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Dissertation DIE SYSTEMATIK DISKRIMIERENDEN VERHALTENS GEGENÜBER UNTERSCHIEDLICHEN GESELLSCHAFTLICHEN GRUPPEN Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) der Fakultät für Psychologie und Sportwissenschaft der Universität Bielefeld vorgelegt im Juni 2008 von Frank Asbrock Diese Arbeit wurde gefördert durch ein Promotionsstipendium des DFG-Graduiertenkollegs „Gruppenbezogene Menschenfeindlichkeit“ (GRK 884/1-04) an den Universitäten Bielefeld und Marburg. 1 Von der Fakultät für Psychologie und Sportwissenschaft der Universität Bielefeld angenom- men. Erstgutachter und erster Betreuer: Prof. Dr. Rainer Dollase Zweitgutachter und zweiter Betreuer: Prof. Dr. Ulrich Wagner Gedruckt auf alterungsbeständigem Papier °° ISO 9706 2 Danksagung Am interessantesten an einer Dissertation ist für viele – vor allem für Fachfremde– die Dank- sagung. Sie ist zum einen ein beliebtes Instrument zum Kennenlernen des sozialen Umfeldes, zum anderen eine Möglichkeit zu kontrollieren, ob der Autor oder die Autorin sich auch bei allen Leuten brav bedankt. Hier eine Auswahl meines sozialen Umfeldes, bei dem ich mich brav bedanken möchte. Danke… …an meine beiden Betreuer, Rainer Dollase und Ulrich Wagner, die mir aus der Nähe und der Ferne mit großem Vertrauen die Möglichkeit zur freien Entwicklung meiner Arbeit gegeben haben und jederzeit für hilfreiche Diskussionen zur Verfügung standen. …an Jan Retelsdorf, Oliver Christ, Friederike Eyssel und Christopher Cohrs für das genaue Korrekturlesen meiner Arbeit, die hilfreichen Verbesserungsvorschläge und die wichtige Ver- sorgung mit methodischem Know-how. …an die Mitglieder des Graduiertenkollegs „Gruppenbezogene Menschenfeindlichkeit“ für die schöne Zeit und die tolle Unterstützung. …an die Menschen, die mir auf dem Weg zur Fertigstellung der Arbeit geholfen haben, be- sonders an Mario Gollwitzer, aber auch an Dörte Wolfertz, Sarah Niemeier, Niclas Heider, Thomas Grund, Peter Glick, Craig Anderson, Amy Cuddy, Susan Fiske, Wilhelm Heitmeyer und Michael Brambring. …an Sandra Hüpping, die mich drei Jahre im gemeinsamen Büro ertragen hat und mich im- mer wieder daran erinnerte, dass ein Blick über den sozialpsychologischen Tellerrand nicht schaden kann. Danke für die großartige Zeit. …an meiner Frau Doreen, die immer für mich da war und ist und mit schon unheimlicher Präzision einschätzen konnte, wann sie mich aufbauen und wann wieder runterholen musste. Ja, beides war mehrmals nötig! 3 Zusammenfassung Zusammenfassung Diskriminierung zeigt sich auf differenzierte Art und Weise: Einige Gruppen werden angegriffen, andere ausgeschlossen oder ignoriert, wieder andere erfahren besondere Zuwen- dung und Schutz. Welche Faktoren bestimmen, wie Diskriminierung in Intergruppenbezie- hungen aussieht? In der Sozialpsychologie hat sich ein bemerkenswerter Konsens bezüglich der wesentlichsten Dimensionen für die Bewertung von Individuen und Gruppen herausge- stellt: Wärme („Ist die Person/Gruppe Freund oder Feind?“) und Kompetenz („Ist die Per- son/Gruppe in der Lage, ihre Ziele zu erreichen?