il Exploring

cmft III, both for the creator and the viewer.As replay WaruaftAdventures: documentsplayed games, the stories associatedwith d-rem have to do witl cyberathleticperformance in a competitive Texts,Replay, and arera Spectatorswho watch replaysare usuallyintimately farnilia! with the spacesand player actions depictedin Machinimain a them. In order to understandthe popuJarityof digital game spacesas "sets"for animatedmovies that theiy creatorsuse Game-Based to tell Ectionalstories rather tlnn documentplayed games, we must start by trying to understandwhat player- Storywortd spectatorssee-ir both sensesof the term-in replays. One way to tell the story of tJ.reWaroa{t III fnals HenryLowood match revolvesaround a pivotal moment a sfunning rever- sd that led to Grubbys upset win. What did spectators In October 2004 the fourth World CyberGames were held see?After losing the 6rst match in the best-of-threefirrals in San Francisco.Contestants competed in this intema- competition,they observedrouglrly six minutes into t}te tiona.ltoumament, the "videogame Olynpics," for champi secondmatch that units controlledby the two playerswere onship tides in eachof sevencompetitive games. The prize skirmishing near Grubby'smain base.WelcomeTo was per- money w;rs substantial $20,000for fust placeto eachof haps tlreatening to end the match,but after the batde the individua-lwinners in gamessuch as the popular real- intensified,his army fell back. His critica.llyimportant main time stlategy tide WarcraftIII. More tlun seventyplayers hero character(a 'Farseer')had sufferedquite a bit of darn- from forty-four countriesarrived to competefor tiis cham- age,and so he decidedto use a portal scroll to teleport his pionship alone.Few spectatorswere presentat tle Bill Gra army ba& to the safety of his home base.To t}is poirt the ham Civic Auditoriufir to seethe Watoaft II6nals between gane acdon was easyfor spectatorsto follow, but sud- the favoredplayer, WelcomeTo (rea-l name: Hwang Tae- denly somethingunexpected happened as soon as his army Min) from Korea,alrd the underdog,Grubby (real name, teleportedinto his base,WelcomeTo's Farseer toppled Manuel Schenkhuizen)ftom the Netherlands.Many more over dead The disastroussetback led to Grubbys win in observerswould view tie gameby other means,via Web tle matdl accompaniedby wild cheersftom the small, cast or replays,eyes glued not on the human contestants largely Europeancrowd in the auditorium. Cleaiy ratded, but on tlre p)ayer-conuolledunits, interfacq and contested WelcomeToplayed poorly in the thnd match,and Grubby terrain depictedin the game. won t}re championship.But what had happenedto the Far- Relativelylitde attention has been given in gamestu&es seer?What causedhis demise?Only experiencedplayers to digitel gemespectatorship, thougb playersespecia.lly of cou-ldquicldy understandthe sequenceof events.l Players multiplayer and competitivegames frequendy watch odter looking carefi.rllyat replays,with accessto the game'sinter- playersplay. Replaysof playedgames such as tlese l4/arcraff face and botl-rplayers' view of tl-reaction, couJdeventually III finals havebecome one of the most popular forms of translate the cmcial ten secondsor so of action into Grub- game-based"video." Web sites sudr as (httpl/www bys rapidly executedplayer actions.Here is what tl-reythen .wcreplayscom) or (htp://www.warcraftmoviescom), and vlral vidt'ositr,s such as YouTube, offer literallytens ot Grubby'sown Farseerhero had earlierin the game lhorrs,rrr,lrrol rrrttt;tr:titivc rcplays and video captures in var takcna "wandof lightrring fronr a gnoll assassinwhile 'irct'piry,'arxl hI||rl,rrrr,rlh {,1 | ollrir',ovory rcplay tclls a story,arrrl srrth irr rrrostof thcll.rrrrt'it haWarcraft III tournament At this level of n.l been able to explain what Grubby did to win. If you don't rative there is greater latitude for the description; it is no play the game, you can't translate tie on screenaction into longer a derivative of the sequenceo[ game actions Som(' Grubby s mastery of Warcraft tacttcs and interface skills spectarorsmight miss the brilliance in Grubby's move alt,, For those who understood it, Gmbbys masterful perfor gerber,others rnight prefer to see this game as a