Volume 22, Number 6 December 2011

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This Little Piggy… Hawai‘i’s Imperiled Species Receive t may star in GEICO commercials and be National Attention at Wildlife Convention Ifeatured in children’s nursery rhymes, but in Hawai‘i’s forests, there’s nothing ast month, The Wildlife Society, a cent watershed initiative. “We have to con- funny or cute about Sus scrofa, the wild pig Lnational association made up mostly of trol ungulates. Fencing and removal of ungu- that does more damage to Hawai‘i’s native specialists in the area of wildlife research lates, especially in watersheds, is a major part ecosystems than any other animal in the and management, held its annual conven- of our plan going forward,” Aila said. “We islands. tion at the Waikoloa resort, on the Big have made a conscious decision that in prior- And if anyone harbored doubts about it, Island. ity watersheds, we are going to double the they only had to sit through a few of the Over the four days of discussions and amount of fencing and protection.” many presentations at the recent symposia connected with the meeting, some Fencing, removal of introduced game convention of The Wildlife Society, held of the most respected names in Hawai‘i species, and restoration of habitat for native last month on the Big Island. Pigs directly biology took to the lectern, providing a largely wildlife was an undercurrent in nearly all of tear up trees and the forest floor. They mainland audience with their perspectives on the talks by Hawai‘i presenters. In a few create hospitable environments for what it will take to conserve and restore cases, their reports on recent research broke mosquito larvae, completing the vector Hawai‘i’s unique fauna – birds, of course, but new ground. For the most part, they simply cycle for malaria and possibly other also monk seals and humpback whales, bats, tried to carry the message of Hawai‘i’s dire parasites. They spread seeds of invasive snails, and other invertebrates. straits to an audience generally unaware of plants, such as waiawi, that threaten native During one of the two plenary sessions, its problems. And they did so often with an forests. And, to top it off, they have, in William Aila, head of the Department of eloquence and strength not usually found hunters, a vocal and powerful lobby in the Land and Natural Resources, made a moving in dry academic discussions. halls of government. plea for the need to control game animals, We present highlights here: To be sure, other culprits in the demise of Hawaiian forest birds and their habitat taking note of Governor Abercrombie’s re- are out there: cats, rats, sheep, goats, and deer among the worst of them. But if only the pig could – oh, go to market! Stay home! Eat roast beef or have none – somewhere else! Lowland Bird Populations May Be Developing IN THIS ISSUE Malaria Tolerance 2 The Honeycreeper Family Tree; vian malaria, one of the scourges of Earthstars; OTEC AHawaiian forest birds, is a major rea- 3 son why they are found so rarely in lowland Board Talk: Wildlife Rule Changes; forests. For years, it was generally thought Malama Solomon Gets a Pass that birds could only survive above the so- 5 called “mosquito line” – elevations above which mosquitoes, which carry the disease, Hogs Gone Wild: A Growing PHOTO: USGS do not thrive. Problem Throughout U.S. ‘Amakihi (Hemignathus virens virens) But a few years ago, in connection with a 6 major survey of biological complexity in the virens) at low elevations than at high sites. Feral Cats: A Conundrum islands, Carter Atkinson and colleagues with “We were amazed,” Atkinson told a crowded For Wildlife Managers the U. S. Geological Survey, Pacific Island meeting room at the conference. 11 Ecosystems Research Center were finding “We were capturing ‘amakihi at rates Rat Lungworm Disease: Has A New-to-Hawai‘i more Hawai‘i ‘amakihi (Hemignathus virens to page 6 Mollusk Made it Worse? Page 2 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ December 2011

Volume 22, No. 6 December 2011

NEW AND NOTEWORTHY

Rewriting the Family Tree: In a development did adaptive radiation really take off. This “burst” made possible only with the latest techniques in occurred, the authors wrote, during “a time period DNA sequencing, researchers at the Smithsonian that encompasses the formation of O‘ahu, yet Conservation Biology Institute’s Center for Con- precedes the formation of Maui Nui.” Six of 10 servation and Evolutionary Genetics have tracked major “morphological lineages” evolved during down the ancestor of Hawaiian honeycreepers, this time frame, while only two evolved after. This, those birds that present such an amazing example they write, “emphasizes the importance of the of adaptive radiation. formation of O‘ahu, more so than Maui Nui, to And the result? the present-day morphological diversity of Hawai-

PHOTO: DESJARDIN & HEMMES The Hawaiian birds trace back to a Eurasian ian honeycreepers…. O‘ahu, as a newly formed Gaestrum litchiforme Desjardin & Hemmes in ironwood rosefinch – and not, as had been widely thought, island initially without avian residents, likely pro- duff. The white scale bar (lower-left corner) equals 1 cm. a North American or European finch. vided a blank slate allowing ecological and mor- Authors Heather Lerner, Matthias Meyer, phological differentiation.” the dry kiawe groves at Puako, or at higher eleva- Helen James, Michael Hofreiter, and Robert As to the mechanism by which the initial tions, including the ‘ohi‘a-koa forests at Koke‘e on Fleischer published their findings in Current Biol- colonizers arrived, the authors note that rosefinches Kaua‘i, or even in forested kipukas along the ogy. Their conclusions were based on analysis of “often move in large mixed-sex groups to new Saddle Road of the Big Island. mitochondrial DNA from 47 bird taxa, including wintering grounds” in a behavior called “irrup- 19 honeycreepers that still exist or are recently tion.” “It is possible that colonization by the NELHA Tries Again on OTEC: The board of extinct. ancestral species was aided by the arrival of a large directors of the Natural Energy Laboratory of The ancestral colonists arrived in the Hawai- mixed-sex flock in the islands, representing a siz- Hawai‘i Authority has approved the proposal of a ian islands sometime between 7.2 million years able gene pool. Thus, a diverse initial gene pool company based in Baltimore to develop an ocean- ago (mya) and 5.8 mya, but not until a couple of may have facilitated speciation and the evolution thermal energy conversion plant at the NELHA million years later, with the emergence of O‘ahu, of extreme morphological diversity in the honey- facility near the Kona-Keahole airport. The com- creeper radiation.” pany, OTEC International (OTI), LLC, was one of four to respond to a request for information put Earthstars in Hawai‘i: Some of the prettiest out by NELHA in September. Environment Hawai‘i In reviews by NELHA staff as well as the 72 plants in Hawai‘i are also among the most obscure. Kapi‘olani Street In the fall 2011 edition of Pacific Science, Don NELHA board’s research advisory committee, Hilo, Hawai‘i 96720 Hemmes, recently retired from the University of OTI received top scores. But certain issues still Patricia Tummons, Editor Hawai‘i at Hilo Department of Biology, and need to be ironed out before the company gets the Teresa Dawson, Staff Writer Dennis Desjardin, of the Biology Department at final go-ahead. At the board’s meeting last month, Susie Yong, Office Administrator San Francisco State University, describe the results NELHA executive director Greg Barbour de- of surveys over the last 15 years that looked for scribed how the demand for deep seawater by the Environment Hawai‘i is published monthly by Environment Hawai‘i, Inc., a 501(c)(3) non-profit corporation. earthstars – tiny fungi that produce spores within OTEC plant may not be met without shorting Subscriptions are $65 individual; $100 non-profits, libraries; a shell that splits open to release them, forming existing NELHA tenants who use the water for $130 corporate. Send subscription inquiries, address changes, star-like patterns. everything from abalone aquaculture to desali- and all other correspondence to Environment Hawai‘i, Their article, “Earthstars (Gaestrum, nated bottled water products. 72 Kapi‘olani Street, Hilo, Hawai‘i 96720. Telephone: 808 934-0115. Toll-free: 877-934-0130. Myriostoma) of the Hawaiian Islands Including “The next step is for us to begin negotiations E-mail:[email protected] Two New Species…” describes the 17 previously immediately,” Barbour said. “We would like to Web page: http://www.environment-hawaii.org known species and adds descriptions of two more. come back to the board with more detailed find- Twitter: Envhawaii If you want to find some on your own, the best ings and hopefully a proposal … at the next board Environment Hawai‘i is available in microform through months to do so are from September through meeting,” scheduled for January. University Microfilms’ Alternative Press collection (300 February, typically the wetter months in Hawai‘i. OTI is already in negotiations with Hawaiian 48106-1346 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan ). Look in the duff under ironwood trees along Electric for a power purchase agreement to cover Production: For Color Publishing coasts, in the koa haole thickets above Lanikai, in production from an offshore 100-megawatt Copyright © 2011 Environment Hawai‘i, Inc. OTEC plant proposed near Kahe Point, O‘ahu. 1050-3285 ISSN ◆ According to Barry Cole, executive vice presi- A publication of dent of OTI, the NELHA plant will be a demon- Environment Hawai‘i, Inc. Quote of the Month stration plant “to reduce risk for its first full-scale Officers Directors commercial project.” Still, he said, it is still in- Patricia Tummons Kathy Baldwin “Hawai‘i is feeding its native forests to tended to produce more power than it consumes. President and Robert Becker escaped barnyard animals.” Treasurer Mary Evanson Teresa Dawson Mina Morita — Sheila Conant Vice President and Secretary ◆ December 2011 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ Page 3

