Sensitivity of Black to Coastal Threats

Anne L. Schaefer Prince William Sound Science Center

1. Background

The Black Turnstone (Arenaria melanocephala) is a stocky, black and white shorebird species strongly associated with the rocky shorelines of western (Fig. 1). The most recent global population estimate for Black Turnstone is approximately 95,000 (Handel and Gill 1992). This species breeds only within (Handel and Gill 1992). During the nonbreeding season, Black are bound to the rocky intertidal habitats that extend from southern Alaska to (Handel and Gill 2001; Fig. 2). As a consequence of its year-long dependence on low-lying coastal habitats, the Black Turnstone is particularly vulnerable to habitat loss or degradation resulting from coastal development, pollution, and climate change. Due to these threats and its relatively small population size, the U.S. and Alaska Shorebird Conservation Plans both list the Black Turnstone as a "Species of High Concern" (Brown et al. 2001, USFWS 2004, Alaska Shorebird Group 2008). This species also was included on the 2010 Audubon Alaska WatchList (Kirchhoff and Padula 2010), which highlights the avian species in Alaska most in need of immediate conservation effort.

The Black Turnstone is a coastal obligate throughout all stages of the year (Fig. 2) and demonstrates high site-fidelity on both the breeding and wintering grounds (Handel and Gill 2001). During the breeding season, this species nests exclusively within the coastal grasslands of western Alaska, with 85% of the population concentrated within the central Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. In this area, individuals nest in the highest densities (1.11 ± 0.16 /ha) in low-lying salt grass meadows and in sparsely vegetated habitats that are within 2 km of the coast (Handel and Gill 1992). Turnstones also nest in graminoid and dwarf shrub meadows in intermediate densities and in dwarf shrub mat tundra in low densities (0.04 ± 0.04 birds/ha; Handel and Gill 1992). During winter, the Black Turnstone is found along the entire Pacific coast of North America. Fine-scale distribution within this broader range is determined by the presence of their preferred coastal rocky habitat, although turnstones will also use sandy coastal beaches where algae and detritus concentrate onshore (Connors 1977, Handel and Gill 2001). Black Turnstones are found on human-created features, such as jetties, piers, and riprap, as well (Connors 1977, Handel and Gill 2001).

The diet of the Black Turnstone is diverse and shifts seasonally, presumably in response to spatial and temporal changes in the relative availability of forage throughout the year. On the breeding grounds, Black Turnstones forage extensively over coastal sedge meadows and intertidal mudflats for small aquatic and terrestrial , seeds, of small nesting birds, and carrion (Handel and Gill 2001). Outside of the breeding season, turnstones commonly forage in the wave splash zone of open rocky shores (Connors 1977) where they feed on marine- based prey, such as small mobile , hard-shelled invertebrates, mussels, small barnacles, herring roe, snails, worms, and limpets (Connors 1977, Bishop and Green 2001, Handel and Gill 2001).

2. Migratory Connectivity

Information regarding the migratory patterns of Black Turnstone remains limited. Data suggest that this species is a short- to intermediate-distance migrant, flying in flocks of a just a few individuals up to several hundred. Black Turnstones depart the breeding grounds in western Alaska during early- to mid-summer depending on breeding success (Gill et al. 1983, Handel 2002, Bishop and Taylor 2015). Turnstones then move rapidly to its wintering areas along the North American Pacific coast, arriving in late July or early August. On average, the southbound migration lasted 5.3 days (range = 0 –15 days) for 23 turnstones fitted with geolocators in 2011 and 2013 (Bishop and Taylor 2015). In the spring, turnstones depart for the breeding grounds in late March or early April and arrive in early May (Connors 1977, Handel 2002, Bishop and Taylor 2015). The spring migration lasted 10.9 days on average (range = 0 – 23 days; Bishop and Taylor 2015), almost double that of fall migration. While migrating, turnstones appear to hop along the coast, typically remaining at each stop for 1-5 days (mean = 3.9, range = 1.5 – 15).

