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Farmers' Indicators for Soil Erosion Mapping and Crop Yield Estimations

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Farmers' Indicators for Soil Erosion Mapping and Crop Yield Estimations Farmers’ indicators for soil erosion mapping and crop yield estimation in central highlands of Kenya Barrack O. Okoba Farmers’ indicators for soil erosion mapping and crop yield estimation in central highlands of Kenya Promotor: Prof. Dr. Ir. L. Stroosnijder Hoogleraar Erosie en Bodem & Waterconservering Co-promotor: Dr. Ir. G. Sterk Universitair docent bij Erosie en Bodem & Waterconservering Promotiecommissie: Prof. Dr. K.E. Giller Wageningen Universiteit Prof. Dr. Ir. C. Leeuwis Wageningen Universiteit Dr. S.J.E. van Dijck Alterra, Wageningen Dr.Ir. C.M.M. Mannaerts International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), Enschede Dit onderzoek is uitgevoerd binnen de C.T. de Wit onderzoekschool PE & RC Farmers’ indicators for soil erosion mapping and crop yield estimation in central highlands of Kenya Barrack O. Okoba Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit Prof. Dr. Ir. L. Speelman in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 25 April 2005 des namiddags te 14:00 uur in de aula Wageningen University, ISBN 90-8504-157-0 Also published as Tropical Resource Management Papers, No. 62 (2005); ISBN 90-6754-881-2 Okoba, B.O., 2005 Farmers’ indicators for soil erosion mapping and crop yield estimation in central highlands of Kenya. Doctoral Thesis Wageningen University – with ref. – with summary in Dutch Key words: Kenya; Soil erosion indicators; Crop yield gap; Farmers’ knowledge; Soil and water conservation planning; Catchment scale EROAHI Report 1 The work reported in this book has been carried out as part of the project ‘Development of an improved method for soil and water conservation planning at catchment scale in the East African Highlands’ (EROAHI). This project was funded through the Dutch/Swiss ‘Fund for Methodological Support to Ecoregional Programmes’, and the Dutch ‘Partners for Water Programme’. EROAHI was carried out by the following institutions: Agricultural Research Institute-Mlingano Kenya Agricultural Research Institute- Embu P.O. Box 5088 P.O. Box 27 Tanga Embu Tanzania Kenya Lushoto District Agriculture and Food Security Office Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture P.O. Box 22 Soil Water Conservation Branch Lushoto P.O. Box 30028 Tanzania Nairobi Kenya Wageningen University Alterra Green World Research Department of Environmental Sciences Soil and Land Use Department Erosion and Soil Water Conservation Group P.O. Box 47 Nieuwe Kanaal 11 6700 AC Wageningen 6709 PA Wageningen The Netherlands The Netherlands To The memory of my father Financial Support for the printing of this thesis was obtained from the Dr. Judith Zwartz Foundation, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Acknowledgements The research idea that led to the writing of this thesis started with a surprise visit of two Dutch scientists to KARI-Embu in 1998. The research idea made great impression to both my Centre Director and to myself. Since then the idea was funded and the research was not only very innovative but led to writing of a memorandum of understanding among several institutions, namely ALTERRA (Netherlands), Erosion and Soil & Water Conservation Group of the Wageningen University (Netherlands), Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) – Embu and the Agricultural Research Institute of Tanzania - Mlingano. It was through this that the opportunity to pursue PhD studies was made possible. I would wish to acknowledge the efforts put in by my project leaders to ensure that the budget was adjusted to accommodate sandwich PhD studies, namely Mr. SP Gachanja (KARI-Embu Centre Director), Ir. Rik vanden Bosch and Dr. Geert Sterk. This led to my first visit to the Wageningen University in 2000 (November) to start the first six months to write my PhD proposal and do some coursework under the supervision of Dr. Geert Sterk. It was then that I met my promoter Prof. Leo Stroosnijder. The initial talk and logistic support I received from Prof. Stroosnijder and Dr. Sterk made me develop a winning attitude towards the task of undertaking the PhD programme. This was confirmed through the enabling environment experienced in my overall three-time visits to the Wageningen University. A team spirit in the Erosion and Soil & Water Conservation Group was explicit through the group parties, excursions, coffee/tea breaks, birthday parties and several dinner invitations by individual staffs. Prof. Leo, Dr. Sterk, Dr. Jan, Ir. Dirk, Ms Olga, Ir. Anton, Ms Helena, Ms. Jackoline, Mr. Ferko, Dr. Saskia, Ms. Jolanda and the rest of the group you are worthy mentioning because you made my stay in Wageningen very homely and may God bless you greatly. It was through the trust put in me and encouragement received