are not already established” — created yet BOARD TALK another loophole. In testimony, Mary Ikagawa, who works with the O‘ahu Invasive Species Committee, Proposed Changes to Wildlife Rules wrote that the language was “an invitation to May Prevent Rogue Introductions spread disease and parasites to existing popu- lations.” “Under this draft rule, if some Big Island hunter finds a valley on Moloka‘i with really big pigs that he thinks would improve the Big Island stock near his house, can he bring pigs from Moloka‘i to the Big Island since feral pigs are already established there?” she wrote. Volcano resident Patrick Conant, an en- tomologist, recommended that DOFAW de- velop an island-by-island list of injurious wildlife. And biologist Rick Warshauer, also from Volcano, asked the division to specifi- cally designate axis deer and black-tailed deer as injurious wildlife. “All species of wild ungulates in Hawai‘i cause ecological and agricultural damage on

PHOTO: DLNR Axis deer all islands they occur on. There is no good reason to move them intra-island or between mountains inter-island. ... If a species of wild nder rules proposed by the state De- report to the Land Board states. ungulate does not occur on that island or is Upartment of Land and Natural Re- “For instance, non-native axis deer are incipient there, it should be on the list for that sources’ Division of Forestry and Wildlife, established on Maui, Moloka‘i, and Lana‘i, island,” Conant wrote in his testimony, sub- transporting or releasing introduced wildlife where they are well documented to cause mitted in late October. without a permit would be a petty misde- significant environmental damage. ... [I]t is Conant and Warshauer also recom- meanor. suspected that their presence [on the Big mended that DOFAW : 1) make it illegal to In addition to a minimum fine of $100, Island] is the result of the purposeful intro- hold or harbor introduced species; 2) remove the Board of Land and Natural Resources duction of those species,” the report states. axis and black-tailed deer from its lists of could charge up to $10,000 for administra- It adds that mongoose, which are absent regulated game mammals to allow hunters to tive costs, damages, and/or remediation. from Kaua‘i, are not on DOFAW ’s list of take as many of the animals as they want; 3) Repeat offenders could face more than injurious wildlife. Given the potential impact increase the proposed penalties; and 4) delete $26,000 in penalties. If convicted of a petty to indigenous bird species on the island, the a condition in the existing rules that allows misdemeanor, violators could also be sen- report states, the rules “alarmingly” do not game control on large parcels (300+ acres) tenced to up to 30 days in jail. Prompted by the confirmation this year “As we have seen with the decades-long court- that axis deer now roam parts of the Big ordered efforts to eradicate mouflon from Mauna Island, DOFAW has proposed new adminis- trative rules to prevent future introductions Kea, public hunting, even when matched with of potentially harmful species. unmotivated staff hunting, is ineffectual at control.” A loophole in the division’s current rules — Rick Warshauer allows the transfer of non-native wildlife between private lands, according to DOFAW prevent the introduction of mongoose. “only when it has been determined that pub- administrator Paul Conry. The rules pro- To address such loopholes, DOFAW added lic hunting is not a reasonable and appropri- hibit the release of injurious wildlife into the several animals, including the mongoose, to ate method of control.” wild and their transport to areas “where they the list of injurious wildlife. “As we have seen with the decades-long are not already established and living in a wild With regard to game mammals, the pro- court-ordered efforts to eradicate mouflon state.” Injurious wildlife means any species or posed rules would allow their introduction from Mauna Kea, public hunting, even when subspecies “except game birds and game with the proper permits. DOFAW plans to matched with unmotivated staff hunting, is mammals, which is known to be harmful to strike the exception for game birds and mam- ineffectual at control,” Warshauer wrote. agriculture, aquaculture, indigenous wildlife mals from the definition of injurious wildlife The Land Board was to vote on DOFAW’s or plants, or constitute a nuisance or health and add to its list “even-toed ungulates, ex- request to hold public hearings on the pro- hazard” and is included in DOFAW ’s list of cept for game mammals.” posed rules on October 28, but had to defer injurious wildlife. To address the release of game mammals, the matter until November. The reason given “[M]any very harmful species are not DOFAW added a new section that would ban was that the description of the item on the currently listed as injurious and the rules do the unpermitted release of any introduced published agenda had been too vague. not currently prohibit the introduction, trans- wildlife where it is not already established. At the Land Board’s November 11 meet- port, or release of those species,” a DOFAW But to some, the qualification — “where they ing, DOFAW amended its proposed rules to Page 4 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ December 2011 address some of the concerns raised, deleting all existing and proposed language regarding introductions where introduced/injurious species are already established. “It was pointed out to us that we should prohibit the release of introduced species anywhere. We agree with that,” DOFAW biologist Scott Fretz told the board. Conry said it is possible to obtain a permit from the Land Board (or its authorized repre- sentative), or the state departments of Agri- culture or Health to release introduced spe- cies. Maui Land Board member Jerry Edlao asked whether the rules prohibited breeding introduced animals, noting that on his island, “they’re breeding axis deer for hunting.” Fretz replied that his division doesn’t regu- late game mammals on private lands. The board unanimously approved

DOFAW ’s request to hold public hearings on PHOTO: DLNR the proposed rules. A view of the walls lining the historic cart path damaged by Sen. Malama Solomon’s contractor.