morality mance becamea story about the match, a subjectiveversion tale about an overly confident Korean favorite or tle tri of what happenedduring the game A story that directly umph of a lesserkrown. hardworking Europeanopponerrr Ior llroir11rrr11rl.ry l{rrrrlilrly tr.rr pr.rrlrrt ol tlrc vir|r,rslr.rsrrl on the nrassivclynrrrltiplaycr,rrrlinc ganx'WorLl ol Watrnlt and hostedby thc nrostpoprrlar site lor downlr;rrlingthcnr, (http://www warcraftmovies.conr ), lrave bc'cnratcgorizcd as "story line" movies.These are machinima projccts rh;rt present linear narratives through rhe recording aDd editing of in-game performances. An example of such a World of Warcraft moie is tbe award-winnln1 Edge of Rernorse,produced by Riot Films and directed by Jason Choi s The story recounts how two brothers choose &fferent sides in the war ravaging Azeroth (the world in which the game js set) ard reveals the origins of their split as love for the same girl with whom they grew up as an inseparable trio. In the end, rivalry and be- uayal results in the tragic death of all three. Choi's telling of the story in machinima form never makes dtect refer- enceto events of the game'sstoryworld, nor does it present unadomed gameplay or sertings fiom the game as a player would typically see them Edge of Remorsedoes not name its protagonists or setting, or use spoken dialogue to bring the viewer back to reference points fton the game on which it is based It relies instead on the shllfiil use of a va, riety of 6lmmaking and video editing techniques (montage, foreshadowing,fashback, sound effects,musica-l scoring, compositing, and chroma keying) to focus on the universal aspects of the story: t}Ie intertwined fate of three characters 35,2 Posterfor RiotFitms' Edge of Renorse. and the revealing moments leading to their demise. Lasting roughly eight minutes, with some 120 cuts and hdes, Edge who has since taken over the throne, and so on What of Remorse is no replay or continuous recording of game- many players see as the value of drese replays is not just play, but an intricately composed piece of visual storytelling. the training they provide but t}e capacity for telling stories Nonetheless, players recognize it unrnistakably as a story as fans of their games and is players set in dre world depicted by the World of Warcraft. The Not all game videos are replays, however.3 A new narra plot's logic is determined by the etemal conflict between tive medium, called machinima has sprung out of computer Horde and Alliance; the twist in Edge of Remorseis to ex- game technology and play since the mid-1990s. Machinirna plore the destrr-rctive nature of this world in the form of has been defined as "filmmaking within a rea.l-time, 3D vir a vignette, a sma1l,precise piece that comments on the fual environment, and it means using game software and tragic nature of warfare by showing dre impact of specific a gemepleyto create animated videos (Marino 2005) The events on ordinary characters Choi's woik tlus engages growth of machinima has provided an oudet for players to players while moving beyond the self referentiality of much work in a story-driven medium. Machinima also extends machinima, and viewers unfamiliar with the World of War- their: engagement with garnes that they enjoy playing as craft or t\e Warcraft senes o[ games can easily grasp its well as the storyworlds that can provide a narrative context message, cstablishstrong strrry lincs an

no longer freezethe passageof time for one playerwhile the historv of Azeroth. the fictional world in whidr events tie other contemplatestlre perfect move.lnstead, time take place,to ways of telling the story through rea.l-time becomesa constant sourceof pressureand stress.Players strategy pfay and online role playing in Workl of Waroaft multiask. meaningthat they observe,think, plot, micro (the associationof audio with draracters,skills, and spells manage,manipulate the interface,and attempt to control associatedwith heroiccharacters, lavish cutscenes, game- tleir units, all while their opponent is moving and counter- basedmoviemaking, etc.). Moreover, both developersand moving at the sametime. Writing about tle 6rst gamein playerswere engagedby the continuity and accumulating the Warcraft seies, the editor of ConputerGaning World detailsof t}re storyworld as the bast for what Henry Jen- describeda 'panid

