is a pretty okay constitution as far as I'm concerned. It's not like ours, but few are. It had all the protections that was necessary. It was just to teach them how to look at this law, look at the facts, analyze it correctly, and let the law reign supreme, as opposed to someone's culture or someone's tribe or someone's affinity. That was my role.”

P1, on the other hand, mentored lawyers with the legal aid organization of

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Afghanistan and provided recommendations for legislation that created the legal aid laws;

he later worked with mentees from different legal aid organizations in the Ministry of

Justice that were representing National Security detainees. In her capacity with the

Ministry of Education, P8 described herself as performing in a mentoring role from the standpoint of a matriarch: “That has high reverence in Afghanistan, so I tried to utilize that as a way to guide people, particularly when they didn't necessarily want to go with one direction I was leading them”. In addition, P10 looked both at mentoring her staff in terms of their specific skills, whether it was monitoring an evaluation or communication with her project partners or communication with the Ministry of Education, from a more structured and formal standpoint.

Providing continuous encouragement in their mentoring roles was seen as important to P7 and P10. While P7 remained positive in this regard, she felt “responsible for leading them in every project they did; they wanted handholding, and instruction and guidance on how to do the most simple tasks.” P10 provided encouragement as a result of the need to keep team members informed. P3 viewed her “role really as a mentor more than anything else to help Afghans, both men and women be their very best within their cultural context and within which they work.” Given her educational background of long- distance learning, it was understandable why P3 felt her mentoring was contextual based on the Afghan culture and environment. P5 also identified helping as a significant aspect of her mentoring role. P5 initially worked collaboratively with her Afghan mentee and was responsible for “supporting him and advising him.” Her efforts eventually transitioned to the point where P5’s guidance could be given quietly inside her mentee’s office, becoming “more of a helping role to actually support him.”

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P10 saw one of her secondary roles as “creating opportunities for team members

to mentor each other” as it was important to her to have a voice with respect to explaining

aspects of the project beyond their specific focus. Further, P6 found the opportunity to

create the opportunity for more hands-on training during a joint program with German

police since it enhanced the mentee experience and fostered new relationships with other countries. Finally, P5 felt it important to draw out the following distinction in her work as a mentor, that “There's a difference between a boss and a leader to me.” As a leader, P5 felt she needed to set the example so others can follow it. P4 saw assessing others as a key aspect of his mentoring, providing advice and mentoring on specific issues while in the field and “looking to the issues of the people who were working in my team to assess their cases, their knowledge, skills and their abilities in certain tasks that they were performing.”

(7) Decision making

Of the various roles identified by Participants, that of being a decision maker was viewed being highly relevant. P8 specifically expressed that she employed very decisive kinds of skills and provided very clear guidance such as “We're going to do this,” and,

“You need to do that” in order for mentees to progress. P7 stated that she “was

responsible for leading them in every project they did; they wanted handholding, and instruction and guidance on how to do the most simple tasks.” Beyond routine decisions being made by some Participants, P2’s view was that it was a part of his role to instill a decision making process that relied on factual data rather than outdated customs; his focused approach included taking a “look at the facts, analyze it correctly, and let the law reign supreme, as opposed to someone's culture or someone's tribe or someone's affinity.”

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(8) Building accountability

P5 viewed building accountability as one of her roles and took the approach that

she could “work in a cooperative environment and a team environment and still lead”

with mentees eventually beginning to assimilate these traits. P5 comments reflect her

positive attitude toward these responsibilities: “In the culture, what's really wonderful about the job that I do, is it's all about accountability and transparency, that's my job. It's my job to teach them the same thing so they can then do their job with transparency and accountability and then hold their own government or their colleagues or their own coworkers to be accountable and transparent in the work that they do.”

(9) Providing Continuity

P6 viewed part of her role was providing continuity since some of the State

Department programs’ durations were less than a year and mirrored short duration

military rotations, e.g., 60 days, but as expressed by P6, “That’s like the worse thing we

could do, and it was, and it proved to be the worst thing we could do.” In her personal

assessment, P6 touched upon a number of points, predominant among them being

consistencies the contractors offered, versus the short term military turnover; and that

when conducting mentoring and justice sector reform, it is important to be in country on a

long term basis since helps to enhance the relationship from which she could promote leadership development and better establish relationships with the mentees.

(10) Goal setting

As a result of having to further the objectives of the Justice Sector Support

Program provided to contractor teams by the Department of State, P4 was particular in

identifying mentee weaknesses and then creating personal development plans for mentees

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and identifying related personal goals. Couched as a “building a capacity-building plan” personalized for each mentee, he had them agree on specific objectives that were time-

bound. Thereafter, and during the mid-term and at final evaluations, he would ensure the mentoring plan was completed. In addition, other advisors prepared similar individual mentoring plans that included clear and measurable objectives, metrics, and tangible results measured against set timelines.

(11) Questioning

Three participants identified asking leading questions and continuous questions were a significant component of their mentoring roles. P8 took the approach that a mentee should not be “a passive learner as opposed to more active learner.” P8 found this useful for a lot of the adults she worked with. Through her own admission, P8 would often begin mentoring sessions with surface questions; she would then try and have the mentees build up their leadership skills as a result of her asking questions such as: “Well what questions do you have for me?” P10 also felt asking leading questions was beneficial to her mentees as evidenced by the following quote emphasizing her desire to cross-fertilize ideas across her team:

“I would ask leading questions. I think that was really useful in making sure that everyone on the team had at least a good general understanding of what all of their colleagues were doing. I think that was really enjoyable for me. I was I think the one that had the overall understanding of all of those disciplines, and that helped me ask good questions and that helped me give examples…”

P7 was a bit less optimistic that continuous questions were as beneficial as others may

have felt, but as mentees had questions, she would help them out by posing follow up and

clarifying questions.

(12) Training

Another role identified by Participants was training. P6 stated that training was

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pretty much what she did in Kunduz, Afghanistan, for two years, performing “strictly as a

trainer and mentor with a basically set curriculum” across various subjects related to

criminal procedures. Thereafter, P6 “went to Kabul to start another training, a new

training program in Kabul” since prior to that there were only satellite regional training

centers (RTCs). P2’s perspective on his role was one of train-the-trainer: “I would train

them and they would go out and train others.” P5 saw her mentoring role as a bit different

from the standpoint of imparting technical skills to unqualified staff,

“They did not even know what the job was. They had to learn, I had to teach them technically what this job entailed, what the deadlines are, why this is important, why you're doing what you're doing, why you need to have these skills, why you have to learn to analyze, what critical thinking is, how do you determine whether this is truthful or not truthful, whether this comment had content or not content. Those aren't leadership things, those are technical.”

P4, faced a different situation and considered his role to go beyond providing advice to

his staff only when required, and voiced concern that providing advice was “really not the focus of a mentor or mentoring.” In describing how he would train his mentees, P4 wanted his mentees to be more proactive by looking to issues of people working in his team in order to “assess their cases, their knowledge, skills and their abilities” in certain tasks being performed.

(13) Capacity building

P3 felt her “sole focus has been and continues to be on capacity building”, with her success defined by trying “to build people's capacities by praising them for what they do right instead of criticizing what they do wrong, which is so common in Afghanistan.

In that type of complex environment, where it's very damning, very critical, I try to build safe spaces for people to practice.”

P4 also viewed one of his secondary roles as “building a capacity-building plan”

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in which he and his mentee agreed to time-bound objectives and assessing performance

against mid-term and final evaluation plans. Another aspect related to capacity building was increasing proficiency of the mentees. P5 expressed that because of personal differences between mentees, rather than cultural differences that might have existed between them, a principal goal she had was to “take whatever I was doing and have them do it at a proficient level themselves without my guidance.” In her attempts to increase mentee proficiency, P5 felt that her “role was to impart upon them the knowledge, but not just the knowledge, but the confidence to do the work without me.”

Being charged with developing a case management system in her job working with a variety of Afghans that included juveniles, females, and others, P6 felt one of her principal roles was providing advisory assistance. For this endeavor, and while the initial implementation was slow, the eventual training curriculum and case management system was put in place across 21 locations in Kabul, Mazar, and Herat, while P6 oversaw 42

Afghans performing the work.

Question 3 Findings: National Culture Influence on What / How You Developed

Local Leaders

Table 4-6 shows Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered Themes from the coding and thematic analysis for interview Question 3, How did the national culture influence what and how you developed the local leaders?

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Table 4-6. Summary of Interview Question 3 Invariant Meaning Horizons and Theme

Clusters

Question 3: How did the national culture influence what and how you developed the local leaders? Invariant Meaning Horizon(s)] Theme Clusters . Developed relationships . Relationship building . Developed friendships with stakeholders . Developed real friendships . Engage in informal discussions in casual settings . Get to know them and their personal situation . Socializing Stressed importance of . Stressed the need for relationship building . Developed trust through friendship relationships building trusted relationships . Developed trusting relationships . Family relationships are more important . Establish trust . Developed trustworthiness . Had to build trust . System of beliefs, values, attitudes . Awareness of cultural norms . Culturally appropriate . Cultural immersion . Developed understanding of local culture . Had local nationals educate mentor on local culture . Had to have mentees understand preconceptions and misperceptions Taught cultural acumen . Had to instill cultural gender norms . Show appreciation for their culture . Show respect and appreciation for local culture . Watch body language . Focus on the religion rather than culture . Developed objective thinking . Encouraged identification of solutions to problems . Had to teach critical thinking Promoted use of . Promoted arguing, disagreement to encourage discussion and critical thinking . Promoted discussions to encourage critical thinking critical thinking . Promoted mentees drawing their own conclusions based on true value system . Taught staff and mentees to identify solutions to problems . Had to build leadership capacity Taught inclusive leadership . Provide instruction in soft leadership and technical skills . Use of cooperative leadership to enhance cooperation . Adjusting to women in leadership roles . Helped men appreciate women to overcome gender bias Conducted gender training . Gender justice issues to alleviate bias . Had to develop gender sensitivity . Find commonality . Focus on the curriculum Taught common curriculum, . Had to teach creative disruption emphasizing creative disruption . Consensus building . Had to have mentees overcome brown stamp model . Demonstrate respect of the person Taught teambuilding skills . Never embarrass anyone . Respect and praise while promoting teamwork . Careful about who was placed together . Group dynamics

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. Emerging leader . Focus on current young leaders . Created protected environment for leaders recognized it was safe to experiment . Inculcated leadership skills, creating protected environ to grow as leaders Empowered mentees and created . Empowered mentees to be more proactive . Empower mentees to work on their own self-perception of emerging leaders . Empowered staff so they took pride in their accomplishments . Empowered mentees to make decisions . Empower women . Need to develop enthusiasm . Keep mentees enthusiastic . Encourage women Continually . Had to push forward on gender issues to give women more responsibilities . Helped men encourage women to overcome gender bias encouraged mentees . Need to develop enthusiasm . Praise in front of others . Hierarchical approach to management . Identify realistic objectives Taught managing skills . Promoted understanding of careers and progression to achieve objectives . Objective setting . Process a decision Promoted fact-based . Train them on how to make fact-based decisions . Promoted fact based decision making using laws vice customs decision processes . Developed ability to interact in informal settings Used informal interaction to . Face to face interaction facilitate learning . Had mentees and staff take ownership of tasks Stressed accountability and . Had staff and mentees take ownership of work taking ownership . Candor regarding talents Provided candid insight . Tribal identity Provided guidance on dealing with . Tribal ranking of language groups and ethnic groups . Tribal relationships more important ethnic, tribal and regional groups . Had to develop task focus Promoted results orientation . Focus on work in performing tasks . Train them to be situationally aware Implemented tailored approaches

Note: A complete textural-structural description of the ways in which mentors developed

local leaders is retained in the principal researcher’s data repository to the dissertation as

Annex H, How Mentors Developed Leaders.

Narratives of the Theme Clusters and Participants’ perceptions of the national

culture influence on how they developed Afghan leaders (Table 4-6 above) are provided

in the sections follow immediately below.

How mentors developed local leaders.

(1) Stressed importance of building trusted relationships

Building trusted relationships emerged as a predominant theme and varied in

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what was done to develop leaders and how understanding relationships enabled

leadership. Relationship building manifested itself during leadership development in

Afghanistan as follows: developing/building relationships, developing friendships with stakeholders, developing real friendships, engaging in informal discussions, getting to know mentees and their personal situation, enhancing relationships, and developing trust through friendship. Additional examples include: interaction through use of informal settings, socializing, stressing the need for relationship building, different approaches to interpersonal relationships, establishing personal relationships, leveraging relationships, teaching diplomatic relationships, training mentees and staff to develop strong relationships, developing trusting relationships, and the importance and significance of family-tribal-ethnic-regional relationships in the Afghan culture.

P1 felt it was important to be “able to develop confidences with the mentees, particularly, the Afghan staff” which involved developing trust, being frank and open,

and establishing confidence in their ability to leverage relationships themselves. P2’s

observation was that “Once you have that personal relationship, you're able, and you

teach your colleagues, even though this person may be Pashto or this person may be Farsi

or this person may be something else, you teach them how to be diplomatic. You teach

them about understanding where this person's coming from, who they are, what they've

accomplished.” P5 felt the whole culture in “Afghanistan is about relationships and you

have to build that whether you want to or not”. In addition, recognizing the importance of

building relationships, P7 “became better friends” with her mentees.

P6 held the view that an important “approach was building relationships with

those judges so that eventually I would be forming, building stronger relations and they

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would let us be even invited to a trial” and “just ensuring that we had strong relations

with the leaders out there”, were crucial to her work. P8, in recognizing cultural differences, felt that “in Afghanistan it is a very big part of the culture that you sit down,

you have tea with them and you're talking to them and you do a little chit chatting and

then you get to business.” Further, P2 would engage in informal discussions over food because “culturally for them, eating with them is part of how you integrate.” Finally, P9

felt “In Afghanistan tribal relationships and family relationships are far more important

than any formal government, or any formal structural relationships” and that emerging

Afghan leaders should take this into account, so as not to overlook cultural influences.

Having Afghan local leaders build trust was cited by participants as a matter of training

how to establish trust, developing trustworthiness, building trust, and learning to trust

others more. P2 felt that because Afghans “separated out how they dealt with us by who

they were dealing with”, he had to get mentees to understand the importance of “when you're dealing with principals, you have to send the principal”; and that leaders needed to understand the importance of lateral communications between positions of the same status and the value it provided in developing trust and issues being resolved.

P8 also felt it was important for mentees to understand the significance of establishing trust as a facet of leadership: “trust is very, very important” so much so that she “developed trustworthiness the most with a lot of different people” in order to demonstrate emerging leaders needed the ability to establish trust as a competency. With respect to the national culture’s influence on how he developed local Afghan leaders, P4 cited “beliefs, values, attitudes are the three main dimensions” that each leader needed to

consider. So if a leader was to influence others, they had to be cognizant of how their

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“values really affect” their leadership style. P4 also felt that in maintaining relationships,

people had a tendency to follow the region rather than individual leader since “people

here in Afghanistan culturally are more supported and tied to the region rather than

individually.”

(2) Taught cultural acumen

Cultural awareness served as a foundation for mentors as it allowed them to

objectively view things while increasing their understanding of cultural values and beliefs. The term cultural acumen (Javidan and House, 2001), defined as ‘keenness and depth of perception, discernment, or discrimination especially in practical matters’ is appropriate to the Participants experiences since it reflects their approach to teaching cultural acumen, understanding the implications of differences, and developing culturally appropriate skills.

Participants felt an overall awareness of the country’s cultural norms, values, and beliefs was necessary. As they performed their leadership development efforts,

Participants took into account key aspects of Afghan culture such as religion, lifestyle, family values and tribal allegiances, and patriarchal nature of the Afghan society. Further,

Participants in describing aspects of the Afghan culture they experienced, presented a microcosm of the larger national culture. In this regard, Hofstede’s (1980) indices of

Power Distance, Individualism, Masculinity, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Long-Term

Orientation (Hofstede and Bond, 1984) while referenced only by a few Participants, underlay descriptions of their work. Whether having to cope with gender bias; dealing with uncertainty caused by years of conflict; the relationship of mentees and respective

organizations to the familial, ethnic, regional and national groups; or roles of women in

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the Afghan society; Participants identified a number of areas mentors and mentees had to be aware of because of how knowledge of national culture influenced not only their leadership development and technical training, but also how awareness enabled culturally appropriate skills.

Participants identified the need for cultural acumen as a significant influence in their daily work and felt mentees needed to be consciously aware of how male and female roles were defined, especially given the impact of the Islamic religion. In general, mentors had to be aware of cultural norms and conduct their activities in a culturally appropriate manner. In developing an understanding of local cultures, mentors felt compelled to learn about the nuances of local and regional cultural implications in their work; it was also important for mentees to understand their own preconceptions and biases.

P2 viewed developing an understanding of local cultures was necessary since it impacted what he was trying to convey to mentees so he “would discuss it freely and say,

‘Oh my God, this is great.’ I would have them educate me on it.” P2 provided an example of his interaction with a chief judge “talking about revenge, family enmity” when one member of a family does something bad and the other family takes revenge on another family member. When the judge explained “‘Well this is our culture. This is Pashto. You can't do something to someone's family’”, P2 challenged him by asking “Well which is higher? Is the Koran higher or is it the culture higher?” to which the chief judge replied:

“‘The Koran is the higher law, of course, et cetera, et cetera’.” This example of questioning the Afghan value system and hierarchy of beliefs, reflective of Hofstede’s

(1980) uncertainty avoidance index, was deemed a necessary component of P2’s work

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developing Afghan leaders.

P8 identified her observation skills as being vital to how she developed Afghan

leaders, and noted differences between “an American being really direct and very

forthcoming” and “using a lot of body language”. In comparison, since “Afghan body

language and engagement is very subtle and very quiet”, P8 felt compelled to try “hard

not to be the loud American” in her work. Also, in terms of taking into account religious

values and how she would develop mentees, P5 challenged local leaders by drawing out

“the difference between the Afghan culture and the Muslim culture” and in doing so, she felt “the aspect of the national culture is highly materialistic and very much about how one appears, what one has”; but “the religious culture is the opposite, the humbleness,

providing for others.” Given this approach, P5 “would always challenge them when they

had some issues or something going on, and ask them to focus back on the religion”

because she felt this would help keep the emerging leaders grounded and make

appropriate choices.

(3) Promoted use of critical thinking

Given the perception that Afghans acquiesced to a culture of religious dogma and

where tribal codes prevailed, many Participants viewed developing local leaders’ critical

thinking as important. Teaching critical thinking manifested itself in developing objective

thinking, encouraging identification of solutions to problems, promoting arguing and

disagreement as a way of encouraging critical thinking, promoting discussions, having

mentees draw their own conclusions, and teaching analysis of alternatives for solutions.

P1 felt the religious-based culture and Shari’a Law (e.g., memorization and recitation)

was detrimental to leadership development, and that the more secular-based Law and

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Political Science Afghan university track should be encouraged among mentees because

it taught objectivity and critical thinking. P2 also saw a need to develop critical thinking

and encouraged local leaders to “take ownership” and “understand that this is theirs to

run with”.

P1 also saw the need to stress critical thinking similar to United States law

schools as a way of developing mentees. Promoting arguing and disagreement to

encourage discussion and critical thinking was one way P2 overcame cultural bias, albeit

“one of the best things” he did: “I kept it very collegiate, where they can come with me and they would ... And, we would have arguments. I mean arguments. We're free to have our arguments. That was one of the things that these guys didn't feel that they were able to argue with internationals before.” P2 further developed local leaders by encouraging them to draw their own conclusions based on an objective value system; by posing questions in the manner he did such as “‘Well who wins in this case?’ ‘Who is higher?’”, he helped mentees apply the Afghan legal code despite it conflicting with their own culture, i.e., guidance as vested in the Koran versus laws in place at the time.

(4) Taught inclusive leadership to enhance cooperation

According to P3 and P9, predominant methods used to develop leaders included building leadership capacity and providing instruction in “soft leadership and technical skills” and use of “cooperative leadership”. For P3, she started with “building their self-esteem to build their leadership capacity” as this step was essential to Afghan leaders’ success; success could be achieved by using a tactic she referred to as “positive tasks, positive person”. P3 also felt providing affirmation was useful because she understood “what it's like to promote women in a very conservative Islamic society”. For instance, in the case

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of “a young woman who really wanted to get ahead” P3 pushed “forward the gender issue in the sense that to give women more responsibilities, to praise them, to encourage them, to give them instruction on how to be their very best both in soft skills and in the technical skills required of monitoring and evaluation.”

P9 held similar views as shown in his quote where in order to instill leadership

capacity, he had

“to treat people differently in an Islamic Afghan culture than you would a U.S. or Western culture because, again, in a Western culture people will follow you based on the position that you hold. That's not true in Afghanistan. In Afghanistan the culture is one of cooperative leadership as opposed to leadership of coercive leadership. The culture of Afghanistan requires that you treat people much differently than you would, necessarily, in a Western culture. You can never embarrass anyone. You can never belittle anybody in front of other people. You must demonstrate respect of the person, as opposed to the position. In Afghanistan, to be effective, I had to make sure that I never crossed that line between respect and expectations of outcome. You must respect, obviously respect, and praise a lot, the subordinates and the people you're leading, or they won't pay attention. They may pay lip service to what you're saying, but it won't be effective.”

(5) Conducted gender training to alleviate bias

Certain Participants were compelled to help men appreciate women more and to

acknowledge the contribution women make to society. So, to have Afghans adjust to

women in leadership roles, P8 felt it necessary to develop an appreciation for “women

being leaders and being in charge” since many Afghan men were either not used to it or

had a predisposition that women should not perform in leadership roles. Understanding

this, P8 sometimes deferred the topic of women in leadership positions and kept it “on the

quiet” because that was “such a sensitive thing in Afghanistan, particularly amongst a

particular tribal group”. Rather, P8 would focus on showing Afghans what she could do

without imposing too much on them.

In teaching inclusiveness, Participants acknowledged that gender bias influenced the manner in which mentors worked to overcome men being condescending to women and

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gender discrimination by conducting gender justice training and instilling gender sensitivity in local Afghan leaders. P7 felt definitively that gender bias had a “negative impact” on how she provided instruction, so much so that she “had to be very careful about who we placed together to work” because of the issues associated with “men being condescending to women, which was difficult in our gender efforts”. Since gender bias was problematic, P7 had to shift people around to ensure there was no negative impact to leadership development training. With respect to gender bias in the national culture, P1 felt “gender discrimination varies by education, and by where they grew up, and how they were brought up”, so he attempted to overcome this bias by relying on better educated Afghan mentees to change this perspective among others.

(6) Taught common curriculum, emphasizing creative disruption

Knowing Afghanistan had a relationship based culture, some Participants would encourage local Afghans to focus on the curriculum and on their actual work during their training because actual work often was secondary to other things. As a result, once P8 got through the initial social pleasantries and professional courtesies, she would focus on her

“technical expertise” so as to get beyond “the periphery of things” and instead focus on imparting knowledge. And rather than trying to push an agenda of how “white women can do these things” she would just “model being a good leader”. P5 took an interesting tactic in order to make herself a more credible mentor, and felt that because of her own strong religious background, she “had a foundation by which we could find commonality.” Being more conservative than many American Christians, P5 “often had an opportunity to talk about the things that we had in common religiously”, using this as a foundation for common ground. By doing so, P5 earned respect and leveraged this

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commonality in her leadership training. In addition, since P5’s background was Hispanic-

American, she would talk about similarities “with her family in the same room, in the

same house with their mothers, fathers, uncles, and cousins as the Afghans do.” For P1,

he began his leadership development efforts by enabling creativity with questions such as

“Why are we doing it this way?” in order for mentees to think creatively about problems.

Since “thinking in terms of the creative disruption mindset wasn't default for most of the

people that I was dealing with” P2 felt compelled to include this teaching method as part

of how he developed local leaders.

(7) Taught teambuilding skills while promoting teamwork

With regard to the culture’s influence on how he developed local leaders, and to be

effective, P9 felt he had to promote respect for others: “had to make sure that I never

crossed that line between respect and expectations of outcome. You must respect,

obviously respect, and praise a lot, the subordinates and the people you're leading, or they

won't pay attention.” Further, as an extension of the ‘brown stamp collector model’

identified by P3 as a challenge, P3 found it necessary to stress group dynamics and what

makes people act or not act in a group. Finally, P7 stressed team composition.

Specifically, the “issues with men being condescending to women” significantly impacted who P7 placed together in teams; “it had a negative impact. We had to be very careful about who we placed together to work”.

(8) Empowered mentees and created self-perception as emerging leaders

The national culture also influenced how Participants approached leadership

development from the standpoint of emergent leadership as a construct: focusing on current-day activities leaders could solve, creating protected environments so leaders

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recognized it was safe to experiment, and promoting their willingness to learn. P8 felt it

important to encourage local leaders “to take initiative” despite other people “making

disparaging comments” because somebody's showing initiative. P4 felt there was a

general need for younger leaders since “most of the youth are deprived of a lot of

opportunities”. Consequently, P4 felt compelled to focus on current problems in

Afghanistan rather than having local leaders focus too much on the future which would have prevented them from addressing present day challenges. Because negativity and

pessimism accompanied Afghan corruption, P3 felt compelled to try and “create a

protected environment” in which to grow as leaders, where it was “safe to experiment”,

and “safe to speak out.” Because of the perception the national culture did not encourage

individualism, it was important to Participants that local leaders be more empowered to enact change and reform. As such, promoting mentees to feel empowered took a number of different forms, predominant among them empowering mentees to be more proactive, empowering mentees to work on their own, empowering staff mentees to take pride in accomplishments, empowering mentees to make decisions, and empowering women as emerging leaders. P9 did not feel his efforts to empower women were as successful as they should have been because “there was very little independent thinking” on the part of most Afghan citizens when he “tried to empower people to make decisions.” P9, however, “tried to empower women” despite it being a “very difficult concept for most

Afghans to accept.” P2, in observing that his mentees had marginal competence debriefing legal cases, cross examining witnesses, and asking the right questions; he was able to enable them and create a sense of empowerment among his mentees. In addition,

P2 found “delegating the duties amongst them, and trusting them to do it” helped them to

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take ownership and gave them a sense of being empowered. In doing so, P2 encouraged

local leaders to be more proactive, and by identifying mentees as aspiring leaders, he

would “just let them spread their wings and fly” so as to have them learn from their mistakes.

(9) Continually encouraged mentees

One of the things P4 leveraged in the Afghan culture was creating enthusiasm

among the youth. According to P4, an Afghan himself, “In this kind of country,

especially the young generation, you would see in the national culture an enthusiasm in

these youth for getting new skills.” Knowing this, P4 encouraged his staff and mentees to

remain enthusiastic during leadership development activities. P1 also felt creating

enthusiasm was essential in how he developed local leaders. P1 commented:

“When we find those people, then you want to, just like in most organizations, when you find the right people, you want to make them happy, you want to figure out, how can I feed them so I'm ... By feed them, I mean how can I figure out what makes them excited about the job, and build on that, to develop them and cultivate them, keep them enthusiastic about the position and foster that interest in learning and interest in professional development, both for them, and for ways that obviously are making them curious about the things that are going to make them more effective as mentors.”

Because the national culture reflected a negative bias to women, many

Participants felt that to overcome this bias they had to encourage women, pushing

forward on gender issues to give women more responsibilities, and help men to

encourage women to overcome gender bias. P3 felt that because there was “a strongly

conservative Islamic force in Afghanistan” she had to work “within that to help the men

appreciate the women, to encourage the women”. P3 specifically encouraged emerging

leaders to understand it was beneficial “to promote women in a very conservative Islamic

society” and as a result, she would “push forward the gender issue” in the sense of giving

women more responsibilities”. P5 expressed “it was actually difficult for some of the

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female staff” but eventually they became “one of the models for how you treat women”.

P5 attributed this success to paying “special attention, encourage the women, but not treat them differently or give them anything extra that I wouldn't give another staff.”

One way P3 and P8 developed emerging leaders was to praise in public and critique in private. For P3, she felt the need for others to understand “what it's like to promote women in a very conservative Islamic society.” For P8, she “tried a couple of different strategies” but what she ended up doing was “sitting down and having a real direct conversation with them and sort of setting out a challenge for them, so then we sort of tell them several things that they did very, very well and that's a big part of the culture there. People like praise and they're very proud of that and they want you to say that kind of stuff in front of other people.” So, from P8’s perspective, taking advantage of this at mentoring meetings and regular check-ins proved beneficial to creating pride in each other’s work for the emerging leaders.

(10) Taught managing skills to achieve objectives

Another way in which mentors developed leaders was setting objectives.

Specifically, mentors had mentees identify realistic objectives while promoting an understanding of career professional development. For the most part, P4 felt matriculating lawyers attending university were optimistic about their career aspirations, but as they continued their studies, the reality of not being affiliated with the royal family or ruling elite caused them to reset their career expectations. For instance, P4 described that in the first year, students may think they can become the country’s president, but in their last year reality sets in and they are “just thinking about to be a governmental official”. Another thing P4 stressed was instilling the desire to “have a good position, or a

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good name” in an organization and in society and try to “build their leadership skills”.

P4’s logic was that if people were unsuccessful in one career they had alternatives. P4 used objective setting to create leaders’ “capacity-building plan” as they would mutually agree to “certain objectives for a certain period of time, to work on” as part of a formal mentoring plan. P7 also felt that rather than relying on god’s good fortune (inshallah - as god wills it) and mentees becoming defensive about not meeting objectives, she would set realistic tangible objectives for mentees so as to instill a feeling that they had some degree of control over their future.

P10 felt that because “Afghans have a more hierarchy idea of management” she had to modify her “less hierarchical approach that most North Americans use” and be “a more authoritarian manager” than she was comfortable with; she discovered she “had to be the boss in a very traditional sense, rather than being just a colleague.” While this may have appeared contrary to the training being provided, P10 felt it necessary as exemplified in her comments:

“I think that was really hard. That was really hard for me, and I don't think that’s the first time I’ve had that experience because when I was teaching in central Asia I had a very similar problem, that I was a teacher of adults who assumed my students were adults and perceived the consequences, and my students thought I was just really nice and they could anything they wanted. I did have to develop the versatility of being maybe not as authoritarian as their other teachers or other managers were, but certainly more authoritarian than I was used to being and probably more authoritarian than I'd like to be.”

(11) Promoted fact-based decision processes

Having local leaders use proper decision making practices was seen by

Participants as necessary. Since the younger generation would constantly show deference

to elders’ decisions, mentors believed that for local leaders to feel less ambivalent about

changing the status quo, they taught emerging leaders to process decisions using fact-

based criteria. Since mentors believed local leaders should have good decision making

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skills, mentors would promote fact-based decisions rather than simply relying on local

customs as decision criteria. P2 felt that because of the national culture influence on his

work, he had to train mentees on “the skills needed, how to identify pressure from above,

identifying where it's appropriate, when it's not appropriate, and train them to know when

to take corrective actions”. In developing lawyers as leaders, P2 expressed he would

show mentees “how to apply those laws equally, with due process, and with their

constitution in mind,” and teach them how to “look at the facts”, and analyze things

correctly, and “let the law reign supreme, as opposed to someone's culture or someone's

tribe or someone's affinity.”

