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Aalborg Universitet Tragedie Og Det Tragiske I Amerikansk Drama Som Aalborg Universitet Tragedie og det tragiske i amerikansk drama som oppositionel modus til de græsk- europæiske definitioner Rendix, Mia Publication date: 2009 Document Version Også kaldet Forlagets PDF Link to publication from Aalborg University Citation for published version (APA): Rendix, M. (2009). Tragedie og det tragiske i amerikansk drama som oppositionel modus til de græsk- europæiske definitioner. General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. ? Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. ? You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain ? You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us at [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from vbn.aau.dk on: September 24, 2021 INDLEDNING Afhandlingens formål er at undersøge og formalisere et begreb om tragedie og det tragiske i amerikansk dramatik som et klart og væsensforskelligt alternativ til de kanoniserede definitioner i europæisk kontekst. Der findes et utal af bøger, hvor ordene ”American” og ”tragedy” kædes sammen, men det er alle historiske værker, der anvender begrebet ”tragedy” i forbindelse med historisk-faktuelle begivenheder, perioder eller personer – her kan nævnes så forskellige nyere bøger som American Tragedy: Kennedy, Johnson, and the Origins of the Vietnam War (2000) af David Kaiser og Joseph J. Ellis' American Creation – Triumphs and Tragedies at the Founding of the Republic fra 2007. Ovenstående anvendelse af ordet beskriver desuden ”tragedy” som rent negativt valoriseret i en historisk-real kontekst. Ser vi nærmere på tragedie og tragik i deres oprindelige betydning som litterær teatergenre og filosofisk-æstetisk begreb, er det tilsvarende ikke svært at finde bøger, der analyserer amerikanske dramatikere fra tiden omkring borgerkrigen og frem til årtusindeskiftet. Jeg nævner i flæng nyere eksempler: The Theme of Tragic Loneliness in Modern American Drama fra 1960 af Winifred Dusenbury, Black Dionysos: Greek Tragedy and the Afro-American Theatre af Kevin J. Wetmore fra 2003 og Greek Tragedy on the American Stage: Ancient Drama in the Commercial Theatre af Karelisa V. Hartigan (1995). Men de litterære undersøgelser bruger genrebetegnelsen og den filosofiske modus på en måde, der udspringer af den europæiske tradition, ligesom tragedien og tragikken igen forstås som værende lig negativt-destruktive begreber. Fælles for disse (og de andre i samme genre) er nemlig applikationen af de græske termer eller europæiske diskussioner af tragedien og tragikken på det amerikanske drama. Konklusionerne er endvidere lidet anvendelige for nærværende arbejde, idet alle af undertegnede læste værker på forskellig vis kommer frem til nogenlunde samme konklusion: Der findes ikke et begreb der dækker tragedieformen og tragikken som form eller modus i amerikansk dramatik, med mindre der er tale om udtryk for tilpassede udgaver af f.eks. en hegeliansk, nietzschiansk eller såkaldt ”moderne” tragedie om meningsløshed. Arven fra den gamle verden er svær at begrave. I forlængelse af at være stavnsbundet til de aristoteliske termer er det derfor også minimalt, hvad der 1 findes af typologiseringer, formaliseringer eller udtænkning af konkrete tekstlige karaktertræk, strukturkendetegn og markører, der tegner tragedien og det tragiske i amerikansk regi. Det forudsættes alt for ofte, at læseren er bekendt med de mange græsk-europæiske definitioner, ligesom forskerne alt for ofte betegner det tragiske som noget udelukkende sørgeligt eller trist – det aristoteliske fald. Så kvantiteten af tragedie- og tragikdiskussioner står ikke altid mål med kvaliteten i form af begrebsnøjagtighed og -skelnen. De eneste to værker med det specifikke ærinde at formalisere en amerikansk tragedie og tragik, der lader sig finde, er Harold P. Simonsons The Closed Frontier: Studies in American Tragedy fra 1970 og Dan Vogels The Three Masks of American Tragedy fra 1974. Simonson er litteraturhistoriker og destillerer sit begrebsapparat ud fra historikeren Frederick Jackson Turners berømte teori om ”the frontier” kun som mødested for en amerikansk mythos. Men Simonson eksemplificerer dels sine ellers glimrende pointer i tre amerikanske romaner af Mark Twain, Ole Rölvaag og Nathanael West, dels diskuterer han ”the frontier” som tematisk tragik og ikke særegen tragedieform. Simonsons ærinde er derfor ikke en påpegning af en specifik amerikansk dramatypologi, hvorfor hans studie ikke er brugbart i nærværende arbejde. Det tætteste, vi kommer på forsøget på at