35.5 lhe WorcroftII interface(1996). indicator of the sheer mass of the material available to play well Tewi Verlag'sleveb and Add-onsfor WarcraftII in ers and fans of the series. 1995,Sunstone Interactle's WlZone (1996), and Aztech The two major rcisions of Wareraft were the appropri New Media'sAztecf,b Armory: Campaigns for Wartraft ll ately named Warcraft II: Tides of Dar,(ness (December 1995) (1997)were examples of independendydeveloped levr'ls, and Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos (2002) . These versions also maps,and campaignsfor WarcraftII, while ElectronicArtl spawned expansions, patches, and projects that brought the publisheda versionof WarcraftII for the SonyPlaysratlrrr Warcraft se|ltngs to different game systems and media. and SegaSatum consoles,cdled Warrraft II: The Dark Sa1Lt., Two conventional add-on tides, Warcroft II: Beyond the Dark in 1997 And still that wasnot all. Worrraftalso spawru,rl Portal (May 7996) and Warcraft lll: The Frozen Throne Warcraft:The Board Game (Fantasy Flight Games, 2{)0ll) ,rrtrl (2003), primarily added new content (such as maps,cam- Warcroft:The Role-Playing Game (Sword and Sorccry,2(ll)il), paigns, new units, etc). Warcraft II: Battle.net Edition (7999) basedon the Dungeons& Dragonssystem, and thlt ir lrll was an update that modified a few of Warcraft II's features hasgenerated several books providing dctails alrorrt tlrr, (including its expansion) and made it compatible with characters,monsters, magic spclls, and ik.nrstlrat r.rr lrr, batdenet, Blizzards network for competitive play. found in the world. Blizzard also published "batde chests, anthologies, In latc 2004,Blizzard rclt'ascrl thc cagcrly.rnlir ip.rlr,rl soundtrack CDs, DVDs of high resolution cutscenes,cine WorLlof Worcnft,a rnassivclynrtrltilrl.ryr.r orrlirrr, rol,, nr.rti.triilors (inrlrrdinlla tlrlrtn,al rclcasc),collcrtrrr's t'

otheE Thonk to 8o Kochfor pointing out thot this gane ptayed rnajor rote in ol wdtcrolt asseB,They have a is indeedo fo\ow-up to the Grunt's"Stop poking ne!" in the sharedplayer cutt!re around the game.Each of these wc2. bits of spokendiatogue is associatedwith a specificchar- -"Why don'tyou leadan armyinstead of touchingrhe?' in real-time game;when acter type or character the stsategy -"Poke pokepoke. Is that atl you do7' an on-screenunit is "poked"by ctickingon it morethan -"ooh, that wa5kind of nice." poked from once,the chaEctersays something different the -"Me so hohed. l,lehurt you tongtine." nonnalconfirmation sound. Pol(e it again.and it might .Moie: PIoyon the ptuttitute3 line rn Futl.Metal. pokeit hanytimes. and saysomethjng different again; Ja.ket, l4uchthonk to Chis HoUfot the conedion,yout you fiay get an infrcquent{yheard bit of dialoguefrom the eoE ore wo*ing fne. unit asit becomesmore iFitated. For examDle, the Blood -"Me no soundtike Yoda. ... DoI7' Elfpeasant unit introducedin the FrozenThfone expansion -"Ifs not easybeinq green,' 6t WorcroftIII wlll say,"Why don't you bothersomeone etse >other: Kermitthe Ftug'ssignoturc song, with yourincessant clicking." As Eilt Roperexptained in a conversationat StanfordUni- versihfon March1, 2005,he andGLenn Stafford at Blizzard nodc flresc uodeswere usually marked by dramatir. pre producedthe first groupof pissedsound5 after testing the rewards ("eyecandy conceptwith the first quotationsfor orc units.Ai the game scripled cutscenesthat functroned as ), seriesbecame more popular, especialty after the pubtication a kind of break in the fast-pacedaction. and takcn togethef, of woramfiII, playeB beganto poke characterseven more a telling of thc events of the storyworld s history in a chro- incBsanttyor dig into the gamesoftware to fifld them.The nologicalscquence 13 Occasiona.lly,and exceptionally,the quotations pa'rtof the fan culturearound the game, be6ne designerswould eveDpause a mission for a "major story so it is hafdtysurprisjng that player-fansbegan to produce point (Pardo 2000) textsto documentwhat they learned. l4unikBleedscreen's"ryqrcroJt III: Pissedoff Unit Quote Narrativc touches and structure are elcrnentsof game cottedion"provided a