(12) Used informal interaction to facilitate learning

Because of how the national culture influenced how mentors interacted with

emerging leaders, some Participants felt they had to develop social interaction

competencies for mentees in informal settings, conducting a preponderance of their work

in face-to-face settings. For P8, she expressed that in other cultures while you could lead people quite well and easily via email or phone, “in Afghanistan, that's not true. When you're sitting as they say either across or face to face with others, you're going to get the best results in getting anything done” since “a big part of the culture is that you actually spend time with someone and you engage with them right next to each other”, having tea with them and talking to them while doing “a little chit chatting and then you get to business”. As a result, P8 encouraged her Afghan mentees to do the same when interacting with others socially in order to get the best results possible in their interactions. P9 also felt compelled to “talk to them face-to-face” and “explain why you're doing something and make sure that it's explained in such a way as to support their

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belief systems.” In doing so, P9 made sure mentees knew he “cared more about their families” than the job.

(13) Stressed accountability and taking ownership

With regard to the Afghan culture, P2’s sentiments reflected Hofstede’s (1980) concept of collectivism. Given this, P2 was compelled to delegate duties among his staff, trusting them to do things so that “even when they made mistakes, the fact that you trusted them to do something important, the fact that you relied on them, that you put your faith in them, that empowered them so that they took ownership of it.” P2 could not

“stress enough how much taking ownership of something makes it theirs” in his efforts to develop local leaders. As such, P2 felt that “once they take ownership of it and they understand that this is theirs to run with” they would develop the skills needed to perform in a leadership capacity.

(14) Provided candid insight into strengths and weaknesses

P8 felt that when developing leadership skills or mentoring people he needed to

“get past the friendliness with people because if you really want to build somebody up you sometimes have to talk about the things that [they] are not so talented at or what you want to build up with them.” As such, P8 felt a high degree of candidness was beneficial

in terms of how she developed leaders in Afghanistan.

(15) Provided guidance on how to deal with ethnic, tribal and regional groups

In Afghan culture, because family relationships as well as tribal identity influence are

very important, P2 felt the need to impart knowledge regarding the impact family and

tribes could have on influencing emerging leaders:

“Familial is both tribal and related by blood, because most of the tribes are related. Familial is that if you are from, for instance, you have Karzai who was from one of the biggest tribes, and then you have positions that he would give to his family members, and

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a lot of folks in Afghanistan got positions because they were related by family. Family relationships are very important there, as well as tribal relationships. Even if not directly related, but if you're part of the tribe, there are responsibilities which comes with being a member of that tribe.”

This aspect of the Afghan culture greatly influenced how mentors and advisors developed

Afghan local leaders; in P2’s view, it was such a significant influence, he had to be both

sensitive to the fact that it existed, and at the same time, be extremely tactful about how

he approached leadership development training, encouraging mentees to remain diplomatic and discreet when dealing with Afghans inappropriately influenced by its existence.

(16) Promoted results orientation in performing tasks

As to task orientation and focus, P1 found it necessary that once professional and social courtesies were exchanged, he had to focus on “just getting the lawyers on task” because oftentimes they were simply happy to talk with him rather than perform actual work. In addition, once pleasantries were exchanged, P8’s views regarding the need to focus on

the curriculum were apparent as she insisted that rather than taking “care of any of the

elderly people there” because it was culturally appropriate to do so, she would teach her

mentee to “focus on his work” rather than “feel like he needs to step aside” because she

was his elder and mentor.

(17) Implemented tailored approaches

National culture impacted virtually every aspect of Afghan leaders’ lives

according to P2, so much so that he commented:

“training these young individuals, one of the things you also have to train them is how to identify pressure, when you're training to train them to treat others, you have to let them know ... You have to train them the skills needed, how to identify pressure from above, identifying where it's appropriate, when it's not appropriate, and train them to know when to take corrective actions, how to take corrective actions.”

By training emerging leaders to be more situationally aware P2 got them to understand

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“their livelihoods and their jobs are at stake” and that certain circumstances may require

situation specific approaches, so as to “teach them how to politely clarify the record so

that if there's something they're uncomfortable with, they can get some clarification from

the person who's asking them to do something”, and thereby protect them “from any sort

of collateral damage.” Essentially, P2 tried to convey the importance of situation specific

solutions tailored to the circumstances.

Question 4 Findings: National Environment Impact to the Types of Leadership

Skills Needed

Table 4-7 shows Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered Themes from the

coding and thematic analysis for interview Question 4, How did the national environment

impact the type of leadership skills needed?

Table 4-7. Summary of Interview Question 4 Invariant Meaning Horizons and Theme

Clusters

Question 4: How did the national environment impact the type of leadership skills needed? Invariant Meaning Horizon(s) Theme Clusters . Relationship based culture . Train mentees and staff to develop strong relationships . Developed and built relationships Relationship skills . Relationship building (building trust) . Stressed the need for relationship building . Build trust . Critical thinking skills . Promote critical thinking . Had to teach critical thinking . Increasing curiosity . Independent thinking skill Critical thinking skills . Needed to be open minded . Problem solving . Promote independent thinking . Using metacognition . Leadership . Take care of subordinates Leadership skills . Training curriculum re-oriented to leading conflict resolution

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. Professional development . Foster interest in professional development . Teaching / learning . Education needed . Motivation Professional skills . Build excitement for the job . Foster interest in the work . Keep mentees enthusiastic . Positive outlook on the future . Promote computer literacy, using technology . Deal with superiors constructively . Had to be more direct in issuing guidance . Leaders clearly direct others and repeat instructions Managing skills . Cross staff coordination . Managing; Staff coordination . Decisiveness . Had to be decisive Decision making skills . Being firm . Clear directions . Identify pressure and take corrective action . Task management Planning skills . Technical skills . Priority setting . Establishing balance . Build accountability Accountability skills . Being cooperative Communication skills . Communication skills needed . Diplomacy . Mentors and mentees had to know local politics Cultural awareness skills . Politics of diplomacy for mentees . Teach diplomatic relationships . Being proactive Vision skills . Vision for leaders as a skill . Self-reliance . Independence Self-improvement . Promoted self-confidence to propel mentees to next level

Note: A complete textural-structural description of the ways in which mentors developed

local leaders is retained in the principal researcher’s data repository to the dissertation as

Annex H, Leadership Skills Needed.

Types of leadership skills needed.

Participants felt the national environment significantly impacted the types of

leadership skills needed by mentees as emerging leaders. Due to the challenges that

existed in Afghanistan, e.g., poor education, continuous conflict, gender bias, autocratic

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leadership styles, corruption and changing regimes; mentors and advisors endorsed development of the following skills: relationship skills, critical thinking, general leadership skills, professional development skills, managing, decision making, planning, accountability, communication skills, cultural awareness skills, creating vision skills, and self-improvement. Narratives of the Theme Clusters and Participants’ perceptions of skills needed (Table 4-7 above) are provided in the sections that immediately follow.

(1) Relationship skills (building trust)

Afghanistan, as a relationship-based culture meant this norm was embedded in the country’s culture and as a result, would sustain itself through a national environment characterized by conflict, poor education and corruption. With regard to leadership skills needed, however, emerging leaders needed to understand how to sustain relationships. In this regard, P1 felt relationship building was important as a leadership skill. P10 also felt relationships were very important. P2 specifically felt a key skill is “developing relationships with the staffers.” While building trust was perceived as a leadership skill needed by only a few Participants, it was prevalent throughout the interviews. P5, in establishing a cohesive team would develop a “kind of closeness; the trust that you have to have in order to function in this environment.” P6 felt that in order to instill public trust, mentees and Ministry officials had to be trustworthy, otherwise, “the public is not going to trust you” when getting arrested, taking bribes, or “beating confessions out of people.” P7 addressed the issue of building trust as follows: “Yeah, but it took a while before they trust me. Then a lot of chit chat and drinking tea involved to get anything done.” For P7, then, building trust was important to mentors and mentees as a skill. In addition, P8 felt nepotism caused many Afghans to only trust “relatives, the people in

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your tribe, the people in your village”, and that in order to build relationships beyond these entities, honesty was key.

(2) Critical thinking skills

Due to the poor education system in Afghanistan and the on-going conflict, the need for critical thinking was identified. Participants described the need for better critical thinking skills as follows: promoting critical thinking, teaching critical thinking, increasing curiosity, identifying independent thinking, a lack of critical thinking skills, need for open-mindedness, problem solving, promoting independent thinking, using metacognition, promoting arguing and disagreement as a way of encouraging discussion and critical analysis, and promoting discussions to encourage critical thinking itself. P9

felt that because Afghanistan had a socialist government, it did everything for its people, and as a result, “there was very little independent thinking” on the part of most Afghan citizens; and “when we tried to empower people we worked with to make decisions on their own, or to be proactive, they just can't do it.”

P10 identified the Afghan education system as being “very rote memorization based” and the Afghans “learned what they knew in an educational system that didn't expect them to develop critical thinking skills and maybe didn't want them to develop critical thinking skills.” To rectify shortfalls, P10 reviewed tasks weekly using open- ended questions because “in terms of developing their critical thinking and their ability to look at all the components, it was really useful to have that series of open ended questions and to work through them together”. P1 also identified the need for critical thinking and tried “to impart knowledge in a way that that individual cannot just recite” and “consider the opposing viewpoints”. For P4, he felt the working environment offered

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emerging leaders the opportunity to present solutions to problems and “that apparently

would be a good chance for others to develop critical thinking skills”. P5 felt “the culture

did not respect teamwork, critical thinking, and the equality and respect for each other”,

and acknowledged “critical thinking, lack of critical thinking” were important, but in the

Afghan culture “you don't get to think for yourself”. As a result, P5 pushed the

development of critical thinking as a skill because she “knew that was something that

could enhance what they already had”. P5 felt the nature of the job and the nature of what

she had to do as a mentor differed for each mentor, because

P2 candidly commented “You can't train them as you would a student in college for two

reasons. One, their education system sucks, completely. They are great at, the Afghans

are great at memorizing. They learn the law as you would learn the Koran through

memorization. Their fundamental weakness, in terms of Rule of Law and legality, they

lack critical thinking skills.” For P2,

“in Afghan law, these guys memorize everything. If I need to find a particular section or code in any particular area of law, these guys were great at finding it for me. Understanding law or applying that code was a huge problem. When they came to me, a lot of the things I had to do was go through the Socratic method with them. A lot of times we'll end up in a different ... we'll have a different result. One of the first things I had to do was train the staff in terms of critical thinking.”

As for related skills pertaining to critical thinking, P10 felt “using metacognition

was really important. There's thinking, and then there's thinking about your thinking.

That's metacognition.” Complementing this, P5 expressed she would give mentees the chance to “identify two things that were effective and identify two things that you would

do differently if you did it again” so as to promote “that kind of introspection and that

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kind of metacognition”.

(3) Leadership skills

Leadership skills identified by Participants included general leadership skills such

as taking care of subordinates, having a training curriculum re-oriented to leadership of conflict resolution, transparency, willingness to let subordinates make mistakes, willingness to share information, taking the initiative; and for one Participant, leadership skills needed to be Theory X-Y (McGregor, 1960) rather than matrixed leadership. With respect to leadership skills in general, P9 felt that because of a general fear of retribution by tribal entities, leaders “needed to learn to take care of their subordinates” and “needed to learn how to deal with superiors in a constructive manner”. And according to P9, emerging leaders “needed to be willing to let their subordinates make mistakes, and then support them when they do make mistakes”, and learn from making mistakes instead of punishing them. P3 felt that training under the Russians focused on learning how to do such things as fire a weapon, and that the curriculum was conflict-based. As a result,

“their leadership skills were out to lead a battle”. To overcome this shortfall, P3 felt leadership skills needed to “bring to the fore gender issues, democratic ways of governing, inclusivity.” Further, P3 felt that “because it was a conflict and continues to be a conflict affected environment, the types of leadership skills needed are those that are more ... I would say, Theory X and Y back from the 1950s rather than this American notion of a matrix leadership.” P3 went on:

“Not only the conflict affected environment, but the power distance, if you recall Hofstetter, is very high in Afghanistan, so that again requires a Theory X/Y leadership style, as opposed to what we would more naturally find in the United States and Europe where you have more of an egalitarian, everyone chip in kind of attitude.”

Other skills P5 identified with regard to leadership skills needed were transparency,

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accountability, and critical thinking. P4 also felt transparency as a leadership skill was needed:

“That's another thing that ... the approach that I was using was I was not hiding anything with myself. I was sharing everything with my team, where later on, if I'm not there, there would be some others who would take this responsibility, or my responsibility.”

P6’s example of a former Afghan lawyer who decided to build a school within his community, called “A Little Step” resulted in his creating his own foundation and soliciting donations for the project. For this effort, P6 commended the Afghan legal consultant for taking the initiative because in her view “where there is no initiative, where there's maybe a lack of vision”.

(4) Professional skills

P1’s perspective was that finding the right people to serve as leaders was only half the problem, and that “just like in most organizations, when you find the right people, you want to make them happy”, “figure out what makes them excited about the job, and build on that, to develop them and cultivate them, keep them enthusiastic about the position and foster that interest in learning and interest in professional development”. So for P1, motivation as a skill was necessary in building excitement for and fostering interest in the job and knowing how to keep people passionate about their work. P4 appeared extremely enthusiastic about his work as a mentor and felt emerging leaders needed to be motivated about their job and maintain a positive outlook for the future. P4, in expressing that “we are the current of our country, so we need to start right now”, felt his country needed “young leaders” because immediate fixes were needed and young leaders were needed now.

Leaders as teachers was a theme that emerged from the Participants interviews.

Given the state of Afghanistan’s educational system, P6 felt “Being able to effectively

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teach, effectively mentor” were keys to the Justice Sector Support Program success and

American success in Afghanistan. By knowing what knowledge to impart and how to impart that knowledge, P6 felt “in our environment ... If you could combine a very good teacher, someone who is good at teaching and mentoring, with somebody who would also let somebody else take the reins, then that makes you a good leader.” For P6, teaching skills entailed being cooperative since “the more you join and share the joys of teaching, and joys of working together”, the more effective it made her. P4 also felt the “only solution for a better Afghanistan is education” and teaching skills were crucial to that success. As identified by P1, professional development was needed. P1’s view was that when organizations found the right people, they should “figure out what makes them excited about the job, and build on that, to develop them and cultivate them, keep them enthusiastic about the position and foster that interest in learning and interest in professional development.” With this as the premise, P1 felt it was important to find ways to enhance mentees’ competencies and skills as valued emerging leaders, and in the process, making them more valuable to the organization because of professional development being offered.

Basic technology skills were also deemed important. P1 felt that for national security programs such as the Justice Sector Support Program the staff needed to be proficient in technology. While many mentees were computer literate and at ease with technology, others suffered not only from a lack of printers, paper, ink, computers, and physical infrastructure; but judges, prosecutor offices, and defense lawyers did not possess the technology skills required.

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(5) Managing skills

As part of instilling managing as a skill, P10 felt staff coordination was essential so “in our weekly team meetings, each member of the team would talk about what they'd done, talk about an achievement or an accomplishment, and then talk about the things that they had upcoming, and what kind of support they needed.” In terms of managing,

P3 felt “leadership was actually very heavily impacted by the environment and the culture itself” and “as a leader one must clearly direct, and then repeat, and repeat, and repeat again what you've told people to do.”

(6) Decision making skills

Participants generally felt decisiveness was a skill that was needed. In this regard,

P8 had to balance a sense of firmness with her staff and the people she was working with which she felt was very much part of the Afghanistan culture and style. This sense of firmness as it related to decisiveness according to P8 should be applied across the country irrespective of the tribe she worked with. For P8, “It always seemed to be if you're sort of

firm and clear” it really helped.

(7) Planning skills

Planning was identified as a leadership skill needed and as such, this skill was

comprised of providing clear directions, creating clear plans, identifying relevant and

extraneous pressure from others, task management using milestones and sub-tasks, and understanding how to establish the right balance between priorities. Although P6 really did not offer an alternative, she felt many Afghans “didn't have a clear plan” and as a result she should have “started smaller and then worked from there.” P7 shared a similar view that it was “just the lack of vision. They couldn't see anything in the future. It was

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today, and that's it. They just couldn't look forward and do any planning.” P2 felt

planning and taking appropriate corrective action was,

“one of the things you also have to train them is how to identify pressure, when you're training to train them to treat others, you have to let them know ... You have to train them the skills needed, how to identify pressure from above, identifying where it's appropriate, when it's not appropriate, and train them to know when to take corrective actions, how to take corrective actions.”

P10 found that working through tasks and working on a practical level with respect to

planning, i.e., “what document do we have that has this information, what information are

we missing,” was a skill that Afghans lacked. Finally, from a planning perspective, P5

felt mentees needed to learn “technically what this job entailed, what the deadlines are,

why this is important, why you're doing what you're doing.” In P5’s view, these were

planning skills associated with a job.

Priority setting as a skill was identified by P6 who felt mentors had to be “able to

get a sense of the culture” and its nuances, and that “having business acumen”, and “the

propensity to understand business and make decisions” and “social acumen” the “ability

to interact positively in social environments” was necessary for emerging leaders. And to be successful, P6 stated:

“Someone who has been in situations before, and has developed themselves as a leader, and been through those struggles, trials, tribulations et cetera ... Kind of trial by fire, so then they can adapt what they've learned and bring it to this new environment”

(8) Accountability skills

Given the corruption that existed, P5 felt she had to make “them accountable, I

think it was the first time they've ever been held accountable.” For P5, then,

accountability as a skill manifested itself in mentees meeting their deadlines for some of

the simplest of tasks, e.g., document submittals, and if they went home without doing so,

she would bring them back to work to accomplish the tasks they were accountable for; “I

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had to demonstrate to them it's not about turning it in, it's about turning it in correctly.”

As such, P5 felt accountability was “hard to teach when the very organization you are working for tries to undermine the very concept of accountability.”

(9) Communication skills

Because Afghan existed as a relatively closed society as a result of the Russian occupation and Taliban terrorism, communications skills were needed to create open dialogue and discussions. P4 felt “having communication skills, which is the most important part of the leadership” was crucial for emerging leaders. Using the example of a Toastmasters Club, P4 conveyed that people's public-speaking skills and leadership skills were vitally important for “colleagues to build their public-speaking skills”. P5 felt

Afghans learned best because her “whole idea of open communication. Communicate, communicate, communicate.” Constantly talking and constantly questioning was an approach P5 used to enhance Afghan communication skills as they relate to work performance. P10 conveyed similar thoughts, and stressed open communications in daily activities because “at one point, I think everyone was feeling like they were missing a good understanding, so “by establishing weekly team meetings, each member of the team

would talk about what they'd done, talk about an achievement or an accomplishment, and

then talk about the things that they had upcoming, and what kind of support they needed.” P2 also felt having open communications went a long way in creating transparency, another skill that he and other Participants identified. P6 felt cooperation was necessary. Commenting that with “leaders, you either have it or you don't,” P6 stated: “globally, I think the more cooperative you are, and the more you join and share the joys of teaching, and joys of working together, I think you can actually be a lot more

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effective.”

(10) Cultural awareness skills

Whether it was the paternalistic culture or conflict-ridden national environment, one of the skills identified was diplomacy. P2 felt leaders “have to be diplomatic” in the sense that “you have to know the politics of the place in which you're dealing. You have to know the local politics, who's running, who's not running, what their issues are.” As such, P2 felt it was not enough just to run a program, and “not understand the internal political dynamics of what's going on.” P2 also felt “diplomacy” also applied when dealing with individuals responsible for budgets and approving funding since getting

“bogged down with the internal politics” could jeopardize project training. And as to the relevance of diplomacy as skill, P2 felt: “Once you have that personal relationship, you're able, and you teach your colleagues, even though this person may be Pashto or this person may be Farsi or this person may be something else, you teach them how to be diplomatic. You teach them about understanding where this person's coming from, who they are, what they've accomplished”. In this regard, P2 commented:

“You had to train your staff how to get around those folks, how to get around the people issues so that they can get their jobs done. That was a lot of my training came down to that diplomacy, intelligence, gathering intelligence about the local political environment, intelligence about the stakeholders, understanding the staffers, finding the staffers who we can work with.”

(11) Vision skills

P9 felt being proactive was essential in Afghanistan and commented: “It's very

difficult for people to be proactive in any leadership position because in the past if they

stepped out and did something on their own they would normally get slapped down for

it.” P9 felt despite the United States wanting to allow women a greater role in leadership

and taking proactive measures to do so, Afghanistan women were never intended to be

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part of the leadership cadre; so as he and other advisors tried to empower women, being

proactive about doing so was a very difficult concept for most Afghans to accept. P4

commented “that usually you would see leaders here in Afghanistan without a vision,

without a plan” and he felt strongly that an important skill needed was leader’s vision.

While P4 felt that having “a good person in a good position” was acceptable, unless

nothing is transferred to others when the leader leaves, it was unacceptable “because all

the visions and all the plans the men had in their mind, there's nothing written for the

others to later on follow up with”. P7 also felt leaders in positions of authority needed to instill vision: “just the lack of vision” and that “they couldn't see anything in the future” but rather they only considered present day activities and “just couldn't look forward and do any planning.”

(12) Self-improvement skills

In identifying self-improvement as a needed skill, P4 would identify mentees’ strengths and weaknesses in order to build upon changes they needed to make. Self- improvement was also important in order to improve mentees professionally and personally, and P8 felt identifying specific areas for self-improvement was necessary to

“improve them as a professional”. P9 also felt it was important to let Afghan leaders know he was “looking out to improve them” so he tried to “spend time, energy, and effort to improve them personally” show them “we care about their personal growth and technical skills.” While some advisors may question the utility of identifying self-reliance as a skill, some Participants felt compelled to do so because the Afghan national environment created a situation where improving oneself as an individual fostered others to do the same. For P1, given the one-year duration of mentor assignments, “being away

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from family, and being away from entertainment, being isolated at times, those pieces are

skills that you need”; as such, mentors and mentees needed to be self-reliant. For P3, by

living on the local economy she exhibited a high degree of self-reliance which served as

an example to mentees.

Question 5 Findings: National Environment Impact to Developing Local Leaders

Table 4-8 shows Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered Themes from the

coding and thematic analysis for interview Question 5, How did the national environment

impact the approaches you used in developing leaders?

Table 4-8. Summary of Interview Question 5 Invariant Meaning Horizons and Theme

Clusters

Question 5: How did the national environment impact the approaches you used in developing leaders? Invariant Meaning Horizon(s) Theme Clusters . Build trust . Got to know local nationals; built trust and . Establish trust respect . Candidness . Frank discussions with the mentees . Established early-on respect . Demonstrate respect of the person . Earn their respect . Developed two-way respect . Established respect . Respect own culture, show appreciation for . Respect for beliefs other cultures Trusted . Show respect . Show respect / appreciation for local culture . Family needs . Know familial, regional, ethnic, and national relationships . Cared about families power structures . Respect family and religion . Relationship building . Leverage relationships . Establish personal relationships . Sent food baskets to relatives to enhance . Teach diplomatic relationships relationships . Developed relationships . Spend time with mentees . Cultural sensitivity; cultural acumen . Learn to cope with cultural differences Cultural . Discussion of local culture . Understand the culture . Emphasized multi-cultural sensitivity awareness / . Human rights cultural acumen . Challenge authority . Critical thinking . Information processing . Promote critical thinking . Promoted discussions to encourage critical . Fact finding and due diligence by mentees thinking . Brainstorm sessions to overcome difficult . Taught to challenge their mentor situations . Had to teach critical thinking . Promoted arguing and disagreement as a way . Independent thinking skill Critical thinking of encouraging discussion and critical . Promote independent thinking thinking . Promote problem resolution - solutions . Problem solving . Equality and due process . Taught staff, mentees to identify solutions . How to deal with corruption . Developed rules of engagement for dealing with corrupt individuals

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. Asking questions . Open ended questions . Ask questions in an appropriate way . Don't ask probing questions . Socratic method of asking questions . Protocol of not asking too many questions . Continuous questions . Capacity building approach . Mentoring from capacity building perspective . Continuous feedback . Cooperative learning . Teach jurisprudence through discussions . Cooperative environment . Made the mentor a better teacher . Had to learn from the Afghans themselves . Open discussions . Directed interaction . Face to face interaction . Lessons learned . Using metacognition . Introspection . Progress checks; . Progressive steps, small steps Cooperative . Progressive steps . Offer to help learning . Incremental task status checks . Progress checks . Baby bird syndrome . Purpose and focus . Step by step progression . Start with basic concepts . Systematically show skill sets to practice . Structured approach to learning . Checklist approach . Task management . Create tangible plans . Well prepared handouts; handouts and being . Explain what you're doing really prepared . Give more broad guidelines . Teacher style feedback . Pull back and perform in an indirect role . Gently present what you want them to do . Had to start with the basics next . Offer suggestions . Give them tasks they could win at . Identify tasks in which mentees could succeed . Shared knowledge . Small steps; progressive steps . Acceptance of responsibility . Match responsibilities to job to mentees . Confidence building . Start with small successes to build . Promoted self-confidence to propel mentees confidence to next level . Build self-confidence to build self esteem . Build self-esteem to build leadership capacity . Directive style . Clearly direct others and repeat instructions . Be more direct in issuing guidance . Empowered mentees to make decisions . Empowered staff, pride in accomplishments . Had staff and mentees take ownership of . Empowered mentees to be more proactive work . Empowered staff and mentees . Empower mentees to work on their own Emerging . Continuous encouragement . Helped men to encourage women to leaders construct . Encourage proactiveness overcome gender bias . Encourage women . Encouraged identification of solutions to . Had to encourage mentees to take the problems initiative . Introduced different leadership style - . Had to build leadership capacity experiential leadership . Leadership development . Leadership style . Leadership style is nuanced by the situation . Did not lead through fear or coercion . Professionalism . Identify areas for self-improvement . Self-improvement . Improve them personally . Small steps for improvement . Promote transparency . Transparency Promoting transparency . Find common ground . Find commonality . Inclusiveness . Being more inclusive Teambuilding . Promote teamwork . Team meeting discussions . Building team capacity . Team meetings . Building capacity to work independently . Working autonomously

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. Be more humble and quiet . Let them know you're human . Leading quietly . Had to be humble and not overbearing Humility . Rewards vs punishment . Simplification . Break down the elements . Break down technical jargon Tailored . Had to develop local work arounds . Picked different ethnic group approaches . Implement situational leadership . Picked different gender . Methodology of instructions . Picked different language group . Non-traditional methods of control . Be convincing . Had to educate the mentees on their own . Demonstrated subject matter expertise laws, and origination of the laws Demonstrated . Establish credibility . Had to figure out where mentees fell on the expertise . Use scholarly literature spectrum of knowledge of subjects . Positive approach . See positive points and negative points . Constructive tone . Seeing people for their potential Positive . Disparaging comments for showing initiative orientation . Foster interest in the work . Build accountability Build accountability . Overcome perception of US trying to impose . Overcoming misperceptions simply a matter Perspective own laws of discussion setting & objectivity . Being firm . Have to be strict . Preplanned meetings . Have regular meetings . Formal meetings and engagements Planning & . Results orientation . Implement draconian solutions to get results coordination . Visualization . See the big picture . Schooling system required use of visual . See the consequences mapping . Visual mapping . Long term view . Changed perspective of how to view things . Had to teach patience and long term view . Promote optimism . Balance positive and negative motivation, . Promoted positive tasks, positive person; and filling gaps with caring, love and affirmation of positive approach to work appreciation Vision for the . Create hope - keep them hopeful . Friendly, positive approach to increase self- future . Promote optimism about the future esteem . Teacher style feedback - positive and negative . Goal setting . Vision for the leader as a skill

Note: A complete textural-structural description of the ways in which mentors developed

local leaders is retained in the principal researcher’s data repository to the dissertation as

Annex H, Approaches Used Developing Leaders.

Narratives of Theme Clusters and Participants’ perceptions of national culture

influence on how mentors developed local leaders (Table 4-8 above) are provided in the

sections below.

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Approaches to developing local leaders.

Participants identified a large number of approaches they used in developing leaders in Afghanistan. Predominant among the approaches used are: trusted relationships, cultural awareness / cultural acumen, critical thinking, cooperative learning, and applying an emerging leaders construct. Other significant approaches include: promoting transparency, teambuilding, humility, tailored approaches, demonstrated expertise, positive orientation, build accountability, perspective setting and objectivity, planning and coordination, and vision for the future.

(1) Trusted relationships

Most Participants identified relationship building as a viable approach.

Relationship building manifested itself with a number of invariant meanings, significant among them: relationships, relationship building, establishing personal relationships, teach diplomatic relationships, developing relationships, leveraging relationships, extending relationships to relatives, e.g., food baskets, and spending time with mentees to enable this relationship. P6 saw the need to build relationships with leaders in communities where she worked, with emerging leaders she worked directly with, and with other mentors and mentees. For P6, her approach entailed “ensuring that we had strong relations with the leaders” and involved “doing things correctly culturally”, but that the level of engagement “increased or decreased depending on the authority”. P8 felt

“in Afghanistan it is a very big part of the culture that you sit down, you have tea with them and you're talking to them and you do a little chit chatting and then you get to business.” P9 felt it took “a long time, weeks or months, to establish the kind of personal relationships” before they would really pay attention. While P9 felt respected as an

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international expert, “before they would follow my guidance” she had to build rapport and trusted relationships. More specifically, P9 commented

“because of security concerns, normally if I were developing a group of leaders, I would go to their home. I would go outside the office. I would develop a relationship with them, maybe on the soccer field. Outside the office I would see to it that I got to know them as people, which would then give me the ability to develop them as leaders. Couldn't do that in Afghanistan because of security.”

P9, however, attempted to develop personal relationships and would use “15 minute sessions as a way to learn from them, giving them the understanding that I am interested in what they're doing”, “not just on a professional level but a personal level as well”. And in this regard, P9 established personal relationships “through the daily conversations” and by doing so, he “found out what their goals and aspirations were”. P2 would teach aspiring Afghan leaders diplomatic relationships. For P2,

“Once you have that personal relationship, you're able, and you teach your colleagues, even though this person may be Pashto or this person may be Farsi or this person may be something else, you teach them how to be diplomatic. You teach them about understanding where this person's coming from, who they are, what they've accomplished.”

P2 also felt a lot of his training “came down to that diplomacy” as he was able to establish personal relationships and build upon them” so much so that if there were an emergency in someone’s family, he would provide a small gift, such as a food basket, in recognition of the relationship he has established. P8’s approach was to sit face-to-face with others in order to “get the best results in getting anything done”.

Many Participants felt building trust was necessary due to a general lack of trust which existed because of the constant conflict and corruption; building trust and establishing trust both among peers and in vertical relationships e.g., superiors and subordinates, was extremely important. P5 observed that a “kind of closeness; the trust that you have to have in order to function in this environment” was “something that was

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very, very different” and as a result, felt compelled to treat others as equals as a way of demonstrating that trusting relationships could exist. P7 also felt that since it “took a while before they trust me” that she had to consciously build trust through “a lot of chit chat and drinking tea” to overcome Afghan perceptions that advisors’ duty assignments were only temporary. P8 felt her approach to building trust was enough to “see past the sort of false friendliness” and that building trust was one of the most important aspects of developing leaders in Afghanistan.

Establishing early-on respect was another approach used to develop leaders. P9

“had to earn their respect through cultural diversity methods.” In doing so, P9 showed respect for Islam and “put their family before any mission or job” in order to establish early-on respect. P5’s approach involved establishing early-on respect by showing respect “for their beliefs and honoring the things that they did on behalf of their beliefs”.