a neighbor, staff from the DLNR’s Na Ala that there was “some confusion on the part of Hele program and State Historic Preserva- my contractor [Warren Matsumoto] and tion Division (SHPD) inspected the site, as myself” regarding whether or not the path Senator May Escape Fine did the department’s land deputy, Guy used was a public access road. For Trespass, Damages Kaulukukui. “They didn’t know who had jurisdiction. In his October 28 report to the Land ... They moved the pohaku [rocks] so they n late October, the Land Board fined a Board, Big Island Land Division agent Kevin could get into the ‘aina. It was never our Ihandful of men $300 to $400 each for Moore stated that bulldozing an access route intention to blatantly destroy the wall,” she possessing alcohol at Kane‘ohe Bay’s ‘Ahu O over unencumbered state land would have said, referring to one of the damaged sites. Laka sandbar during Labor Day weekend. required an environmental assessment and a She added that she was never instructed to The board based the fines on administrative Finding of No Significant Impact. preserve the sites on her property. costs incurred by its Division of Conservation “The EA process would likely have identi- Since the incident, she has planted a bar- and Resources Enforcement. fied the archaeological sites and avoided the rier around a house site on her property. The department must, at the very least, results that occurred in this case,” he wrote. “It’s really kind of small kine,” she said of cover its costs in vio- Under Hawai‘i Revised Statutes, the Land the damages. lation cases, Maui Board has the ability to impose a fine of Kaulukukui agreed somewhat. He told board member Jerry $5,000 per violation on public lands as well as the Land Board that the wall that had been Edlao stressed at the administrative costs and damages. In addi- damaged was “unremarkable.” time. tion to seven violations of historic preserva- “It’s the kind of wall I could build myself. When it came to tion laws, the Land Division found that There were two rock mounds that were im- state Sen. Malama Solomon’s contractor incurred two viola- pacted, no more than one row high. There Solomon’s trespass tions of statutes relating to public lands: 1) was an interior habitation wall on state land on and damage to driving a motor vehicle outside a designated that was impacted. One place where the wall unencumbered state road or path; and 2) damaging archaeological already was disturbed, the makai side was Sen. Malama Solomon lands on the Big Is- features. disturbed by the bulldozer. I would tend to land, however, the board applied no such The Land Board clearly had the authority concur that we weren’t talking about remark- standard. to impose a fine, Moore wrote. Because able features,” he said. In August, Solomon — vice chair of the Solomon had been cooperative during the The Land Board unanimously and with Senate Committee on Water, Land and investigation and committed to restoration, very little discussion approved Moore’s rec- Housing — hired a bulldozer operator to he recommended only that the board require ommendation. grub agricultural lands she owns in North her to remediate the damaged sites, which Last month, Edlao, while discussing a Kona for a planned breadfruit farm. spanned both public and private property, proposed $18,000 settlement for coral dam- The operator crossed unencumbered state within six months and in accordance with a age around Molokini (see below), again ham- land to get to her property, damaging a corrective action plan approved by SHPD. mered on the need for the DLNR to recover its historic cart path and other archaeological He added that the Land Board reserved the administrative costs. features along the way, according to a report right to impose a fine should the restoration When asked his thoughts on the board’s by the Department of Land and Natural not be “timely completed” to the satisfaction decision not to fine Solomon, he said he went Resources’ Land Division. of SHPD. along with it because remediating the site will Responding to an August 30 complaint by Solomon explained to the Land Board take “time and money on her part.” He also December 2011 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ Page 5 reminded Environment Hawai‘i that should determine the status of any resource values With any HCP application, the division Solomon fail to remediate the damage within protected under the terms of the grant agree- will discuss with the applicant the esti- six months, “she will be back with a fine and ment,” and may require it to submit reports, mated processing time, DOFAW biologist administrative costs.” photos, or other supporting documents. Scott Fretz told the Land Board at its Octo- Annual monitoring and reporting should ber 28 meeting. The board unanimously be required, not optional, Bonar told the approved the fee. Land Board. “These are critical to our cred- The amount of time spent on a given Land Board Grants Hearings ibility,” he said, adding that nonprofit land application will be by mutual agreement For New Legacy Land Rules conservation organizations are required by with the applicant, Fretz said. “We mod- the Internal Revenue Service to do monitor- eled this off similar rules set up by [the ast month, representatives from local land ing and reporting. Department of Business, Economic Devel- Ltrusts lauded the DLNR for drafting rules Rather than amending the draft rules to opment, and Tourism’s] renewable energy to govern its Legacy Land Conservation Pro- reflect the concerns raised, the Land Board division. They were doing similar technical gram, which, for the past several years, has voted to send them out for public hearings as work.” funded the purchase of thousands of acres of DOFAW proposed. The fees will enter a trust fund that lands and conservation easements through- might eventually allow the division to hire out the state. additional staff, he said. A representative Some of the standards to be imposed on DOD School Stays from Maui’s Kaheawa Wind Power sup- conservation agencies, however, may be a ported the idea and said similar fees are not little too strict, they said. Under the rules as At Kulani, For Now uncommon on the mainland. proposed, a nonprofit land conservation or- “It’s nice to see the department covering ganization must obtain a conservation ease- The state Department of Defense’s Youth expenses for a change,” said Maui board ment over any land bought with Legacy Land ChalleNGe Academy may remain at the member Jerry Edlao. funds. What’s more, the organization must former Kulani prison site for a while longer. At its November meeting, the Land Board be accredited. In late 2010, after the prison closed, the approved incidental take licenses and habitat There is currently only one accrediting Land Board decided to add most of the land conservation plans for wind power projects agency in the nation, the Land Trust Accredi- — some 6,000 acres — to the Pu‘u Maka‘ala on Maui and O‘ahu. tation Commission, and only one accredited Natural Area Reserve. The remaining 600 or The license and plan for the proposed land trust in Hawai‘i: the Hawaiian Islands so acres would go to the DOD to be used for 21-megawatt Kaheawa Wind Power II Land Trust, which is the merger of the Hawai‘i a military-style camp for troubled youth. project on Maui cover the take of the Ha- Island, O‘ahu, and Maui Coastal land trusts. The state Legislature later decided that the waiian petrel, the Newell’s shearwater, nene or the Hawaiian goose, and the Hawaiian “We don’t want to draft rules that have a hoary bat. chilling effect.” — Doug Cole, O‘ahu’s Kawailoa Wind Power project, expected to produce 70 MW, may affect the North Shore Community Land Trust bat and shearwater, as well as four species of endangered Hawaiian waterbirds. “The challenge is this may have unin- prison site should remain with the Depart- tended consequences,” said Mark Fox, direc- ment of Public Services for use as a prison. tor of external affairs for The Nature Conser- With the DPS currently without adequate vancy of Hawai‘i. Directors of the Moloka‘i funds to reopen the Kulani prison, the Land Molokini Coral Damage and North Shore Community land trusts Board, at its October 28 meeting, approved a echoed his concerns. request by the DOD for a permit to continue Nets $19,000 Fine Although TNCH may soon receive its own running its academy there until it can find a accreditation, the process is long and expen- new site. he Land Board has finally closed the sive, said Dale Bonar, executive director of The board also rejected contested case Tbook on a 2008 violation case involving the Hawaiian Island Land Trust. hearing requests from Michael Kumukauoha damages to 121 coral colonies that occurred “It’s a big hurdle,” he said. Lee, the Community Alliance on Prisons, when a sailboat ran aground at the islet of “We don’t want to draft rules that have a and DMZ-Hawai‘i/Aloha ‘Aina regarding the Molokini off Maui. chilling effect,” added Doug Cole of the Land Board’s 2010 decision. The DLNR’s Division of Aquatic Re- North Shore Community Land Trust. sources recommended that the owners of To ease matters, the state could develop its the Maka Kai be allowed to apply a $18,000 own accreditation process, said Paul Conry, fine toward coral reef educational and out- administrator for the DLNR’s Division of DOFAW to Charge reach projects. Forestry and Wildlife, which administers the Hourly Fee For After a heated discussion about whether Legacy Land program. or not $3,183 in administrative costs were With regard to ensuring that lands or Conservation Plan Review included in the $18,000 settlement amount, easements purchased are conserved in perpe- the board voted to impose an additional tuity, Bonar said he thought the draft rules he DLNR’s Division of Forestry and fine of $1,000. Maui Land Board member weren’t strict enough. TWildlife may now charge $50 an hour for Jerry Edlao, who wanted the full $3,183 The rules state that the DLNR may moni- any work related to habitat conservation plans added, was the sole dissenter. tor the awardee of Legacy Land funds “to (HCP). — Teresa Dawson Page 6 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ December 2011