comprehensivetin; it alsosupptied design,6rst and foremosL Every player enactsor experi informationsubmitted by otherptayers that tracedsources encesrhe rcsults during gamcplay.Thosc intcrested rn Lhcsc joles for the referencesand that Etjzzard'sdevetopers cited moments 6nd ihat despitc variations in rheir strategies, in manyof the quotationi.for example,the orc Farseer capabilities,and successesas players,elenrcnts such as q.ro. saJ6,"I seedead people," and this quotationis tracedto the movielhe std, s€rje as we[[a5 to an in-gamecheat tafi()ns from .haracters or story nodes are capableof sup code.Ea5y enough, His second quotation, 'Touch your porting a common player culture and a fairly consistent tongueto mine,"leads to a mor€complicat€d interpretation storyworld Despite the wild variability of in-garncperfor ' comparingtwo possibtesourcei before deciding in hvor of mancc players thus share the same (or al least a simrlar) i5 for nonplayeEto dismissnarra- Tlunb ,yd6, It too easy vasL,ovcrarching narrative and storyworld Blizzard'slibrary tive touchessuch as ,ydraroi's unit quotesand players' of game texts were important lot l orld of Warcra{tnacbi attentionto tiem astriviaL In fact,such forms of hn engaqementdamonstrated by the players'sharedknowt€dge nima projc(ts as story elementsthat could be rctold, of thesequofrtions and commentary on themis an impor- reworked,and remi-redthrough player-createdproductions trnt aspectof the culturaleconomyaround the gane. such as these movies. Competitive peforman(e in multip)aycr garnessuclr as Warcraft o(fets a narrative poteotial that differs from proj ects basedon the library of game texts Stories based on competition are,genenlly speaking,chronicles or emplot- playcr'snclivrty tlrt,y rorrrsprrrxl to $c([r{,rxcs0l rDrnrsr..rrr,l merrts of gameplay.They are historical Replaysand other keyboardactivity. An importantaspcct of playcrshill is rrrr game-basedmovies (speedruns, player versusplayer movies, derstandingand rapidlyexecuting this syntax.ns nrun(l,rr clan demos,etc) are archival,be.ause they record and hence asthey may seem,these actions play a crucialrolc ir thc document performancein the agonisticarena of digital archivalrecording of gameplayard formsof spectatorslrrlr gamcs.Game archives are createdby and for players;at basedon the making and sharing of replay movies.First, least in the 6rst instance the developersdeate tle garne recordingthese basic actions (keystrokesand mouseclirks) libraries.In multiplayer,competitive Warcraft , gameplay in tlrc sequenceof a playedgame has beentl-re basis for rather than narrative elemerts providesthe starting point, most systemsof replay capture.l,eaving aside technical a5 slmtar( tactics,and strategy of play are presented,stud- issues,in Waroaft III this might mean that rather than ied, and supplementedby subsequentenunciation and dwising somearcane code for 't}te gnrnt attackedthe interpretahorL dryadJ'the replay frle essentiallyrecords each player's the crucial roles playedby spectatorship,mu.ltiplayer actionswith a time-markingsystem to keepeverything in competition,and piayer communitiesin extendingreal-time synchronization So tlre grunt's attack might be read as, strategygames in this fashion suggest that Warcraft can in- "Moved cursor over Grunt-didced left mousebutton- deedbe understood(even if metaphorically)as a perfor- depressedA-moved cursor over Dryad-di&ed left but malce spacerather thart as a text. The worn conuast of ton." Theseare two equivalentways to chronicleganeplay garneversus na-rrative helps us litde to sort out the com- Th€ viewer views avatarsbatding on the saeen.Based on plex intermixture of traditional strategicgame form, t}te Icrowledgeof the games)stem, the viewer cen interplet narrative unfolding of single-playercampaigns, and competi this view as "sornethinghappened," 'one rmit attad