P2’s approach to establishing early-on respect was to “show I trusted them. I respected them” by not coming in “with an agenda” but rather treating Afghans “as I would treat anyone else.” An approach Participants also used was showing understanding of family needs. P9, for instance, “made sure that they knew that I cared more about their families than I did the job” since family and religion were important to Afghans. P2 also reflected sensitivity to the family; he felt “you have to know the familial and power structures” in place since they significantly impact both the program’s success. P2 also felt being candid and having “frank discussions” were necessary when developing leaders because ambiguity existed unless clear, to the point, language was used to discuss critical issues.

(2) Cultural awareness / cultural acumen

Possessing cultural sensitivity and cultural acumen were considered beneficial for

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mentors and Afghan mentees as emerging leaders. By discussing national and local cultural sensitivities, Participants felt it allowed for a greater understanding of what issues to solve and how to cope with problems, but more importantly, providing insight in how to act appropriately in different cultural settings. P6 felt her company “can't go in there with our own approach” and “we need to learn from the Afghans,” and by employing local Afghans, it increased understanding of cultural differences and made individuals increasingly aware of how to deal effectively with differences. P2 attributed a large part of his success to understanding the Afghan culture and knowing how to act in certain situations.

The question is how I approached this to become, to finally become successful. I think, to some degree, I was successful. How I approached this, coming from New York was easy. We interact with so many different cultures here, both as a prosecutor but just taking the train. You take a subway any given morning and you're interacting with tons of different cultures. One of the ways in which I started off my interaction was just getting to know folks with both trust and respect.

To overcome the challenge of Afghans having “their own prejudices and perceptions”, P2 felt his becoming aware of this helped in his work “because you're better able to cope with cultural differences, because you look at cultural differences” as if it’s a new enlightening experience in an exotic country “as opposed to looking at everything in a jaundice eye.” P9 offered another viable approach to “understand the culture, not necessarily to immerse themselves”:

For instance, I never wore Afghan clothing, and many people believe that would've been a big deal for us to wear Afghan clothing, but I don't because I'm an American. I'm a Westerner. Nobody expects me to localize myself. I'm still a Christian. I don't advocate Christianity, of course, and I show respect for Islam, and the Holy Koran, and the prophet Mohammed, peace be upon him, but I don't pretend that I'm something I'm not. I have to be who I am. .. I'm not going to be something I'm not. I'm not going to pretend to be a Muslim, or pretend to be an Afghan when I'm not, but I do have to, and I'm glad to, have respect and show respect and understand when they pray five times a day, they pray five times a day. We give them time to pray when they need to pray. If there's a family issue we give them time to go take care of their family issues. That's not always true of Western culture, but in Afghanistan that's very important for them to respect us like we respect them.

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(3) Critical thinking

The poor education system in Afghanistan stifled creativity and critical thinking, and as a result Participants felt teaching critical thinking was crucial. As such, many

Participants promoted critical thinking comprised of fact finding and due diligence by mentees, brainstorming sessions, using information processing, promoting arguing and disagreement, and encouraging critical thinking by having mentees challenge their mentors. One of P4’s approaches was giving adults the opportunity to truly think, as it was a good chance to develop “critical thinking skills”. P5 felt promoting critical thinking was important and continually stressed asking questions to alleviate Afghans making decisions independently: "Instead of making these one-sided decisions, have you talked to? Have you done this? Have you done that? You're making this decision. Did you bring these people in to actually know about how this is going to be affected by your decision?"

P2 indicated fact finding and due diligence were important for mentees to hone

their critical thinking which manifested itself in “gathering intelligence about the local

political environment, intelligence about the stakeholders, understanding the staffers”.

P2’s approach also featured in-depth discussions so much so that “we would have

arguments. I mean arguments”; and by doing so he overcame mentees’ reluctance to argue as a way of encouraging critical thinking. Similarly, P1 felt “in terms of corruption in the Courts” it was one of the things he would discuss, and when working with Afghan defense lawyers and Legal Aid Organization in Afghanistan, “one of the things that we would talk about routinely, and brainstorm sessions to discuss, was basically how to present your case” as an approach to promote critical thinking. P10 felt “in terms of developing their critical thinking and their ability to look at all the components” it was

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useful to ask a series of open ended questions and work through them together.

P5 and P2 felt that due to a lack of problem solving skills that it was important to teach these skills. Further, P5’s approach to developing problem solving skills entailed having Afghans focus first on what competencies existed in their teams and leveraging those capabilities prior to seeking advice from others. As to his approach, P2 had his mentees “hash out solutions” by thinking through problems and putting “critical thinking shoes on” to solve problems. Finally, P5 sometimes took the approach that it was both acceptable and appropriate “to challenge authority, challenge what they're told, argue for what you feel is right which goes against the grain.”

(4) Cooperative learning

The concept of cooperative learning was seen as viable approach, especially given the poor education system in Afghanistan and understanding that high-level learning did not include critical thinking. With this as the case, Participants viewed cooperative learning as working in a cooperative environment, having to learn from the

Afghans themselves, using discussions to teach technical knowledge, e.g., jurisprudence, working collaboratively with institutions, and by conducting open discussions on a broad area of topics. P5 stated she was able to convey that mentees could “work in a cooperative environment and a team environment and still lead” and then begin to utilize those habits. P6 felt “we need to learn from the Afghans,” and agreed with his company’s approach to use translators to assimilate knowledge from the Afghans. Echoing these sentiments, P2 felt developing local leaders and after first assessing their knowledge, should entail having open discussions about their laws and work “because every one of them want to believe themselves to be an expert on the subject.” P9, by supporting the

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need for mentees to “work closely with” an organization, felt his approach should include

mutual cooperation by mentors and mentees on career development; this was consistent

with P6 who felt that by having the Afghans share their experiences that it helped to

establish a better framework for learning.

Many Participants approached their mentoring using progressive steps with regard to leadership development. While affectionately referred to as the “baby bird syndrome” by P3, training often comprised using step-by-step progressive activities, systematically showing skill sets to practice, using a checklist mentality to skill development, providing detailed explanations, starting with the basics, offering suggestions, performing progress checks, starting with basic concepts, using a structured approach to learning, and identifying incremental task management. P8 felt a step-by- step progressive approach worked best and would identify “very specific things to work on” as a “step by step sort of scaffolding” with Afghans taking “one step at a time” in order to “understand that they could do it.” In addition, P10 felt it necessary to use a checklist approach while P4 felt it necessary to use detailed plans to obtain results.

P10 also took a sequenced approach to mentoring, and the second time things were being done she “might provide a little bit less support”, and the third time she

“would have them do it by themselves but maybe check in” while they were working.

P10 commented:

“I found it was really useful to sit down, particularly when there was a new task, to sit down with the staff who were going to be responsible for that task and give them a background” and that identifying the purpose the task was going to be used for and its focus was important to understanding “why we were doing what we were doing, and then to talk with them using open ended questions about the best way to do that.”

In addition, P8’s approach was to “gently present what you want them to do next” or “break down the little things they could do” and incrementally “give one little task to

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improve on” as a way of leading to emerging leaders performing more complex tasks.

And P3’s approach was to work within “tasks in which they could succeed; and “give

them tasks that they could win at” so as to have the mentees experience the full benefit of

training.

Because of the ongoing conflict, Participants felt Afghans routinely did not challenge authority and were ambivalent about the national environment, especially the education system. As an approach to developing Afghan leaders, many Participants felt asking questions was a viable mechanism to elicit understanding. In this regard, asking questions in an appropriate way; using the Socratic Method of asking questions; asking

continuous questions, both open-ended and leading questions were appropriate

approaches. However, since they may be misinterpreted as being interrogative, some

Participants warned against asking too many probing questions, as it was protocol in

Afghanistan not to ask too many questions. P8 felt posing questions would “open up the

minds of others” and create a paradigm that people possess a lot of the information, and

by asking questions it “elicits people having ownership” of that knowledge. As an

extension of these observations, P2 would “go through the Socratic Method with them”

thereby enabling emerging leaders to examine ideas logically and validate their ideas.

P8 identified continuous feedback as a viable approach and “had to very systemically show skill sets for them to let them practice”, giving mentees “a lot of feedback” for them to assimilate information. P8 also felt that “the more you were explicit about it, the better results” as a result of the continuous feedback.

Directed interaction helped overcome evasiveness caused by the continuous conflict in Afghanistan. As such, P8 would conduct face-to-face interaction, often using

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this method when interacting with local leaders. P9 also felt the most viable approach to

communicating was having “to talk to them face-to-face” and “explain why you're doing

something and make sure that it's explained in such a way as to support their belief systems.”

P10 “found using metacognition was really important” in the context of “there's thinking, and then there's thinking about your thinking”. As such, P10 would manage tasks in progressive steps and then pose questions to address “doing the task” and “about how you did the task and whether it was effective”. In describing metacognition in this manner, P10 felt it was important to “work on a practical level” and as a result:

“That to me was kind of a major victory, that not only were they better at working independently, that they were better about thinking about what they'd done and how they'd done it and what was effective and why, and what wasn’t effective and why, and what a better choice would be in the future.”

Using a capacity building approach and conducting lessons learned were also

considered necessary during leadership development training. P3 expressed that

whenever she approached leadership, she “approached it from a capacity building”

perspective whereby she would try and develop competencies that would serve emerging

leaders in the long run. P10 viewed her approach of drawing upon lessons learned as an

effective way of developing Afghan local leaders. By conducting “team meeting

discussions” and focusing on “what we’d done and how we could do it better”, P10 felt

that by identifying “two things that were effective and identify[ing] two things that you

would do differently”, it encouraged “introspection” and “metacognition”.

(5) Emerging leader construct

The emerging leadership construct manifested itself in a number of approaches used by

Participants, and included endeavors such as acceptance of responsibility; building self-

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esteem; empowering mentees; encouragement; teaching different leadership styles, one of

which included a directive style; self-improvement; and building confidence.

Given the national environment fraught with corruption, Participants felt it

important to teach Afghan leaders to accept responsibility. For P4, having emerging leaders accept more responsibility stemmed from the need to “transfer accountability when the original leader left their position”. Because of the corruption that existed, P2 felt it important to ensure emerging leaders performed ethically in positions having a

fiduciary role since they were accountable to the public. P3 felt she has to “push forward

the gender issue” to “give women more responsibilities”.

As an extension to building confidence, some Participants identified building self-

esteem as an approach they used in developing leaders. P3 felt that “because the lack of

self-esteem is just epidemic in Afghanistan”, it was necessary to build self-esteem among

the mentees. P4 also felt building self-esteem was important from the standpoint of

having young Afghan leaders believe in themselves and aspire to top leadership positions

rather than accepting something less than what they may have originally aspired to.

A number of Participants felt the approach of empowering mentees as emerging

leaders was useful in their mentoring, and that by doing so, it made the learning and

leadership development experiences more effective. Empowering others as an approach

was exhibited by mentors by their activities related to empowering mentees to make

decisions, empowering women, and having mentees and training staff take ownership of

work. P2 felt his approach of having in-depth discussions was beneficial because once

mentees “found these things out, they felt empowered.” P9 felt when the United States

“came in and tried to allow women, for instance, a greater role in leadership” it was

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difficult. Given this, P9 still “tried to empower women” despite finding it a “very difficult concept for most Afghans to accept.”

Another approach participants identified was continuous encouragement; and based on the experiences of the mentors, this encouragement took on many forms to include encouraging proactiveness, encouraging women, encouraging mentees to take the initiative, helping men to encourage women as a way of overcoming gender bias, and encouraging identification of solutions to problems. As a way of continuously encouraging her aspiring leaders, P8 would tell her mentees “I really believe in you. I know you can this. It's not going to be easy, but I want you to give it a try”. P9 also felt constant encouragement was a useful approach:

“If they expressed an interest in language, for instance, we would encourage them to learn languages, including English. If a person said they would like to train, or go overseas for their education, we would work with them to find overseas programs that they could get into, and we would help them develop that way. They just had to learn that we were there not to put them down, or not to hurt them, but to help them. Once you crossed that barrier, once you crossed that bridge, then they became very willing and open to our suggestions, because they knew it was in their best interests.”

P8 felt promoting proactiveness was a significant aspect of her approach, and when Afghan mentees showed the initiative, she would say “Let's expand on that, let's try that out,” as a way of encouraging mentees to be more proactive. Further, P5 felt that by working consciously on encouraging women, her team became “one of the models for how you treat women” and this proved beneficial to their leadership development. P3 also felt it was imperative as part of her approach to developing Afghan leaders that “help the men appreciate the women, to encourage the women” as a way of building women’s capacity to lead.

Participants also identified the concept of introducing different leadership styles, oftentimes dictated by the situation. Examples of the leadership styles described by the

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Participants included experiential leadership, inclusive leadership, and situational

leadership. P5 felt it was necessary to “introduce a different kind of leadership that may

not be common in their culture”, pulling ideas from scholarly literature, and “just instruct along those lines”. One such approach P5 identified was experiential leadership where she would use experiences of emerging leaders to teach skills which were outside of the normal education and training curriculum. P5 used “Leading Quietly by Badaracco”

(2002) as a scholarly reference and encouraged leading “people for their potential, not for the automatons that most people may think that they are”. As one of his approaches, P9 had to “earn their respect through cultural diversity methods” and advocated inclusive leadership, taking into account and ensuring his emerging leaders understood the significance of respecting other’s values and being more inclusive while showing an

appreciation for divergent views. Finally, from P3’s perspective, “leadership style is very

nuanced by the situation” and referred to this as situational leadership; however, this

approach also ties back to P4 having advocated that leaders need to understand the

complexity of the situation and environment, and structure their leadership activities

accordingly.

Another approach Participants used was to identify areas for self-improvement to

improve mentees professionally and personally. P4 felt an individual’s self-improvement

was important to their success so he identified personal weaknesses and then built upon

those with skills that would instead leverage their strengths. P8 also found that

identifying specific areas for self-improvement should be time bound in order to

“improve them as a professional”. However, some members would take it as a “personal assault,” so when promoting self-improvement it was important to her not to appear

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“judgmental” or “punitive” but otherwise use “kid gloves and gently present what you

want them to do next”.

Plagued by continuous conflict and prior punitive regimes, building confidence

was viewed by Participants as being necessary. As such, confidence building was used to

propel mentees to the next level, focusing on building self-confidence and instill self-

esteem. P5 felt the oversight she provided was enough to instill confidence, so much so

that by the time a “transition happened” for a mentee to assume full responsibility, she

could claim the emerging leader was competent to tackle the responsibilities of their new

job.

(6) Promoting transparency

Due to the corruption that existed, some Participants took the approach of promoting transparency. P4 felt that by demonstrating transparency in his own efforts, and “not hiding anything” and “sharing everything” he could instill the need for mentees and Afghan staff to work honestly and openly. P5, in describing the approach she used to instill transparency across her team, continually told her mentees: “On our team, it has to be transparent. 100%, it has to be transparent. It has to be fair. It has to be anonymous.”

Because she was so transparent, at one point the Afghan chief of team wanted to know why his colleague was not being hired, and P5 explained to him that his colleague was not qualified because of his test scores. P6 expressed that a “good thing about Afghans, is they're very straight forward”, so she

“talked about corruption very openly in class” because “there's no doubt that we have several prosecutors and police officers taking bribes on the side. So, I think the more openly you talk about it, the better, or easier it is.”

P10 also advocated that “transparency is always the best way” and by talking

about scenarios of “When things went wrong”, and “relationship penalties” she and her

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international staff and Afghan team became more aware of the need to be transparent in

their daily routine.

(7) Teambuilding

Teambuilding was important as an approach for many Participants, and

components of teambuilding that were emphasized included finding common ground,

working autonomously, and inclusiveness. Many Participants felt promoting teamwork

presented a viable approach to developing leaders in Afghanistan, especially considering many Afghans valued group identities over individual identities. Various participants viewed teamwork as essential to Afghan success and as a result promoted teamwork through teambuilding efforts, building team capacity, and conducting team meetings to generate cohesiveness. P4 used teambuilding to get his staff and mentees to understand being “part of the team”, doing “the things that the others were doing inside the team” and motivating team members were essential elements of what a leader should advocate.

As to promoting teamwork as an approach, P5 felt mentors “really had to push that team

thing and work together” and offer the local leaders suggestions on ways to solve

problems.

P10 expressed that as a female manager with a staff that was almost all male, she

approached teamwork from a building team capacity standpoint and felt that “gradually

building their capacity to work independently” was useful to her staff. P10 also felt that

through recurring “team meeting discussions” she could focus her staff on what had been

done and how it could be done better; and that by having a “part of the team present what

they were doing to the other part” it increased interaction among members of her staff.

P3’s approach was to work within “tasks in which they could succeed; and “give them

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tasks that they could win at” so the Afghan mentees could see the benefit of training.

Finding common ground was identified by P5 as being successful; by establishing a “common thread” between the Afghans via shared religious values, it established a

“cultural foundation in common with them”. Since she was Hispanic-American, P5 talked about how she “live in our homes”, and this allowed the Afghans to discover “we had so much in common between my own personal culture and their own” that it established better rapport between them in other facets of their work and training. P10 also felt it was important to stress the need for emerging leaders to work autonomously; she did this by “gradually building their capacity to work independently” since it was useful to their autonomy as future leaders. Finally, P5 encouraged inclusiveness as part of her approach, wanting local Afghan leaders “to be inclusive” since this facet of leadership was important in developing leaders. As such, P5 would ask questions that drew out whether or not emerging leaders were being inclusive “instead of making these one-sided decisions”.

(8) Humility

P6 advocated showing humility as an approach to developing leaders. In doing so,

P6 was “very humble” and listened without coming out and telling mentees what to do.”

P6 felt listening to and hearing mentee problems provided insight and allowed her to

“understand Afghan-American relations, and how things work out there.” P8 also felt humility played a role in developing leaders in Afghanistan because it “reminds people that you're human” and sincerely trying to accomplish work in a professional manner. P5 felt that in addition to establishing herself as an “expert in the field”, she was able to command respect from emerging leaders because she “was able to contribute to their

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knowledge in a way that was humble and not overbearing, not egotistical”. As a result, P5

“was very gentle” in how she approached her advisory role. In this regard, P5’s attributed

her being humble to Badaracco’s Leading Quietly (2002) and applying aspects of this

leadership style demonstrated that “leadership is always earned, and is not always

entitled” and that “it's the humbleness and the confidence without the arrogance” that

made her successful.

(9) Tailored approaches

Participants felt the need to use tailored approaches because of the Afghan

national environment and its associated constraints. In having to develop local work

arounds, Participants had to tailor approaches to the situation, alter their instruction methodology to suit the needs of the learners, put non-traditional control mechanisms in place, and sometimes select different ethnic, gender, or language groups as mentees or trainees. As a lawyer, P1 would often find himself working with the Ministry of Justice

Legal Aid Department dealing with juveniles. Despite not being assigned to help with juvenile legal issues, P1 felt in certain situations it was appropriate to create “a work around” in order to fulfill State Department responsibilities. In addition, P3 felt

“leadership style is very nuanced by the situation you're in at the moment” and would apply a situational leadership-like approaches as circumstances warranted. P9 would take his sponsoring organization’s (IDLO) methodologies and tailor them to Afghan leaders needs and then allow them “to adopt it themselves”. This was necessary because most

IDLO local staff “couldn't grasp the concept of how to do something differently” and implementation became difficult.

A number of Participants felt an approach characterized as simplification was

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useful in developing Afghan leaders. By breaking down technical jargon and identifying key elements of the curricula, training became more effective and efficient. P8 revealed that since “a lot of times our conversations would end up being breaking down jargons” it was useful as an approach to spend time simplifying things. This was especially important given that most Afghans were not native English speakers, combined with the fact that many conversations would alternate between Dari, Pashto and English. P1 also felt it was a good approach to “break stuff down” so that his mentee could disseminate information clearly to other lawyers. P6 also felt a certain degree of tailoring training was appropriate as he tried to simplify things since the “biggest challenge was taking concepts like human rights, gender justice, equality and due process” and conveying it to young suspects and their elders.

(10) Demonstrated expertise

An approach used by Participants was to demonstrate expertise in their subject matter regarding their professional technical knowledge leadership development competencies. And because the national environment was what it was, they had to: be convincing, demonstrate keen subject matter expertise, establish early-on credibility, base their leadership development efforts on scholarly literature, and be proficient in Afghan justice sector reform issues so as to better educate mentees in their own laws while also understanding where mentees fell on the spectrum of subject matter knowledge. P5 felt she was successful in demonstrating her subject matter knowledge in leadership development. By advocating “you could have soft leadership” and work in a “cooperative environment and a team environment and still lead” P5 felt her mentees were confident in her abilities. Recognizing she needed to establish that she “was an expert in her field”, P5

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felt mentees needed to be comfortable that she knew what she was doing. To further

demonstrate her level of expertise, another approach P5 advocated for mentors was using scholarly leadership literature so as to be able to provide rationale when introducing a

“different kind of leadership that may not be common in their culture.” Specific to the

Justice Sector Support Program, P2 established credibility in his field by helping Afghans understand their laws were not imposed by the West but rather based in the principles of the Koran. Once he demonstrated his level of knowledge of the Afghan legal system and understanding of the Koran, P2 was able to focus on each law’s legitimacy in order for mentees to “deal with the substance of the law” rather than question his competency.

(11) Positive orientation

With regard to the national environment’s impact on leadership development efforts in Afghanistan, many Participants felt a positive approach worked extremely well.

A positive orientation to training manifested itself in the following ways: using a constructive tone, eliminating disparaging comments, acknowledging both positive and negative views, and seeing people for their potential. For example, P10 felt it was important to utilize “teacher style feedback by giving first positive feedback”, and then phrasing negative feedback in “a more constructive way”. And instead of saying “You did a terrible job,” P10 took a softer approach. P10 also felt providing adequate background “in terms of understanding what the task meant to the project and what the consequences could be” so as to maintain a positive outlook for the future. P8 felt it important to eliminate disparaging comments and instead focus on the positive. Not only did P8 feel it was more appropriate culturally, but disparaging comments were often directed at other mentees by the Afghans themselves and created disharmony among the

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mentees. By maintaining a positive orientation, P8 felt it allowed mentees to be

resourceful and ask deeper questions to enhance their understanding. Finally, P5’s use of

an approach that espoused ‘Leading Quietly’ (Badaracco, 2002) and “always seeing

people for their potential” was considered appropriate in her leadership development

efforts.

(12) Build accountability

Another approach Participants used was to build accountability. For instance, P5

considered Afghans to be a bit lax in some respects and because of that, she “made them

accountable” as if “it was the first time they've ever been held accountable”. With this as

P5’s view, she was compelled to instill accountability in the local leaders, informing

them it was not appropriate to leave work without having met a suspense timeline.

Knowing this leadership competency was important, P5 found it so effective that Afghan

leadership also started doing it.

(13) Perspective setting and objectivity

Considering the different approaches used in developing Afghan leaders, P2 felt it

was important to eliminate inaccurate perceptions of the work and its purpose since for

Afghans, “one of the perceptions is that there still is the notion that we're trying to impose

our own laws on the Afghans.” With this belief as prevalent as it was, P2 would attempt to ensure the right perspective was set and that objectivity existed. In doing so, he would try and “find out what they know about their own laws, have them sort of teach me what their law is.” In doing so, P2 felt any misperceptions could be cleared up and legitimate training and proper learning would occur thereafter.

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(14) Planning and coordination

Planning and coordination manifested itself in mentors being firm, having a results orientation, and visualizing a desired end state. P8 felt that having preplanned activities and “regular meetings”, a “question and answer time” and scheduled “direct conversations” were highly suitable as approaches to leadership development because relying on communicating verbally as was the culture in Afghanistan oftentimes did not result in task completion. An approach P8 advocated was the use of “informal interactions just during the regular course of work” and taking “time to sit down, not being interrupted by anybody else as a time for folks to talk.” P8 felt these efforts were a crucial aspect of developing leaders since Afghans rely on their oral culture and verbal communications where little is conveyed using structured written media.

P8 and P5 also found that by being firm, the Afghans understood both the seriousness of the mentors’ work and implications of the justice sector reforms being put in place. For P8, she had to balance a sense of “firmness” with her staff and the people she was working with in order to be accepted; and by “balancing humor and seriousness of work” P8 was able to build trust and effect work accomplishment. P5 also felt she had to be “very, very hard at the beginning, because if she was not, she “wouldn't have any respect.” P5 felt it was important to instill in Afghan mentees a results orientation as evidenced by her insisting that if a job was not completed as scheduled, she would have mentees return to work to complete the respective task which was left undone. P3 also felt it was sometimes necessary to implement “draconian solutions” to achieve results in her efforts to develop local leaders.

As a technique, visualization was used by P8. Visualization was exhibited in a

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number of ways to include the school system itself adopting visual mapping, future

leaders being able to see the big picture, and understanding consequences of one’s actions. P8 felt that because of the poor caliber of Afghan education, it was necessary for

her to use “a lot of visual mapping.” And by identifying core objectives and mapping

them to various tasks and activities, P8 found it useful to “draw things out” so learners could fully understand relationship between positive steps and improvement.

(15) Vision for the future

Having a vision for the future was important during leadership development as mentors felt taking a long-term view, promoting optimism, and goal setting were necessary to instill in emerging leaders. Advocating a long-term view as part of the mentoring process was seen by some Participants as a viable approach to offsetting persistent problems due to the continuous conflict in the country. As such, mentors not only had to teach patience, but they also had to have mentees take a long-term view to change perspectives of how Afghans regarded things in general. For instance, P1 indicated that many people he worked with were younger lawyers, and many of them had a sense that corruption was not sustainable as rule of law efforts were showing signs of success. P1 also indicated that since “corruption was almost generational” it was reasonable for mentees to envision a country without it. As a result, mentors advocated

taking a long-term view, especially because younger lawyers could “see how our country

can improve.”

Another approach Participants used was to promote optimism among mentees. In this

regard, promoting optimism manifested itself in mentors and advisors promoting positive

tasks, affirming a positive approach to work, creating hope, striking the right balance

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between positive and negative motivation, using a friendly positive approach to increase

self-esteem, and promoting optimism about the future. P3 approached leadership

development from the standpoint of “positive tasks, positive person” affirming progress

“within tasks in which they could succeed”, and “instead of coming in with a critical

approach” she would use positive affirmation. In addition, P6 felt the best thing to do was

to “keep them hopeful” so she specifically focused on the Afghan lawyers and tried to

instill the idea of hope. Finally, some Participants identified goal setting as an approach

to establishing achievable objectives for mentees. In this regard, P8 felt it useful to have

Afghan leaders specify goals and had them identify “three things that you want to work

on in the next quarter” as a way of eliciting tangible goals for them to accomplish.

Question 6 Findings: Enabled Success as a Mentor and Advisor

Table 4-9 shows Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered Themes from the

coding and thematic analysis for interview Question 6, What enabled you to be successful

as a mentor and advisor?

Table 4-9. Summary of Interview Question 6 Invariant Meaning Horizons and Theme

Clusters

Question 6: What enabled you to be successful as a mentor and advisor? Invariant Meaning Horizon(s) Theme Clusters . Cultural sensitivity . Respect your own culture, but show . Cultural immersion appreciation for other cultures Cultural awareness . Learn the culture . Respect your own moral compass . Learn the local laws and customs . Don't throw away moral issues for / . Respect differences in others expediency cultural acumen . Respect for the culture . Promote critical thinking . Taught to challenge their mentor . Questioning . Continuous questions Critical thinking . Ask questions in an appropriate way

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. Build trust . Establish trust . Recognized family needs . Talk about personal issues . Shared values . Understanding others . Watch people . Showed you understand . Took time to understand local law Build trust . Understand where people are coming from . Understand where you are coming from . Valued others . Showed respect . Saw mentee's potential . Showed trust . Show you care . Teambuilding . Promote teamwork . Interview process to select best team members . Setting up the right team Teambuilding . Team composition . Transparency . Openness Transparency . Confidence building . Promoted self-confidence to propel . Develop confidence mentees to next level . Emerging leader construct . Growing a leader Applying the . Empower others . Empowered emerging leader . Empower mentees to work on their own . Empowered staff and mentees . Empowered staff so they took pride in their . Empowered mentees to be more construct accomplishments proactive . Empowered mentees to make decisions . Managerial skills . Worked as a manager . Credibility in management skills Managing . Planning . Humility . Being sincere while leading . Be more humble and quiet Humility . Demonstrated expertise . Credibility in technical areas Demonstrated . Become the technical expert . Good background in technical areas expertise . Patience . Be flexible . Had to teach patience and long term view . Tailored solutions Patience . Continuous feedback . Providing feedback Continuous . Formal counseling . Teacher style feedback, positive/negative feedback . Learned to listen . Listening skills Listening skills . Open communications . Communication skills needed

Note: A complete textural-structural description of what enabled success as a mentor and

advisor is retained in the principal researcher’s data repository to the dissertation as

Annex H, Enabled Success.

Narratives of the Theme Clusters and Participants’ perceptions of what enabled

mentors and advisors to be successful (Table 4-9 above) are provided in the sections

immediately below.

Enabled Success as a mentor and advisor.

Participants identified a number of activities that enabled them to be successful as

mentors and advisors. Predominant among them are being attuned to cultural

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sensitivities, encouraging critical thinking, inquisitiveness through questioning, building

and establishing trust, recognizing family needs, striving to understand others, team

building, transparency, applying an emerging leader construct, confidence building, and

empowering others. Additional ways Participants enabled success include practicing

sound managerial skills, adequate planning, maintaining humility, demonstrating subject

matter expertise, exhibiting patience, continuous feedback, and listening.

(1) Cultural awareness / cultural acumen

By showing a high degree of cultural sensitivity, P8 felt she was successful

because she “was trying to learn” about and “assimilate” herself in the culture, and others saw she “knew what it was like to be an Afghan”. And because P8 constantly strove to learn about the culture “by reading, by watching, and asking appropriate questions” it made her more successful and increased her awareness of the culture. In gaining cultural awareness. P8 recalled examples of the Afghans saying: “She really wants to learn this stuff. That's so respectful of our country and our culture.” P1 took the time to self-study

Afghan laws prior to arrival in country to complement the familiarization training he received; he also felt curiosity was “a great trait for people doing this work” and took the time to familiarize himself with local laws and customs. As a result, P1 felt he earned the respect of Afghan judges and others he interfaced with. P7 also “tried to respect their culture” by covering her head as Afghan women did and taking time for tea, trying also to be as accepting as possible regarding Afghan social norms. Many Participants, then, felt it was important to assimilate the Afghan culture so long as it did not conflict with their own morals and they did not lose their own cultural identity.

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(2) Critical thinking

With the lack of critical thinking being a major challenge, mentors took it upon

themselves to developing Afghan mentee critical thinking. Attributing “constant questions” to her success, P5 felt having mentees challenge her on various aspects of training was a good way to promote critical thinking. Asking questions in an appropriate way so as not to intimidate or embarrass Afghan mentees was seen as a viable way mentors enabled success. By constantly observing the Afghans, P8 would frame questions in “an appropriate way” so as not to embarrass herself in front of others which could cause a loss of credibility. P5’s continuous offers to help by asking simple and direct questions let mentees know she was there to help: “I'm always asking them, how can I help you? How can I help you be better? What is it that you don't know that you wish you did?” P5 also felt mentees learned because of her “open communication” which instilled in others the willingness to “constantly talk, constantly question” as a way of seeking clarification and understanding.