in the continental United States was estimated at between 500,000 and 1 million. But, he Hogs Gone Wild: A Growing Problem noted, “some of those estimates were pretty sketchy.” The good news, he said, “is that Throughout the Continental United States many of the statewide estimates have im- proved. The bad news is that the numbers have lue states and red states were the subject Hawai‘i, are already doing just that. gone up, to between 3 million and 8 million Bof a talk by Jack Mayer of the Savannah As an example of how rapidly wild pigs can wild pigs in 2011.” River National Laboratory in Aiken, South spread, Mayer cited the case of Oklahoma. In that same time interval, he went on to Carolina. “In 1982, wild pigs were found only in a say, wild pigs “have become the second most But Mayer wasn’t discussing partisan poli- couple of counties in the southeastern part of popular big game animal in North America,” tics. Rather, he was discussing the spread of the state,” he said. According to one estimate, which poses a “conundrum: one of the worst wild pigs. On a large map displayed behind they numbered in the hundreds, maybe even invasive species on the planet is also one of the the podium as Mayer spoke to a crowd at The up to 1,000, Mayer said. Authorities at the most popular game mammals on the planet, Wildlife Society’s annual convention last time considered the population stable to de- on every continent except Antarctica.” month, held in Waikoloa, states (including creasing, and, he said, they assumed deer Their spread northward in the United States Hawai‘i) with established populations of wild hunters would take care of the pigs. was not an altogether natural expansion of pigs were colored in red. Those in blue had Twenty-five years later, the southeastern their range, he noted. “Hunters who wanted to wild pigs numbering in the hundreds or part of the state had pig densities of 64 or hunt premier game animals but didn’t want to thousands in some counties. The handful of more per square mile, but there remained drive south figured out something: all they had northern states colored in yellow don’t – yet three Oklahoma counties with no pigs, Mayer to do was trap pigs and move them north. Or, – have known populations of free-ranging added. Four years later, and wild pigs are in if they didn’t want to trap them, they could wild pigs, Mayer said. They included Alaska, every county. “We currently estimate there purchase them from people who did.” Montana, Maryland, Connecticut, Vermont, are half a million wild pigs in Oklahoma – “It’s completely illegal, but that hasn’t and Maine. maybe as many as 1.4 million,” he said. stopped anyone.” Today’s map represents a progression, The same scenario played out in Michi- Once pigs become established, they’re dif- Mayer said. “The states in yellow are where gan, which is still colored in blue on Mayer’s ficult to contain. When it comes to their states in blue were in the 1980s. And the states map – though perhaps not for long. The first reproductive potential, he said, “nothing else in blue are where the red states were in the report of a wild pig was made in 1986, he said, their size or larger can compete with the pig in early 1990s,” he said. The message? “Take the but it took more than a decade for state its ability to crank out babies.” Not only do wild pig situation very seriously,” he warned. officials to become concerned about the prob- they start young, females can produce two To judge by the standing-room-only lem. Today, he said, 65 of 83 counties in litters a year, and continue to produce piglets crowd in the conference room, wildlife man- Michigan have wild pigs. for the rest of their long (ten years or more) agers from across the country, as well as in In the 1980s, the total wild-pig population natural lives.

lence of malaria among ‘apapane can run as birds exposed to malaria suffered more from Wildlife from page 1 high as 100 percent among low-elevation depressed appetite than did those from low five times higher than the capture rates at populations of the bird. elevations, which consumed as much food high-elevation sites,” he said. “Also, they “On Kaua‘i, the prevalence of malaria is as birds in the healthy control population. had extremely high prevalences of malaria,” as high as 40 percent” among ‘amakihi, he Also, he said, the physiological effects of reaching a rate of up to 90 percent at one said. disease were much less severe in the low- site. “ ‘Elepaio [Chasiempis sandwichensis] elevation group. He compared that to the mid-1990s, may also be showing similar disease pat- “The results support the idea that low- when no ‘amakihi were detected at any of terns,” Atkinson said, “with a high preva- elevation birds have some physiological tol- the 90 stations surveyed in the Puna district lence of infections.” erance to malaria,” he said, related to an of the Big Island. A decade later, 75 ‘amakihi “It’s good news about the more common increased ability to survive the disease. were found at 37 of the stations – “a signifi- species,” he said, but for rarer species, “it’s “Disease tolerance may have appeared in cant increase in the numbers,” he noted. more problematic.” lower Puna,” he continued, “because of “Since then, we have evidence this popula- “A lot of what we’re seeing may depend abundant low-elevation habitat and high tion is expanding toward Hilo. There’s on genetic diversity,” he added. “But do selective pressure by the parasite. There been some change in the birds’ ability to these fewer birds still have sufficient genetic were also large, connected source popula- deal with malaria infections.” diversity?” tions across an elevational gradient, plus But the good news does not end with To confirm the ‘amakihi’s tolerance to there is very high genetic diversity in ‘amakihi. Researchers are finding that an- malaria, Atkinson and colleagues exposed ‘amakihi.” other one of the more common forest birds, uninfected birds from both high- and low- Geneticists, he said, found the low-el- the ‘apapane (Himatone sanguinea), is elevation sites to malaria. “There was a evation birds were genetically distinct from present at lower elevations on O‘ahu and dramatic difference,” he said. “We lost two their high-elevation counterparts. “But,” he Moloka‘i, where it also shows a high preva- low-elevation birds, but over half of the went on to say, “when compared to mu- lence of malarial infection. In the Big Island high-elevation birds died.” Other differ- seum specimens collected 100 years ago — districts of Puna and South Kona, the preva- ences emerged as well. The high-elevation there’s only one way you can interpret this December 2011 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ Page 7

carry disease to domestic livestock. They can contaminate produce with pathogens such as E. coli, leptospirosis, and toxoplas- mosis. Sheep and goat production areas can lose up to 40 percent of lambs to predation by wild pigs, he noted. The total damage to Texas agriculture, he said, ranges from between $80 and $828 for each wild hog. Hunting alone cannot begin to control the pigs, he said: “Aerial gunning is the most cost-effective control measure.” Billy Higgenbotham, with the Texas A&M Extension Service, told the audience of his plan to eradicate wild pigs: “I’ve got the answer, and we could do it tomorrow,” he said. “Institute a two-hog limit and a two-day season, and we’d poach ’em off the face of the Earth.” But constrained to legal removal methods – shooting, trapping, snaring, and catching with dogs – “all you’re going to do is manage