il 35.8 Thesetup for teeroyJerkrrs. rative touch in the games storyworld, such as by the inclu, console games As a hrstorical rule, arc&iual production has sion of a card narned after t}re protagonist in the collectible preceded textrlal production That is to say, players have card game Indeed, it has even infested otie," storyworlds, 6rst documentedgameplay and then tumed to story line for example, a non-player character named lGlroy Stoneskin projects. Note that in the previous section of this chapter I n GuiM Wars is dearly derivative of Leeroy Jenkins lt is presented textual and archival modes of game-based story- time to tum to more examples of how game based movies telling in the opposite order. My intention was to deflate both extend and work within the vast narrarives of War the temptation to engage in a kind whiggish reasoning that rraft's Samespace. What are the important connectionsand wotrld portray this as a necessary progression fiom lower differences between game-based movies as player generated to higher forms of narrative-say, ftom chronides to his- archives that replay the performance of competitive skrlls tories Noting the historical progressionis nonethelesscriti (and stories about those perforrn nces), and player-created cal for at Ieast three reasons First, it reiteratesthe main terts that extend Blizzards library of textual elements and difference between movies made n Warcraft (the earlier extend the Warcraft storyvtotld? real-time strategy series) and World of Warcraft (dte later massively mu.ltiplayer online game). Warcraft moiemal

improving their own skills and strategies Despite the im- movies Thus, it is clear tlrat Warcraft's tradtnor, o[ replay portance of the player culture built around replay movies, documentation has carried over ro the community of lvorld however, it rs a dubious proposition that replay movies of Warcraft players. At the same time, few if any, digrtal have provided significant texts to augrnent the narrative games have produced so many machinima projects for touches and structure prouded by Blizzard in the packaged storytelling or mediated performance as World of Warcraft. games Put another way, we can credit the replay archives Many of these movies are focused on the development of with providing a foundation for histories based on the characters, lcrown and unknown, and tJreir exploits in the chronicles of gameplay and for creating a large community storyworld A good exampleof a transitional movie between of spectators Unlike other genres,though, real-time strategy replay and story is Daddar's The lronforge Bank Robbery games have not offered a particuJarly )ively platform for a (lronforge Bankers on (http//www.warrraftmovies)) k story Jine library. documents a dramatic and unexpected in game exploit tlat For Warcraft game movies as story texts, we must con- functions as a sort of skill demonstration for this particu sider a l.ild of transgenrestorytelling as we move from the larly character type and player At the same time, Daddar's Worcraft real tme strategy to the online role'plalng game massacre of the Ironforge bankers became a part of the World of Warcraft By considering these games together, a world's lore through its telling in the movie. P)ayers com- more farniliar story about the emergence of storltelling menting on the pie.e noted their desire to roll a new rogue from replay in game based moviemaldng emerges. The 6rst characterlike Daddar'sand seeif they could experiencea indications of this transition occuned already during the similar moment for themselves;for a while, the replay t'eta version of World of Wartraft Many early players knew movie certainly influenced attitudes among players about d) about Warcraft and were experienced players of the real Horde, Undead,or Roguecharacters When players thought time strategy game.As a result, it was no suryrise that about imitating Daddar, they meant to test out ther oL^rn some aspectsof Warcraft'sreplay culture of player created skills against a now legendary, if shadowy, figure, but at the game movies carried over as an oudet for performance in same time, the spectacleof Daddar'svideo also becamepart game movies by World of Warcraft players Playerssuch as of the player communitys shared senseof the history of the aforementionedJuniorX recordedgameplay as player the online game world This documentedmoment fiom the biography,documenting every moment :n the creation and history of the digital world thus helped to shape both leveling of a new character, the familiar archival mode of the fictional world of Azeroth and its player created replay.These