(3) Build trust

Building and establishing trust were seen as key areas that enabled success.

Building and establishing trust early on in the mentor’s assignment was deemed important to Participant’s success; having this early credibility was also seen as essential to the mentor-mentee relationship. P4 felt building trust in his team and having them trust

him as a mentor resulted in effective knowledge transfer in an easy to learn and

professional manner. P8 felt establishing trust was important because in Afghanistan a

“culture of trust is very, very important”. To be successful, P8 invested time in getting people to trust her, to include establishing trust across different tribes. Having worked

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hard to get mentees to trust her, P8 felt developing “trustworthiness” was also important.

Understanding others also evolved as a theme for enabling Participants to succeed as

mentors and was comprised of mentors showing they understood mentees and the

complexity of their culture and environment; understanding where people were coming

from; taking time to understand local laws and customs; helping mentees to understand

any biases, preconceptions and misperceptions that may have existed; and mentors

themselves learning to be more understanding. P2 felt success was attributed to “trust,

respect, understanding, empowerment.” In this regard, P2 trusted her staff and

demonstrated trust.

“I trusted them. I respected them. I didn't come in with an agenda. I came in and I looked, I treated them as I would treat anyone else. I empowered them. I showed them what it is that they can do and had them do it, so when I'm not there, they were still doing it.”

P2 also felt as a mentor, it was important to show understanding of the perils that his staff

and mentees lived under every day, making sure they understood he was willing to fight

for them to be better protected as emerging leaders. By understanding where people are

“coming from” figuratively speaking, P2 showed respect for differences in others while

maintaining his own moral compass. Understanding others was also identified by other

Participants as important to their success. P8 attributed her success to observing others and constantly “trying to learn what the culture was” and that she was genuinely interested in learning national and local customs while assimilating herself into the culture.

Another activity Participants identified as enabling their success as mentors was shared values. P4 felt that “the shared values is one of the most important things which has enabled me to be a successful mentor.” As an Afghan himself, P4 understood the

reality of the lives Afghans led; in this regard, he was compelled to share virtually every

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aspect of his value system with his team and mentees, and by doing so, his mentees felt they were part of a family and that “the organization is their own organization”. P8, in identifying time and trust as crucial elements to her success, revealed she had spent years in Afghanistan under the same conditions as the Afghans, living off the economy and sharing in their lifestyle.

“They trusted that I was there not to make the big money that they thought all internationals make. You don't need an NGO, but you know, it doesn't matter. If you are part of Afghanistan, you're probably in their mind making a lot of money, and are there to make the money and then to leave. In fact, because I'd been there for so long working daily very challenging conditions, often without electricity, often without running water, all of the conditions that they knew that I knew what it was like to be an Afghan. I've been in their homes. I've been out in the villages and I wasn't sitting in a cushy office, and I'm still there after all those years because I really cared about the children in that country getting an education. That meant so much to them.”

Obviously, P8 attributed her success to the altruistic nature of her work and others seeing that, as a teacher she shared similar values with student families and was willing to endure the same challenges and hardships as the local nationals.

Participants also attributed valuing others as an element of their success; it was evident in sentiments such as seeing mentee's potential, “showing how much you care”, showing respect and trust, and a general concern for people. P5 felt the biggest factor that contributed to her success was that she “could see the potential” in the person she was mentoring or advising. In addition, P2 “treated them as I would treat anyone else” and felt valuing others was an important element of his success. Finally, P9 felt understanding mentees’ family needs was important to his success as a mentor. This perception existed for a number of reasons, most notable was the significant role family bonds played, and the impact that meeting family commitments could have on a mentee performance and their overall welfare.

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(4) Teambuilding

Since P5 had the ability to select mentor and mentees to be on her team, she felt

that for teambuilding, it was imperative that candidates go through an interview process and have skills that complemented others on her team. Through a vetting process, P5 was able to ensure a high degree of harmony among team members. According to P5,

“I thought that was really good because they figured out there's only certain people, certain personalities regardless of the skill, that's going to be able to work on our team. They did not want deal with anybody who would lord it over them or who was a typical Afghan or wouldn't even work. I think what was amazing is that I feel they chose their own leaders within themselves. My role was different. I didn't just advise one or two, the leadership deputy or section lead, which were the titles they had, because I'm a hands-on person and it's a technical skill that the staff all need to learn, each one of them had my personal attention.”

P5 also felt including Afghan mentees in team member selection enhanced their

willingness to work collaboratively together. And recognizing they indeed had a stake in

team selection and eventual outcomes, Afghan mentees began recommending others for

their team, realizing how important it was to have the right teammates to work as a

cohesive unit. P1 also felt “having the right team, obviously helps, and huge for enabling

the internationals to be effective” from the standpoint of setting up the right team.

(5) Transparency

Exhibiting transparency and openness were facets Participants felt enabled them

to be successful. P4’s perception that success was attributable to his “sharing every aspect

with my team member” so as to keep mentees informed served as an incentive to their

leadership development because it allowed them to feel as though they were “part of a

family”. For P5, an aspect of her success was “the idea of openness and teamwork” with

the other piece being mentees having to “work as a team”. Showing transparency and

working as a team, then, were considered important in enabling mentor success.

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(6) Applying the emerging leader construct

P5 felt since “the whole point of mentoring and advising is you're actually growing a leader and you have to be confident in the skills that you've given that leader” she needed to prepare the emerging leader to take over her position and be successful.

Addressing the characteristics necessary for mentees to perform as leaders in different environments was something P5 considered significant in her leadership development efforts. Taking this approach was important for P5 since it confirmed her desire to impart knowledge to others and her commitment to developing emerging leaders. Another area identified as enabling success for emerging leaders was confidence building, described as developing confidence, building self-confidence in order to build self-esteem, beginning with small successes to build confidence, and promoting self-confidence so as to propel mentees to the next level of development. In P5’s view, “the biggest factor that contributed to my success as a mentor and advisor is that I could see the potential in the person I was mentoring or advising.” In doing so, P5 needed mentees to “be confident in their decision making right or wrong and stick with it”. P5’s “whole point of mentoring and advising is you're actually growing a leader and you have to be confident in the skills that you've given that leader”. P5 also felt that in providing mentees the skills and capabilities to backfill her, it was a good benchmark for measuring her success as a mentor.

Empowering others was a persistent sentiment identified by Participants and many felt empowerment included the following concepts: empowering mentees to work on their own, empowering staff so they took pride in their accomplishments, empowering women, empowering mentees to be more proactive, and empowering mentees to make

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decisions. P2 felt there were many elements he could attribute his success to, among them were allowing mentees to work on their own and “make mistakes, because sometimes you learn more from mistakes than you would the true successes”. In addition, P2 identified trust, respect, understanding, and empowerment as success factors:

“I trusted my staff. I showed them that I trusted them. I respected them. I didn't come in with an agenda. I came in and I looked, I treated them as I would treat anyone else. I empowered them. I showed them what it is that they can do and had them do it, so when I'm not there, they were still doing it.”

Also, P2 commented: “I didn't have to look over their shoulders. They took pride in their

own accomplishments so that they would do it well and sometimes even better than I

would.” Since empowering others took many forms, it became important for mentors and

advisors to develop leaders to the point to where they could take full ownership of their

performance.

(7) Managing

From a pragmatic view, P10 felt some of her success was attributable to strong

management skills since it gave her credibility with the mentees, especially since they

were required to demonstrate these types of skills as part of their workload. So, whether

planning objectives or measuring outcomes, having good planning and management

skills helped P10 and other mentors be successful. P10 commented:

“That gave me I think credibility that my team saw that I could talk about finance, that I could talk about monitoring and evaluation, that I could talk about project technical requirements, that I could write case studies and I could manage communication. I think you really have to have credibility before you start trying to teach people things. I think if I hadn’t had that understanding, it would have been a struggle for me to be an effective mentor both because there wouldn't have been much for me to teach, but also because even where I had something to teach, my team wouldn't have respected me or wouldn't have recognized me as someone who could teach them something or someone who could provide them feedback on what they were doing.”

(8) Humility

As for humility, P6 expressed she “was very humble” and when she was listening

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to them, she “didn't always come out and tell them what to do”. In attributing the humility she exhibited to her success, P6 conveyed that an Afghan colleague said to her,

“Well [name] understands the Afghan culture. She's not about just talking and telling us what to do. She's about listening and learning from us.”

(9) Demonstrated expertise

As far as P1 was concerned, mentors had to demonstrate expertise in their field in order to have credibility. P1 indicated a key to his success was the ability to “come in and be a technical expert, and command respect in that way.” Having strong technical knowledge in criminal law, and strong experience in criminal law” were instrumental for

P1 on the Justice Sector Support Program. For P1, his expertise was reflected in the ability to try cases, the ability to make recommendations as to how cases could be tried, and the degree to which mentors as lawyers interpreted laws consistent with their intent.

According to P1, “All those things, when you can show you can do that, your mentees are going to latch onto you, because there's value that they can gain.” Likewise, P10 felt in the early-on credibility she established in finance, monitoring and evaluation, project technical requirements, case studies and communications were essential to her effectiveness as a mentor. Because of her knowledge in a broad range of technical areas,

P10 felt mentees respected her and accepted her as being highly competent in her field.

P10 also felt her “having worked as a teacher for a long time before I worked as a manager was a huge advantage”. Demonstrated expertise, then, was also identified as crucial to mentor success by P1, P5 and P10. Accordingly, since many held the perception that competence breeds competence, it took mentors proficient in their area of expertise to perform effectively in their mentor and advising roles.

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(10) Patience

P7 felt that having patience enabled her to be successful. P8 also felt being

flexible and patient were two traits that helped her to be successful as a mentor: “I have

to say that I feel like I was successful just because I was really flexible and patient.”

(11) Continuous feedback

A number of Participants felt providing continuous feedback through formal

counseling and feedback sessions, and by providing both positive and negative feedback,

that it enabled them to be successful. Specifically, P4 felt “giving productive feedback” was important, especially timely feedback on the spot. P8 also believed systematically letting mentees practice and giving “them a lot of feedback”, sometimes quite explicit feedback, that it achieved better results than had the feedback been provided in a more subtle manner. P8 dubbed her providing feedback as “a step by step sort of scaffolding” approach, which she associated with teaching someone to first learn how to read.

Reinforcing this concept, P9 felt his informal “15 minutes one-on-one” and weekly meetings of “at least 30 minutes with each person going over their job requirements in a more formal counseling” session enabled him to be successful. Finally, P10 felt providing accurate feedback on mentees performance gave her the credibility she needed to be successful. Whether finance, monitoring and evaluation, project technical requirements, or writing case studies and managing communications, providing continuous feedback on a range of subjects was beneficial in creating success for P8. Being an effective mentor and advisor then, required not only the ability to teach a broad range of subjects, but also required the ability to provide accurate feedback regarding mentee learning and performance.

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(12) Listening skills

P6 felt the most important skill that enabled her to be successful and “probably

the most important thing” was listening. By listening to mentee problems, P6 gained

great insight into individual mentees and “got to understand Afghan-American relations,

and how things work out there”. Further, P5 felt that mentees learned because of her

“whole idea of open communication. Communicate, communicate, communicate.

Constantly talk, constantly question.”

Question 7 Findings: Change/Improve as a Mentor/Teacher

Table 4-10 shows Invariant Meaning Horizons and Clustered Themes from the

coding and thematic analysis for interview Question 7, How did you change/improve

during your time as a mentor/teacher?

Table 4-10. Summary of Interview Question 7 Invariant Meaning Horizons and Theme

Clusters

Question 7: How did you change/improve during your time as a mentor/teacher? Invariant Meaning Horizon(s) Theme Cluster . Family values . Trusted others . Less materialistic . Build trust . Helping family . Importance of family . Valued others . Concern for people Values changed . Value people . Diversity . Became more accepting . Relationship building . Developed and built relationships . Cultural sensitivity . Grew to understand their religion . Adapt to the culture . Increased desire to learn about other . Better understanding of laws and customs cultures Cultural awareness / . Cultural appreciation . Learned about international norms of cultural acumen . Culturally appropriate distance behavior . Learned international standards . Leadership is earned Leadership . Example setting . Teaching skills Mentoring . Recognized need to be a teacher . Transparency Transparency . Appreciative inquiry . Learned appreciative inquiry Appreciative inquiry . Increased confidence (Directive style) . Self-confident Confidence . Increased self-confidence

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. Humility . Patience . Leading quietly . Tolerance . Be more humble and quiet . Learned patience . Grew more tolerant Patience & tolerance . Relaxed . Less strict . Be more relaxed . Pull back and perform in an indirect role . Self-improvement . Grew as a person Self-improvement . Became a better lawyer . Made mentor a better teacher . Planning skills . Results oriented . Create tangible plans . Results orientation Planning & prioritizing . Proactive . Being proactive . Tailored approaches . Approach things differently Tailored approaches . Activity based thinking . Positive orientation . Focus on the future Positive orientation . Be more positive . Gained perspective . Risk taking . Gained perspectives of how to address . Allowed staff / mentees to fail without issues being punitive . See discrepancies more clearly . Changed perspective of how to view Gained perspective . Opened 'my' world things . Open-mindedness . Global perspective . Come in with an open mind . Willingness to travel anywhere . Self-awareness . Problem resolution . Critical thinking Problem solving . Reason based person . Listening skills . Willing to listen Listening skills . Learned to listen . Information sharing . Informed . Information gathering . Learned what donor/company were Information sharing . Willingness to provide advice looking for . Curiosity increased . Made mentor more curious Curiosity increased . Increased curiosity . Empathy . Became more empathetic Empathy . Delegate . Learned to delegate Teambuilding . Constancy of purpose . Constancy Continuity . Consistency

Note: A complete textural-structural description of what enabled success as a mentor and

advisor is retained in the principal researcher’s data repository to the dissertation as

Annex H, Change/Improve.

Narratives of the Theme Clusters and Participants’ perceptions of how as mentors

and teachers they changed and/or improved (Table 4-10 above) are provided in the

sections that follow.

Change/improve as a mentor/teacher.

As identified in Table 4-10, each Participant offered unique perspectives as to

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how they changed and/or improved. Given this, Participants felt they changed most in the following ways: learning to value others, becoming less materialistic, recognizing family

values, importance of relationship building, trusting others more, increased cultural

sensitivity, understanding that in general that leadership is earned, improved teaching

skills, transparency, learning to share information more effectively, the importance of

setting the example, understanding appreciative inquiry, and gaining increased

confidence. Additional responses included Participants exhibiting more humility,

developing patience and increased tolerance, becoming more relaxed, self-improvement,

enhancing their planning skills, being more proactive, becoming more results oriented,

knowing when and how to tailor approaches, having a positive outlook, and maintaining

a positive orientation. Finally, other unique perspectives of how mentors, advisors, and

trainers changed include: gained perspective, increased open-mindedness, self-awareness,

enhanced ability to resolve problems, listening skills, being better informed, increasing

curiosity, having more empathy, learning how to delegate, and understanding constancy

of purpose. Each of the Participants views on how they changed/improved are provided

in the narratives below.

(1) Values changed

Many Participants felt they changed because they valued others more, became

more accepting of others, and showed more concern for people while valuing diversity.

P5 felt that in growing personally, it was “more about the value of people” and valuing

their diversity. P9 also felt he became “more tolerant” and “accepting” of others. P10 also

felt she improved as a mentor because in the Afghan culture, “having a personal

relationship with people is really important”, and a lot of Westerners “kind of miss that”.

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P6 felt that given her Hispanic-American heritage, and her experiences in Afghanistan,

that diversity and inclusiveness were important values she learned:

“Seeing other cultures helped me realize that it's not just about money, or certain goals, but keeping in mind that there's more to life. I already said that before but I think in that regard, diversity, if we took it in a larger sense ... Then yes different cultures bring very important values, and we should always keep that in mind, and I learned so much from my time over there.”

As to becoming less materialistic, P6 felt her experience as a mentor and advisor “opened

up my world” to doing something different, and “being blessed to learn from other

cultures” was significant in how she changed. P6 described her experience as:

“We think because we're in America, we have a great system in place that we know everything. I think just being humble and understanding that different cultures offer amazing things that we could learn from. I think that, I don't know if you can talk about God, but what the Afghan's taught me was that, while we focus on superficial things, and the clothes we buy or cars, they're more worried about, even though they were not very wealthy and had very little money, they didn't come off like that.”

P6 also learned it was “about helping family” as evidenced by her buying a house for her

mother when she returned from Afghanistan. In addition, P9 also felt he “grew as a

person” and also gained a better appreciation of “how important family is”.

Some Participants felt they changed from being skeptical about the work and the

people they were working with, and that as time went on they learned to trust others. In this regard, building trust was important as was learning to trust others more. P2 felt that as he delegated duties among his staff and ‘trusting them to do it”, he created ownership for them and observed that it was okay to delegate in order to build trust. P8 also learned to trust others more and felt that by asking others what their concerns and challenges were that it “helped build the trust”. Finally, P1 felt he improved in “developing and building new relationships” and validated that in Afghanistan, the “three cups of tea’ expression certainly holds true”.

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(2) Cultural awareness / cultural acumen

A predominant way Participants changed was gaining appreciation for cultural

sensitivities and adapting to the host nation culture, increasing their understanding of host

nation laws and customs, increasing their appreciation of differing cultures, and

willingness to immerse themselves in a different culture (without losing their own

cultural identity), and in general learning about Afghan norms of behavior. P6 felt she

changed her perspective of other cultures and increased her understanding that “other

cultures have very good things to offer”. P6 also felt “seeing other cultures helped me

realize that it's not just about money, or certain goals, but keeping in mind that there's

more to life.”

P9 felt mentors that have been successful “are those that come in with an open

mind, and are willing to listen and learn from the people” they are mentoring. P9 also felt

he “learned a great deal about international norms of behavior, and international

standards of justice” and has “become more tolerant” and “more accepting”. For P1, his

time in Afghanistan resulted in an increased desire to learn about other cultures as “it

helps the world become smaller, it's great to make friends in other places and to learn

about other cultures”. In addition, P1 felt it increased his curiosity about other cultures

and other places. While P10 felt she gained a better appreciation of Afghanistan national culture, it was “frustrating in terms of understanding local culture” because it was “so limited in where I could go and what I could do.” In addition, P10 learned to maintain a culturally appropriate distance especially with males in Afghanistan. While P10 maintained a close relationship with her female administrative assistant “because that was appropriate”, “keeping a culturally appropriate distance with male staff was really

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important”.

(3) Leadership

Because of their experiences in Afghanistan, many Participants gained a better appreciation of leadership as a construct and how to conduct leadership development programs. Whether instructing using scholarly leadership literature as a basis for how they mentored, or taking the situational context and environment into account, many participants felt similarly to P5 who reiterated her feeling that “leadership is always earned, and is not always entitled” no matter what position a person held.

(4) Mentoring

P3’s experience also made her “realize the important role that we play to build capacity through setting an example” especially when her teammate was assassinated in

December 2015; this dramatic event taught her to be even stronger as a mentor in extreme emotional situations and reinforced through her own actions that maintaining her composure, continuing to work with the Afghans in the manner in which she did, and setting the example were important to keep in mind during mentoring engagements. As with other mentors, P8 and P10 felt they improved their teaching skills as a component of their mentoring role and recognized the need to be better teachers for the Afghans.

(5) Transparency

As indicative of responses by Participants to other interview questions, increased transparency related to actions and decisions was important even on a personal level, as demonstrated by P5 who felt she changed personally and needed “to be a little bit more open, a little bit more friendly”.

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(6) Appreciative inquiry

Whether advocating continuous questions or being inquisitive using other methods, P5 changed with respect to learning “appreciative inquiry” and in “using more positive language” for building capacity instead of the more critical approach she was used to seeing. In this regard, P5 also expressed that as part of her remaining positive in all endeavors, she still needed to “work on the appreciative inquiry approach”.

(7) Confidence

As evidenced in their approaches to developing emerging Afghan leaders, many

Participants felt they were highly adept at confidence building as it related to mentees; however as shown by P1, he also felt he changed as a mentor and professional lawyer since “it helped in my confidence” going into court and working as a mentor for lawyers.

P10 felt that as part of her own learning she gained a better appreciation and competence for applying different leadership styles and at times had to be a “bit more authoritarian” than she otherwise would have been, but confident enough to deviate from her comfort zone due to her increased self-confidence in having to use a directive leadership style when necessary.

(8) Patience and tolerance

A number of Participants felt they developed more patience and became more tolerant as a result of their work in Afghanistan, P7 felt she “learned a lot of patience” and “gained a lot of perspective”. This view was shared by P8 who felt herself “becoming more and more patient,” despite “times when I shouldn't have been patient“ because

“something wasn't going right”; but ultimately, P8 felt absolutely that she “learned to become more patient with adults”. P9 also felt he “grew as a person” and “grew more

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tolerant” while learning about Islam and how important family was to Afghans which

made it more important to him too. Having patience also manifested itself as Participants

described themselves becoming more relaxed. Many Participants felt the mentoring experience taught them to be more relaxed, and while each Participant’s experience was unique, feeling more relaxed about their work also manifested itself in mentors being less strict, having to “pull back” with respect to the intensity with which they worked, and performing in an indirect role rather than being too overbearing. P5 specifically felt as she developed better social acumen, she also grew personally. While P5 knew she needed to “be more relaxed personally”, as time went on she learned “to mellow out” and not be as strict as she was in previous mentoring engagements. P8 also felt she changed from the standpoint of becoming more relaxed and that she did not always “have to be type A”; for her, she felt this was “probably the biggest change.” Another facet of patience and

tolerance was learning humility. As such, P5 felt she became less overbearing and gained

real life experience in what it means to be “quiet leaders”, sometimes just knowing when

to “be quiet, and take the humble road” with respect to her work.

(9) Self-improvement

Some Participants found that they changed as a person and improved as a mentor

as a result of their experiences; this self-improvement manifested itself in the Participants becoming a better lawyer, growing as a person, and becoming better teachers. P2 found his experiences directly improved his legal skills and became a better lawyer when practicing law in the United States. P9 also felt he not only “grew as a person” but also

“learned a great deal personally from both the Iraqis and the Afghans” who he worked with is his mentoring engagements. Finally, P1 felt the mentoring experience improved

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him and made him a better teacher and helped mentees understand opposing viewpoints.

(10) Planning and prioritizing

P4 also felt his planning skills were enhanced as a result of his experience as a

mentor and became more inquisitive, often asking probing questions regarding mentee

performance plans and training schedules. For example, P4 stressed: “The right way

would be to come up with a plan, find out the gaps, and analyze and read it.”

Demonstrative of what he learned, P4 revealed:

“A lesson I learned, how as an advisor I need to be prepared and I have planned and focus things that…Focus these areas that need my advice on the [00:27:05] thoughts or area of advisor, and as a mentor.”

P4 felt he improved by also becoming more results oriented, being influenced by

“activity-based thinking”, developing realistic timelines and milestones, and improving his own ability to achieve “tangible results”. Further, P4 expressed that many mentors became more proactive as a result of their experiences, and instead of “looking for the opportunity to come itself”, as time progressed he became more proactive, “looking for the aspects” where others needed his mentorship or advice.

(11) Tailored approaches

As for tailored approaches, P4 felt he improved as a mentor because he learned that oftentimes tailoring his problem solving to the situation was highly appropriate. P9 also felt that as he looked “at leadership within a different culture”, it was important to

“come in with an open mind”, and remain “willing to listen and learn from the people they're mentoring more than simply coming in to dictate and to direct.” Realizing he had to approach things differently, P9 sometimes found it necessary to tailor mentoring and training approaches as the situation warranted.

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(12) Positive orientation

Maintaining a positive orientation was important for a number of Participants,

especially P3 who expressed that her mentoring experience made her “realize the

important role that we play to build capacity through setting a positive example.” P5 also

felt “using more positive language” was more helpful than taking a critical approach to

leadership development. Finally, P4 felt very strongly that as a result of his mentoring, it

was important to maintain a positive outlook and focus on the future instead of “working

for the moment”, and used the following analogy to describe his perception: “Before I

was like a blind, but I learned that now I need to have my pair or glasses to see or focus at

least the future.”

(13) Gained perspective

Many Participants felt they gained perspective as a result of their work. For P1, he

felt he changed to become a better informed and a better lawyer “as a result of looking at

how other cultures might address the same issue, or come to different results.” P1 also

felt he gained “a different perspective” when he realized in Afghanistan that things were

more critical there as compared to what happened in the United States when as a lawyer things did not go as planned in the courtroom. P7 also felt she “gained a lot of

perspective, like what's important and what's not” as a result of being in Afghanistan. P3

felt she improved as a mentor because as an American Caucasian female, she did not

have advantages in the Afghanistan environment and it allowed her to “see these

discrepancies more clearly” and as a result gain perspective with regard to cultural

differences. P6 also felt she improved because mentoring in Afghanistan “opened up my world” to doing something drastically different and having the experiences she did, and

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“being blessed to learn from other cultures.”

Developing open-mindedness was another way some Participants changed, with

P9 revealing that as you look at leadership within a different culture,

“it's important for an individual who comes into that culture to not try and fix that culture, but to simply adapt within it. The people that have been successful that I've seen are those that come in with an open mind, and are willing to listen and learn from the people they're mentoring more than simply coming in to dictate and to direct.” And as a result of being more open-minded, “you just have to approach things differently”. Risk taking was another manner in which Participants changed. For instance, P2

felt that as a result of learning to delegate tasks, he improved his own mentoring and

leadership skills by “delegating, training his staff to do what should be done”, and in

doing so, understanding that mistakes may occur. Increased self-awareness was another

area P5 felt she changed, improving as a mentor and learning to “mellow out” instead of

being so strict. Finally, gaining a global perspective is another are where P1 improved as

shown by his willingness to travel and “learn about other cultures”.

(14) Problem solving

As for problem solving, P2 felt his mentoring experience taught him to work more

effectively with respect mentees coming to him to “hash out solutions” and working more

efficiently and effectively, putting “things in place, trust the people to get a job done,” and solving complex problems in a culture different than what many international mentors and advisors had previously experienced,

(15) Listening skills

P8 felt she dramatically improved her listening skills because she “really watched

and listened,” always “trying to pick up on subtle behaviors of my staff, both female and

male.” P8 expressed an aspect of what she learned as follows:

“I would really watch. I would really try to listen to the staff and not just kind of come in

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and be demonstrative or tutorial. I would always stop and say listen and ask what were the concerns and what were the challenges and that kind of thing.” In addition, P8 felt she learned to be “an active listener”, and P9 also felt that being

“willing to listen and learn from the people they're mentoring” was important as he discovered his work was “more than simply coming in to dictate and to direct”.

(16) Information sharing

As for information sharing, P10 learned that by having meals with friends or others from the same ethnicity that this “kind of informal interaction” and information sharing improved her both individually and as a mentor. In addition, P4, in his role as a mentor, felt he was more willing to share his knowledge and “providing that advice” to mentees and his colleagues. Further, P1 felt he became better informed on international donor work, and had to share information with colleagues and mentees not only about day-to-day activities, but also concerning what hiring companies were looking for and

“what the donor is looking for” with respect to international rule of law reform.

(17) Curiosity increased

P1 felt his curiosity increased since it was “great to make friends in other places and to learn about other cultures” and that it “kind of ramps up the curiosity” beyond what he already had about other cultures and other places. P1 also felt he became “better informed and a better lawyer” as a result of looking at how other cultures might address things, or come to different conclusions, which made him “more curious.”

(18) Empathy

Increased empathy and understanding the tough lifestyle many Afghans encountered certainly made many mentors and advisors more sensitive to the needs of others, so much so that in the case of P3 she definitely felt she became “more

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empathetic”.

(19) Teambuilding

Enabling teamwork and teambuilding by working with assigned staff, mentees

and Afghans with oftentimes divergent opinions and approaches resulted in many

participants expressing the importance of teamwork. And as for internal team

composition and shared activities, P2 felt that as a result of the teamwork exhibited

across the various teams he interacted with, sharing workload and responsibilities was

necessary as was delegating tasks to others. In this regard, P2 became better at

“delegating, training my staff to do what should be done, delegating the duties amongst

them, and trusting them to do it”.

(20) Continuity

Consistency and constancy of purpose were other things Participants learned as a result of their mentoring experiences in Afghanistan. While P6 initially expressed

concern about the continuity of international staff working in Afghanistan, she later

realized how important it was for mentors to stay in place for the duration of their

assignment, show up as scheduled, and provide continuity for mentees. In addition, P5

felt her “piece of consistency” was reflected in her attitude towards work, showing up

day after day and being a constant force in her work.

Summary of Initial Findings

The findings from the individual interviews conducted with ten Participants living

and working in Afghanistan reflected responses to the seven questions asked as part of the interview protocol. Using Atlas.ti as the method, horizontalization and initial coding were used to find invariant meaning horizons. From there, further analysis by the

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researcher developed clustered themes. Given the purpose of the research study to

identify experiences Participants had, it became important to provide a comprehensive

view of their perspectives in rich and thick descriptions. The analysis also revealed

clustered themes which the researcher provided as narrative descriptions in relation to the

interview protocol questions.

The initial findings of the data demonstrate both the complexity of post-conflict

environments, the challenges that exist, and the high degree of flexibility and creativeness

mentors and advisors need in conducting leadership development in conflict ridden

environments where culture differences need to be taken into account. The data also

demonstrate that mentors need an underlying framework for their leadership development

activities and simply ‘shooting from the hip’ is neither appropriate nor condoned in

international settings such as Afghanistan where its local population is looking to

international advisors and mentors for prescriptive solutions to their core problems.

The planned approach to qualitative analysis using the Moustakas’ (1994)

phenomenological method evolved into an analysis of invariant meaning horizons and

clustered themes using state-of-the-art qualitative analysis software Atlas.ti to develop a

comprehensive composite view of Participant perceptions and reflections into a single data repository where the data could be manipulated to elicit a composite textural- structural description of Participants’ experiences from which the essence of the phenomenon could be created.

Individual textural descriptions detailing what composed the Participants experiences are contained in Appendices retained in the principal researcher’s data repository to the dissertation as Annexes. They include descriptions of the individual’s

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conscious experience as relayed to the researcher. These include the thoughts, feelings,

examples, ideas, and situations that comprised the experience. The textural descriptions

demonstrate that while elements are unique to each mentor/advisor experience, other

aspects of the experience were shared by many of the study Participants. As such, a single composite textural description was developed and data further analyzed for meanings of structural themes that evolved.

Individual structural descriptions were not developed. Instead, the individual textural descriptions were combined and merged with structural themes identified below using database manipulation to create a composite textural-structural description. In this regard, the composite textural-structural description was used to portray a comprehensive view of ‘the how’ of the phenomenon, which could then be used to further explicate the

“what” of the experience and gain a deeper understanding of that experience.

Imaginative Variation to Develop Composite Textual-Structural Description

This section presents the researcher’s further interpretation of the data and continued analysis of the findings to develop structural themes and refine the composite textural-structural description. In this regard, imaginative variation was used by the researcher to engage in conscious acts of assessing, judging, imagining and recollecting information provided in order to derive core structural meanings (Moustakas, 1994).

There were no predetermined notions or preconceived expectations to be examined, except for the interview protocol which focused the Participants on various aspects of their experiences. Hence, an inductive approach was used to study these phenomena further. The goal was to be receptive and allow the essence of the experience to present itself to seek out possible meaning in the way of structural themes. While each

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mentor/advisor experienced living and working in the host country in his or her own unique way, there were invariant experiences that transcended their individual experiences.