udrede en amerikansk tragedie og tragik er Vogels studie fire år efter Simonsons ditto. Litteraten Vogels bog promoveres med det specifikke mål at definere ”American tragedy as a genre itself” (Vogel 1974: The Front Flap), men heller ikke Vogel undgår at hænge fast i den græsk-europæiske arv. Forsideillustrationen er en tredelt græsk maske, en af de tre prototyper på amerikansk tragediehelte er i flg. Vogel Kong Ødipus, og Vogel begrænser sig ikke til dramaet alene, men analyserer alle tre storgenrer: Epik, lyrik og dramatik i en – lig Simonson – rent tematisk undersøgelse. Arbejdets præmis og grundlæggende tese lyder derfor som følger: Afhandlingens spørgsmål gælder, om det er muligt at finde frem til en særlig amerikansk tragedieform og tragisk modus. De amerikanske dramaer kan anskues som artikulationer af en anden tradition end den europæiske, og denne tradition bygger på den bibelske apokalypse fra Johannes’ Åbenbaring. Jeg finder her en form og modus, der kan applikeres særskilt på den amerikanske dramatik, og jeg går nye veje i min forståelse og anvendelse af apokalyptikken, som vil blive skitseret i det følgende. 2 Der er skrevet en stor mængde litteratur om apokalypsen og tematiseringen af denne i amerikansk litteratur, men primært centreret i epikken. Første reelle udgivelse er John R. Mays Toward a New Earth: Apocalypse in the American Novel fra 1972, der undersøger værker af bl.a. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Mark Twain og John Barth. May, som er katolsk præst, er åben i sin tilgang til teksterne og en glimrende tekstanalytiker. Efter May følger David Ketterer, der udgav sin New Worlds for Old. The Apocalyptic Imagination, Science Fiction, and American Literature i 1974. Ud fra Northrop Fryes og William Blakes apokalyptiske hermeneutik skitseres en vision om amerikansk litteratur, der er ganske læseværdig. Eneste anke kan være, at Ketterer med sin distinktion mellem mørke og lyse apokalypsevisioner formår at inddrage så at sige alle amerikanske forfattere, hvilket udvander begrebsdefiniti- onen fuldstændigt. Den alsidige forfatter og Princetons litteraturprofessor Joyce Carol Oates publicerer i 1979 den spændende New Heaven, New Earth, der anskuer såvel europæiske som amerikanske forfatteres apokalyptiske værker som rent æstetisk-poetiske strategier i en universel og repetitiv hævdelse af “the Sanctity of the Earth”. Oates er mere interesseret i en kosmisk fællesnævner end en amerikansk exceptionalisme og er derfor ikke eksponent for forestillingen om et særligt amerikansk begreb for tragedie og det tragiske. Lois Parkinson Zamoras antologi, The Apocalyptic Vision in America fra 1982 gør på den ene side polariteten mellem utopi og dystopi til kriteriet på om den litterære episke tekst er apokalyptisk, og Zamora er dermed mere præcis i sin begrebsdefinition end f.eks. Ketterer. På den anden side prioriterer Zamora ikke det dialektiske forhold mellem dystopien og utopien, som jeg finder apokalypsen defineret ud fra. Problemet er endvidere, at hun også anvender latinamerikansk litteratur som eksempel på litterære amerikanske apokalypser; en region der opererer med ganske andre karakteristika og strukturer end de nordamerikanske, hvorved jeg ikke finder begrebsapparatet præcist nok. En vis forceret teoretisering er at finde i Zbigniew Lewickis The Bang and the Whimper. Apocalypse and Entropy in American Literature (1984). Værket anvender termodynamikkens begreber som moderne metafor for apokalypsen med vægt på postmoderne forfattere som Thomas Pynchon, Susan Sontag og John Updike. 3 Men Lewicki har svært ved at kombinere de religiøse, fysiske og æstetiske teorier, samtidig med at han udelukkende opfatter entropien som en postmoderne metafor. Det for undertegnede til dato mest inspirerende studie er fra 1985, David Robinsons American Apocalypses. The Image of the End of the World in American Literature. Ud fra en dekonstruktivistisk vinklet analyse artikulerer Robinson dog den lidt forudsigelige pointe, at der reelt er tale om ironiske anti-apokalypser, der grundlæggende set opløser apokalypsen som samlende helhedsbegreb. Som formuleret tidligere ønsker jeg derimod at præsentere en autoritativ begrebsliggørelse af tragedie og det tragiske i amerikansk regi. Afsluttende kan jeg nævne en række mere historisk funderede værker, som dog kun indirekte anvender apokalypsebegrebet eller –retorikken som den store fællesnævner. Her tænker jeg først og fremmest på Errand into the Wilderness (1956) af kulturkritikeren og puritanisme-forskningens grundlægger, Perry Miller; The American
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