PHOTO: VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK pigs,” he said, not reduce their numbers. A feral pig stands next to a fallen tree fern. For landowners and wildlife managers, Higgenbotham recommended trapping – “a One of the difficulties in dealing with the San Antonio spoke of the damage wild pigs do process, not an event.” He outlined his ap- growing problem is the lack of uniform regu- to natural resources and agriculture. “They’re proach to corral traps, which includes a long, lations. “This is not a plan for success in a a train wreck – just one thing slamming into patient process of baiting and monitoring. national crisis,” Mayer said. “Are they inva- another,” he said. (For more, see: http://feralhogs.tamu.edu.) sive? Should we talk about eradication or They damage crops: “Each day, they The process is effective, he said. In Texas, damage control? Should we make sport hunt- have to consume 3 to 5 percent of their body ranchers and farmers using traps remove nearly ing illegal everywhere?” he asked. “It’s time to weight.” They’ve virtually eliminated the half a million hogs a year. As an added boon, make a decision.” Texas peanut industry, he noted, and in Texas, at least, the wild pigs can be sold, Michael Bodenchuk of the U.S. Depart- through their rooting damage, they have live, allowing ranchers to recover some part of ment of Agriculture’s wildlife services office in reduced harvests of corn and hay. They their costs, he noted. — P.T.

— those birds were always there in low tion populations of the more resistant spe- streams and natural bodies of water are numbers at these sites; they simply ex- cies.” rare.” panded from relic populations.” Or, as And while that is good news for ‘amakihi, In addition, they write, “there will likely Atkinson and his colleague Dennis it may not be for those less common birds. be an important place for vaccines and LaPointe, also with USGS, wrote in a 2009 “There is concern that threatened and en- chemotherapy for management of avian article in The Journal of Avian Medicine dangered species may not have sufficient pox and malaria during translocation or and Surgery, “the recent resurgence of these genetic variability to adapt to these dis- release of captive birds or management of birds originated from pockets of surviving eases,” they write. small populations of critically endangered individuals with some natural disease resis- The question now for resource managers forest birds,” although such treatments are tance, rather than recolonization of the is whether it may be possible to undertake not now available. lowlands by high-elevation birds.” actions that will enhance the birds’ disease As to why the lower-elevation popula- tolerance. tions may have developed this resistance Above all else, Atkinson said, “we have to while those in the higher elevations did not, preserve existing diversity, then manage The ‘Worst Vector’ Atkinson and his colleagues put forward an habitats to maximize demographic vari- explanation in their 2009 article: “With ables, especially at lower elevations.” In And Its Partner transmission occurring year-round at lower their article, Atkinson and LaPointe stress elevations, and low-elevation populations the importance of managing mid-level habi- ennis LaPointe, an ecologist with the not being continually diluted by emigrat- tats to reduce mosquito breeding areas. DU.S. Geological Survey in Hawai‘i, ing, highly susceptible juvenile birds from “Feral pigs and other ungulates can create has been studying mosquitoes and avian high elevations, it might be predicted that larval habitat … and their removal through malaria for years, and in his view, Culex disease resistance would first appear here. fencing and control programs may signifi- quinquefasciatus, the first mosquito to hit This suggests that disease resistance may cantly reduce mosquito habitat, particu- Hawai‘i’s shores, is “the worst vector of subsequently spread over the next few de- larly on Kilauea and Mauna Loa Volcanoes [avian] malaria in the world.” cades, with eventual recovery of mid-eleva- … where volcanic soils are porous and But if the mosquito were here without Page 8 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ December 2011 pigs, chances are good that the overall health ties are the dominant available larval mos- of Hawai‘i’s forest birds would be much quito habitat.” improved. To cause the damage that avian Until the pigs are gone or, at least, their malaria and avian pox have wrought, the numbers are significantly reduced, Hawai‘i mosquitos needed water. forest birds will continue to be at risk for “Water is key to the vector,” LaPointe disease. According to LaPointe, “you have said, “polluted, organic-rich water.” But on to depress current pig abundance by at least Mauna Loa, standing water is in short 80 percent” before the birds are released supply, what with the porous volcanic sub- from the impact of disease. strate and no streams or suitable bodies of There could be one other factor at work,

PHOTO: DLNR water to speak of. however. LaPointe noted that in 2002, the ‘Elepaio