Previous survey efforts identified northern Montague Island in Prince William Sound, Alaska as an important staging area for migrating turnstones for a 3-week period during spring (Norton et al. 1990, Bishop and Green 2001). Turnstones begin arriving to Montague Island during the fourth week of April, and their numbers peak during the first week of May. In this area, Black Turnstones forage most frequently at or just above the tideline (Bishop and Green 2001). Pacific herring (Clupea palassii) eggs attached to substrates, such as kelp, dominate their diet during this period (found in 69-75% of gut analyses; Martin 1993, Bishop and Green 2001). Migrating turnstones also forage on Bay mussels (Mytilus trossulus), Balanas sp., amphipods, gastropods, and (Norton et al. 1990, Martin 1993, Bishop and Green 2001). Pacific herring eggs, in particular, appear to be an important and energy-rich source of food for turnstones prior to the breeding season, enabling them to accumulate enough energy stores to complete migration. Moreover, arrival on the breeding grounds with greater fat reserves may enable individuals to better withstand uncertain feeding conditions or adverse weather events.

In May of 1989, ~10,000 turnstones, in addition to thousands of Surfbirds (Aphriza virgata) and tens of thousands of Glaucous-winged Gulls (Larus glaucenscens), were observed feeding on herring roe in bays on northern Montague Island (Rocky Bay, Stockdale Harbor, and Port Chalmers; Norton et al. 1990). Similar abundances were again recorded in 1990 (Norton et al. 1990) and during surveys conducted from 1994–1997 (Bishop 2011). Because of its apparent importance as a spring stopover location for a substantial proportion of the global Black Turnstone population, the National Audubon Society and Birdlife International designated Montague Island as an Important Area in 2006. More recent surveys have documented a decline in the use of northern Montague Island by turnstones during the spring migration. In 2010, only a total of 3,535 Black Turnstones were recorded over a 19-day period and 2,504 km of survey effort (Bishop 2011). In 2015, 872 turnstones were recorded during 9 days of surveys with 676 km of survey effort (Bishop, unpublished data). It remains unclear if these results reflect a true population decline or a shift in the migratory route of this species.

To better understand the importance of Montague Island as a spring staging area for migrating Black Turnstones, light-level geolocators were deployed on 30 turnstones at their breeding grounds on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, on 5 birds at Cape Krusenstern in northwestern Alaska (a breeding site) and on 7 birds wintering near Oak Harbor, Washington (Bishop and Taylor 2015). Twenty-two individuals were recaptured in the subsequent year and one individual after two years. Of the 51 total stopovers detected during migration (Fig. 3), only five were recorded in the vicinity of Prince William Sound (Fig. 4). These findings suggest that Montague Island is not an obligate stopover location for Black Turnstones during migration and that turnstones may be plastic in their migratory routes.

Despite the reduced use of Prince William Sound during migration, the geolocator data identified two other potentially important stopover regions for turnstones: coastal southeastern Alaska/western British Columbia and Lower Cook Inlet (Fig. 3). Both areas were frequented by turnstones consistently during both spring and fall. In southeastern Alaska alone, Black Turnstones made 12 (of 31) and 5 (of 20) migratory stops. Interestingly, 14 of the 23 tagged birds also overwintered in southeastern Alaska/western British Columbia (n = 9 in southeastern Alaska, n = 5 in western British Columbia), although wintering areas appear to be located farther inland than stopover locations (Fig. 3).

3. Threats

Climate change Due to its year-long dependence on low-lying, coastal habitats, the Black Turnstone is particularly susceptible to the impacts of climate change, including habitat loss and degradation resulting from sea level rise and salt water intrusion into freshwater habitats. Further, the Black Turnstone is vulnerable to climate-mediated changes in weather, such as increased frequencies and intensities of coastal storms. Black Turnstones may be even more sensitive to the impacts of climate change because they breed at high latitudes, where the effects of climate change are expected to be most pronounced (IPCC 2007).

Over the past century, global sea levels have risen 0.10–0.25 m primarily due to thermal expansion of the ocean and the input of water from melting ice (Hopkinson et al. 2008, Rahmstorf et al. 2007). Climate models predict that sea level will continue to increase approximately 0.30–1.00 m over the 21st century (Meehl et al. 2007). On the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta breeding grounds, it is predicted that a sea level increase of 0.50 m would increase the frequency of overbank flooding from 1-4 times/year to a monthly occurrence (Terenzi et al. 2014). Increased overbank flooding combined with rising seas would lead to enhanced coastal erosion, increased sedimentation and salinization of freshwater wetland habitats, and flooding of turnstone nests and existing turnstone habitat. Results from study areas where both habitat change and shorebird abundance were monitored concurrently indicated that shorebirds do not compensate reductions in foraging habitat by aggregating in denser groups. Instead, less total available habitat led to declines in the number of shorebirds using the habitat (Galbraith et al. 2002, Meire 1991, Goss-Custard and Moser 1988). Therefore, decreased quantity and quality of available habitat resulting from rising seas may force some turnstones into new or less optimal areas.