In Moustakas’ terminology, a textural description uncovers “what” the phenomenon was, and a structural description reveals “how” the phenomenon was experienced (Moustakas, 1994, p. 79). Where this researcher varied from Moustakas’ phenomenological method, is in using Atlas.ti and associated artifacts to create a composite view of all Participants’ experiences into a single database. This database containing coding and themes was merged with Atlas.ti exported files that included quotations and descriptive textual narratives to create a composite textural-structural description containing all Participant horizons and invariant meaning units. Thereafter the database was used to create clustered themes as constituents of the phenomenon and then to derive core structural meanings.

Context and Setting of the Composite Textural-Structural Description

From a structural point of view, the challenges identified by the Participants significantly influenced their work and the perceptions and views they provided in their respective interviews. In this regard, it became apparent that because of the perspective the challenges created, whether a result of the national culture or the national environment, all Participants were significantly influenced by the challenges in the performance of their work, and for example, biased by the post-conflict contextual setting in which they performed their mentoring and advisory tasks.

As identified in the composite textural-structural description, many challenges negatively impacted the daily routines of the Participants. Chief among those challenges

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that impacted daily routines were: language barriers, corruption, illiteracy, security

concerns due to conflict(s), and lack of infrastructure. On the other hand, systemic

challenges associated with the national culture had to be dealt with as issues presented themselves requiring Participants to exercise their judgement. National level challenges

included: gender bias, nepotism, ethnic and tribal favoritism, along with regionally

dictated policies and traditions which presented additional challenges. Key among the

challenges that negatively impacted the overall goals of the Justice Sector Support

Program was a lack of critical thinking skills due to the poor educational system in

Afghanistan, especially since rule of law efforts required sophisticated problem-solving skills that in the United States would otherwise be common place. Finally, many challenges associated with the general well-being in Afghanistan caused by the continuous conflict negatively impacted the way many Afghans felt about themselves,

Further, the current state of their country and pessimistic outlook for the future further exasperated a lack of confidence, lack of initiative, lack of interest, and self-destruction tendencies (aka ‘brown stamp collectors model’). Table 4-11 shows the key challenges in

Afghanistan and respective Participants who identified them.

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Table 4-11. Key Challenges Impacting the Perspectives of Participants.

Key Challenges P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 Lack of critical thinking skills X X X X Gender bias X X X X X X X X Leadership perceptions differ X Lack of understanding objectives X X X X Lack of transparency X Lack of confidence X X Lack of continuity X X X Limited interaction X X Language barriers X X X X Corruption X X X Poor education X X X Lack of initiative X X X Lack of interest X X X Illiteracy X X X Nepotism X X X Security concerns due to conflict X X X Self-destruction (brown stamp model) X X Tribal, ethnicity favoritism X Encumbering hierarchical organizations X X Lack of infrastructure X X Preconceptions, prejudices of expats X Regional nuances X X Lack of self esteem X X

Interestingly, the nature of the challenges in Afghanistan resulted in very

pragmatic approaches and solutions being taken, and were enough to make any idealist cringe given the continuous conflict in the country. And just about the time many

Afghans felt their country was trending in a better direction the Taliban have had a resurgence with the withdrawal of coalition forces. Instability will no doubt continue, but mentors and advisors will continue to perform in Afghanistan and similar nations under the auspices of international donors performing capacity building.

Structural Themes to Derive Essential Invariant Structure

The purpose of this research study was to understand the experiences of mentors and advisors in developing emerging leaders in a post-conflict marginalized society. This section describes the essential invariant structure elements that were identified or

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anecdotal from analysis of the research study Participants’ verbatim interview transcripts.

Analysis of the interview transcripts utilizing phenomenological reduction and

imaginative variation yielded distinct structural themes and elements.

By using imaginative variation, and manipulation of the data-tables of codes,

clustered themes, and variation of possible meanings, the researcher engaged in

conscious acts of assessing, judging, imagining and recollecting information provided by

Participants in order to derive core structural meanings (Moustakas, 1994).

The derived structural themes (core structural meanings) are: cooperative

learning, emerging leaders, trusted relationships, planning and coordination, critical

thinking, patience and tolerance, cultural acumen, group dynamics and teamwork, accountability, continuous engagement, perspective setting and objectivity, positive orientation, promoting transparency, tailored approaches, subject matter expertise, and contextual training. Table 4-12 below depicts the invariant structural themes (compilation of cluster themes) comprising the essence of the Participants’ experience.

Table 4-12. Derived Structural Themes and Core Structural Meanings of Participants’

Experience

Cluster Themes Derived Structural Themes . Appreciative inquiry . Interaction . Capacity building . Listening skills . Communications . Mentoring . Continuous feedback . Questioning Practiced cooperative learning . Cooperative learning . Teaching . Critical thinking . Training . Information sharing . Cultural awareness . Cultural acumen Taught cultural acumen . Cultural awareness . Ethnicity, regionalism . Beliefs, values, attitudes . Relationship building, build dimensions trust Relationship, building . Build trust trust Built trusted relationships . Candidness . Trusted relationships . Values changed . Teambuilding Applied group dynamics & teamwork

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. Tailored approaches Tailored approaches . Accountability . Leadership . Confidence . Leadership skills . Emerging leader construct . Leading Developed emerging leaders . Emerging leaders . Professionalism . Empathy . Self-improvement . Encouragement . Critical thinking . Decision making Promoted critical thinking . Curiosity increased . Problem solving . Managing . Planning & prioritizing Performed planning & . Planning . Results orientation coordination . Planning & coordination . Positive orientation . Vision for the future Maintained positive orientation . Vision . Perspective, gained perspective . Perspective setting & Perspective setting & objectivity objectivity . Humility . Patience Exhibited patience & tolerance . Patience and/or tolerance . Demonstrated expertise Demonstrated expertise . Overcoming gender bias Contextual training* . Promoting transparency . Transparency Promoted transparency . Continuity . Goal setting Continuous engagement . Build accountability Built accountability

*In the case of this research study’s location of Afghanistan, gender training would be

appropriate to the environment and context of where mentoring occurs.

Cooperative learning captures the essence of the mentoring engagement as a

symbiotic relationship between mentor and mentee where information is exchanged

freely and open communications exist. As a cooperative activity, mentors and mentees

learn from one another and various approaches are used to communicate information,

such as appreciative inquiry, questioning, continuous feedback and social interaction.

The relationship and learning is enhanced through progressive interactive learning for each individual and knowledge sharing. In this regard, active listening, information processing, and creativity are used to increase each other’s capacity and capabilities.

Cultural acumen, as an essential element, represents both cultural sensitivity and awareness, but goes beyond their mere understanding and extends to acting appropriately in social and business settings where cultural differences exist. Further, cultural acumen

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extends beyond national cultural differences and is equally applicable to societal-

elements’ cultures, organizational cultures, etc.

Trusted relationships are at the core of the mentor-mentee relationship and each

individual should be cognizant of the other’s beliefs, values and attitudes without losing

their own individual identity. Trusted relationships should also be extended beyond the

mentor-mentee condition as future leaders need to know how to develop longstanding

effective and honest relationships with others in order to sustain their support and trust.

Group dynamics and teamwork recognize the basic understanding that leadership

is a social process and occurs with others. As such, mentors, mentees, and emerging

leaders need to understand the dynamics of working in group and team settings and what

it is to build and promote teamwork.

Tailored approaches means that work and solutions should be specific to the

situation and processes and activities simplified to suit the situation, and context of the

setting.

The emerging leader construct is at the heart of leadership development activities,

with mentors taking the approach that future leaders need to be developed using a

foundational structure as part of the approach. In this regard, emerging leaders need

increased confidence through confidence building and encouragement. Emerging leaders

should also feel empowered to take action and risk failure in protected settings in order to

develop.

Critical thinking is also essential to leadership development as mentees and

emerging leaders need to be able to systematically analyze problems and identify solutions, and thereafter be decisive about the future actions identified. Whether it’s the

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Socratic Method or some other form of critical thinking, systematic analysis of problems and development of solutions is warranted.

Planning and coordination is an essential element of almost any worthwhile activity and individuals need to possess and apply the most rudimentary managing and planning skills in order to set priorities consistent with a viable path to success and achieve tangible results. Followers, subordinates, colleagues or peers need to be able to see leadership in action so the emerging leader needs a fundamental understanding of planning and coordination in order to be effective.

Positive orientation pertains to an optimistic outlook for the future; but at the same time, maintaining a positive outlook during current day events and troublesome endeavors.

Perspective setting and objectivity are necessary in order to avoid negative

perceptions and prejudices that may exist early on in a relationship, between mentor and

mentee, or as an emerging leader. Perspective setting and objectivity also takes into

account the view with which one approaches different situations and the objectivity

necessary to overcome biases.

Patience and tolerance as basic human traits and skills are necessary from the

mentors’ perspective in order not to intimidate emerging leaders and mentees, and allow

them to grow as leaders. Patience and tolerance are also necessary from the standpoint of

the mentees so they become neither frustrated with their own performance or

development nor frustrated with the mentor.

Demonstrated expertise becomes necessary as mentors need to demonstrate a high

degree of proficiency and subject matter expertise in their craft in order to be deemed

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suitable and credible, and for emerging leaders to possess competencies required of a

particular position.

Contextual training needs to take into account any specialized training necessary, or dedicated training required in order to overcome systemic issues and root causes to problems such as gender bias, discrimination, etc.

Promoting transparency reflects the need for visibility by others into ones actions

and the rationale used in decision making, and to avoid the perception that one’s actions are solely self-serving.

Continuous engagement is necessary to overcome the fear of leaders and mentors not being around and so that mentees reap the benefits of regular and recurring interaction. Goal setting is included here as it pertains to the degree of continuity

necessary in order to support, (time, resources, or otherwise) the attainment of goals.

Finally, accountability has the dimensions of acceptance and ‘building’

accountability. Emerging leaders need to understand that in the capacity of being a leader

they are accountable for their own actions and accountable to others. Whether it is

described as ‘the buck stops here’ or something similar, leaders (e.g., mentors) need to

understand they are responsible for others. In addition, mentors and mentees are

accountable to one another for their mutual success.

Table 4-13 shows the invariant structural themes aligned to Participants, based on

an analysis of their interviews and the meaning units and theme clusters identified for

Participants’ experiences.

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Table 4-13. Structural Themes Aligned to Participants, Using Meaning Units and Theme

Clusters

Structural Theme P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 Practiced cooperative learning X X X X X X X X X X Taught cultural acumen X X X X X X X X Built trusted relationships X X X X X X X X X Applied group dynamics & teamwork X X X X X X X X Tailored approaches X X X X X X X Developed emerging leaders X X X X X X X X X Promoted critical thinking X X X X X X X X Performed planning & coordination X X X X X X X X X Maintained positive orientation X X X X X X X X X X Perspective setting & objectivity X X X X X X Exhibited patience & tolerance X X X X X Demonstrated expertise X X X X Contextual training* X X X X Promoted transparency X X X Continuous engagement X X X Built accountability X

Table 4-14 shows the invariant structural themes and number of Participants identifying

meaning units associated with respective core structural meanings as a result of the

researcher’s coding.

Table 4-14. Invariant Structural Themes: Number of Participants and Cluster Themes

(#Times Coded Reflect the Researcher’s Coding in Atlas.ti).

Structural Themes Cluster Theme(s) # Participants # Times Coded . Cooperative learning 9 63 . Mentoring 9 21 . Teaching 6 15 . Capacity building 4 6 . Communications 4 5 . Listening skills 4 5 Practiced cooperative . Training 4 5 learning . Continuous feedback 4 4 . Information sharing 3 3 . Interaction 3 3 . Questioning 3 3 . Critical thinking 2 3 . Appreciative inquiry 1 2 . Cultural awareness / Cultural Acumen 8 53 Taught cultural acumen . Ethnicity, regionalism 1 4

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. Relationship, building trust 8 33 . Values changed 7 17 . Trusted relationships 6 48 Built trusted relationships . Build trust 6 22 . Beliefs, values, attitudes dimensions 1 6 . Candidness 1 1 Group dynamics & . Teambuilding 8 33 teamwork Tailored approaches . Tailored approaches 8 16 . Emerging leaders 6 74 . Leading 6 18 . Encouragement 5 9 Developed emerging . Professionalism 3 10 leaders . Self-improvement 3 6 . Confidence 2 3 . Accountability 1 2 . Empathy 1 1 . Critical thinking 6 47 . Decision making 4 13 Promoted critical thinking . Curiosity increased 1 2 . Problem solving 1 1 . Managing 6 28 . Planning 6 6 Performed planning & . Planning & coordination 3 12 coordination . Results orientation 2 2 . Planning & prioritizing 1 7 . Vision for the future 6 22 Maintained positive . Positive orientation 5 10 orientation . Vision 3 4 Perspective setting & . Perspective, gained perspective 5 9 objectivity . Perspective setting & objectivity 1 2 . Patience & / tolerance 4 16 Exhibited patience & . Humility 3 13 tolerance . Patience 2 2 Demonstrated expertise . Demonstrated expertise 4 10 Contextual training . Overcoming gender bias 4 10 . Promoting transparency 3 8 Promoted transparency . Transparency 2 6 . Continuity 2 3 Continuous engagement . Goal setting 1 1 Built accountability . Build accountability 1 8

Synthesis of Composite Textural-Structural Description and Intuitive Integration

The final step in Moustakas’ (1994) phenomenological research process involves the “intuitive integration of the fundamental textural and structural descriptions into a unified statement of the essences of the experience of the phenomenon as a whole”

(p.100). The following section provides a synthesis of the composite textural-structural

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description of the research subjects’ experience of providing leadership development training to mentees as emerging leaders. The description of essence is prepared “from the vantage point of an individual researcher following an extensive imaginative and reflective study of the phenomenon” (p. 100). It provides an integrated synthesis of what the Participants experienced, what they learned from their experiences, and how they learned from their experiences.

Obviously the intuitive integration is a result of this researcher’s point of view, but within the context of a post-conflict marginalized society, the eventual description of the essence of the phenomenon is borne out by the analysis done. Further, some of the components of the essence could be given greater or lesser credence based on the nature of context in which mentoring were to occur. In this section, the structural themes, as invariant core structural meanings, that evolved are further synthesized into a composite description of the phenomenon using intuitive integration to develop the single essential invariant structure of the ultimate essence.

Composite textural-structural description of essence.

The phenomenological approach employed in this research systematically builds on findings from each step of the data analysis that has been presented to produce the essence of mentors and advisors experience. This method requires thorough consideration of the data and an imaginative assessment to allow the essence of the data and related elements to surface and to become differentiated from the non-essential elements; a synthesis and the essence follow.

Composite textural-structural synthesis: Experience of advisors/mentors in developing leadership emergence.

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The Participants studied for this research provided leadership development training as

advisors, mentors and trainers to mentees and students by living and working in Afghanistan.

The country represents a culture and national environment different from the Participants own

cultures and in a geography drastically different from their country of origin. The Participants

experiences represented assimilating a culture quite different from what they had previously

experienced (with the exception of P4). Through their intensive experiences they developed

their own understanding of another culture and the nuances associated with it. From their

experiences, Participants developed a heightened awareness of and appreciation for

cultural differences as well as relationship building approaches and skills they found

essential in their role as mentors and advisors working in a host country fraught with conflict

and corruption. Most Participants approached their experiences with an open attitude and

optimistic spirit. Throughout their experiences, they discovered new approaches to leadership

development and how to apply their own skills in a manner consistent with the Afghan national

culture and national environment.

This section provides a synthesis of the ‘what and how’ of mentors and advisors experiences by first describing perceptions, observations and feelings they had about themselves that predisposed them to first understand and secondly to overcome challenges presented to them as part of their arrival in an unfamiliar country ravaged by terrorism and beset with corruption. This section then articulates the essence of what they experienced and what they learned, and how they learned it. The section continues with an integrated intermingling of the various elements, as this represents the essence of how they matured intellectually and emotionally from their experience.

The manner in which the Participants in this study approached their experiences appears

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to have enhanced their ability mentor and provide a positive leadership development experience

for emerging leaders in Afghanistan. Each of the Participants talked about their attitudes and

behaviors that predisposed them to seek out and optimize the mentees experience given the challenges that existed. The Participants were driven by a high degree of willingness to

interact with their mentees and a desire to impart instruction in the most effective manner

possible despite Afghan local leaders who may not have been as motivated as desired.

The majority of Participants were also intrigued by the experience and to overcome

challenges presented to them. Their motivation to learn about other parts of the world was demonstrated by their willingness to relocate themselves away from their families to other countries, which was a requirement of their contract to deploy with no dependents. Although a steady salary and increased compensation for working overseas may have been an ulterior motive, most Participants demonstrated altruism as it pertained to their desire to perform rule of law reform and educational assistance in Afghanistan.

Whether experiencing favorable conditions or not, Participants felt they had to find ways to conduct leadership development activities and have the mentees or learners gain something positive from the experiences they encountered. While living and working in Afghanistan as advisors, mentors and trainers, in a culture that was different from their own, these Participants learned about themselves and about another country and its respective culture and influences. In some cases, a few of the Participants were transformed or significantly changed by their experience. The Participants became aware of and confronted their own cultural biases and assumptions and learned that theirs was not the only way to do things. The Participants also adjusted to the norms, values and beliefs of another culture without losing their own cultural identity. During intensive

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situations where cultural differences existed, Participants picked up on non-verbal cues in

order to adjust to the conditions that existed and maintain a high degree of professionalism. While working in various provinces in Afghanistan, Participants rapidly acclimatized themselves to the regional cultural norms and made adjustments to their training and mentoring in order to mitigate the risk of losing credibility by doing something inappropriate, and in one case being abducted by terrorists.

The Participants’ experiencing another culture and customs gave them a deep

appreciation for and perspective on cultural differences, so much so that they were able to

understand the nuances of national, regional, ethnic and tribal cultures and act

appropriately using the cultural acumen they developed as a result of being in country for

a relatively short time. By experiencing the new unfamiliar culture, the Participants

found they had to be attentive to subtle clues and nuances of behavior when conducting

their work, especially in light of having to adapt to the host nation populace expectations and uncertain cultural norms. Given the combination of complexity, cultural and language

differences, and other challenges they faced, the Participants discovered they needed to be

cognizant of different points of view and to remain flexible in the manner in which try

approached their role.

By being observant of local customs, and in seeking to understand and be

understood, mentors and advisors had to spend a lot of time drinking chi tea in order to

build relationships. And once relationships were established, Participants needed to be attuned to what it took to maintain longstanding trusted relationships given the relationship-based culture that existed in Afghanistan. By being open to different

environments and cultures, seeking to understand others from the onset of a relationship,

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and then listening and demonstrating humility, Participants were able to develop strong

relationships, which are critical to their effectiveness as mentors and advisors. In addition,

the face-to-face interaction with others resulted in establishing trust early on and in

accomplishing their work. By establishing trusted relationships, Participants were able to

work intimately with mentees, members of the Afghan ministries, and Afghan program

stakeholders. In addition, by demonstrating a willingness to take time to develop trusting

relationships, Participants were able to show they valued other people. By establishing a

degree of commonality with the Afghan emerging leaders, Participants felt a high degree

of mutual respect. Being respectful of and showing a desire to understand the Afghans

themselves, Participants were able to connect with others as human beings, establish

mutual respect, and eventually work collaboratively with people in Afghanistan.

Participants felt they learned from their experiences initially in an intuitive

manner, but soon discovered through exchanges with the Afghans that structured formal

meetings and informal sessions promoted effective engagement and communications.

The mentor-mentee relationship and teaching and learning experiences were enhanced by

Participants use of metacognition, in the context of “there's thinking, and then there's

thinking about your thinking” in order to better understand what was being done, but how

something was being done. In addition, while Participants viewed the mentor-mentee relationship as being collaborative, they also discovered mentors and mentees could learn from one another, and a collaborative learning approach was beneficial for both parties.

This cooperative and collaborative learning approach was demonstrated with Participants

learning about the country of Afghanistan with its unique culture and traditions from the

Afghan emerging leaders, and mentees learning how to perform managerial and technical

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aspects of the work from mentors. Participants described their experiences first-hand,

identifying challenges and cultural differences, causing themselves to confront their own

cultural biases and assumptions and to develop an increased sensitivity to cultural

differences. The participants experience is all the more enhanced through a desire to

discover new experiences.

The synthesis of composite textural-structural description provided immediately

above, using intuitive integration, thus becomes the essential, invariant structure of the

participants ultimate experience, described in the statement of essence immediately

below.

Statement of Essence

While performing on their international work assignments, Participants felt that

adapting to new cultures can be tenuous, especially in conflict ridden nations such as

Afghanistan. In the context of mentoring and advising, a high degree of professionalism is required and demonstrated technical expertise is a must. New arrivals in country must be able to ‘hit the ground’ running with a full appreciation of the environment in which they will perform their work, and possess technical expertise expected in order not to lose credibility upon their arrival. Mentors and advisors must be attuned to the national culture and national environment in which they work, and receive advance training on the country and its cultural differences. Mentors should also receive fundamental training in mentoring and/or advising roles and set expectations for themselves and their mentees early on in their assignments. Throughout their assignments, mentors should strive to develop an appreciation for local customs and understand nuances associated with the host country culture so as to facilitate continued adjustment to the national culture as well

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as to sub-cultures, e.g., tribal, ethnic, regional. In addition, mentors, advisors and trainers

should remain flexible in their work and be willing to adapt to austere conditions and

dynamic situations as they crop up. Fundamentally, however, Participants felt that their

sponsoring organizations, especially those representing international donor nations,

should have prepared them better for the overseas assignments, conducting country

specific orientation training in addition to baseline learning on fundamentals of teaching

and cooperative learning, such as was described by one Participant and seen by this

researcher as a highly viable learning construct for mentors and advisors. In this regard,

cooperative learning, for instance, may prove highly relevant as an educational approach

whereby it can be used for structuring mentor-mentee interdependence and promote the

completion of collectively meeting leadership development goals (Ross and Smyth,

1995). By facilitating mentee learning, and consistent with the research findings, mentors

would be able to foster positive interdependence, achieve greater individual and group

accountability, enable better interaction, promote social, relationship and cultural

acumen, and further enhance relationships beyond the mentor-mentee interaction.

Further, and as identified by Participant 5, theoretical bases of teaching, learning, and

training should be sufficiently addressed prior to mentors deploying overseas. Examples

of such theory include social interdependence theory (Lewin, 1939) where positive and

negative actions promote or obstruct achievement, respectively, because of the

interdependence that exists. In their assignments, then, Participants had come to understand they were able to master a wide variety of approaches suitable to leadership development in another country and overcome personal and professional challenges.

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Chapter Summary

This chapter presented findings of the analysis using Moustakas (1994) phenomenological method, as well as qualitative analysis techniques described by Miles

and Huberman (1994). The chapter described the various stages of the phenomenological

reduction and the emergence of the various themes in this inquiry. The researcher

explored the research questions regarding the experiences of advisors and mentors in

developing leadership emergence in a post-conflict marginalized society. The researcher

also discussed essential elements of the phenomenon as they might be extended as

generalizations for further mentor-mentee emerging leader development, and as identified

and inferred from analysis of the study Participants interview transcripts.

The researcher engaged in epoche to set aside preconceived ideas before analyzing

the data to refrain from making suppositions and to focus on the topic “freshly and

naively” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 47). During analysis of the interview transcripts, the

researcher utilized horizontalization, giving every statement in the transcript equal value,

and eliminating irrelevant and repetitive statements. This technique enabled the researcher

to identify horizons, and textural and invariant constituents of the phenomenon

(Moustakas, 1994, p. 97). A composite textural-structural description was developed to

provide a synthesis of both ‘the what’ and ‘the how’ of the Participants’ experience.

The researcher utilized invariant meaning analysis, counting, patterns and themes,

and clustering to explore facets of the experience as provided by Participants. The

essence of developing leadership emergence was presented via a composite textural-

structural synthesis. Cooperative learning, the emerging leader construct, and trusted relationships were three of the sixteen essential invariant structure elements identified as

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being part of the mentor-mentee relationship pertaining to emerging leader development

and of the composite description of the phenomenon. These themes were highly consistent

with the findings of the phenomenological analysis.

Chapter 5 presents conclusions based on the findings and discussion of the

implications, as well as recommendations for practice and future research in and practice of leadership emergence.

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CHAPTER 5 – INTERPRETATIONS, CONCLUSIONS &

RECOMMENDATIONS

Overview

This study explored the following exploratory research question:

How does culture influence the lived experiences of advisors/mentors engaged in developing leadership emergence in post conflict societies?

The interview protocol included seven key questions; they are as follows:

1. What were the major challenges in developing leadership skills in Afghanistan?

2. How would you describe your role as a mentor and advisor?

3. How did the national culture influence what and how you developed the local

leaders?

4. How did the national environment impact type of leadership skills needed?

5. How did the national environment impact the approaches you used in developing

leaders?

6. What enabled you to be successful as a mentor and advisor?

7. How did you change/improve during your time as a mentor/teacher?

The constructs for this phenomenological study were culture, leadership, mentoring/advising, and developing leadership emergence; mentoring served as a complementary construct with the study’s conceptual phenomenological element as developing leadership emergence.

Using Moustakas’ (1994) phenomenological research method, this study explored the phenomenon of developing leadership emergence. The study sought to understand experiences advisors and mentors identified as significant in their performing leadership

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development training, what they observed and learned during their experiences, and how they

changed as a result of their experiences. This chapter presents conclusions based on the

findings, as well as discussion of implications and recommendations to improve the

practice of leadership development in post-conflict marginalized societies. Finally, the chapter presents recommendations for future practice and research.

Findings, Interpretations and Conclusions

Findings reveal that culture and leadership in Afghanistan are inextricably linked, with leadership emergence constrained by various aspects of the culture, while mentors and advisors were successful in their leadership development efforts to promote leaders emerging.

Project GLOBE (House et al., 1999) sought to validate numerous hypothesis regarding culture and its implications for leadership (House et al., 2004; Den Hartog et al., 1999). Components of the culture construct, i.e., cultural differences, were used in this study and demonstrate that when advisors and mentors understand cultural nuances, as mentors they can be an enabling mechanism for host nation personnel as emerging leaders. Leadership provided another key construct within this study’s conceptual framework, with the reciprocal relationship between advisors/mentors and developing leadership emergence influenced by the national culture and environment, and learning by mentees as being essential to leadership emergence. The relationship this study sought to understand was how cultural differences and leadership development enabled leadership emergence. This study found that a relationship exists and that mentors and advisors in Afghanistan could enable leadership emergence.

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Discussion of the Findings

This section discusses the findings in Chapter Four in relation to literature from culture and leadership emergence. The findings relating to the influence of culture and findings related to leadership emergence, respectfully, are as follows:

Finding 1 (Culture & Leadership Emergence). Culture and leadership emergence are inextricably linked during capacity building efforts pertaining to marginalized societies in post-conflict nations.

A finding from this study was that a relationship exists between culture and leadership emergence, especially when advisors, mentors and trainers provide leadership development training during capacity building efforts in a conflict-ridden country.

Elements of culture that influence how mentors and host nation personnel interpret and negotiate their environment include values, norms and behaviors of regional, local and ethnic entities and the acceptance of these norms by a vast majority of the population.

Since affiliations existed to ethnic and tribal units, behavior associated with these entities was pervasive in how members of society viewed leadership potential and performance.

In Afghanistan, core values that guided how individuals thought were inculcated through cultural conditioning from childhood on and were reinforced throughout their lives

(Triandis, 1994).

An overall consciousness of the country’s cultural norms, values, and beliefs was evident as mentors and advisors performed their leadership development efforts.

Participants took into account key aspects of Afghan culture to include religion, lifestyle, family values, tribal allegiances, ethnic norms, and the patriarchal nature of the Afghan society. Further, Participants described various aspects of the Afghan culture that

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influenced how they conducted their leadership development training. Whether having to

cope with gender bias; dealing with uncertainty caused by years of conflict; the

relationship of mentees and respective organizations to the familial, ethnic, regional and

national groups; or roles of women in the Afghan society; Participants identified a

number of cultural aspects they were aware of and adjusted to when interacting with

mentees and local leaders.

As evidenced by P9, ethnic, tribal and family relationships are “far more

important than any formal government, or any formal structural relationships”. As P1 observed, the Afghan religious-based culture and characterization of Shari’a Law as being memorization and recitation based were detrimental to leadership development

from the standpoint of creativity and problem solving skills. Further, cultural gender bias

resulted in mentors promoting the contribution women make to society, especially P8

who strove to have Afghans adjust to women in leadership roles and to develop an

appreciation for “women being leaders and being in charge”.

Finding 2 (Leadership Emergence). Cooperative learning is essential to

mentors fostering leadership emergence among mentees.

Cooperative learning (Johnson and Johnson, 2009; Ross and Smyth, 1995)

represents a symbiotic relationship between mentor and mentee where information is

exchanged freely and open communications exist. Predominant cluster themes associated

with cooperative learning include communications, continuous feedback, information

sharing, interaction, questioning, and appreciative inquiry. As a cooperative activity,

mentors and mentees learn from one another. The relationship and learning is enhanced

through progressive interactive learning and knowledge sharing. In the case of mentors

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and mentees, while they each initially rely on their respective cultural frame of reference,

e.g., “thinking as usual” (Schutz, 1964) or “meaning perspectives” (Mezirow, 1981) to make sense and learn, when these do not produce the results desired it causes mentors/mentees to learn about respective cultural differences and use this awareness to facilitate learning. Grounded in social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), mentoring is an effective means toward higher levels of cognitive development with mentors providing advice in career and psychosocial functions (Kram, 1983, 1985) to enhance the mentees sense of competence, effectiveness, and identity. Mentors also provide psychosocial functions including self-efficacy (Ragins & Cotton, 1999). Mentoring remains important because it impacts how emerging leaders learn, especially with regard to learning that occurs through the reconstruction of life’s experiences. And since mentee learning is impacted by the social setting and environment in which mentoring occurs (Merriam and

Caffarella, 1991), shared knowledge of the social setting promotes better learning. In addition, by practicing cooperative learning, mentors and mentees achieve greater knowledge transfer as a result of greater cross-cultural awareness (Hajro and Pudelko,

2010).

The concept of cooperative learning, then, presents itself as a viable approach for mentor-mentee relationships, especially in countries such as Afghanistan where a poor education system contributes to high-level learners not having a true appreciation for critical thinking. Participants in this researcher’s study found cooperative learning to be characterized by working in a cooperative environment, learning from the Afghans themselves, using collective discussions to enhance technical knowledge, and conducting open candid discussions. P5’s observation that mentees could “work in a cooperative

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environment and a team environment and still lead” and P6’s observation that “we need to learn from the Afghans” demonstrates the viability of cooperative learning as a construct for developing leaders in marginalized societies.

Finding 3 (Culture). Developing cultural acumen in emerging leaders reduces their risk of failure.

Developing cultural acumen, represented by increased cultural sensitivity and cultural awareness, goes beyond the mere understanding of cultural differences and encompasses acting appropriately in social settings (Javidan and House, 2001). Further, cultural acumen extends beyond national cultural differences and applies equally to societal elements that include ethnic tribes and regional entities. Key cluster themes for cultural acumen include cultural awareness, ethnicity and regionalism. Afghanistan as a nation is mostly a tribal and rural society with different regions of the country having their own native language, norms, values and beliefs. While the majority of Afghans live by similar traditions and behavior, i.e., Islamic traditions, holidays, there are differences that exist across the country and provinces.