“Pigs love the rainforest.” recent nest heights, “and sure enough,” he — Dennis LaPointe said, “the average nest height is rising.” From an average of eight meters in 1996 it Enter the pig. Not the small Polynesian mosquito Aedes japonicus arrived on has soared to about 12 meters in more recent pig, which Hawaiians brought with them Hawai‘i island and is now in all the same years. “ ‘Elepaio are choosing larger trees,” when they colonized the islands and which, areas as Culex. Ae. Japonicus “cannot vec- he said. according to accounts of early visitors, rarely tor avian malaria,” LaPointe said. “We don’t There were two possible mechanisms to weighed more than 50 or 60 pounds. No, it know if it’s driving the abundance of Culex explain the change, he said: individual birds required the much larger European pig, down, but it would sure be nice to hope so.” are learning that a higher nest is better and introduced in 1785 by Captain Cook and in Everything has its downside, though. are adjusting nest height accordingly; or multiple subsequent visits by any number While an increase in Aedes japonicus might nest height is evolving through natural se- of ship captains. As Quentin Tomich writes knock back Culex quinquefasciatus, Ae. lection. in his Mammals in Hawai‘i, “The old japonicus is itself a possible vector of VanderWerf tested the first hypothesis Polynesian type of Sus scrofa has been avipoxvirus, Japanese encephalitis, and by looking at the nest height of individual absorbed or replaced by stocks of European West Nile virus, which can cause disease in birds and found nothing to suggest that the origin.” The result is that “the feral Hawai- both humans and birds. birds were actually learning that higher ian pig of today is typically like the Eurasian nests were better. wild boar.” He then looked at the success rates of “Pigs love the rainforest,” LaPointe noted lower nests and found that those lower than in his presentation. “They’re particularly ‘Elepaio Moving Up three meters “always failed or were aban- fond of tree ferns, whose starchy core is a in the World doned,” he said. favorite food of pigs.” The pigs knock down Over time, the proportion of lower nests the ferns and root out hollows to reach the ildlife biologist Eric VanderWerf has (below three meters) was decreasing, while core, in the process creating cavities. Rain Wbeen studying the O‘ahu ‘elepaio for nest success increased. collects in the cavities, where mosquito years and has watched its numbers decline The most likely conclusion, VanderWerf larvae can mature. dramatically. Since 1970, he told members said, is that nest height among ‘elepaio is What LaPointe and his colleagues set of The Wildlife Society, it has seen a 75 evolving through natural selection. out to determine, in the early 2000s, was percent decline in its range, which is now How high will it go? whether, absent the pigs, mosquitoes would highly fragmented. Its overall population Most nests below three meters, find sufficient larval habitat to allow the has declined as well, and is now thought to VanderWerf noted, are being eliminated – malarial cycle to continue. Hunters defend- number no more than around 1,500 birds. suggesting that this is about as high as rats go. ing their sport claim pigs alone aren’t re- One of the greatest threats to the ‘elepaio “The average height probably will not get sponsible for the standing water. is the black rat, which can take the birds much higher than it is right now,” he said. “So we looked at the disease across a broad from their nests at all life stages: eggs, juve- landscape of windward [eastern] Mauna Loa,” niles, and incubating females. For this rea- he said. They set up study sites in wet, closed- son, he said, rat control is a primary tool in canopy ‘ohi‘a forests, where both pigs and protecting ‘elepaio populations from fur- Forests as Fodder tree ferns typically occur. ther decline. With control, the population “We found a direct relationship between growth rate is positive at 1.1 (with 1 equal to heila Conant’s sadness and indignation the relative abundance of pigs and the abun- a stable population). Without it, the growth Swere palpable. In an overview of the dire dance of tree fern cavities,” he said. Where rate is below 1. situation that Hawai‘i’s native plants and pigs are controlled, he continued, “there But, he continued, “only a fraction of the animals are facing, Conant, an expert in the were no tree fern cavities… Tree fern cavi- remaining populations are being managed” subject of endangered birds, talked about ties are not the result of natural decay or with efforts to control the rats. her personal experience: “I’ve seen living rodent feeding.” One of the reasons why ‘elepaio are so members of seven bird species now ex- In addition, his team began monitoring vulnerable, VanderWerf explained, was the tinct,” she noted. “And I’m not yet 100 mosquito populations by trapping. “The fact that their nests tend to be low to the years old!” The line drew a laugh from the highest capture rates,” he said, were found ground. audience, but there was not much other at Cooper Center, in Volcano Village. “But nowadays, their nests seem to be humor in her talk to The Wildlife Society. There, he said, “pig-created tree fern cavi- higher,” he said. He compiled data on The examples of adaptive radiation December 2011 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ Page 9 found in Hawai‘i “are unsurpassed,” she The brown tree snake, which has caused moteness from the mainland and the lack of said — and are found in all manner of the extinction of many native birds on awareness of the plight of its birds – both creatures and plants. “The silversword alli- Guam, is another potential predator that here in Hawai‘i as well as elsewhere, he ance — there are more than 30 different keeps Conant up at night: “If we get this, it noted. species. Spectacular plants,” she told the is just a matter of time before we lose all our Wallace also cited the lack of “conflict crowd. small birds.” species,” where high stakes bring public at- “Hawaiian tree snails — just 14 of 40 Conant then addressed the subject of tention to the endangered animals – such as Achatinella survive. They’re going down feral ungulates. “Our ecosystems are being the spotted owl in the Pacific Northwest. rapidly because of introduced predators transformed by feral ungulates and alien These species, he said, get funding precisely and other reasons.” game species.” because they generate conflict and much She then gave the example of Hawai‘i’s “Hawai‘i,” she continued, “is feeding its publicity. “It ties the Fish and Wildlife Ser- hyposmocoma moths: “They’re not as spec- native forests to escaped barnyard animals” – vice up in knots,” he said, “and draws a lot of tacular as our Drosophila [picture-wing pigs, sheep, and goats – “and axis deer… funding and resources” to these species. flies], but there are over 350 species known, Protected by bag limits and hunting seasons, Another factor is the limited tax base in with more being found all the time.” They they are managed to provide recreational and Hawai‘i. Its relatively small population are also one of the few moths that are “scuba limited subsistence hunting for less than one means that federal funding allocation for- divers,” going underwater to pursue prey. percent of the state’s population.” mulas based on census counts put the state “Only half a percent of all Lepidoptera have Such practices “profoundly compromise at a distinct disadvantage, Wallace noted. an aquatic stage,” she said. Hawai‘i’s watersheds – our only source of Also there is the fact that Hawai‘i shares borders with no other state, Wallace pointed “I’ve seen living members of seven bird species out. Elsewhere, multiple states might coop- erate to address common problems. In now extinct. And I’m not yet 100 years old!” Hawai‘i, that just doesn’t work. — Sheila Conant “The pattern is, the highest-funded spe- cies tend to be charismatic conflict species, After a recital of the flora and fauna that drinking water and irrigation for our crops, from large states and large ranges,” Wallace help make Hawai‘i so special, Conant dis- and the last remaining habitat for countless said. “Underfunded species tend to be is- cussed the reasons for their decline, citing species of unique plants and animals.” land species, or from small states with small habitat loss due to human activities, inva- “We know what to do,” she concluded. ranges.” sive predators as well as disease, ecosystem “Let’s go out there and do it.” The upshot , he said, is “a few taxa receive most of the funding.” transformation by ungulates, and intro- duced plants that, while mild-mannered in Wallace then presented some estimates their home range, quickly become invasive on what recovery of Hawaiian birds might weeds in Hawai‘i’s hospitable climate. ‘Funding Bias’ Hurts cost over the next 10 years. Fencing, eradi- Of predators, she said, “feral cats are Hawai‘i Birds cation of ungulates, and weed control probably the worst thing we’ve got. They’re needed for forest-bird recovery will require very difficult to control, and it’s politically frequently heard complaint from many an initial expenditure of $578 million, with a very sensitive issue. They’re doing a great Amembers of Hawai‘i’s conservation upkeep costs of $32 million a year. Add in deal of damage to petrels on this [Hawai‘i] community is that the state, which has such waterbirds and seabirds, and the total in- island and on Lana‘i. I don’t even think a high percentage of endangered species in vestment costs rises to between almost $800 about mongoose anymore because I see so the United States, receives such a small million and $1 billion. many feral cats. We need to address the share of federal funding for endangered “We need to set our sights on this,” he issue in a suitable way.” species management and recovery. George said. “There’s too much at stake not to. We Wallace, a vice president of the American have to keep reinforcing the message that Bird Conservancy, elaborated on some of we’ve already invested a tremendous the reasons for the vast abyss between needs amount and we need to protect those in- and resources. vestments.” Hawai‘i, Wallace pointed out, has 31 While the amount may have prompted extant species of endangered birds – roughly some in the audience to gasp, Wallace 70 percent of all endangered bird species in pointed out that the amount is reasonable, the United States. Yet the average expendi- even modest, in light of expenditures for ture per species from 2002 to 2006 was 16 similar recovery efforts undertaken else- percent of what was spent on endangered where. In Chesapeake Bay, for example, bird species on the U.S. mainland. (If the federal recovery funds alone came to more enormously expensive captive propagation than $1 billion over the span of a decade, he program for the ‘alala is not included, the said. In the Great Lakes region, $5 billion per-species average expenditures drop down was spent over 10 years, while in the Florida to 10 percent of the mainland per-species Everglades, $3.9 billion was spent over 30 expenditures.) years. “Why is there such a funding bias?” “Hawai‘i’s birds need a national priority

PHOTO: USGS Wallace asked. restoration initiative, and we need it now,” Feral cat There’s the problem of Hawai‘i’s re- he concluded. — Patricia Tummons Page 10 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ December 2011