“). In dieser Dissertation wird eine auf diesen Dimensionen beruhende Systematik diskriminierenden Verhaltens aufgestellt und empirisch getestet. Dazu integriere ich Annahmen der BIAS Map (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2007) und des Syndroms Gruppenbezogener Menschenfeindlichkeit (Heitmeyer, 2002; Zick et al., 2008) und leite die Frage ab, ob grundlegende, konsensuelle Stereotype die Basis für spezifische Formen von individueller Diskriminierung gegenüber unterschiedlichen Gruppen bilden. Es wird an- genommen, dass diese Stereotype eine Orientierungs- und Rechtfertigungsmöglichkeit für diskriminierendes Verhalten darstellen. Dabei untersuche ich in einer korrelativen und zwei experimentellen Studien sowohl Verhaltensintentionen als auch unterschiedliche Formen von Diskriminierung. In einer Vorstudie werden zunächst als Grundlage für die folgenden Untersuchungen konsensuelle Stereotype verschiedener Gruppen auf Basis von Wärme und Kompetenz er- fasst. In der folgenden Studie 1 wird der Zusammenhang diskriminierender Verhaltensintenti- onen gegenüber unterschiedlichen Gruppen an einer repräsentativen Bevölkerungsstichprobe- untersucht. Dabei zeigt sich, dass Diskriminierungsintentionen besonders stark gegenüber solchen Gruppen zusammenhängen, die auch ähnlich stereotypisiert werden. Studie 2 zeigt einen kausalen Effekt konsensueller Stereotype auf individuelle Diskriminierung: Je nach- dem, ob andere Personen einer warmen/inkompetenten oder einer kalten/kompetenten Gruppe angehören, werden bei unterschiedlichen Anforderungen diskriminiert. In Studie 3 wird dieser Befund noch einmal differenziert: In einem Computerexperiment, bei dem die Versuchsper- sonen den Eindruck haben, mit einer anderen Person zu interagieren, zeigen sie spezifisches, aus der BIAS Map abgeleitetes Verhalten gegenüber Angehörigen unterschiedlicher Gruppen: Gegenüber verschiedenen kalten/kompetenten Gruppen wird aggressives, gegenüber war- men/inkompetenten Gruppen helfendes Verhalten gezeigt. Die drei Studien sprechen für den Einfluss fundamentaler Bewertungsdimensionen auf konsensueller Ebene auf das individuelle Verhalten und stellen eine erstmalige Erweiterung 4 Zusammenfassung der BIAS Map auf individuelles diskriminierendes Verhalten dar. Es zeigt sich, dass sich eine Systematik diskriminierenden Verhaltens auf Grundlage wesentlicher Bewertungsdimensio- nen im Intergruppenkontext aufstellen lässt, die erklären kann, gegenüber welchen Gruppen welches Verhalten gezeigt wird. 5 Inhalt INHALTSVERZEICHNIS 1 EINLEITUNG 10 2 THEORETISCHE GRUNDLAGEN 16 2.1 Vorurteile als Syndrom 16 2.2 Diskriminierung 19 2.2.1 Individuelle und institutionelle Diskriminierung 19 2.2.2 Begriffsbestimmung 21 2.2.3 Voraussetzungen zur Diskriminierung 24 2.2.4 Formen von Diskriminierung 26 2.3 Stereotype 28 2.3.1 Begriffsbestimmung 29 2.3.2 Individuelle und konsensuelle Stereotype 31 2.3.3 Stereotypeninhalte 35 2.4 Der Zusammenhang von Stereotypen und Diskriminierung 37 2.4.1 Vorurteile und Diskriminierung 38 2.4.2 Stereotype und Diskriminierung 39 2.4.3 Emotionen im Intergruppenkontext 41 2.5 Wärme und Kompetenz 43 2.5.1 Die Bewertung von Individuen 44 2.5.2 Die Bewertung von Gruppen 45 2.5.3 Das Stereotype Content Model 48 2.5.4 Die BIAS Map 54 2.6 Ableitung der Hypothesen 60 2.6.1 Inhaltliche Hypothesen 62 3 EMPIRISCHER TEIL 64 3.1 Einleitung 64 3.2 Voruntersuchung – fundamentale Stereotype 65 3.2.1 Einleitung 