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University of Nevada, Reno the Role of Verbal Behavior on Human Timing University of Nevada, Reno The role of verbal behavior on human timing A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology By Carolyn A. Brayko Dr. Ramona Houmanfar / Dissertation Advisor December, 2017 i Abstract The predominant literature on time takes a decisively mentalistic view of timing which involves the modeling of internal timing devices. While the popular vein of timing research has produced large quantities of data on timing, still relatively little is known about tracking time for minutes at a time, over a period of time. Taking a behavior analytic approach, time is defined based on environmental change, and the act of tracking time is attending to relevant changing environmental change. This dissertation investigated the extensive philosophical and empirical literature regarding psychological timing. Focusing particularly on verbal humans, the discussion explores the opportunities for a more pragmatic approach to studying time, increasing the chances for future applied research. More specifically, the aim for the conducted studies were twofold: investigate the general patterns of timing responses in humans for longer durations (i.e., three minutes) over a sustained period (i.e., 30 minutes) and explore the conditions under which different verbal stimuli establish stimulus control over timing behavior. Results indicated that sampled groups tended to underestimate time when providing time estimates and overestimate time when producing intervals. Providing verbal antecedents successfully prompted the self-generation of timing rules, however, timing methods only appeared to effectively reduce timing error when participants’ timing responses were also verbal (i.e., time estimate). Significant interference effects were found between the two tasks required of the participants, particularly when the non-timing task presented as more challenging to the participant. The final discussion connects the dissertation findings to the existing literature and proposes promising avenues for future research. ii Acknowledgements The following document would not exist were in not for the excellent education and mentorship that I received in the University of Nevada, Reno Behavior Analysis Program. For my advisor, Dr. Ramona Houmanfar, I am grateful for her constant faith in me. My research and scholarly network has been greatly influenced by being in her lab, and it was our mutual trust and zeal for pushing the field that led to my dissertation on verbal behavior as it relates to time and timing. Ramona maintains expectations for excellence in herself and her students. Working with her has taught me to speak with precision and confidence while giving proper appreciation to the good work that precedes our own. Special thanks also go out to my other dissertation committee members, in particular Dr. Steve Hayes and Dr. Matt Locey. They always welcomed my questions and helped me think about my research in a thoughtful and systematic way. They both reflect the hard work and diligence that is required of skillful researchers, and I am thankful to have had the opportunity to learn from them. I am also extremely grateful for the support I received from my lab mates and from dedicated undergraduate students who problem-solved with me and humored my insistent time puns. Specifically, Kenneth Burleigh and Rita Olla played an integral role in piloting and refining procedures. Ward Purdue and Patrick Kelley worked tirelessly to develop sophisticated, customized computer programs that tracked time-based data in real time. Taylor Chase, Rachel Cowan, Andrew Evans, and Hema Prabhu jumped in feet first to practice the procedures and run many of the participants discussed in this manuscript. I am humbled by the generosity of my team’s time and encouragement over the past two years to develop this project. iii This dissertation research will always maintain special significance for me because of the considerable effort that was dedicated to learning such a vast and complex subject matter. It will also signify the beginning of a surprising friendship with a champion of timing research and student mentorship, Dr. Peter Killeen. We crossed paths at the Nevada Association of Behavior Analysis conference in 2015. We met and have stayed in touch ever since. His continuous support has been invaluable. Serving as a model for research, stewardship, and class, Peter inspires me to find the beauty in research and to rejoice in the pursuit of knowledge. I could not be where I am today without the love and support from my family. I am eternally grateful for my parents for their persistent interest in what I do. They were there every step of the way and they believed in me, no matter where my ambitions took me. Special thanks must go out to my sister, Lisa, who had many conversations with me about time, and people’s “loose relationship to it;” and my darling cousin, Mary, for being one of the first people to explain to me their justification for chronic tardiness. Time has been a topic of interest for me for many years, and in a sense, my curiosity in timing started with these conversations. Finally, for unwavering care and kindness, I must acknowledge Patrick, my partner and guide through the dissertation experience. When I was foolish enough to think the worst of the work was behind me, he did not correct me. When I was experiencing the worst of the work, he brought me pizza and beer. To my best advocate, coach and friend, thank you. iv Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. ii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii I. Introduction ......................................................................................................................1 II. Philosophy of Timing Research ......................................................................................4 A. Unique problems with conceptualizing time ...............................................................4 1. Defining time ............................................................................................................5 2. The perils of metaphor in time science .....................................................................7 B. Time as stimulus ..........................................................................................................9 C. Time as events ...........................................................................................................14 D. A behavior analyst’s theoretically consistent account of time ..................................19 1. Behavior analysis as a natural science ....................................................................21 2. Comprehensive is not eclectic ................................................................................23 3. Parsimony is not restrictive ....................................................................................26 4. Comprehensive parsimony in functional contextualism ........................................28 III. Timing Research ..........................................................................................................31 A. Timing research from different perspectives.............................................................31 1. Psychophysics of time ............................................................................................31 2. Timing temporal cues: Prospective and retrospective timing ................................37 3. Interference Effects .................................................................................................39 4. Timing as attending to relevant, environmental change .........................................41 B. Timing in behavior analysis ......................................................................................43 1. Fixed-interval versus variable-interval schedules ..................................................44 2. Variable-ratio versus variable-interval schedules ...................................................45 3. Human versus non-human reactions to interval schedules .....................................47 4. Time and avoidance procedures .............................................................................48 C. The gaps and future of timing research .....................................................................50 IV. Verbal Behavior and Timing .......................................................................................51 v A. Current discussions of time and language .................................................................52 1. Time and language during childhood .....................................................................53 2. Counting as verbal temporal stimuli .......................................................................55 B. A functional account of language and timing ............................................................58 1. Using Relational
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