from my friendly supervisor Dr. Geert Sterk that this thesis came to be in its present form. Your two time visit to Kenya, ensuring that Prof. Leo comes along, boosted my initiative greatly. It was through your guidance, critical evaluation and organizational skill that made marrying of the farmers’ and scientific knowledge basis possible hence introducing a different perspective in soil erosion assessment. I would also wish to thank the Master of Science students who carried out their thesis studies in Kenya, Embu. Specifically work of John Ireri (Egerton University-Kenya), Ir. Sander Groenenberg and Ir. Sjoerd (WUR) greatly contributed to some aspects of this thesis. I also acknowledge Mr. Mugo Rimui and Leonard Musiega for their effort in field data collection, laboratory analysis and data entry. The research idea would not have achieved the much it did had the farmers of Gikuuri catchment not been available to educate me on what they know and how they perceived the on-going land degradation. I will always use my experience of working with you to adapt to another community. Though I briefly stayed with the farmers of Kwalei catchment in Lushoto District of West Usambara highlands (Tanzania), I enjoyed their freedom to share with me their knowledge of soil erosion indicators. For that matter I thank them and the project leader Mr. Albino Tenge for the logistic support and traditionally friendly Tanzanian culture. Finally I wish to express a million dollar thanks to my family who had to bear with me during the tough three years of research and long hours of staying in the office and sometimes extending it at home. Were it not for my wife (Beatrice) to convince my sons (Bildad and Ben-Solo) and daughter (Bilha) that the situation was but for a short time my children almost misinterpreted my love for them. Anyhow they all proved to be patient and endured even with my last stay in the Netherlands, especially for my son Bildad, who during the same period needed my fatherly support while doing his high school entrance examination. Table of contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Farmers’ knowledge and perceptions of soil erosion and conservation measures in the central highlands of Kenya 11 Chapter 3 Farmers’ identification of erosion indicators and related erosion damage in the central highlands of Kenya 31 Chapter 4 Quantification of soil erosion indicators in Gikuuri catchment in the central highlands of Kenya 49 Chapter 5 Farmers’ estimates of soil erosion and crop yields compared with scientific assessments in the highlands of Kenya 71 Chapter 6 Application of participatory soil erosion mapping and financial analysis tools in soil and water conservation planning 93 Chapter 7 Summary and conclusions 119 Samenvatting en conclusies 125 Annex 129 Curriculum vitae 143 PE&RC PhD Education Statement Form 145 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction The highlands of Kenya cover only 18% of the country but hosts 70% of the nation’s population. The highlands, which are located along the equator and in the central part of the country, have reliable rainfall, above 1200 mm per year and fertile volcanic soils. They therefore create a high potential for intensive dairy livestock keeping, ranching and rainfed agriculture (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983; GoK, 1992; GoK/UNEP, 1997). Common crops include tea, coffee, sugarcane, maize, beans and wheat, besides a range of horticultural crops and irrigated cereals. The region is under high land pressure due to increasing population (GoK/UNEP, 2001). Most of the agricultural land has so far been subdivided to the smallest land holdings that are no longer economically viable for smallholders’ subsistence. Eighty-three percent of the farmers in this region are smallholders whose average percapita landholding is between 0.01 and 2.9 ha (Thomas, 1988). For the past three decades the forest reserves and other fragile and ecologically unsuitable environments have faced threat from the increasing population in search of fuelwood, timber and food for subsistence. Consequent impact of these exploitations could be blamed for the current environmental degradation hazards like mass movements, drying of water springs and rivers, floods and increased rates of sedimentation in dams and lakes (Westerberg and Christiansson, 1999; KLA 2000). Practices like cultivation on the restricted slope gradients (>55%) without soil and water conservation (SWC) measures and tillage along riverbanks have accelerated the degradation, raising nationwide concern of the increasingly degraded environment (Thomas, 1988; KLA, 2000). Given the importance Kenya places on its land-based resources (primary basis for its economy) and whose productivity was fast declining, soil conservation legislations were put in place to protect the fragile ecosystems and combat land degradation (Thomas et al.,
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