65 3.2.2 Hypothesen 66 3.2.3 Methode 66 3.2.3.1 Auswahl relevanter sozialer Gruppen 66 3.2.3.2 Stichprobe und Design 68 6 Inhalt 3.2.3.3 Durchführung 69 3.2.3.4 Messinstrument 69 3.2.4 Ergebnisse 70 3.2.4.1 Umgang mit fehlenden Werten 70 3.2.4.2 Item- und Skalenanalysen 70 3.2.4.3 Die Gruppen im Stereotype Content Model 71 3.2.5 Diskussion 80 3.3 Studie 1: Surveyuntersuchung 83 3.3.1 Einleitung 83 3.3.2 Aufstellung der Messmodelle 85 3.3.2.1 Modell 1 85 3.3.2.2 Modell 2 89 3.3.2.3 Modell 3 90 3.3.2.4 Modell 4 91 3.3.2.5 Modell 5 92 3.3.3 Methode 93 3.3.3.1 Beschreibung des GMF-Surveys 2006 93 3.3.3.2 Stichprobe 94 3.3.3.3 Erfassung von Diskriminierungsintentionen 95 3.3.3.4 Methodisches Vorgehen 96 3.3.3.5 Modellvergleich anhand des des χ2-Differenztests 99 3.3.4 Ergebnisse 99 3.3.4.1 Analyse fehlender Werte 99 3.3.4.2 Itemkennwerte 99 3.3.4.3 Modellschätzungen 101 3.3.5 Diskussion 105 3.4 Studie 2: Experiment Personenauswahl 112 3.4.1 Einleitung 112 3.4.2 Methode 113 3.4.2.1 Vortests zum Untersuchungsmaterial 113 3.4.2.2 Stichprobe und Design 119 3.4.2.3 Ablauf der Untersuchung 120 3.4.2.4 Experimentelle Manipulation 121 3.4.2.5 Abhängige Maße 122 7 Inhalt 3.4.3 Ergebnisse 124 3.4.3.1 Analyse fehlender Werte 124 3.4.3.2 Manipulationskontrolle 124 3.4.3.3 Personenauswahl 125 3.4.3.4 Alternative Kategorisierungen 128 3.4.4 Diskussion 131 3.5 Studie 3: Experiment Sabotage und Hilfe 137 3.5.1 Einleitung 137 3.5.2 Methode 140 3.5.2.1 Vortest 1: Erstellung der Kurzprofile 140 3.5.2.2 Vortest 2 – Zahlenreihe 143 3.5.2.3 Stichprobe und Design 146 3.5.2.4 Ablauf der Untersuchung 147 3.5.2.5 Experimentelle Manipulation 148 3.5.2.6 Die uneindeutigen Situation im Spiel Psychoarena 148 3.5.2.7 Messinstrumente 151 3.5.3 Ergebnisse 151 3.5.3.1 Analyse fehlender Werte 151 3.5.3.2 Vorausgehende Analysen 152 3.5.3.3 Diskriminierendes Verhalten 152 3.5.3.4 Emotionen 153 3.5.4 Diskussion 155 4 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG UND DISKUSSION 160 4.1 Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse 160 4.2 Gesamtdiskussion 164 4.2.1 Die Bedeutung konsensueller Stereotype für diskriminierendes Verhalten 164 4.2.2 Die Bedeutung von Wärme und Kompetenz für Vorurteile und diskriminierendes Verhalten 168 4.2.3 Implikationen der Ergebnisse für die BIAS Map 169 4.3 Ausblick 173 5 LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 176 6 TABELLENVERZEICHNIS 193 7 ABBILDUNGSVERZEICHNIS 195 8 Inhalt 8 ANHANG 196 Anhang 1 Fragebogen Voruntersuchung 197 Anhang 2 Itemkennwerte zu Wärme und Kompetenz in der Voruntersuchung 215 Anhang 3 Kurzprofile für das Experiment Studie 2 218 Anhang 4 Fragebogen Voruntersuchung Studie 2 220 Anhang 5 Situationsbeschreibungen für das Experiment Studie 2 225 Anhang 6 Antwortbogen Experiment Studie 2 228 Anhang 7 Fragebogen Voruntersuchung Gruppengehörigkeit Studie 3 242 Anhang 8 Screenshots Voruntersuchung Zahlenreihe Studie 3 255 Anhang 9 Ergebnis Voruntersuchung Zahlenreihe Studie 3 258 Anhang 10 Aufgaben im Spiel Zahlenreihe Studie 3 261 Anhang 11 Screenshots Experiment Studie 3 262 Anhang 12 Codierung Psychoarena Studie 3 270 9 Einleitung 1 EINLEITUNG Diskriminierendes Verhalten kann sich auf die unterschiedlichsten Arten ausdrücken:
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