Climate models also predict that the intensity and frequency of coastal storms will increase in the coming decades (IPCC 2007, Pisaric et al. 2011, Vermaire et al. 2013). Storm-surges are already a common occurrence on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta breeding grounds. These storm events can send saltwater as far as 37 km inland (Terenzi et al. 2014). Increased frequency and intensity of tidal storm surges and extended rainfall may flood turnstone nests containing eggs or newly hatched chicks, resulting in mortality or reduced nest success via drowning and exposure (Handel 2002). Fortunately, these storm surges currently occur most often during the late- summer and fall (Terenzi et al. 2014) after turnstones have departed the breeding grounds. Therefore, the negative impacts on turnstones likely would be indirect, mediated through changes in habitat. More frequent storms would increase the rate of coastal erosion, contribute to saltwater intrusion into freshwater systems, increase sedimentation of wetland habitat, and lead to a loss of nesting habitat (Terenzi et al. 2014).

Additionally, changing climate across the entire species range may lead to phonological mismatches between critical life history events and peak availability of food resources. Warming Arctic temperatures will result in earlier spring thaws and ice melts (IPCC 2007). hatching is primarily temperature dependent, thus important prey species of Black Turnstone may begin to hatch and emerge earlier in the season (Sweeney et al. 1992, Hodkinson et al. 1998). Shorebird migration cues are still poorly understood but are likely based on a combination of hormonal cycles, photoperiod, and conditions on the wintering grounds (Gill 2007). Although some species may be plastic in the timing of migration, other species may not be as flexible or may not be flexible enough to keep pace with climate change. This could lead to a lack of synchrony between timing of turnstone arrival on the breeding grounds and hatching of chicks with the phenology of peak prey availability.

Oil spills and contamination In addition to the Black Turnstone's sensitivity to climate-induced threats, this species is also vulnerable to coastal habitat degradation resulting from energy development and transport. The majority of oil production and transport along the Pacific coast occurs within the turnstone's range (Stephens 2015). Within Prince William Sound, approximately 20 tankers/month transport oil to the Gulf of Alaska via the Hinchinbrook Entrance. This waterway borders Montague Island, the potentially important migration stopover site for Black Turnstone identified in the early 1990s (Norton et al. 1990, Bishop and Green 2001). Additionally, the barrier islands in front of the Copper River Delta, where turnstones have been recorded during both spring (n = 256 from 10 May – 21 May 2006) and fall migration (n = 189 from 27 Jul – 6 Sep 2005, n = 138 from 13 July – 7 September 2006; Bishop, unpublished data) also are potentially vulnerable to oil contamination. In the event of an oil spill outside the entrance of Prince William Sound, westerly winds and unfavorable flood tide dynamics could cause oil to drift towards the shores and channel entrances of these barrier islands (DEC 1999).

In March 1989, a month prior to the onset of spring shorebird migration, the Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound. The spill released approximately 11 million gallons (257,000 barrels) of crude oil into the Sound and contaminated over 1000 miles of shoreline (Alaska Oil Spill Commission 1990). Fortunately, the habitats used most frequently by Black Turnstone at northern Montague Island were classified primarily as lightly oiled or unoiled (Martin 1993) and 48% of Black Turnstone observations were recorded in habitats where oil persistence was considered short (Table 1). However, the remaining 52% of observations were in habitats ranked as having moderate (44%) or long persistence (9%; Bishop 2011).

Following the oil spill, clutch sizes on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta nesting grounds were significantly lower than during the years leading up to the spill (Martin 1993); however, no direct mechanism linking the two events has been established. Turnstone fitness may have been affected indirectly via degradation of habitat or prey resources. For example, after the oil spill the Pacific herring population within Prince William Sound collapsed (Carls et al. 2002, Thorne and Thomas 2008) and still has not recovered (EVOS Trustee Council 2010). Until recently, no direct link between the Exxon Valdez oil spill and the collapse of the herring population had been identified. Recently, researchers determined that exposure of herring embryos to crude oil leads to heart defects and decreased cardiorespiratory function in juveniles and adults, reducing survival and recruitment rates (Incardona et al. 2015). Decreased herring abundance has resulted in decreased spawn deposition along Montague Island over time (Fig. 5). In 1989, the herring spawn around Montague Island was responsible for ~25% of all spawn biomass in Prince William Sound (Norton et al. 1990). In 2013, the spawn in this area accounted for ~11% of the total spawn in Prince William Sound (Botz et al. 2013). The significant reductions in the number of turnstones using Montague Island during spring migration suggest that this species may be modifying their staging behavior or migration pathways as a result of the decline in herring spawn.