In order to gain an appreciation of local cultures, P2 would have his mentees and other Afghans educate him on cultural nuances to enhance his understanding and leverage this knowledge in his leadership development efforts. In addition, many participants acknowledged experiencing another culture and its customs gave them a deep appreciation for and enlightened their understanding of cultural differences, so much so that they were able to understand national, regional, ethnic and tribal culture nuances and convey to mentees how to act appropriately in challenging situations.

Leaders need to consider cultural norms as reflected in business, relationships,

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hierarchies, ethics and risk to be effective (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961; Hofstede,

1980; Boyacigiller and Adler, 1991). As such, knowing what cultural differences exist

and acting appropriately given different cultural codes provides emerging leaders with an

avenue to succeed rather than fail.

This study supports early research which suggests emergent leaders were skilled

at taking in and understanding emotional information, and revealed that emergent team

leaders were socially perceptive (Chowdhry and Newcomb, 1952). Consistent with Lisak

and Erez (2014), this study reaffirmed that emergent leaders should be able to simultaneously understand complex cultural issues and show tolerance of and acceptance

of cultural variations. Further, cultural intelligence, as it relates to cultural acumen

represents an individual's capability to deal effectively in culturally diverse settings (Ang

and Van Dyne, 2008; Earley and Ang, 2003). Possessing cultural intelligence allows

leaders to apply cognitive aspects of cultural awareness and cultural knowledge, as well

as to the motivation to adapt to various cultural contexts, and behave accordingly (Lisak

and Erez, 2014). By encouraging openness to cultural diversity and viewing differences

as positive, mentors encouraged understanding of dissimilar perspectives (Lisak and

Erez, 2014) and comprehended the need to act appropriately when dealing with others

who held different cultural views.

Finding 4 (Culture). Establishing and building on honest relationships to sustain

the support and trust of others are crucial in promoting leadership emergence.

Trusted relationships are at the core of the mentor-mentee relationship and each

individual should be cognizant of the other’s beliefs, values and attitudes without losing

their own individual identity. Trusted relationships should also be extended beyond the

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mentor-mentee condition as emerging leaders need to know how to develop longstanding

effective and honest relationships with others. Cluster themes associated with this finding include: relationships; building trust; trusted relationships; shared beliefs values, attitudes dimensions; and candidness. In conducting leadership development, mentors and trainers focus on social resources embedded in work relationships that take the form of social capital (Brass and Krackhardt, 1999; Burt, 1992). The emphasis is on building networked relationships among individuals that enhance cooperation (Bouty, 2000; Tsai and

Ghoshal, 1998). The primary emphasis on leadership development is on building and using inter-personal competence (Day, 2001, p.585). Lisak and Erez (2014) also found that multicultural team members who are open to cultural diversity are more likely to emerge as leaders; these emergent leaders actively seek to interact with other team members and regard cultural interactions as interesting and challenging instead of

threatening. Consistent with these findings, this study determined that mentees as emerging leaders need to know how to build trusting relationships and show respect for others despite cultural differences. As such, developing longstanding positive relationships can overcome dissimilarities in people and cultures and promote the achievement of common goals.

As acknowledged by P5, the culture in “Afghanistan is about relationships” and

strong relationships have to be built “whether you want to or not”. P7 also stressed the

importance of building relationships and “became better friends” with her mentees.

Finally, P6 found an important “approach was building relationships” and “ensuring that

we had strong relations with the leaders” was crucial to her work.

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Finding 5 (Culture). Tailored approaches to developing leadership emergence should reflect the cultural setting.

Mentors that tailored their leadership development approaches took into account the cultural conditions that existed locally and applied solutions specific to the situation.

In addition, mentors assured any complex processes and in-depth training activities were simplified to suit the situation and context of the setting. Of the three approaches to global leadership (universal, normative, and contingency), the third ‘contingency’ approach begins with the assumption that there are no universals in describing effective leadership and looks at leadership as a culturally embedded process, not a series of personal traits. In the contingency approach, the focus is on the leader as a local manager and it assumes that the characteristics for success will vary with the situation (Steers et al., 2012). In this regard, while working with the Ministry of Justice Legal Aid

Department dealing with juveniles, P1 felt in certain situations it was appropriate to create “a work around” in order to fulfill his responsibilities.

This researcher’s study is consistent with the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) whose principal finding was that leadership is culturally contingent and the qualities of effective leaders often vary across cultures. As shown in the GLOBE research project

(House et al., 2004), leadership is influenced by cultural factors. As previously discussed in Chapter 4, effective leadership, leadership emergence, and leadership styles are embedded in cultural contexts. As such, training and development programs should be designed to help emerging leaders gain an appreciation of cultural differences and knowledge of various leadership behaviors, styles and patterns. P3’s comment that

“leadership style is very nuanced by the situation you're in at the moment”, illustrates the

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point that situational leadership-like approaches were warranted and should be applied in

Afghanistan.

Finding 6 (Leadership Emergence). Developing leadership emergence should

use approaches that include confidence building, empowerment, and encouragement.

The emerging leader construct was core to mentors’ leadership development activities in Afghanistan. In this regard, Afghan emerging leaders need increased self- confidence through confidence building measures and continuous encouragement.

Emerging leaders should also be made to feel empowered to take action and not afraid to risk failure in protected settings created by mentors. Cluster themes associated with this finding include emerging leaders, leading, encouragement, professionalism, self- improvement, confidence, and empathy. As an extension to building confidence,

Participants demonstrated “building self-esteem” was a viable approach to develop local leaders. P3’s observation that “because the lack of self-esteem is just epidemic in

Afghanistan”, it was imperative to increase mentees’ self-esteem. P4 also stressed building self-esteem was important for having young Afghan leaders believe in themselves and aspire to top leadership positions.

Given the definition of a mentor as someone who provides an enabling relationship that facilitates another’s personal growth and development (Morton-Cooper and Palmer, 1993), the mentor-mentee relationship can be dynamic, reciprocal and oftentimes emotionally intense. Within such a relationship the mentor assists with professional development and guides the mentee through organizational, social and political networks (Morton-Cooper & Palmer, 1993). This researcher’s study found confidence building, empowerment, and encouragement as approaches to developing

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leadership emergence were used successfully. A number of participants found

empowering mentees was useful in their mentoring, and that by doing so, it made the

learning and leadership development experiences more effective. Empowering mentees to

make decisions and taking ownership proved beneficial for P2 because once mentees

“found these things out, they felt empowered.”

Further, leader development focusing on the individual as an emerging leader has an orientation toward developing human capital (Coleman, 1988; Lepak and Snell, 1999;

Lockwood, 2006) which emphasizes the development of individual capabilities such as self-awareness and self-motivation (Day, 2000). Marginalized people (Basumatary, 2013) who lack self-sufficiency often become dependent and lose their self-confidence because they cannot be fully self-supporting; the opportunities denied them also deprive them of the pride of accomplishment which others, who have those opportunities, can develop for themselves. These assertions are supported by Mann's (1959) early research on

leadership emergence which offered three explanations for how an individual might

emerge as a leader: 1) through contributing to satisfying the needs of others, 2) through fulfilling roles necessary for a group to function successfully, and 3) through exhibiting traits that are associated with or trigger socially defined leadership expectations of others.

These three explanations for how individuals emerge as leaders are equally applicable to

Afghan mentees based on the experiences of Participants in this researcher’s study.

Finding 7 (Leadership Emergence). Critical thinking, coupled with a strong eagerness to learn and improve, was key to developing emerging leaders.

Mentors needed to promote critical thinking in Afghanistan. Critical thinking

(Ennis, 1985) is essential to developing leadership emergence as mentees and emerging

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leaders need to be able to systematically analyze problems and identify solutions, and thereafter be decisive as to what actions are necessary. Whether applying the Socratic

Method or some other form of critical thinking skill, systematic analysis of problems and development of solutions was noted by mentors as being necessary to ensure long-term success in Afghanistan. As a symptom of the poor education system in Afghanistan, the lack of critical thinking was identified as a major challenge in this research. Critical thinking as an intellectually disciplined process meant Afghans needed to actively analyze, conceptualize, and synthesize information generated from observation, experience, reflection and reasoning. By applying critical thinking, it should guide emerging leader actions. Cluster themes associated with this finding include critical thinking, decision making, and problem solving.

P4 demonstrated that giving adults the opportunity to “truly think” was a good chance to develop “critical thinking skills”, as did P5 who promoted critical thinking by challenging Afghans’ propensity to make independent “one-sided decisions.” P2 also indicated fact finding and due diligence were important for mentees as they honed their critical thinking skills by “gathering intelligence” about the local political environment.

P2’s approach also highlighted the need for “arguments” to encourage critical thinking.

P2 had his mentees “hash out solutions” by thinking through problems and putting

“critical thinking shoes on” while P5’s approach advocated the need to “challenge authority” as a way of promoting critical thinking.

This finding was consistent with Brett et al. (2006) who drew attention to cultural barriers in multicultural teams, significant among them being conflicting decision-making norms. In identifying intelligence as fitting the leadership prototype, Judge et al. (2004a)

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asserted that intelligence was important for leadership due to the following: 1) the

complexity of a leadership position requires higher levels of intelligence, 2) intelligent

leaders are better problem solvers, and 3) intelligent leaders are more creative and

motivate their followers to be more creative. The latter two intelligence factors were noted by P2, P4 and P5 as being relevant to critical thinking. While a high degree of

intelligence was not specifically identified by participants, the critical thinking as a skill

was identified as being needed.

Balthazard et al., (2009) finding that a leader is able to demonstrate intellectual

stimulation by showing how problems can be viewed from different angles is consistent

with Morris and Hackman (1969) findings that emergent leaders were not only those who

expressed more ideas, but also those individuals who initiated the process and asked more questions than others within a group. Whether identifying different solutions or questioning others in a group setting, developing leadership emergence activities need to stimulate thinking and foster innovative solutions so as to generate follower confidence, trust, and admiration (Bass, 1997; Bass and Avolio, 1994). As demonstrated by the

Afghan mentors and advisors, coming to understand complex problems and identifying

alternative solutions requires critical thinking.

It is important to note, however, that there are downsides to critical thinking since

at its core it involves questioning what one is told rather than taking something at its face value. Obviously, by evaluating information in a rational framework where facts and reason support or fail to support assertions, critical thinking skills are highly sought, but with the upsides comes certain downsides.

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Benefits: One benefit includes asking questions about facts, drawing connections, and formulating one’s own thoughts. Another benefit is helping a person get along with a wider range of people by being able to evaluating situations from perspectives other than one’s own, thus avoiding the social conflict that results from two narrow-minded perspectives.

Disadvantages: Deeley (2010) identified various challenges and negative aspects related to critical thinking and critical reflection. Downsides of critical thinking are that it can lead a person into new and unknown territory such as questioning embedded values, challenging long-held religious beliefs, and creating ambiguity as new ideas are sought out. Critical reflection as a newly acquired tool or skill can result in unpredictable results, especially when people challenge their own values and beliefs, which caused them discomfort (Deeley, 2010). Secondly, some people cannot control the newly acquired skill and find themselves continually reflecting critically on many aspects of their life, which is not only time consuming, but can have an immobilizing effect (Deeley, 2010).

In addition, there are dangers from those in authority and an established leadership hierarchy as critical thinking could undermine that authority and thereby causing repercussions. Further, sometimes people get caught up in the sequential nature of critical thinking and exclude other forms of thinking, such as creative thinking or intuitive thinking (Claxton, 1998). This would be a disadvantage, since creative thinking, for example, tends to produce innovation and invention. Finally, Bulpitt and Martin (2005) acknowledge problems that may arise through critical reflection and recommend that people using the newly acquired skill be taught to disengage appropriately when necessary.

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Finding 8 (Leadership Emergence). Task planning, results orientation and coordinating activities are required of emerging leaders.

Planning and coordination are essential skills in task-driven activities. As evidenced in Afghanistan, emerging leaders need to apply managing and planning skills by way of setting priorities consistent with desired results. Since followers, colleagues and peers need to see leadership in action, emerging leaders need to demonstrate an understanding of planning and coordination to be effective. Cluster themes associated with this finding include managing, planning, coordination, results orientation, and planning and prioritizing.

Planning and coordination manifested itself in mentors being firm, having a results orientation, and visualizing desired end states. P8 expressed that having preplanned activities and “regular meetings” were highly appropriate to mentoring and leadership development in Afghanistan. Also, since language was the principal form of communication in the Afghan culture as compared to a more structured writing schema, completing a task could be elusive without the benefit of established documented written milestones and completion criteria. An approach P8 advocated was the use of “informal interactions” to emphasize proper planning and coordination and documented written milestones to ensure task completion. This finding is consistent with early leadership studies which considered behavior as the origin of leadership (Fleishman and Harris,

1962; Likert, 1961; Bales, 1954), specifically task-oriented and people-oriented behaviors. Both the task-oriented and people-oriented aspects of leader behaviors have been linked to outcomes such as subordinates’ and group performance, follower job attitudes, and organizational commitment (House and Aditya, 1997). Lord (1977)

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identified three behaviors associated with being rated an informal team leader: coordinating behavior, developing orientation, and facilitating evaluation. Taggar et al.

(1999) also identified three behaviors that served to predict team member’s identification of an emergent leader: performance management, goal setting/achievement, and synthesis of member ideas. As shown by P8 and other participants in this researcher’s study, managing and planning skills are required of emerging leaders and should be included as part of leadership development efforts.

Bales and colleagues (Bales and Hare, 1965; Bales and Slater, 1955) identified 12 interaction categories of behavior demonstrated by group members that fell into two clusters: 1) task-focused and 2) socioemotional behavior. More recent research on emergent leader behavior supported these early findings and with the primary behavior focused on task coordination and the secondary behavior focused on member support and development (Lord, 1977; Stein and Heller, 1979; Taggar et al., 1999). Taggar et al.

(1999) furthered this analysis and identified three behaviors that predicted a team member being identified as an emergent leader: performance management, goal setting/achievement, and synthesis of member ideas. Finally, research has consistently established behavior aimed at the coordination of team tasks (e.g., task analysis, planning, structuring, goal setting (Taggar et al., 1999 and Yukl, 2010) as particularly influential for leader emergence. Having a task orientation inclusive of sound planning and coordination skills, then, is consistent in distinguishing emergent leaders from other team members.

Finding 9 (Culture & Leadership Emergence). Developing leadership emergence should focus on maintaining a positive orientation especially in post-conflict

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marginalized societies.

Positive orientation was described by mentors and teachers in Afghanistan as being optimistic about the future. Cluster themes for this finding include vision for the future, positive orientation, and vision. P10 stressed the importance of using teacher style feedback by first giving “positive feedback” and phrasing negative feedback in “a more constructive way”. In taking a “softer approach”, P10 often provided background regarding a “project and what the consequences could be” so as to convey a positive attitude about work. P8 also made it a point to eliminate disparaging comments and instead focus on the positive. By maintaining a positive orientation, P8 felt mentees were more resourceful. Finally, P5’s use of Badaracco’s (2002) ‘Leading Quietly’ and “always seeing people for their potential” was appropriate from her standpoint.

According the Asia Foundation’s Survey of the Afghan People 2014 (Asia

Foundation, 2014) the national mood in Afghanistan was characterized as one of cautious optimism, reflecting uncertainty around the political transition and the economy, and expectations for change. As evidenced in this researcher’s study, Participants expressed that concerns remain about the lack of security and corruption in Afghanistan. Many

Western theories of leadership, e.g., transformational leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1994), advocate that managers create a universally accepted vision of where a group or organization should go and then use moral persuasion to reinforce that vision. Proactivity type studies also maintain that there are important individual differences in terms of the tendency to make things happen as part of one's' work role (Antonakis et al., 2012). P4’s observation that he would usually see “leaders here in Afghanistan without a vision, without a plan” demonstrates the need for leaders to have vision. P7 also felt Afghan

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leaders needed to instill vision, but regrettably that “they couldn't see anything in the future”.

Mendenhall et al.’s (2012) definition of a global leader as: “An individual who inspires a group of people to willingly pursue a positive vision in an effectively organized fashion while fostering individual and collective growth in a context characterized by significant levels of complexity, flow and presence” (p 499) is relevant in this regard.

Maintaining a positive orientation should be considered a crucial component of leadership emergence development.

Finding 10 (Culture). The need exists to exhibit patience and tolerance and regulate emotions caused by cultural differences and prejudices.

Patience and tolerance as basic human traits are necessary from the mentors’ perspective so as not to intimidate mentees, but rather allowing them to grow as emerging leaders. Patience and tolerance are also necessary for mentees so they become neither frustrated with their own development nor frustrated with the mentor. This finding’s cluster themes include patience and tolerance, humility, and patience itself. A number of

Participants developed patience and became more tolerant as a result of their work in

Afghanistan. P7 “learned a lot of patience” and “gained a lot of perspective”. This view was shared by P8 who felt herself “becoming more and more patient,” and that she ultimately “learned to become more patient with adults”.

In the early phases of GLOBE, House et al. (2004) argued that what was necessary in order to understand leadership styles and behaviors in certain cultures was an understanding of the idealized leadership in that respective culture. A significant finding for GLOBE Phase 3 was the stated need to understand more about the

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incorporation of emotions into cross-cultural leadership processes (House et al., 2014).

Traditional leadership research often took a cognitive and rational approach to

understanding leadership-follower relationships; however, the importance of emotions in

relationships has also been recognized (e.g., Dasborough and Ashkanasy, 2002). The

ability to identify and regulate one’s emotions and those of others is a critical skill for

forming, maintaining, and managing healthy interpersonal relationships (Dorfman et al.,

2012). Patience and tolerance, specifically were identified as traits Participants found necessary in Afghanistan due to the culture nuances that existed. P9 felt he “grew as a person” and “grew more tolerant” while learning about Islam and how important family was to Afghans which made it more important to him too. Having patience also manifested itself as Participants described themselves becoming more relaxed.

In identifying a specific pattern for emergent leadership to occur in multicultural teams, Lisak and Erez (2014) asserted an emergent multicultural team leader should be able to simultaneously understand the complex multicultural team context, have a sense of belongingness to the global team, and show tolerance and acceptance of the team’s cultural variation. Further, individuals with high levels of openness to cultural diversity view differences as positive, are open to learning from dissimilar others, and make an effort to understand dissimilar perspectives (Lisak and Erez, 2014). Thus, individuals who are open to cultural diversity are motivated to actively seek new cultural experiences; they are also curious about other national cultures and are non-judgmental about other cultural behaviors and expectations (Hartel and Fujimoto, 2000; Shokef and

Erez, 2006). As such, these individuals are willing to adopt and express behaviors that indicate tolerance, respect dissimilar individuals, and are motivated to reduce negative

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effects of cultural misunderstanding (Fujimoto et al., 2004; Härtel, 2004; Hobman et al.,

2004). Openness to cultural diversity, then, serves as an important intercultural

competency among multicultural team members that leads to positive outcomes such as

satisfaction, commitment and trust (Lloyd and Härtel, 2011). Lisak and Erez (2014) also

proposed that multicultural team members who are open to cultural diversity are more

likely to emerge as leaders. These emergent leaders actively seek to interact with other

team members and regard cultural interactions as interesting and challenging instead of

threatening. Such members show more respect to – and trust in – other team members

despite national cultural differences (Lisak and Erez, 2014).

Finding 11 (Leadership Emergence). Demonstrated expertise serves to validate

perceived competencies and rationalize identification of emerging leaders.

Demonstrated expertise validates mentors’ proficiency and competence in their craft as others deem them credible and suitable for work they are performing.

Demonstrated expertise also allows emerging leaders to demonstrate their competence as they aspire to fill leadership positions. In a review of research on emergent leadership,

Hollander (1961) drew a similar conclusion to Bales in that the attainment of informal team leadership status required two sets of behavior. First, the emergent leader must alleviate team task concerns by being perceived as competent at the team's central task and being able to coordinate the fulfillment of the team's task goals. Second, the emergent leader must be perceived as being able to build trust and alleviate the team's social concerns (Wolff et al., 2002). When a person is perceived to possess expertise, others use this expertise to rationalize that person as an informal leader despite having no

formal authority to lead the group. As far as P1 was concerned, mentors had to

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demonstrate expertise in their field in order to have credibility. P1 indicated a key to his success was the ability to “come in and be a technical expert, and command respect in that way.” P5 felt she was successful in demonstrating her subject matter knowledge in leadership development. By advocating “you could have soft leadership” and work in a

“cooperative environment and a team environment and still lead” P5 felt her mentees were confident in her abilities. To further demonstrate her level of expertise, another approach P5 advocated was using scholarly leadership literature to rationalize the introduction of a “different kind of leadership that may not be common in their culture.”

Schneier and Goktepe (1983) defined emergent leaders as group members who exert significant influence although no formal authority has been vested in them. Aronoff and Wilson (1985) in explaining sources of leadership status as either ascribed or achieved, posited that ascribed sources of status stem from a process whereby readily observable individual differences, such as gender or personality, result in attributions of competency and leadership ability; technical competence and expertise could also set a person apart. Alternatively, achieved sources of status which stem from valued behaviors and tangible contributions resulting in a person earning status within the group (Aronoff and Wilson, 1985). This finding shows that demonstrated expertise is often used to rationalize identification of an emerging or informal leader within a group.

Finding 12 (Culture & Leadership Emergence). Systemic cultural issues require dedicated training to increase awareness and overcome negative bias when conducting leadership development activities.

Contextual training (Johannessen and Olsen, 2003) should take into account any specialized or additional knowledge in order to address issues or overcome systemic

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problems such as gender bias, discrimination, etc. The cluster theme for this finding is

‘overcoming gender bias’. The biggest problems facing women today identified by the

Afghans include education and illiteracy, a lack of job opportunities, domestic violence, forced marriages and dowry payments and lack of rights. Compared to men, women are significantly more likely suffer from gender bias and discrimination because of the national culture and gender roles emanating from the patriarchal society and Islam religion. Many Afghan men have issues with women performing in leadership roles due to the cultural constraints that exist.

Gender bias was cited by the majority of Participants and considered one of their biggest challenges. Gender bias not only existed for the mentors themselves, but women in Afghanistan often suffered from overt discrimination. In the male dominated society, men were often condescending to women and were not used to having women as leaders.

Consequently, for mentors, traditional perceptions of women had to be changed; and for mentees, women mentees had to understand the implications of gender bias and find work-arounds. Mentors and advisors developed training courses to overcome these problems.

Because the Afghan national culture reflected a negative bias to women, many

Participants took additional actions to overcome this bias by encouraging women, pushing forward on gender issues to give women more responsibilities, and helping men overcome gender bias. P3’s observation of “a strongly conservative Islamic force in

Afghanistan” meant she had to work “within that to help the men appreciate the women”.

P3 specifically encouraged emerging leaders to understand it was beneficial “to promote women in a very conservative Islamic society” and as a result, promoted gender training

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and giving women more responsibility. Contextual training, then, serves as a viable approach to overcoming systemic cultural problems.

Finding 13 (Culture). When developing emerging leaders, promoting transparency helps to overcome cultural bias that further exasperates already marginalized elements of society.

Promoting transparency involves the need to become more open and accountable

(Burger and Owens, 2010) and also reflects the need for visibility by others into ones actions and decision making rationale. Transparency also helps to avoid the perception that one’s actions are self-serving. This finding’s cluster themes are promoting transparency, and transparency itself. Access to information is considered a fundamental right in Article 50 of the Afghan Constitution. However, the Afghan Ministry of Culture and Information orders “self-censorship” of local media outlets of anything that is against the Islamic Shari’a laws. Journalists have been threatened, physically abused, or killed while carrying out their duties. In other situations, some ethnic tribes are regarded as an underprivileged, and as such, are socio-economically disadvantaged (Basumatary, 2013).

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Strategy on

Democracy Human Rights and Governance (June 2013) identified principal Development

Objectives for post-conflict and emerging nations. These objectives identify both the need to understand leadership and the manner in which leaders emerge as they attempt to enhance the livelihood of societal elements of which they are a part. Despite

Development Objectives which are aimed at promoting participatory, representative, and inclusive political processes and government institutions, large groups of people are excluded from involvement in political processes. In addition, Afghanistan Ministries

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sometimes operate in a closed and nontransparent manner without the meaningful participation of citizens. In addition, historically marginalized groups face barriers to participation and representation. Characteristics that can result in marginalization include geography, ethnicity, religion, age, education and gender identity.

Due to the corruption that exists in Afghanistan, many Participants found it appropriate to promote transparency. P4 was compelled to demonstrate transparency in his own efforts, “not hiding anything” and “sharing everything”. His desire was for mentees and Afghan staff to work honestly and openly. P5, instilled transparency across her team, continually telling her mentees: “On our team, it has to be transparent. 100%, it has to be transparent. It has to be fair. It has to be anonymous.”

Recent USAID efforts aimed at achieving the Development Objectives include

Afghanistan where transition to a more representative government has served only to restrict or reverse even the most basic human rights and educational opportunities that marginalized groups such as women have gained over the last decade, depriving the country of the productive contributions of half its population, and greatly diminishing national development prospects. Even today, despite official Afghanistan Government mandates endorsing equal rights for women, they are seriously under-represented in all sectors of society, professionally marginalized, and lack institutionalized opportunities to assume decision making and leadership roles in government, the private sector and civil society. (World Bank Policy Research Report, Mason and King, 2000). This finding supports the idea that transparency can help marginalized elements of society such as women and that transparency can also serve as a catalyst for positive changes such as

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access to education which improves women’s long-term economic prospects and helps

lift their families out of poverty.

Finding 14 (Leadership Emergence). In developing leadership emergence,

mentors and mentees are accountable to one another for their mutual success.

Emerging leaders need to understand that in the capacity of being a leader they are accountable for their own actions and accountable to others. Accountability dimensions include ‘accepting’ and ‘building’ accountability. Leaders need to understand they are responsible for others. In addition, mentors and mentees are accountable to one another for their mutual success. To build accountability P5 made Afghan mentees accountable even if “it was the first time they've ever been held accountable”. For example, P5 was compelled to instill accountability in the local leaders, informing them it was not appropriate to leave work without having met a suspense timeline. Eventually,

the Afghan leadership incorporated this approach in their attempts to instill greater

accountability among their staff.

As a way of eliciting greater accountability, P2 delegated duties among his staff,

trusting them to do things so that “even when they made mistakes, the fact that you

trusted them to do something important, the fact that you relied on them, that you put your faith in them, that empowered them so that they took ownership of it.” P2 could not

“stress enough how much taking ownership of something makes it theirs”. Consequently, in his efforts to develop local leaders, P2 felt that “once they take ownership of it and they understand that this is theirs to run with” they would develop the skills needed to perform in a leadership capacity.

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Extending beyond the mentor-mentee relationship, USAID Strategy on

Democracy Human Rights and Governance (June 2013) Development Objective 2 calls

for fostering greater accountability of institutions and leaders to citizens and to the law.

As evidenced in Afghanistan, political systems in which citizens have few mechanisms to engender changes in policy and leadership consistently produce unsatisfactory government performance and policy outcomes and can result in endemic corruption. This finding supports the need to develop greater accountability, especially between the mentor and mentee, as leadership development efforts are aimed at mutually reinforcing responsibility, accountability, and ownership.

Finding 15 (Leadership Emergence). Technical expertise can moderate gender bias in male dominated, patriarchal societies.

Similar to Finding 11 above, that demonstrated expertise serves to validate perceived competencies and rationalize identification of emerging leaders, Finding 15 described herein serves to further the discussion regarding the potential to overcome the

challenge of gender bias. Consistent with shared leadership scholars (Carson et al., 2007;

Pearce and Conger, 2008) and distributed leadership theorists (Harris, 2004; Mayrowetz,

2008; Spillane, 2012), an implication from this current researcher’s study shows that

coordinating and engaging expertise across teams and groups could moderate gender bias and challenges faced by women in male dominated, patriarchal societies. With this as the assertion, the potential exists that leadership emergence could be considered gender neutral if expectations existed that no matter a person’s gender, their technical competence and leadership capabilities are better indicators of a person’s leadership potential. This finding is consistent with Grove and Hallowell (1995) who found that

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women expatriates from the United States assigned to other countries in Asia or the

Middle East often reported that they are judged based on their competencies and communication skills rather than their gender.

Gender bias cited by the majority of Participants was considered one of their biggest challenges. Gender bias not only existed for the mentors themselves, but women in Afghanistan often suffered from overt discrimination. In the male dominated society, men were often condescending to women and were not used to having women as leaders.

In the context of mentoring and advising, a high degree of professionalism is required and demonstrating technical expertise is a must. Further, consistent with Wolff et al. (2002), emotional and cognitive skills underlie selection as an informal team leader.

In addition, P8 would focus on her “technical expertise” so as to get beyond “the periphery of things”, and rather than trying to push an agenda of how “white women can do these things” she would just “model being a good leader”.

The cluster of demonstrated expertise was considered significant as mentors needed to demonstrate a high degree of proficiency and expertise in their professional endeavors, and for emerging leaders to possess the required qualifications and competence required for a particular position. As a natural extension of demonstrating a high degree of proficiency and expertise, leaders and emerging leaders gain credibility from others and whether demonstrating business acumen, expertise, or other competencies required, the argument exists that these competencies can be considered gender neutral.

This finding is also consistent with Paustian-Underdahl et al., (2014) who discuss gender perceptions of leadership effectiveness and women’s underrepresentation in elite

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leadership positions being attributable to the undervaluation of women’s effectiveness as

leaders.

Paustian-Underdahl et al.’s (2014) quantitative review of research pertaining to the relationship between gender and leadership effectiveness as well as to a number of theoretically based moderators of this relationship expanded on role congruity theory

(RCT) by reframing it such that it applies regardless of gender (i.e., to both men and women). Paustian-Underdahl et al. asserted that with respect to the overall impact of gender on leader effectiveness, literature seems to oversimplify gender advantages in leadership. Paustian-Underdahl et al.’s findings indicate that men may see themselves as congruent with most leadership contexts, while women may see themselves as incongruent with many leadership contexts, even though others evaluate them as more effective as middle and senior managers, as well as in business and education organizations. Paustian-Underdahl et al. also found that there are certain contexts in which there may be a greater perceived congruity between the female gender role and leadership roles (i.e., middle management, business and education organizations, settings with a high percent of female raters, and in organizational settings rather than laboratory settings), and, in these contexts, women are seen as more effective leaders than men.

These findings serve to challenge stereotypes surrounding gender and leadership

(e.g., Koenig et al., 2011), which may be increasing perceptions of men’s incongruity

(and ineffectiveness) in leadership positions. Overall, Paustian-Underdahl et al. conclude that their meta-analysis contributes to literature regarding gender advantages in leadership effectiveness by showing that when all leadership contexts are considered together, there is a nonsignificant gender difference in leadership effectiveness.

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Interpretations and Conclusions

The findings of this exploratory phenomenological research study identified above provide an understanding of how cultural differences influence leadership emergence development in marginalized societies, as well as how these cultural differences influenced the approaches mentors took in developing Afghan leaders. The findings, when combined with conclusions below should enhance the future study of leadership emergence and its development. While Participants identified a number of important perceptions that when synthesized are relevant to the phenomenon of developing leadership emergence, a few perceptions stand out as somewhat unexpected for this researcher.