Feral Cats: Conundrum for Wildlife Managers For Further Reading

◆ The Wildlife Society position he Waikoloa Hilton parking lot is full of U.S.A. Although organizers had feared the statement: Tcats. Signs around the lot ask that visitors event might draw protests from cat fanciers, http://joomla.wildlife.org/ (Click not feed them, as they are being cared for by those fears did not materialize. According to on the link to “position statements” AdvoCATS, a Kona group that, according to Steve Hess, a biologist with the U.S. Geologi- and browse down to the “Urban its website, helps “abandoned and homeless cal Survey’s Pacific Island Ecosystem Re- Wildlife Management” category.) felines.” It supports the trap-neuter-return search Center in Volcano, agency representa- ◆ USGS Pacific Island Ecosys- (TNR) approach to stray cat colonies – an tives and Gibson agreed to sit down and try to tem Research Center fact sheet: approach that involves trapping the cats, work out where they might find common http://biology.usgs.gov/pierc/ neutering them and giving them other veteri- ground on this contentious subject. Fact_Sheets/Feral_cats.pdf nary care if needed, and returning them to “That’s a good exercise in theory,” Hess ◆ Fish and Wildlife Service fact where they were found. said. “But in Hawai‘i, what we have is seabird sheet: http://www.fws.gov/pacific/ A few hundred feet away, at the meeting fall-outs, especially on O‘ahu and Kaua‘i. lawenforcement/Sam%20Stuff/ last month of The Wildlife Society inside the Especially in urban areas birds are more likely October%202009.html hotel, the attitude toward feral cats was some- to fall out, and that’s where cat colonies are ◆ An article published in the what cooler. Earlier this year, the society’s considered to be okay. That is to me one of the Journal of the American Veterinary governing council approved a position state- bigger issues.” Association in 2004 discusses TNR ment on feral and free-ranging domestic cats In addition to preying on fallen seabirds, in programs, including the Hawaiian that supported “the humane elimination of Hawai‘i, feral cats have preyed on endangered Humane Society’s program on feral cat populations, including feral cat colo- burrowing or ground-nesting birds, such as O‘ahu: See Linda Winter, “Trap- nies, through adoption into indoor-only the ‘ua‘u (the Hawaiian petrel, Pterodroma neuter-release programs: the reality homes of eligible cats and humane euthanasia sandwichensis). They have nearly wiped out and the impacts:” http:// of unadoptable cats.” whole colonies of ‘ua‘u kani (wedge-tailed www.avma.org/avmacollections/ The society’s policy opposes TNR pro- shearwaters, Puffinus pacificus) on Maui. In feral_cats/javma_225_9_1369.pdf grams as being ineffective in keeping cat the subalpine mamane forest of Mauna Kea, populations down, harmful to birds and other cats continue to prey on the critically endan- wildlife they may prey upon, and as reservoirs gered palila (Loxiodes bailleui). Toxoplasmo- the ABC, some 95 million outdoor and feral of disease – rabies, toxoplasmosis, bartonello- sis from cats was implicated in the death of cats in the United States kill at least 532 sis, typhus, and feline immunodeficiency vi- several ‘alala (Hawaiian crow, Corvus million birds a year, “and possibly signifi- rus, among others – that can affect humans as hawaiiensis), and in the deaths of Hawaiian cantly more.” A press release said that the well as both domestic and wild animals. In the monk seals. National Association of Public Health Vet- wild, feral cats can compete with native preda- Last month, the American Bird Conser- erinarians, The Wildlife Society, and the tors. The Wildlife Society attributes the ex- vancy called on the nation’s mayors to oppose People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals tinction of at least 33 bird species globally to TNR programs and halt any municipal fund- joined ABC in opposing TNR programs. depredation by feral cats. ing in support of the program. According to — P.T. “Effects of cat predation and disease spread are most pronounced in island settings (both actual islands and islands of habitat), where populations of wildlife are already low or stressed by other factors,” the statement says. The Humane Society of the United States supports TNR programs, as does the Hawai‘i subscribe Humane Society. In questionnaires given to candidates for public office in the 2010 No- Sign me up for a new renewal subscription at the individual ($65) non-profits, libraries ($100) vember general elections, the HHS asked if corporations ($130) economic downturn ($40) they thought “Trap, Neuter and Return and I wish to make a donation of $ a month through my credit card account for 12 months. TNRM Manage ( ) is an effective and humane (Fill out form below; minimum amount is $10 a month) strategy to reduce feral cat overpopulation.” (Governor Neil Abercrombie responded, To charge by phone, call toll free: 1-877-934-0130 “Yes.”) According to its website, in the last For credit card payments: VISA or MC five years, the Hawai‘i Humane Society has Account No.: Exp. Date: “helped more than 12,000 feral cats at a cost Subscription Payment: $ One-time donation: $ Monthly authorization: $ Phone No.: (expires after 12 months) of over $250,000 for needed sterilizations.” Signature of account holder At last month’s TWS convention, a work- name Mail form to: shop on management of feral cats drew par- Environment Hawai‘i address ticipation from wildlife agencies as well as 72 Kapi‘olani Street Inge Gibson of the Humane Society of the city, state, zip code Hilo, HI 96720 We are a 501(c)(3) organization. All donations are tax-deductible to the extent allowed by law. December 2011 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ Page 11

Break-out Like a case presented to Dr. Gregory House, rat Rat Lungworm Disease: Has Arrival Of a lungworm disease is hard to diagnose. The worms do not usually show up in spinal fluid or New-to-Hawai‘i Snail Made It Worse? blood tests. Most diagnoses are for “probable” cases, since confirmation can be difficult. Ini- hen I talk about rat lungworm, I im- tial symptoms are general enough – severe Wmediately get people’s attention,” said headaches, nausea, diarrhea – that they can Jon Martell, a Hilo physician and one of the often be (and have often been) dismissed as less speakers at a recent community symposium serious infections. on the subject. But in 2004, after three people came down “It touches on their fundamental fears and with illnesses that looked suspiciously like rat ‘ick’ factors,” he continued. “It’s got rats, lungworm disease, Robert Hollingsworth of worms, snails, and slugs — really repulsive the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s research things. People aren’t supposed to be in the center in Hilo was invited to investigate the picture.” presence of a new slug species that one of the Yet they are, and in growing numbers. The three had noticed on her property in Koa‘e, a result is an increase in the incidence of rat remote area of Puna. The resident and two of lungworm disease — a.k.a. angiostrongyliasis her dinner guests, Hollingsworth later wrote, — in Hawai‘i, especially on the Big Island. had become ill “after consuming home-grown