In addition to indirect impacts, Black Turnstones face substantial direct risks from oil spills. Oil on plumage reduces insulation and waterproofing capacity, possibly leading to hypothermia (for review, see Leighton 1993). Oil ingestion occurs as individuals feed in contaminated areas, forage on contaminated prey or prey in which hydrocarbons have bio-accumulated, or preen oiled feathers, potentially leading to dehydration, starvation, gastrointestinal problems, and infections (Briggs et al. 1996). Other direct impacts of oil spills on shorebirds include transfer of oil from plumage to eggs during incubation and avoidance of feeding in oiled areas or areas in which clean-up efforts are being conducted (potentially reducing overall food intake). Shorebirds are particularly sensitive to oil exposure because of their dependence on intertidal shorelines and their subsurface probe-foraging behavior. Because Black Turnstone tends to forage primarily along outer coastal beaches instead of within more protected estuaries and mudflats, this species is more susceptible to the negative impacts of an oil spill compared to other shorebird species. For example, during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 in the northern Gulf of Mexico, shorebird species that frequented more exposed shoreline habitats were more likely to be oiled than species that used protected or interior habitats (Henkel et al. 2014). However, because shorebirds wade rather than swim through water, their feathers become spotted, instead of coated, with oil. This could reduce the risks of lethal impacts from oil (King and Sanger 1979). Finally, the severity of an oil spill's impact on Black Turnstone would vary seasonally. The effects of an oil spill would likely be most severe during migration when large proportions of the population are congregated in small areas around concentrated food resources, such as has been documented at Montague Island.

Vessel traffic

As marine vessel traffic and development of oil and gas increase, the potential for petroleum contamination from accidental spills and routine vessel operation increases concurrently. The marine traffic along the Pacific coast consists of container vessels, cargo vessels, gas and crude oil carriers, car carriers, cruise ships, tank ships, tugs and barges, passenger vessels, fishing vessels, recreational vessels, and government vessels. As the human population continues to grow and coastal habitats become more developed, marine traffic within the Black Turnstone's range is predicted to increase (Living Oceans Society 2011, BST Associates 2011, Nuka Research and Planning Group LLC, 2012, Huntington et al. 2015).

Within Alaska, two regions were identified from the geolocator data as potentially important stopover locations for Black Turnstones: 1) southeastern Alaska and 2) lower Cook Inlet (Fig. 3). Southeastern Alaska was also identified as a potentially important wintering area for turnstones (Fig. 3). Marine traffic is dense in this area (Fig. 6), with some traffic sectors increasing in frequency. For example, in 2012, 30 cruise ships made 450 voyages through southeastern Alaska (Cruise Line Agencies of Alaska, http://www.claalaska.com/schedules2012.html); the future maximum number of voyages is projected to be 850 per season (Nuka Research and Planning Group, LLC 2012). In Cook Inlet, 1518 one-way transits were made in 2010, not including marine traffic of vessels shorter than 90 feet in length (Nuka Research and Planning Group, LLC 2012). Of these, 14% were transits of tank ships (crude or product). This area is where 8 (of 31) northbound and 6 (of 20) stopover locations were made and where 1 individual (of 23) overwintered (Fig. 3). Vessel traffic within Cook Inlet is predicted to remain flat or increase moderately (1.5-2.5%/year) in the coming decade (Eley 2012).

Shipping traffic in the Bering Sea also is expected to increase in the coming years, both in terms of number of vessels and in duration of the season (Huntington et al. 2015). An oil spill in the Bering Sea or along the coast would be difficult to respond to quickly and effectively due to its remoteness and the harsh environmental conditions. Because this is a highly productive region for migrating and breeding shorebirds, seabirds, and marine mammals, a spill in this area could be ecologically devastating.