Surprising to this research was the lack of critical thinking in the Afghan culture and the need to promote it as a skill. With a lack of critical thinking skills as a challenge identified by the majority of Participants, mentors, advisors and teachers had to overcome the poor education in Afghanistan by promoting objective and activity based thinking among mentees for them to become independent thinkers. Further, given the perception that Afghans acquiesced to a culture of religious dogma and where tribal codes prevailed, many Participants viewed developing local leaders’ critical thinking as vitally important.

As such, many Participants promoted critical thinking comprised of fact finding and due diligence by mentees, brainstorming sessions, using information processing, promoting arguing and disagreement, and encouraging critical thinking. Critical thinking was considered so essential to developing leadership emergence, with mentees as emerging leaders needing to be able to systematically analyze problems and identify solutions, and thereafter be decisive about the future actions identified.

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The ‘brown stamp collector model’ was also an unanticipated facet of the work as identified by Participants. Appropriately labeled ‘brown stamp collectors’, the term reflected a tendency toward ‘self-destruction’ by Afghans as a result of the nation being in a continuous state of conflict, so much so that some members of the Afghan society would seek to discredit others, especially their superiors, as a way of obtaining

occupational advancement. Detrimental from the onset, it would progress until the

responsible individual would reached a point where they examined their own self-worth,

determining that their self-esteem had diminished to the point where as a result of

“multiple failures” they would self-destruct.

Another surprise for this researchers’ study was the unforeseen and inaccurate

sense of reality by donor nations providing support to the country, capacity building

institutions promoting justice sector reform, and the Afghans themselves. Regrettably,

many donor organizations were unable to construct an accurate sense of reality,

especially with regard to what mentors were telling them about the corruption. In

addition, some Participants felt mentors themselves did not understand the local

culture(s) and that some mentees failed to understand the reality of the situation.

Consequently, many Afghans had their own sense of what was going on in a respective

Province and for that matter across the country, so much so that they were unable to

make the progress desired in their leadership development efforts as a result of spending

“weeks on weeks on the same thing” and “trying to get consensus” on what justice sector

reforms ought to be because of “so many different opinions.” Because of this, P4, as an

Afghan himself, understood the reality of the lives Afghans led and corroborated this and

various other perceptions offered by Participants.

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A final fundamental surprise was the vulnerability to challenges of working with

members of marginalized societies in the conflict-setting and facing the constant threat to security because of terrorism; which certainly impacted the nature of the work as mentors began everyday concerned about terrorist attacks and fighting among the different factions in Afghanistan to include terrorist bombings (two alone in close proximity to the mentors themselves), improvised explosive devices during travel (killing one advisor on a sister justice sector reform program, Corrections System Support

Program), and in one case an assignation of a mentee.

The section below identifies six conclusions that provide meaning for the findings and begin to fill the void in literature regarding culture and its influence on developing leadership emergence. The section provides conclusions and interpretations based on the findings.

Conclusions

The researcher developed conclusions by reviewing and reflecting on the purpose and significance of the study, the principal research question, and findings of the study in the context of culture literature and leadership emergence literature. The conclusions reached address:

1) what experiences advisors and mentors found to be important in their providing leadership development, 2) the insights Participants reported as having learned from their experiences regarding leadership development, and 3) what leadership skills were needed and what enabled them to be successful in their roles as mentors, advisors, trainers and teachers. The conclusions also address how 4) culture and the national environment influenced how Participants developed local leaders, how (5) Participants changed and/or

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improved as mentors and teachers as a result of their experiences, and (6) Developing

leadership emergence is not a gender specific process in that leadership prowess when

considered to be gender neutral may be moderated more by technical expertise and actual

emerging leader competencies than contextual setting, task framing, personality, and

gender.

This research study is significant because it addresses gaps in current knowledge regarding experiences related to leadership development efforts for marginalized elements of society, leadership approaches mentors report to be important in fulfilling their roles, and methods used to develop emerging leaders. There has been limited empirical research into these areas. One specific area that has been neglected in research is

developing an understanding of how advisors, mentors and trainers translate their

experiences into leadership development in settings where leadership voids exist.

Although researchers have made connections between cultural differences and their

influence on developing leaders, the influence and impact of cultural differences in a field

setting developing leadership emergence has not been extensively explored. The results

of this study contribute to a better understanding of the phenomenon of leadership

emergence and how culture influences mentors’ approaches to developing emerging leaders

as they fulfill their roles.

Conclusion 1. Mentor and advisor first-hand experiences stress the importance of

adaptability, demonstrated competence and positive outlook.

Participants in this study exhibited the ability to rapidly adjust to austere conditions

and develop the capabilities needed to effectively fulfill their roles as mentors and

advisors through first-hand, personal participation in leadership development efforts.

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These efforts challenged their perspectives and assumptions and increased their own

understanding of mentoring. Through their experience working as advisors, mentors

and teachers in Afghanistan, Participants gained important new insights, perspectives,

and skills in the areas of cultural sensitivity, relationships, teaching, mentoring, and overcoming challenges.

The experiences described by mentors in this study included rapidly assimilating a new environment unfamiliar to them and overcoming challenges embedded in the

Afghan culture. Experiences also included intensive cross-cultural experiences such as interacting with ethnic and regional tribes in remote provinces in Afghanistan to include at times interacting with Taliban leaders in occupied areas of the country. It is important to note that nine of the ten mentors were expatriates working in Afghanistan and were introduced to the country only as adults. Experiences such as justice sector reform, teaching children, negotiating with local nationals, leadership development programs, professional meetings, and short-term site visits all had profound impact on the Participants.

The common element among their experiences of performing mentoring was conducting work in Afghanistan often in remote areas of the country’s provinces lacking 21st century

infrastructure.

The manner in which Participants in this study approached their experiences enhanced

their ability mentor and provided a positive leadership development experience for emerging

leaders. Each of the Participants talked about their attitudes and behaviors that predisposed

them to seek out and optimize the mentees experience given the challenges that existed. The

Participants were driven by a high degree of willingness to interact with their mentees

and a desire to impart instruction in the most effective manner possible despite Afghan

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ministerial staff and ethnic/regional leaders that may not have been as receptive as hoped

for with respect to the mentoring and training being provided. The majority of

Participants were intrigued by the experience and had to overcome challenges such as a lack

of understanding of the capacity building efforts, a lack of infrastructure in the country, and

poor management and leadership skills by the Afghan mentees resulting from a poor

education system. The Participants’ motivation to learn about other parts of the world was

demonstrated by their willingness to relocate themselves away from their families, which

was a requirement of their contract. Although a steady salary and increased compensation for

working overseas may have been an ulterior motive, most Participants were altruistic in their

desire to perform rule of law reform and educational assistance in Afghanistan.

The challenges identified by Participants significantly influenced their work. In

this regard, and because of the challenges that existed, whether a result of the national

culture or the national environment, all Participants were influenced by the challenges

presented. Many challenges negatively impacted the daily routines of the Participants, but

despite this, they performed admirably in their roles. Chief among the challenges were:

language barriers, corruption, illiteracy, security concerns, and lack of infrastructure.

National level challenges included: gender bias, nepotism, ethnic and tribal favoritism,

along with regionally dictated policies and traditions. Finally, challenges associated with

the general well-being in Afghanistan caused by the continuous conflict negatively impacted the way many Afghans felt about themselves. However, despite the current conditions, Participants maintained a positive outlook regarding their jobs and the

mentees and continually strove to provide the best leadership development training

possible. Finally, throughout their assignments, mentors exhibited an appreciation for

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local customs and understood nuances associated with the host country culture. By

mentors maintaining a high degree of continuity from the standpoint of completing their

assignments and transitioning smoothly to their replacements, mentees benefitted from

the quality of instruction being provided. Participants described their experiences first-

hand, identifying challenges and cultural differences, causing themselves to confront their

own cultural biases and assumptions and developing an increased sensitivity to cultural

differences.

This conclusion is consistent with the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) which

found leadership is culturally contingent and that leadership is influenced by cultural

factors. This conclusion is also consistent with complexity science which suggests a

different paradigm for leadership, one that frames leadership as a complex interactive

dynamic from which adaptive outcomes (e.g., learning, innovation, and adaptability)

emerge (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007).

Conclusion 2. Mentors gained important insights regarding developing leadership emergence: building trusted relationships, viewing leadership as a social process, and the emerging leader construct are foundational elements of mentoring in post-conflict marginalized societies.

Building trusted relationships was a central component of lessons learned for the

Participants in this study. They experienced, and learned through their experiences, the importance and value of culture by living and working in different areas of Afghanistan with many ethnic and regional entities exhibiting different cultural norms and behaviors.

Cultural awareness played a key role in mentors seeing the importance of developing trusted relationships that were vital to their effectiveness. However, going beyond the

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importance of building trusted relationships, of significance here is that mentors and advisors understand and be prepared to identify outcomes that are most valued between mentor and mentee, key among them is the shared desired outcome of building trust as a metric, not only at the individual and team level, but expanding it to building trust across cultures. Noorderhaven (1999) identified theoretical implications for national cultures and development of trust as a way in which specific cultural dimensions may or may not influence trust-building processes. While trusting building has been identified as creating perceptions of fairness which generate satisfying and rewarding relationships (Deluga,

1994), Hakanen and Soudunsaari (2012) identified trust as a driving force to create a global business and that trust is a key factor in team building and a needed enabler for cooperation. Trust obviously is equally applicable as a desired outcome to many cross- cultural engagements. While trust building is a slow process, it can be accelerated with open interaction and good communication skills (Hakanen and Soudunsaari, 2012).

Further, and as identified in this current research, trust building needs personal knowledge and regular face-to-face interaction, but it also requires empathy, respect, and genuine listening; other trust building constituents are a shared vision, clear roles and responsibilities, willingness for cooperation, and supporting and encouraging leadership

(Hakenen et al., 2012).

Participants also learned leadership is a social process and group dynamics and teamwork were essential to developing local leaders. While living and working in

Afghanistan as advisors, mentors and trainers, Participants confronted their own cultural biases and assumptions about leadership and came to understand leadership was culturally contingent. While working in various provinces in Afghanistan, Participants

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acclimatized themselves to regional cultural norms and made adjustments to their training

and mentoring in order to enable their mentees as emerging leaders to become cognizant

of how to deal with circumstances and individuals that could have risked their

development of and aspirations of becoming future leaders in the country.

Participants discovered through knowledge sharing exchanges with the Afghans that leadership development went beyond structured formal discussions and should include informal sessions to promote effective engagement and communications. The mentor-mentee relationship and leadership teaching/learning experiences were enhanced by participants’ use of metacognition to better understand what they knew and how they knew what they knew. In addition, Participants viewed the mentor-mentee relationship and leadership development as being mutually collaborative and that a cooperative learning approach was beneficial for both parties. Collaborative learning was demonstrated with participants learning about the country of Afghanistan with its unique culture and traditions from the Afghan emerging leaders, and mentees learning how to perform managerial and technical aspects of the work from mentors.

Of the things mentors gained insight into was that trusted relationships are at the core of the mentor-mentee relationship with each individual being cognizant of the other’s beliefs, values and attitudes without losing their own identity. Participants came to understand trusted relationships could also extend beyond the mentor-mentee condition as future leaders need to know how to develop effective and honest relationships with others to sustain their support and trust. Group dynamics and teamwork are another essential element of developing leadership emergence since leadership should be viewed as a social process and ensues when working in group and team settings. The emerging

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leader construct is also key to leadership development activities, with mentors taking the

approach that developing future leaders should use as a foundation increasing confidence,

encouragement, and empowering others while reducing risk of failure by emphasizing

protected settings.

This conclusion supports the construct of leadership emergence as a process by which individuals come to be seen as a leader by others in their group (Hogan et al.,

1994). It is related to the way status is accorded by group members to one another (e.g.,

Campbell et al., 2002), and how systems of informal control and influence emerge within groups and organizations (Sell et al., 2004). As it pertains to mentees in Afghanistan, a

result of the leadership emergence process is the actuality and eventual existence of

informal leaders, individuals who are able to influence others, but who do not necessarily

have the most formal power in the group (Friedkin, 1993; Wheelan and Johnston, 1996).

This was the case for many young Afghan mentees who interacted with senior Afghan

personnel, to include Ministerial staff and judges, who relied on them for guidance and

counsel in such activities as justice sector reform and judicial proceedings.

Conclusion 3. Trust, critical thinking, planning, accountability and expertise are

leadership competencies that result in mentor/mentee success.

Participants in this study described many skills as being important for mentors as

leaders and mentees as emerging leaders to demonstrate and/or possess to successfully fulfill

their roles. These competency and skill areas identified are in the clusters of building trust,

critical thinking, planning and coordination, accountability, and demonstrated expertise. The

cluster of building trust goes hand-in-hand with cultural awareness as it concerns the ability

to deal with different perspectives as well as the ability to align others in the achievement

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of goals. As mentors encounter different cultures with different values, they found

themselves dealing with more complex challenges and also found they needed to be good at developing trusted relationships. This particular skill involves engaging with people

authentically and humbly to facilitate goal achievement through positive cross-cultural

relationships.

By being observant of local customs, and in seeking to understand and be

understood, mentors and advisors spent a lot of time drinking chi tea in order to build

relationships. And once relationships were established, Participants stayed attuned to

maintaining their trusted relationships given their importance in the relationship-based

culture that existed in Afghanistan. By being open to different cultures, seeking to understand others from the onset of a relationship, and then listening and demonstrating

humility, Participants were able to develop strong relationships, which are critical to their

effectiveness as mentors and advisors. In addition, the face-to-face interaction with others

resulted in establishing trust early on and in accomplishing their work. By establishing

trusted relationships, Participants were able to work intimately with mentees, members of

the Afghan ministries, and Afghan program stakeholders. In addition, by demonstrating a

willingness to take time to develop trusting relationships, participants were able to show they

valued other people.

While performing their work assignments, Participants expressed that adapting to

new cultures could be tenuous and requires skills commensurate with the challenges they

faced and the nature of their work. The cluster of critical thinking is essential to

leadership development as mentors needed mentees as emerging leaders to be able to

systematically analyze problems and identify solutions, and thereafter be decisive in

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planning and implementing about the future action plans related to performance

objectives and their completion. Whether utilizing the Socratic Method or some other

form of critical thinking, systematic analysis of problems and development of solutions

was noted as a crucial skill, especially because of the poor education systems that existed

in Afghanistan. The cluster of planning and coordination was considered an essential

element of nearly every worthwhile endeavor as mentors and mentees needed to possess

and apply fundamental managing and planning skills as they put plans in place, set

priorities consistent with performance goals, and completed tasks related to results-

oriented objectives. Participants came to understand followers, subordinates, colleagues

and peers needed to be able to see leadership in action and for leaders to possess

fundamental understanding of planning, coordination, implementation, and task

completion in order to be effective.

The cluster of accountability has the dimensions of accepting and building accountability. Mentors saw emerging leaders as needing to understand that in the capacity of being a leader they are accountable for their own actions and accountable to others. In addition, mentors and mentees were accountable to one another for their mutual success. Similarly, demonstrating expertise was seen as being necessary for mentors as they needed to exhibit a high degree of competence in order to be deemed credible by mentees and local leaders. The cluster of demonstrated expertise was considered to possess a certain degree of duality as mentors needed to demonstrate a high degree of proficiency and expertise in their professional endeavors, and for emerging leaders to possess the required qualifications and competence required for a particular position if they were to eventually perform in that capacity. Participants also came to understand

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that in the context of mentoring and advising, a high degree of professionalism is

required and demonstrating technical expertise is a must.

This conclusion is consistent with Wolff et al., (2002) who presented their theory

on leader emergence in self-managing teams that highlights emotional and cognitive skills underlying selection as an informal team leader. While existing research reveals informal leaders are selected because they display constructive task and team management behavior, Wolff et al. (2002) contributed to this knowledge first by proposing that specific cognitive processes and skills preceded the enactment of

emotional and cognitive behaviors by facilitating an accurate analysis of the task

situation, and secondly by proposing empathy as an aspect of emotional intelligence,

precedes and enables those cognitive processes and skills by providing an accurate

understanding of team and member emotions and needs. This conclusion is also

consistent with Brett et al. (2006) who drew attention to cultural barriers in multicultural

teams, significant among them being conflicting decision-making norms. Also, in identifying intelligence as fitting the leadership prototype, Judge et al. (2004a) asserted

that intelligence was important for leadership due to the complexity of the leadership

position requiring higher levels of intelligence, intelligent leaders being better problem

solvers, and intelligent leaders being more creative and as a result motivate their

followers to be more innovative.

Conclusion 4. Developing leadership emergence in cultures other than one’s

own require engagement strategies that enable rapid understanding of and the ability to

deal with cultural differences.

In this study, cultural awareness and sensitivity facilitated greater understanding

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of cultural differences and cultural nuances in Afghanistan. Increased cultural awareness

enabled Participants to become more open minded and identify ways for mentors and

mentees to deal with culture differences. The Participants in this study identified certain

attitudes and specific behaviors that contributed to developing leadership emergence. In

their role as mentors and teachers, Participants possessed an openness to experience that helped them develop ways to overcome challenges, as they were motivated to learn about others cultures. The Participants’ experiencing another culture and customs gave them a

deep appreciation for and perspective on cultural differences, so much so that they were

able to understand the nuances of national, regional, ethnic and tribal cultures and act

appropriately based on the cultural acumen they developed. By experiencing the new

unfamiliar culture, the Participants had to be attentive to subtle clues and behaviorisms

when conducting their work, especially in light of having to adapt to the host nation

populace expectations and sometimes uncertain cultural norms. Given the combination of

complexity, cultural and language differences, and other challenges they faced, the

Participants needed to be cognizant of different points of view and remain flexible in their

approaches to routine work and leadership development.

The cluster of cultural acumen (Javidan and House, 2001) represents both cultural sensitivity and awareness, goes beyond the mere understanding of culture nuances, and extends to acting appropriately in social and business settings where cultural differences exist. Further, cultural acumen extends beyond national cultural differences and is equally applicable to societal-elements’ cultures such as tribal units and regional entities.

The nature of the challenges in Afghanistan resulted in pragmatic approaches and solutions being implemented such as addressing family needs, meeting with tribal

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leaders, and negotiating with judges in courtroom settings. The construct of cultural

acumen was equally applicable to dealing with corruption as it was to building relationships since the fundamental premise is knowing how to act appropriately in

settings where cultural differences exist.

As an engagement strategy, the cluster of cooperative learning (Ross and Smyth,

1995) addressed a multitude of invariant meaning units and themes. Cooperative learning captures the essence of the mentoring engagement as a symbiotic relationship between mentor and mentee where information is exchanged freely and open communications exist. As a cooperative activity, mentors and mentees learned from one another and various approaches were used to communicate information, such as appreciative inquiry, questioning, continuous feedback and social interaction. The relationship and learning was enhanced through progressive interactive learning for each individual and knowledge sharing. In this regard, active listening, information processing, and creativity were used to increase each other’s capacity and capabilities. Cooperative learning then, as a symbiotic relationship, leads to information being exchanged freely and to open communications. Predominant cluster themes associated with cooperative learning include communications, continuous feedback, information sharing, interaction, questioning, and appreciative inquiry. As a cooperative activity, mentors and mentees learn from one another. The relationship and learning is enhanced through progressive interactive learning and knowledge sharing.

The cluster positive orientation pertains to an optimistic outlook for the future; but as the same time, maintaining a positive outlook during daily activities and troubling encounters. Having a positive outlook on the future was difficult for many Afghans since

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many had experienced continuous changes as a result of military conflict and regime

changes. While P4 emphasized the need to not look too far into the future and to focus on

the present day endeavors, as an engagement strategy mentors had to emphasize

emerging leader vision as a skill so as to address long-term change.

This conclusion is consistent with cooperative learning as an educational

approach that can be used for structuring mentor-mentee interdependence (Dillenbourg,

1999; Smith et al., 2005). Cooperative learning also promotes the completion of

collectively meeting leadership development goals (Ross and Smyth, 1995). Further, with

cooperative learning based on social interdependence theory, the outcomes of individuals

are affected by their own and others' actions where social interdependence exists

(Johnson and Johnson, 1994, 2009). In the case of mentors and mentees as expressed by

the participants in this study, respective actions promoted the achievement of joint goals.

This conclusion is also supported by Javidan and House (2001) since Participants had

come to understand they were able to master a wide variety of approaches and

engagement strategies suitable to leadership development in another country and

overcome personal and professional challenges.

Conclusion 5. Mentoring members of post-conflict marginalized societies can

alter mentors and teachers’ perspectives, thus emulating mentee values.

While actively engaged in developing leadership emergence, Participants in this study demonstrated patience with mentees, tolerance of cultural differences, and transparency in their actions. Through close observation of and attention to people and the dynamics of

culture around them, mentors gained new insights into themselves and perspectives about

life in marginalized societies. Participants’ values changed somewhat as a result of their

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experiences and they challenged their own cultural assumptions while developing others.

This conclusion supports the finding identified earlier related to shared experiences between

mentors and mentees and represents a highly positive aspect of the mentoring experience since many Participants expressed their appreciation of positive values that existed with the local population.

Participants changed with regard to their perspective, becoming less materialistic, valuing family, becoming more compassionate and appreciative, and in general reflecting a more benevolent approach to life. Acquiring more patience and displaying more tolerance were experienced by Participants as they worked with mentees and came to understand the indigenous cultures. Participants expressed that they became more patient

and tolerant as a result of their working in Afghanistan as mentors. Participants genuinely

felt they changed and had grown emotionally as a result; these acquired attributes also

served to reduce the potential for intimidating the mentees.

The cluster promoting transparency reflected a desire to provide visibility into

ones actions, awareness of rationale used in decision making, and to avoid the perception that one’s actions are self-serving. Becoming more aware of themselves and their perspectives resulted in Participants being able to respond to challenges related to cultural bias, lack of infrastructure and ethnic preferentialism and nepotism. In demonstrating and

becoming more patient and tolerant, these changes fit with the dynamic environment in

which Participants worked. In addition, rather than using preset approaches to developing

emerging leaders, mentors and teachers observed various aspects of the local culture and

environment and made appropriate changes to their mentoring and teaching, adapting and

changing their approach to better achieve desired outcomes given the circumstances.

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This conclusion is supported by research that shows that mentors as leaders need to consider cultural norms as reflected in business, relationships, hierarchies, ethics and

risk to be effective (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961; Hofstede, 1980; Boyacigiller and

Adler, 1991). As such, knowing what cultural differences exist and acting appropriately given different cultural customs, behaviors and norms, provides mentors that are developing emerging leaders with approaches that make them successful.

This conclusion also supports leadership emergence theory of being socially perceptive (Chowdhry and Newcomb, 1952) and of showing tolerance and acceptance of cultural variations (Lisak and Erez, 2014). Further, the conclusion supports cultural intelligence theory regarding individual's capability to deal effectively in culturally diverse settings (Ang and Van Dyne, 2008; Earley and Ang, 2003), leaders applying cognitive aspects of cultural awareness and cultural knowledge, as well as to the

motivation to adapt to various cultural contexts, and to behave accordingly (Lisak and

Erez, 2014). By encouraging openness to cultural diversity and viewing differences as

positive, mentors encouraged learning and understanding of dissimilar perspectives

(Lisak and Erez, 2014).

The conclusion also supports GLOBE Phase 3 research and the need to

understand more about the incorporation of emotions into cross-cultural leadership

processes (House et al., 2014), and the importance of emotions in relationships (e.g.,

Dasborough and Ashkanasy, 2002). The ability to identify and regulate one’s emotions

and those of others is a critical skill for forming, maintaining, and managing healthy

interpersonal relationships (Dorfman et al., 2012). Patience and tolerance, specifically

were identified as traits Participants found necessary in Afghanistan due to the culture

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nuances that existed. P9 felt he “grew as a person” and “grew more tolerant” while learning about Islam and how important family was to Afghans which made it more important to him too. Having patience also manifested itself as Participants described themselves becoming more relaxed. Finally, in identifying a specific pattern for emergent leadership to occur in multicultural teams, Lisak and Erez (2014) asserted an emergent multicultural team leader should be able to simultaneously understand the complex multicultural team context, have a sense of belongingness to the global team, and show tolerance and acceptance of the team’s cultural variation. Thus, individuals who are open to cultural diversity are motivated to actively seek new cultural experiences; they are also curious about other national cultures and are non-judgmental about other cultural behaviors and expectations (Hartel and Fujimoto, 2000; Shokef and Erez, 2006).

Conclusion 6. Developing leadership emergence is not a gender specific process, and should take into account technical expertise.

This conclusion complements, but serves as a corollary to, research on leadership emergence that includes the role of sex, gender roles, and attraction in predicting emergent leaders (Goktepe and Schneider, 1989); the effects of proportional representation and gender orientation of the task on emergent leadership behavior in mixed gender work groups (Karakowsky and Siegel, 1999); the effects of sex and gender role on leader emergence (Kent and Moss, 1994); and gender and other predictors of leader emergence (Kolb, 1997). Even if women are hindered in attaining formal positions of leadership, they can exert considerable influence on team performance as informal leaders (Neubert, 1999).

Leadership emergence when explained through individual team members

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achieving informal leadership status by performing important roles or making valued

contributions (Mann, 1959; Zaccaro et al., 2002) often stems from negotiated roles or

relationships between team members (Seers, 1989). With stable social networks

developing as team members interact with others on team-related needs (Granovetter,

1973; Hackman, 1992), real and/or perceived expertise allows group members to

establish themselves as informal or emergent leaders. Mullen et al. (1991) found in their

meta-analysis that network centrality, reflecting self-reported group member interaction

with other group members, positively related to leadership emergence. However,

unexplained variance exists across prior meta-analytic research that suggests gender may

moderate the relationship between individual differences and leadership emergence in

intact teams (Pearlman et al., 1980). So, if a non-gender specific (more gender neutral)

approach were taken, and as shown in this present researcher’s study, technical expertise

instead may indeed be the dominant factor when developing leadership emergence.

Contemporary views of leadership scholars is that while women often face more

barriers to becoming leaders than do men (Eagly and Karau, 1991;Eagly and Karau,

2002), women are not inferior, and in certain cases exhibit superior performance

compared to men (Helgesen, 2011; Kellerman and Rhode, 2007). Females tend to be

more democratic and participative (Eagly and Johnson, 1990), and women have been

shown to be more transformational than men in terms of exhibiting individualized

consideration (Chaturvedi et al., 2012). And, on the topic of effectiveness, Eagly and

colleagues concluded women and men were equally effective leaders (Eagly et al., 1995).

Societal stereotypes can disadvantage women in the emerging process of informal leadership (Neubert and Taggar, 2004). Further, Grove and Hallowell (1995) reported

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women expatriates from the United States assigned to other countries in Asia or the

Middle East often report they are judged based on their competencies and communication

skills rather than their gender.

It is here that demonstrated expertise becomes even more relevant to shared

leadership (Pearce and Conger, 2008) and distributed leadership (Gronn, 2000, 2002;

Spillane et al., 2001). As to expertise and the distributed leadership perspective (Spillane

et al., 2001; Spillane, 2012), this present researcher’s study asserts that a degree of gender

neutrality should exist since demonstrated expertise and competence in specific technical

subject matters and leadership skills were considered important to mentor and mentee

success and quite relevant to leadership emergence. Complementing the concept of

demonstrated expertise, cognitive capacity (e.g., Jacobs and Jaques 1987; Jaques 1989;

Jaques and Cason 1994; Jaques and Clement 1991) and absorptive capacity (Boal and

Hooijberg, 2001) connotes those mental processes used to take in information, analyze it, reason with it, make conclusions, plans, make decisions, and take action (Jaques et al.,

1978). Further, Pearce and Conger’s (2008) theory regarding shared knowledge and

Hooker and Csikszentmihalyi’s (2003) study of knowledge workers whose considerable expertise may form a highly desirable basis of power and leadership, are consistent with

Kerr and Jermier’s (1978) articulation of substitutes for leadership. These findings lend credibility to demonstrated expertise by both males and females as being a preeminent factor regarding leadership emergence rather than one’s gender alone. Consequently, it can be posited that leadership is not a gender specific process and leadership emergence

also should not be considered a gender specific process, but instead that technical expertise serves as a dominant construct with regard to leadership emergence.

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Limitations of the Study

This phenomenological study confined itself to interviewing advisors and mentors that participated in capacity building and developmental projects in Afghanistan endorsing equal rights for marginalized and sectors of society. This limitation resulted in the study not researching emergent leaders themselves but rather those who mentor them.

Another limitation is that constraining the focus of the research to how cultural differences influence leadership emergence makes certain assumptions about culture and leadership, one of which is that leadership is culturally contingent.

A limitation of the phenomenological approach to inquiry is that it decreased the transferability/generalizability of the findings since the research relied on the lived experiences of the mentors rather than mentees themselves. Another limitation is transferability to societies in general or being limited to elements of societies characterized as being marginalized segments of society in post-conflict nations such as

Afghanistan.

A limitation also includes uncertainty with respect to whether and how findings across the group selected can be transferred due to the diverse nature of groups that exist within society, especially since the findings could be subject to different interpretations from other researchers. Since societal culture is an integral part of the study, findings may

also not be transferable to other studies of cross-border leadership development because

of differences in cultures across the world.

In addition, since the researcher is the primary mechanism of data collection and

takes part in an active and interactive manner during the data-gathering process, a

limitation of the study is whether the researcher impacted Participant perceptions,

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behaviors or responses. The researcher is also the interpreter of the data, which could lead

to bias at some levels.

Because Participants reported on their own experience, the study relied on

Participants' level of self-awareness and ability to verbally describe and share their

perspectives. The study also relied on Participants' retrospective views and recollection of

past events rather than real-time observation. A limitation in relation to the conclusions is

that Participants in the study may have possessed other views, perspectives and

observations that were not identified in this study. Thus, the experiences identified in this

study may be important or necessary but not sufficient regarding cultural differences and

leadership emergence.

A limitation to the potential relevance and implications of all findings and

conclusions is that the research subject group size was very small (n = 10) and the

methodology was qualitative in nature. Further nine of the ten Participants were expatriates working in Afghanistan representing the United States or other international donors as United States citizens. The experience of this group of mentors, teachers and advisors conceivably could be very different from the experience reported by a different

group of participants. However, including P4 as an Afghan citizen provided the

researcher the ability to corroborate his perceptions with those of expats. As such, his

unique insights first performing as an Afghan legal advisor to expat advisors and

mentors, and then later working directly as a mentor to other Afghans appeared highly

beneficial to the study as his perceptions expanded upon and corroborated other

Participants perceptions. Similarly, a limitation of this study is that it was conducted using

Moustakas’ (1994) phenomenological research method with a group of 10 research

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subjects. If a different methodology, such as Seidman’s (2006) phenomenological

research methods including observation, exploring history, and examining personal and

institutional documentation or case study were utilized, different or more in-depth results

from exploring the same questions might be obtained. Finally, had the research questions

studied utilized quantitative methods, such as a survey, findings could differ from those

from this study.