Not only are reports of the disease rising, but PHOTOS: USDA lettuce reportedly contaminated with imma- the severity of the cases seems to be growing as The Asian semi-slug is believed to be an important ture semi-slugs.” well. And the changes may be linked to the vector of rat-lungworm disease in Hawai‘i. “Our initial survey in Koa‘e indicated that introduction of the Asian semi-slug to the Big [the Asian semi-slug, Parmarion cf. martensi] Island in 2004. In time, “the worms will die and symptoms was extremely common; it was found in trash The Big Island’s experience with the will improve,” but, he added, the patient may cans, in a composting toilet, in an outdoor disease may be just a taste of things to come. be left “with a lot of damage.” shower area, in a planting of spider lilies … According to Robert Cowie, a snail expert at under plastic sheeting, and in a vegetable com- the University of Hawai‘i, “with the in- The Accidental Host post pile where egg masses of P. cf. martensi creasing spread of invasive alien species, A rat becomes infected when it eats an were also found.” including rats, and slugs and snails, to all infected snail. Worms reproduce inside the Hollingsworth shipped 26 of the semi-slugs parts of the world, and with global warming rat’s heart and lungs. Their progeny end up to the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, increasing the potential latitudinal range of in its feces, which are, in turn, eaten by snails where all of them tested positive for the pres- the parasite, it is seen as an important emerg- and slugs. Inside this intermediate host (the ence of rat lungworm. ing infectious disease.” snail or slug), the worms develop to the third After that first visit, Hollingsworth made a At last month’s community symposium, stage. When a rat eats the snails, the cycle, more thorough survey of the Puna area, solic- sponsored by the University of Hawai‘i-Hilo which takes at least 45 days to complete, iting information from residents on the distri- College of Pharmacy, Global HOPE (a cam- begins anew. It’s probably safe to say that the bution of the semi-slug as well as another pus group) and the U.S. Department of Agri- worm is not a good thing for the rat, but mollusk, the Cuban slug (Veronicella cubensis), culture, Martell talked about the way in which according to one Puna resident who has which was also suspected to be an important rat the parasite, Angiostrongylus cantonensis, be- been dissecting trapped rats for the last year, lungworm host. haves when, in its microscopic third stage of the nematode is present in every rat he has The spread of the semi-slug on the Big development, it is ingested by humans in- checked. Island has been rapid. When Hollingsworth stead of its primary host, rats. It burrows Humans are not the intended hosts for and his colleagues reported their findings in through the intestinal wall, ending up in the the lungworm’s development, but they can Pacific Science two years later, they wrote that nervous system and brain, where it dies. When become infected when they ingest the worm the semi-slug “has essentially a continuous the body’s immune system mobilizes to fight in its third stage. This can happen intention- distribution in lower elevations of the Puna it, the result can be serious inflammation and ally – when someone eats an infected snail or district” and that “such a widespread distribu- damage to the nervous system. The intensity slug on a dare, for example (it has hap- tion is surprising for a species whose presence of the symptoms is thought to be a function pened). More frequently, it is accidental – was confirmed only in 2004.” of dose: the more worms you ingest, the sicker when someone eats uncooked fruits or veg- One of the features that sets the semi-slug you will be. etables that are contaminated with snails or apart from other snails and slugs in Hawai‘i, In the worst cases Martell has treated, the slugs. Other animals – flatworms and Hollingsworth and colleagues wrote, is its “pro- patients develop eosinophilic meningitis, or prawns – can also contain the third-stage pensity … to climb and locate rich food sources, inflammation of the brain caused by eosino- larvae. If these so-called paratenic hosts are including bird food, dog food, cat food, fish phils (a particular type of white blood cell) eaten raw, they can provide another path- entrails, and papayas.” That climbing behav- that respond to parasitic infection. The symp- way for human infection. ior, combined with its high population densi- toms include “persistent severe headache, Until recently, the disease caused by the ties, “apparent attraction to rich food sources, migrating nerve pain, sensory disturbances, presence of the worms was generally thought and a naturally high rate of infection by A. urinary difficulty, paralysis, weakness, and to be non-life threatening. The Centers for cantonensis, increases the likelihood that people coma,” he noted. In the most severe cases, Disease Control website still reports that “most will come into contact with semi-slugs and the death can occur – “scary stuff,” he said. patients recover fully.” parasitic nematodes they carry.” Page 12 ■ Environment Hawai‘i ■ December 2011 Non-Profit Organization 72 Kapi‘olani Street U.S. Postage Hilo, Hawai‘i 96720 PAID Permit No. 208 Honolulu, HI Address Service Requested

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Additional facts about the semi-slug sug- Ann Kobsa, a research biologist in Puna, mother, Kay Howe, spoke of how she aug- gest it may be the mollusk equivalent of a said she had surveyed residents in her neigh- mented the conventional medications ad- perfect storm when it comes to transmission borhood of Puna. Of the 137 individuals she ministered in the hospital – antihelminthics of the rat lungworm to humans. The juve- polled, 21 (15 percent) said they had had rat (worm-killing drugs), steroids (anti-inflam- niles are extremely small (about 2 millimeters lungworm disease. And three of those indi- matory drugs to suppress the immune reac- long) and almost transparent, making them viduals said they had had it more than once. tion to the worms), and painkillers, for the difficult to spot when cleaning leafy veg- Of those who said they had the disease, 43 most part – with alternative nutritional etables. Still, they can carry enough nema- percent still had symptoms years later, Kobsa supplements, vitamins, and acupuncture. todes to cause disease. The likelihood that said. (She has written up her experiences on the juveniles have nematodes is increased by the Because the disease was relatively rare and Malama O Puna website: http:// fact that the adult semi-slugs die after laying initial symptoms mimicked other, less serious www.malamaopuna.org/ratlung/ their eggs. “The nematodes can exit the dead conditions, until recently, doctors were slow graham.php.) adults,” Hollingsworth reported when speak- to diagnose angiostrongyliasis. In late 2009, Aside from humans, other animals can ing at the Hilo meeting last month, “and the two young people who were repeatedly turned become sick from rat lungworm. The disease worms can then be picked up by the small away from the Hilo Medical Center emer- has been reported in dogs, horses, and pri- juveniles.” gency room eventually came down with life- mates, and may affect other pets and livestock That’s not to say that other snail and slug altering cases of the disease. One of them, as well. species should be ignored. Robert Cowie said Silka Strauch, was in a coma for months In August, the University of Hawai‘i that of the 16 snail and slug species examined, before being flown back to her native Ger- hosted a three-day workshop on rat lung- rat lungworm was found in 13. (The three many, where she now requires around-the- worm, bringing together experts from all over where the nematode was not found may still clock care. Graham McCumber, the other, the world to discuss the worm, its life cycle, be carriers; studies by others have detected it defied the doctors’ poor prognosis for recov- and the disease it causes. A summary of the in at least one of these species.) Cowie also ery and is now able to do many things for presentations and a list of priorities for future noted that the lungworm was found in snails himself, although he is still suffering from research have been posted on the website of and slugs from every island except Lana‘i. (It brain damage. Cowie’s lab: http://www.hawaii.edu/ may be there as well; the Lana‘i survey was Even if diagnosis is prompt, treatment cowielab/Angio%20website%20home.htm. very limited, he noted.) options are fairly limited. McCumber’s — Patricia Tummons

A Difficult Diagnosis According to Marlena Dixon, the East Hawai‘i disease investigator for the Depart- Stuff Those Stockings…With Environment Hawai‘i! ment of Health, rat lungworm disease was It makes a great gift to friends and family who really ought to have their own subscription. first reported in Hawai‘i in the 1950s, but throughout the second half of the 20th cen- Call us with the names and addresses of those you would like to have receive our tury, there were few suspected cases. That publication, and we’ll take care of the rest. We’ll even send a cheery greeting card with changed in the mid-2000s, when the number news of your thoughtfulness. of cases began to rise. In 2010, nine cases were Call today: Toll free, 877 934-0130. reported, 90 percent of them from the east side of the Big Island. Orders received by December 19 will be mailed out in time to arrive by Christmas. Because confirmation is difficult, most of the reported cases fall into the “suspected” categories. Still, there are probably far more unreported cases. Among the 100 or so people attending the Hilo symposium, more than a dozen raised their hands when a speaker asked how many had first-hand experience of the disease.