4. Conclusions

As a consequence of its year-long reliance on coastal habitats, the Black Turnstones is particularly vulnerable to coastal threats such as climate change and coastal degradation. However, much remains to be known about this and similar species in order to implement effective conservation actions. Current research efforts include updating population abundance and nest density estimates of Black Turnstone and documenting habitat change on the Yukon- Kuskokwim Delta. This information will enable researchers to better understand the mechanisms linking habitat and avian nest success and predict how changing habitats and climate will impact breeding success and population persistence into the future.

Events and conditions encountered during the in the non-breeding season can carry-over into the breeding season and impact fitness of migratory species. However, patterns of migratory connectivity are still poorly understood for Black Turnstones. Therefore, researchers are investigating migratory pathways between turnstone breeding and wintering locations using a combination of stable isotopes in feathers and locations derived from light-level geolocators. This information will enable researchers to identify areas of conservation concern for this species and direct conservation efforts. Recent surveys and the geolocator data suggest the use of Montague Island in Prince William Sound by Black Turnstone during the spring migration has declined since the 1990s. However, the geolocator analysis documented the use of lower Cook Inlet and southeastern Alaska/western British Columbia during both fall and spring migration. Focused surveys in these regions could determine whether there are areas that should be recognized as Important Bird Areas or given other specialized protection. Therefore, an effective conservation plan for this species likely involves addressing conservation concerns at several locations across the species' range.

Additional information regarding migratory pathways and important stopover locations for this species could also be used to update Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps (created by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Response and Restoration). ESI maps are used to identify coastal resources that would be at-risk of contamination during an oil spill, and prioritize protection to reduce environmental impacts. A number of factors are used to determine shoreline prioritization, including shoreline type, exposure to wave and tidal energy, biological productivity and sensitivity, and ease of oil cleanup. Currently, Black Turnstones are not included as resources in the ESI maps for southeastern Alaska or Cook Inlet. If further surveys identify specific locations within these regions as important migratory stopovers or overwintering areas for turnstones, these habitats may warrant increased prioritization. Conservation planning for turnstones also should consider the potential importance of herring spawn as a food source during migration. In addition to the spawning grounds in Prince William Sound, Pacific herring also spawn in sheltered inlets, sounds, bays, and estuaries located all along the Pacific coast, from Alaska to (Lassuy 1989). In the event of an oil spill off the coast, high productivity herring spawning areas should be afforded high priority for protection in order to prevent both acute and chronic contamination of shorebirds, their foraging habitat, and prey.

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Figure 1: Black Turnstones (see enlarged photo) and Rock foraging in the intertidal zone of a rocky shoreline in Prince William Sound, Alaska, 2015. Figure 2: Black Turnstones rely on low-lying coastal habitat during all stages of the year: Breeding (21 May–10 July, n = 806); Fall Migration (11 July–20 September, n = 12,943); Winter (21 September–20 April, n = 31,022); Spring Migration (21April–20 May, n = 2,151). Sightings provided by eBird (www.ebird.org on 29 June 2015).

Figure 3: All migratory stopover locations (n = 51) and wintering locations (n = 23) for the 23 Black Turnstones tracked using light-level geolocators.

Figure 4: Of the 51 stopovers recorded while tracking Black Turnstones with light-level geolocators, five were recorded within the vicinity of Prince William Sound and the Copper River Delta, Alaska.

Figure 5: Mile days of Pacific herring spawn observed during aerial surveys in the Montague Island area, Prince William Sound, AK. This area includes Montague, Knight, and Green islands, as well as the Southwest Passages of Prince William Sound (see inset). Data from Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Cordova office.

Figure 6: Black Turnstones use fall and spring stopover areas and overwinter in areas with high levels of marine vessel traffic. Twelve (of 31) northbound stopovers (spring migration) and 5 (of 20) southbound stopovers (fall migration) occurred in southeastern Alaska. Additionally, 9 (of 23) turnstones overwintered in in this area. Vessel traffic data were obtained from the Marine Exchange of Alaska (http://www.mxak.org).

Table 1: Percentage of Black Turnstone (BLTU) observations on northern Montague Island by oil residence index (ORI; Harney et al. 2008) classification of shoreline. The "percent shoreline northern Montague Island" is based on data from the ShoreZone database.

Estimated % Shoreline Persistence ORI Persistence N. Montague % BLTU Obs

Short 1 Days to weeks 0 23

2 Weeks to month <0.1 25

Moderate 3 Weeks to months 20 4

4 Months to years 43 40

Long 5 Months to years 37 9