Summary of Conclusions

The conclusions drawn from this study are as follows: 1) Mentor and advisor first-

hand experiences stress the importance of adaptability, demonstrated competence and positive

outlook;

2) Mentors gained important insights regarding developing leadership emergence: building trusted relationships, viewing leadership as a social process, and the emerging leader construct are foundational elements of mentoring in post-conflict marginalized societies;

3) Trust, critical thinking, planning, accountability and expertise are leadership

competencies that result in mentor/mentee success ; 4) Developing leadership emergence

in cultures other than one’s own require engagement strategies that enable rapid

understanding of and the ability to deal with cultural differences; 5) Mentoring members

of post-conflict marginalized societies can alter mentors and teachers’ perspectives, thus

emulating mentee values, and (6) Developing leadership emergence is not a gender specific process in that leadership prowess when considered as gender neutral may be moderated more by technical expertise and emerging leader actual competencies. These conclusions give rise to certain implications, which are addressed in several

recommendations for practice and research in the next section.

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Implications for Practice, Research and Theory

Lisak and Erez (2014) prior assertion that training programs for leaders should focus on global characteristics such as openness to cultural diversity, global identity and cultural intelligence, bodes well for future adaptation to the global context. This study

supports that future research should strive to generalize present findings by examining the

experiences in stable, long-term multicultural teams. Future research could also take a

longitudinal approach to examine how culture influences emerging leaders over time and

how cultural differences influence leadership emergence across generations (Lisak and

Erez, 2014). To overcome the perception that there are only a limited number of

empirical studies on leadership emergence, meta-analysis should continue in this regard,

beyond developing nations and vulnerable groups. Further, since much of the research on

leadership and culture has assumed a cross-cultural perspective to examine differences

and similarities in leadership characteristics across cultures (e.g., Atwater et al., 2009;

House et al., 2004; Wendt et al., 2009), research on leadership emergence should attempt

to identify those attributes that enable team members to effectively lead others who are

culturally diverse.

Recommendations for Practice

The preceding conclusions have implications for practice within the phenomenon of

developing leadership emergence. Recommendations to address these implications are

presented in the following section.

Provide intensive leadership emergence development training for mentors. The

experience of the Participants in this study was that they gained first-hand, direct,

personal experience that challenged their perspectives and influenced their approaches to

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mentoring and advising. The implication is that international development organizations

seeking to conduct leadership development as capacity building measures should increase their

pre-deployment and orientation training on cultural differences and leadership emergence.

Participation in such intensive training would cause individuals to confront their own

cultural biases and assumptions and develop capabilities needed in their mentoring roles.

This training could include experiences such as travel to other countries prior to the actual

mentoring assignment, site visits to provide exposure to the conditions that exist in the

target country, and first-hand observation of experienced mentors in action during leadership development training in a country other than their native country. Providing these developmental assignments to mentors and advisors could enhance the effectiveness

of the assignments and accelerate leader development.

Foster multicultural understanding and sensitivity for emerging leaders.

Participants learned the importance and value of cultural sensitivity through their

experiences of working and living in a different country and cultures. Sponsoring

organizations should consider adopting practices that foster multicultural understanding

and sensitivity for emerging leaders as one element of their approach to leadership

development. These practices could include fostering increased self-awareness through

cultural sensitivity assessments and feedback, conveying the importance of understanding,

appreciating, valuing, and leveraging cultural differences through training and mentoring,

helping leaders understand different points of view and perspectives, emphasizing the

importance of openness and interest in other cultures, developing mentor/mentee’s ability

to pay attention to clues and nuances of behavior through focused training, and providing

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feedback and other developmental activities to increase flexibility and adaptability as

means of adapting to different cultures and customs.

Prepare potential and current leaders to develop and maintain relationships and

networks. Developing and maintaining relationships within and across cultures is vital to

leader effectiveness. These relationships are enhanced by a high degree of cultural

sensitivity. Organizations should consider adopting practices that enable emerging

leaders to effectively establish relationships across cultures. This preparation could be

comprised of the following: providing mentoring, coaching, and training in the dynamics

of relationships and relationship building in the context of various cultures. Provide

mentees with the skills needed to understand the importance of relationships and

establishing relationships. These skills could include seeking to understand others from

initial contact, being transparent and genuine in relationships, listening, and showing humility.

Foster curiosity and a desire to learn about other countries and cultures.

Participants in this study emphasized the importance of being curious and learning about

other cultures as a part of their own development. By listening actively while maintaining

an inquisitiveness, mentors foster cultural sensitivity and enhance their ability to establish

trusted relationships. Sponsoring organizations would need to adopt practices that foster curiosity about other cultures. These practices could include: tangible activities and mentoring in learning patience and listening while maintaining an attitude of discovery and exploration, and promoting the need to be humble, tolerant, and nonjudgmental during mentoring engagements.

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Promote the need for an attitude of openness toward cultural differences and

leadership emergence. The participants in this study exhibited an attitude of openness

toward cultural differences and identified how this made them successful in their

mentoring and teaching roles. Participants also displayed openness toward mentees as

emerging leaders, providing them the skills and capabilities needed as mentees aspired to

lead others. As a result of their openness, they were ready to see things in new ways and

improve themselves and the lives of their mentees. This conclusion suggests that

organizations may wish to provide potential and emerging leaders with feedback, coaching, and other development support. Emerging leaders may not be conscious of

their current level of competence and developing increased awareness of their

competence could enhance their development as future leaders.

Integrate cooperative learning and cultural acumen into leadership development

practices. Much of emerging leader development appears to depend on whatever

challenges are brought about by circumstances, in combination with mentors and mentees

predisposition toward learning and culture. Cooperative learning as a construct seems to

benefit mentors and mentees simultaneously as they share information, knowledge and

experiences as each of them learn from one another. In addition, understanding of

cultural differences and nuances associated with indigenous cultures promotes increased

understanding of how to act when faced with members of respective cultures that may be

biased, prejudiced, or impacted by such issues as corruption. Capacity building efforts

may want to experiment with the addition of these and other related practices to enhance

the mentoring experience and to enable leadership emergence.

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Expand new-country orientation training beyond the current emphasis on a

particular nation as a whole. Given the significance of local, tribal and regional cultures

in any particular culture, advisors and mentors should be provided training specific to the various subcultures they will be exposed to and the implications of differences that exist.

As evidenced by the mentors and teachers in Afghanistan, specialized knowledge of the

respective subcultures would have gone a long way in easing their initial transition in to the country, and during their actual assignment. As a practical implementation, training on cultures that go beyond national borders and specialized training on organizational culture as it may pertain to ministries such as the Afghan Ministry of Justice, ethnic

culture as it pertains to local tribes in Afghanistan, or regional culture as it relates to

cities, provinces and states would benefit advisors and mentors as they discover certain

nuances exist for these specialized sub-cultures.

Recommendations for Research

Future research should be conducted using actual field experience of leadership

development that fully takes into account cultural differences. Many of the theories on

leadership emergence complement one another. For instance Ho et al.’s (2012) study on

task framing complemented other notable theories such as pattern and variable

approaches in leadership emergence and effectiveness (Foti and Hauenstein, 2007; Smith

and Foti, 1998); the role of context in leader emergence and gender roles (Gershenoff and

Foti, 2003); and whether culture makes a difference given the effects of gender role and

personality traits on leadership emergence (Turetgen et al., 2008). While these studies

demonstrate detailed understanding of the leadership emergence phenomenon, few of

them were conducted using actual field experience of leadership development that fully

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takes into account cultural differences. As such, field research on leadership should

continue. In this regard, countries sponsoring capacity building efforts that include leadership development should promote and fund research on cultural differences and their influence on emerging leaders themselves so as to enhance understanding through scientific methods and research. The implication then is that to understand leadership better, emergence and development patterns of leaders given cultural differences should be included in research on how leaders emerge and develop in different countries.

Future research should be conducted on leadership emergence during childhood and adolescence, especially youth in marginalized societies. On the whole, previous research has emphasized adult leadership development (e.g., Day, 2000, Hrivnak et al.,

2009; Murphy and Riggio, 2003), while ignoring the developmental antecedents of leadership emergence during childhood and adolescence (Reichard, et al., 2011). Adult leader development has been the emphasis of many organizational training efforts over the years with organizations spending tens of billions of dollars on adult leadership development each year (Lockwood, 2006; Training, 2005). Organizations such as the

Center for Creative Leadership and the Gallup Organization center their businesses on developing adults into better leaders. However, Reichard, et al., (2011) argue that waiting until adulthood to attempt to develop leadership is less than optimal and recommend not only providing leadership opportunities for extraverted children but also for introverted children, who may not emerge as leaders as naturally. If change is to occur, efforts similar to what the mentors and teachers in this study revealed should be encouraged by countries sponsoring capacity building. All children, especially children in marginalized societies are discriminated against themselves, and if generational changes are needed, it

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should begin with the youth where cultural bias first takes root. These children would benefit from scholarly research initiatives aimed at enhancing youth leader development programs in order to increase adolescents' level of active engagement in their communities, assertiveness and confidence, development of sophisticated social skills, and an optimistic attribution style (Reichard, et al., 2011). Future research could also take a longitudinal approach to examine how these global characteristics develop over time and how they influence leadership emergence across generations (Lisak and Erez, 2014).

It ought to be noted, however, that youth leadership development programs should to be cautious about exposing children to high-level leadership concepts and remain cognizant of complex theories and practices being offered; this concern is further addressed in the recommendation that immediately follows.

Future research should study the implications of knowledge transfer regarding high-level leadership skills to better determine when emergent leaders should be taught complex concepts and skills. From a practical standpoint, leadership development efforts should take into account needs of the learners while also considering their circumstances to determine when it is appropriate to teach high-level cognitive skills and whether these skills are required early on, at a mid-point in training, or whether they should be delayed until such a time when emergent leaders exhibit a high level of maturity and understanding of leadership. While the argument can be raised that these complex leadership skills are needed at an early stage in a learner’s development, discretion should be applied so as not to confuse emerging leaders.

This recommendation for research is consistent with Hooijberg et al.’s (1997) ideas of behavioral complexity, cognitive complexity, and social complexity as they

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relate to the Leaderplex Model which maintains that behavioral complexity is informed by cognitive complexity and social complexity (social intelligence) (Boal and Hooijberg,

2001). The assertion is that leaders need an appropriate behavioral repertoire and the

ability to select the right roles for the situation (Boal and Hooijberg, 2001). To do so leaders need both cognitive and behavioral complexity and flexibility (Boal and

Whitehead, 1992) and the ability to perceive the needs and goals of their constituency to

adjust their personal approach to group action (Kenny and Zaccaro, 1983). For emerging

leaders, then, behavioral complexity, cognitive complexity, and emotional complexity are all important as they relate to the leadership emergent process. However, a degree of risk exists in the practical application of this suggestion, but the alternative to not considering

this recommendation could subject emerging leaders to manipulation by others who

might use these high-level skills for negative purposes.

Future research should include studies of cultural acumen and how emerging leaders need to be aware of, tolerant of, and accepting of cultural variation while fostering multicultural sensitivity. This recommendation is consistent with Finding 3,

Developing cultural acumen and Conclusion 4, Developing leadership emergence in cultures other than one’s own.

While Javidan and House (2001) expressed the need to develop cultural acumen in global managers, further research in developing cultural acumen for emerging leaders to examine their own cultural preferences should be considered in order for them to learn and apply systematic approaches to navigating cultural differences. Research on cultural acumen, represented by increased cultural sensitivity and cultural awareness, should go beyond identifying cultural differences and promote increased understanding of what is

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necessary to act appropriately in social settings. Further, cultural acumen studies should include not only national cultural differences but regional, indigenous, and local entities.

Future research should seek to identify actions leaders need in order to act appropriately given our multi-cultural world. As such, research should aim to identify behaviors that create an openness to others experience and learning about others cultures. By increasing scholarly knowledge of cultural acumen, research would aid in identifying behaviors appropriate to subtle cultural differences and nuances that may otherwise be overlooked.

Future research should study indigenous cultures through the lens of cultural dimensions in the examination of leadership emergence. Since indigenous cultures exhibit cultural and historical distinctiveness from other dominant elements of other populations, and span nations and regions (United National Working Group on

Indigenous Populations, 1972), future research should also expand the study of indigenous cultures and examine how cultural dimensions (such as power distance, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1980) affect leadership development and leadership emergence of sub-cultures and societies within a country. Understanding the deep rooted sub-cultures could reduce the propensity of civil wars currently being experienced across many nations, e.g., Africa. A plethora of research on emergent leadership has studied the general characteristics of emergent leaders in teams, such as general intelligence (e.g., Ilies et al., 2004; Kickul and Neuman, 2000), personality traits

(e.g., Taggar et al., 1999) and emotional responses (e.g., Cote et al., 2010; Kellett et al.,

2006). However, most of these studies on emergent leaders were conducted in local

(culturally homogeneous), co-located teams, not in multicultural, virtual or geographically dispersed teams (Lisak and Erez, 2014). Hence, to overcome the shortfalls

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of limited published research on emergent leaders in indigenous cultures and societies, more studies should be conducted in this regard. Cross-cultural research has confirmed that different cultural groups have different values (Schwartz, 1994a/b), which in turn lead to differing conceptions of ideal leadership processes (Dickson et al., 2003). As such, continued examination is necessary with respect to how cultural differences can impact leadership emergence across indigenous cultures spanning national borders.

Future research should include meta-analysis on leader emergence in developing nations and vulnerable groups. To overcome the perception that there are only a limited number of empirical studies on leadership emergence, meta-analysis should continue in this regard, especially with respect to leader emergence in developing nations and in vulnerable groups where human rights are lacking. Most of the research on leadership and culture has assumed a cross-cultural perspective to examine differences and similarities in leadership characteristics across cultures (e.g., Atwater et al., 2009; House et al., 2004; Wendt et al., 2009). This approach may not work in multicultural teams, however, where leaders must simultaneously manage a culturally diverse workforce

(Lisak and Erez, 2014). Hence, global leadership research in general and multicultural team leadership, along with leadership emergence in particular, should attempt to identify those attributes that enable team members to effectively lead others who are culturally diverse and often located in different geographical areas (Osland, 2008). Finally, another area in need of research is cultural constraints on the emergence of women as leaders

(Toh and Leonardelli, 2012). In this regard, women who have historically been less represented than men in leadership positions may emerge as leaders in some societies more than others.

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Implications for Theory

The preceding findings and conclusions also have implications for theory related

to leadership, culture, learning and the phenomenon of developing leadership emergence.

Culture and leadership theory as it relates to leadership emergence should

continue to stress the importance of diversity that goes beyond national borders. In

concert with Schwartz (1992, 1999) assertion that Hofstede’s (1980) study lacked a

theoretical basis by not addressing important regions of the world, focusing on national

groups and individuals that share a common heritage, rather than national boundaries

should be stressed. This is especially relevant with regard to emigration and people

transiting national boundaries, and also with regard to cross cultural values (Schwartz and

Bilsky, 1990). Today, since many societal groups transcend national boundaries,

Schwartz’s (1999) considering national boundaries as being limiting from the perspective

of understanding homogenous societies is even more relevant. Further, with regard to

leadership emergence in multicultural teams (Lisak and Erez, 2014), the fact that many

national groups and indigenous people are not constrained by nations’ borders, leadership

theory needs to address religious, ethnic, and racial cultures. Cultural factors themselves

also affect the basic processes underlying leadership relations (Markus and Kitayama,

1991). Leadership prototypes and conceptions vary from one culture to another (Bass,

1990), and they have dramatically different implications in different cultural contexts

(Chemers and Ayman, 1993). Regarding Leadership Emergence in Multicultural Teams, cultural factors themselves also affect the basic processes underlying leadership relations

(Markus and Kitayama, 1991). While leadership prototypes and conceptions vary from

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one culture to another (Bass, 1990), they have dramatically different implications in different cultural contexts (Chemers and Ayman, 1993).

Leadership emergence theory should be considered gender neutral, focusing more on inherent competencies of emerging leaders themselves rather than on constraints presented by gender differences. As another implication for theory, leadership emergence should not be considered a gender specific process, and competencies of leaders could be more appropriately identified rather than constrained by gender-specific limitations. For instance, Paustian-Underdahl et al.’s (2014) meta-analysis results show that when all leadership contexts are considered, men and women do not differ in perceived leadership effectiveness. In examining the influence of contextual moderators developed from role congruity theory (Eagly & Karau, 2002), Paustian-Underdahl et al.’s (2014) findings helped to extend role congruity theory by demonstrating how it can be supplemented based on other theories as well as how the theory can be applied to both female and male leaders. For instance, an explanation offered for women’s underrepresentation in elite leadership positions points to the undervaluation of women’s effectiveness as leaders

(Paustian-Underdahl et al., 2014). This explanation was supported by several theoretical perspectives including lack of fit theory (Heilman, 2001), role congruity theory (RCT)

(Eagly & Karau, 2002), and expectation states theory (Berger et al., 1977; Ridgeway

1997, 2001). In addition, the study supported Eagly and Carli (2003) assertion that leadership theory should approach these issues with sophisticated theories and methods to illuminate the implications of gender in organizational life. Specifically, contextual moderators discussed by Eagly and Karau’s RCT (2002) suggested a general prejudice

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toward female leaders that follows from the perceived incongruity between the characteristics of women and the requirements of leader roles.

Focusing on a quantitative synthesis of studies comparing men and women on measures of leadership effectiveness, Paustian-Underdahl et al. (2014) revealed three moderators as being important to leadership theory as it relates to women: 1) the passage of time may moderate gender differences since more women have entered the labor force and increased their representation, 2) the type of organization as a moderator becomes important with some types of organizations considered to be feminine and occupied by more women than men, and 3) different hierarchical levels in organizations require different types of behaviors (e.g., McCauley, 2004; Paolillo, 1981), with lower level leadership positions considered more gender neutral in nature such as cognitive skills including effective communication, active learning, and critical thinking. In contrast, in middle management positions more relational and transformational leadership behaviors are needed, and women are considered to be more likely than men to engage in such behaviors and women may be seen as more effective in middle management than men

(Eagly and Karau, 2002). For higher status senior leadership positions, Paustian-

Underdahl et al. (2014) propose that on the basis of the double standards of competence model, women who reach and succeed at the very top of organizations may be evaluated favorably than men.

Overall, Paustian-Underdahl et al. (2014) findings indicate that certain aspects of

RCT may need to be further clarified and explored. As it pertains to leadership not being gender specific, when women are seen as being exceptionally competent by having overcome significant obstacles in order to reach senior positions, there would be an

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increased congruency between their gender role and leader roles. As such, more research

should be conducted to better understand how perceptions of competence and actual

demonstrated expertise affect perceptions of congruity and effectiveness and that when

all leadership contexts are considered together, there is a nonsignificant gender difference

in leadership effectiveness (Paustian-Underdahl et al., 2014).

The mentor-mentee relationship as an enabler for developing leadership

emergence supports theory espousing leadership as a transactional event occurring

between leaders and others. This research study supports Northouse’s (2012) assertion

defining leadership as a process and not a trait or characteristic that resides in a leader,

but rather as a transactional event between the leader and followers. The implication here

is that leadership theory should continue to emphasize that leadership is not a linear, one-

way event, but rather an interactive event and available to everyone, and not restricted to

the formally designated leader in a group (Northouse, 2012), whereby leadership remains

a process with leaders affecting and being affected by followers. Given the unique

perspective on leadership emergence provided by social identity theory (Hogg, 2001), leadership emergence is considered the degree to which a person fits with the identity of the group as a whole. As groups develop over time, a group prototype develops and individuals emerge as leaders in the group when they become most like the group prototype which gives them influence with the group (Northouse, 2012).

Leadership emergence as a highly complex interactive dynamic is supported by complexity science and social learning. Complexity science and complexity leadership theory (Uhl-Bien, et al., 2007) in suggesting a different paradigm for leadership framing leadership as a complex interactive dynamic from which adaptive outcomes (e.g.,

490

learning, innovation, and adaptability) emerge, should continue to examine the relationship with social learning theory (Bandura, 1963) which holds that learning is a highly cognitive process that goes beyond traditional behavioral theories (Bandura,

1971). Developing leadership emergence then, should stress the importance of social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) with mentoring as an effective way to achieve higher levels of cognitive development in individuals, consistent with Complexity Leadership

Theory that focuses on enabling the learning, creative, and adaptive capacity of complex adaptive systems (CAS) within a context of knowledge-producing organizations. By promoting more integrative strategies for leadership theory-building, Avolio (2007) also stressed broader inquiries that include emphases on cognitions, attributes, behaviors, and contexts in which leaders and followers are dynamically embedded and interact over time. Leadership theory and research need to move to the next level of integration, considering the dynamic interplay between leaders and followers, taking into account the prior, current, and emerging context, for continued progress to be made in advancing both the science and practice of leadership Avolio, 2007). Moving toward more integrative strategies for theory building and testing has also been recommended by Lord et al.

(2001) with respect to one of the more traditionally leader centric areas of leadership studies. Lord et al. (2001) discussed what they called a connectionist-based model of leadership prototype generation to emphasize how perceptions of leadership are contingent on the context and the dynamic states in which such mental representations are created; they argued that one’s schema of leadership can be a function of the culture, leader, follower, task, or behavioral inputs and how they each interact to form leadership categories and behavioral scripts. As such, future leadership theory should focus on what

491

Marion and Uhl- Bien (2002) described as leaders dealing with the conditions of organizations versus local manifestations, and for leaders to create innovation, they may have to create the conditions that spark innovation rather than creating innovation in the individual per se.

Leadership emergence theory for cross-cultural settings needs to integrate culture, leadership, and learning, taking into account a variety of interdisciplinary and multi-dimensional theoretical constructs and conceptual elements. While the cross- cultural adaptation of immigrants, refugees, and sojourners has been extensively investigated in the social sciences, an integrative theoretical foundation necessary for comprehensive understanding was lacking (Kim, 1988). In this regard, the 21st century and rapid pace with which information is shared and transportation occurs results in the continued need to further address Kim’s identified need for interdisciplinary, multidimensional theory, synthesizing prior and existing conceptualizations and empirical evidence regarding anthropology, communication, psychiatry, psychology, sociology, sociolinguistics, and related disciplines into a single theoretical scheme.

Future theory should continue to be grounded in systems perspectives, emphasizing cross-cultural experiences, intrapersonal (cognitive, affective, and behavioral), social

(interpersonal and mass) communication activities, and environmental conditions.

Summary

The results of this research provide interesting findings that give insights into the influence that culture can have on developing leadership emergence. Through the efforts of mentors, advisors and teachers, leadership development efforts can have a positive effect on post-conflict marginalized societies. Participants’ experiences demonstrated that

492

cultural differences need to be taken into account during mentoring but that by teaching

cultural acumen, mentees learn how to deal with negative aspects of societies and

cultures and act appropriately when dealing with others that may not share their own

views. Participant experiences also demonstrated that cooperative learning is effective

since it takes advantage of mentor and mentee knowledge about their respective cultures, education levels, and backgrounds, sharing information in order to enhance each other’s learning about the aspects of their work and their shared goals.

Concluding Remarks

Effective leaders are in increasing demand in the countries and societies impacted by internal conflict, terrorism, and external forces. Emerging leaders often assume leadership and management responsibilities without the benefit of positional authority. Leadership development activities in post-conflict marginalized societies often bear the burden of challenges associated with national, regional, and ethnic cultures and national environments plagued by corruption, negative bias and discrimination. The complexity experienced by mentors and mentees in these societies present them with significant challenges but also offers them significant developmental opportunities. Consequently, organizations conducting capacity

building in developing and conflict-ridden countries are in need of mentors, advisors, teachers

and trainers who possess knowledge and insight into what they should develop what is

needed to perform in their demanding roles. This research study of the phenomenon of

developing leadership emergence in post-conflict marginalized societies provides potentially

valuable contributions to the body of knowledge about this subject in a way that advances

both practice and theory in the area of leadership emergence. The conclusions of the study are potentially significant, as they begin to close the gap in the literature relating to the

493

role of societal and organizational cultures in leadership development in marginalized

societies. This study also reaffirms conclusions by other scholars that leadership emergence is a phenomenon worthy of further study given the manner in which culture influences how leadership development occurs and leaders emerge.

494

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APPENDIX A

Solicitation of Participants Letter

To:

Date:

Subject: Participation in a Research Study of Culture and Leadership

I am a doctoral student at The George Washington University in Washington, DC, and conducting a study on how cultural differences influence leadership emergence. I wish to conduct interviews with individuals who have performed as advisors, mentors and trainers regarding their perceptions of cultural differences, dimensions and dynamics during the course of their having provided leadership development and leader development training for members of host countries.

You were identified as a potential participant because you have performed as an advisor or conducted training and/or mentoring for at least one year in a country where developmental aid occurred and you were directly involved with host country personnel.

Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. If you choose not to participate there will be no consequences. If you do choose to participate, I will schedule a mutually convenient time for the initial and any follow-on interviews. Interviews will last from one to one-and-a-half hours. Your responses will be kept completely confidential and all comments and information will be confidential.

If you choose to participate in this study, please confirm by e-mailing me directly at [email protected].

If you have any questions, please contact me directly by e-mail or phone, (571) 266- 2685.

Thank you for your consideration.

Sincerely,

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APPENDIX B

Interview Protocol

Semi-Structured Interview

The purpose of this study is to gain an understanding of leadership and leader emergence in post-conflict nations where humanitarian assistance or development aid is being provided, particularly the role of leadership and learning and the leadership emergence process. My goal is to understand the lived experiences of advisors/mentors engaged in developing leaders in post conflict societies, in order to determine implications for future leadership development efforts.

The following questions will focus around the mentoring you provided to host nation personnel as they emerged as leaders or enhanced their own leadership skills. You have been selected to participate in this interview because you were an advisor or mentor for at least one year in a country other than where your lived the preponderance of your adult life, and you have been involved in humanitarian assistance or developmental aid in a country where internal strife or conflict occurred. All responses will be kept confidential. Confidentiality of this interview will be maintained.

Note: The term home country refers to the country of record for the advisor or mentor to whom I am speaking. The term host country or host nation refers to the country where the advisor or trainer worked during their assignment.

Interview questions are as follows:

1. What were the major challenges in developing leadership skills in Afghanistan?

2. How would you describe your role as a mentor and advisor?

3. How did the national culture influence what and how you developed the local leaders?

4. How did the national environment impact the type of leadership skills needed?

5. How did the national environment impact the approaches you used in developing leaders?

6. What enabled you to be successful as a mentor and advisor?

7. How did you change/improve during your time as a mentor/teacher?

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APPENDIX C

Approval Letter Proposal Approval

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APPENDIX D

Participant Information and Consent Forms

Signed copies are maintained in a sealed envelope with the researcher of this study.

The following consent letter was used.

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Participant Information and Consent Form

A Phenomenological Study of How Cultural Differences, Dimensions and Dynamics Influenced Leadership Emergence in Post Conflict, Marginalized Societies

GWU IRB Reference Number: # 101518 Investigator: Dr. Michael J. Marquardt Telephone Number: (202) 994-2473 Research Coordinator: John E. Pyzdrowski Telephone Number: (703) 266-0633 E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction. You are invited to participate in a research study under the direction of Dr. Michael Marquardt of the School of Education and Human Development, The George Washington University (GWU). You will need to understand the risks and benefits before you can decide whether to participate. This consent form provides information about the research study. I will be available to answer your questions and provide further explanations. If you agree to take part in the research study, you will be asked to sign this consent form. This process is known as informed consent.

Your decision to take part in the study is voluntary. You are free to choose whether or not you will take part in the study.

Purpose. The School of Education and Human Development of The George Washington University is conducting this study to determine and describe the relationship between cultural differences and what elements contribute to or hinder leadership emergence.

Procedures to be used in this study. Each participant will be asked to take part an interview at a location that is mutually agreeable to the participant and the researcher. Subsequent follow up interviews may be conducted. The interviews will consist of open- ended questions and will be tape recorded and transcribed. After each interview participants will be provided transcripts to review and validate. Individuals will have access to their own interview transcripts. The data will include the tape recordings, data storage devices, and any paper notes and documents that are produced only for transcription. Complete confidentiality will be maintained and is defined as ensuring data in all forms from this research is maintained securely in a location where only the research coordinator and transcriptionist have sight and access. Finally, all data will be stored and destroyed at the conclusion of the project so that no record of the data remains.

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The total amount of time you will be asked to volunteer for this study is three 60-to-90 minute interviews, for a total of approximately 4 hours during the next three weeks.

Possible risks. Given the nature of this study no risks are envisioned. To the best of my knowledge, the interviews will pose no more risk of harm than you would experience in everyday life. Furthermore, as part of the practices use in this study, the researcher will also ensure this research will preserve the confidentiality of the detailed data collected. Given the nature of the study, the researcher anticipates no adverse impacts to the participants. However, there is a risk of possible loss of confidentiality since many of the participants have performed on related projects and due to their having performed on the same or similar programs, many of the participants may know one another. It is also possible that through the dissertation publishing process and documents being made available to the public, that some of the data reported could be attributed to one or a number of the participants.

Possible benefits to be achieved by this study. Results of this study are expected to add to the theory and practice in leadership development and emergent leadership. Additionally, this study is expected to yield findings that can be used to leadership development as it pertains to enabling leadership emergence. Benefits include gaining a better understanding of how emergent leadership can be enabled in vulnerable groups and marginalized societal elements. In addition, an enhanced understanding of how leaders emerge could go a long way in improving the quality and effectiveness of group dynamics and leaders’ decision-making so as to reduce the potential for discrimination to occur because of race, religion or gender. In addition, participants would benefit from the study by increasing their understanding of how leadership development activities should take into account cultural differences and dimensions.

Costs. There are no costs associated with taking part in this study.

Compensation. You will not be paid for participating in this study.

You may discontinue participation at any time without penalty. Your participation in this research study is voluntary. You may decide not to begin or to stop this study at any time.

Confidentiality of research records. Your records will be confidential. You will not be identified (e.g., name, social security number) in any reports or publications of this study. It is possible that representatives of regulatory agencies and from the study’s sponsor may come to GWU to review your information. In that situation, copies of the relevant parts of your records will be released with all identifying information removed. Except for these entities, research study records will be kept confidential unless you authorize their release or if the records are required by law (i.e., court subpoena). Participants will be tracked in order to maintain confidentiality with a code identified and aligned with the pseudonym, their job title, and any relationship to the project they have participated in when performing as advisors and mentors. The link for the data will be kept and maintained by the researcher and secured in a password protected file and personal safe.

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Data of this kind will only be stored until completion of the dissertation and having it published.

Questions. If you have questions about the procedures of this research study, please contact John Pyzdrowski by telephoning (703) 266-0633 any time or via email at [email protected]. If you have any questions about informed consent process or any other rights as a research subject, please contact the Assistant Vice President, Office of Health Research, Compliance, and Technology Transfer at The George Washington University, at (202) 994-2995.

Signatures. By signing this consent form, you affirm that you have read this informed consent form; the study has been explained to you, your questions have been answered, and you agree to take part in this study. You do not give up any of your legal rights by signing this informed consent form. You will receive a copy of this consent form.

I understand the information printed on this form. I have discussed this study, its risks and potential benefits. My questions so far have been answered. My signature below indicates my willingness to participate in this study and my understanding that I can withdraw at any time.

______Participant’s Printed Name

______Participant’s Signature

______Date

Research coordinator’s statement. I certify that the research study has been explained to the above individual by me or my research team including the purpose, the procedures, the possible risks and the potential benefits associated with participation in this research study. Any questions raised have been answered to the individual’s satisfaction.

Research coordinator, John E. Pyzdrowski

______Signature

______Date

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