movies easedplayers from the mind-ser of countetpart. competitive real-time strategy games,took them to familiar Examples such as Daddar and Leeroy Jenkins suggest settings from tlte Warcraft nanative arc or reminFcent of that character development has been an important charac multiplayer maps (eg, Booty Bay or Duskwood),and rcitsac o( World of Warcraft textual production by players moved onward into the new game form played as an indi- making story line machinima movies. Clearly, players are vidual characterin the world of Warcraft.rT fans of the games that they play, and as in other kinds of We can track elementsof the transition fiom competi- fan production, they are eager to delve into characters tive replay movies to engagementwit\ t\e World of War encountered in games such as World of Warcraft, or to cre- i ra/i storyworld in severalways Consrderthe breakdown of ate new ones as part of their engagement with the game Wrld ol Warcraft movies at thc lcading site for their distri and its storyworld They can accomplishthese goals by set- l)uln)'r,(hmp,/www warcr.rft nxrvi,'st,rrn ) As ol carly ting lmrh developerauthored and original charactersin M.rrrh1r{}0/ rhis sitr.rrli'n'rlrrrorr'th.rn 5500 pl.ry,'rv,'rsrrs l,rrnili,rrl(x.rti(nrs. with hrxrksgrappling into narrativestruc 1'l,ry,rrrr,",r,..rrl'n,'rly 4l)ll lr5l,'r',,'11,,v',r Inrl',,rt, l"r' or r'irrx nls tlr,rtrrrrllht h' lronr l'tlizz.rrrlsgirmes. nov ,1,,",.',,, rr','rrl,'lly.rr,l,rv.,l r"pl.ry.,'r,l'rr',,, 11",.,,'r, , l' ,'r tlr,.r,'1. pl.ryrrrl trrrx ln trrr tlrr.sror rr,s t,rl,l 1,r., 1,,,'ltrl lrl" {1,'rVlrr rrr,rlr,r,rrrrl'1,1.'rl,rrr, r, rrrrrrr ll'r,,r'lllrll'r\' rrr,,trr'.,,rr rx'w r.ur.rlrvl r'[ rrrlrrtror lvlrr \ singlcplayer or rrx4rcrntivcnxxlcs ol play.playcr skills tan b.rsislor plryr.rrlisr rusior, Thrall's Chistmas Tree takes the Bannerman)My Life for the Horde:The Legendof Seenos, rather different tack of introducing new minor characters and the AFK Pl@)ers (John Hsu, Epla Hsieh. and Outy to reveal aspects of established characters ftom the Bliz Yang) Thralls Christmas Tree are examples of such projects zards Warcraft hbrary, such as Jaina Proudmoore, Rexxar, I have already taken a look at Edge of Remorseand wil and Thrall himself. They accomplish this by inventing a be examinrng Rise of the Living Dead n a moment The Leg- young character narned Sirloin Bloodhoof, whose unremark end of Seemosis the second of a trilory of movies, rn prog able party sets out to locate a unique Christrnas tlee to ress,closely tied to an important story arc introduced in satisfy Warciief Thrall s reputation and impress Lady Warraft lll, the betrayal of the unsteady Orc-Human pact Proudmmre Nothing quite satis6es the great thrall, of on Kalimdor by Admiral Proudmoore, a key character in course. This comedic machinima movie tales Bloodhoof's bodt llorcraft ll and Warcraft IIL Ls the ren-mnure moue group to locations throughout Azeroth, which are recast begins, it is announc€d es "a tale inspired by the history of through the various compositing and editing techniques Warcraft." \\e focus is 'one hero that stands above the employedby AFK PlLlers, ultimately they arrive at the others ; this hero, Seemos, is an entirely new character World Tree, a location of specia.lsigniGcance to the story- introduced in tl-re movie, though characters fuom Warcraft, worf d s history explor ed in Warcraft I , and bring it to such as the Orc leader Thrall (in the narration) and Proud- Theramore to satisfy Thrall s need to impress The iuxtapo moore,appear in it- A conventional story atout a heros siton of My Life for the Horde and Thrall's Christmos Tree impact on Azeroth s history, the creators show how machi, shows us that the olavers who create machinima works 'llrr'sc rorrrrrrtiorrsl(, tlx.rllrx.rfs r.tlr'.1\lr.||t ol . r , xlx rrcrrtt.rlstoryworLl; vir.wrrs wllr h.rv,.pl.ry,'rl th,. li.rlrr. are drawn irr by thcsr'srrlrtlt'torrhr's,.rs wlrr.r .r rh.rr,rrtr'r says"beware thc hving (a tonrnxrrrrrtrtr.rrrrl ot tlrrrL.,rrl non'player charactersin the g.rnrr) or ,r rr,rli ( rrr,'l'rl,' ,'r Al-controlled opponent) previously ('n(ountcrr.(l in tlx' gahe, such as fuaj the Summoner, is givcn ;1slr.rkirli p.rrr that deshesout his role-insofar as this can lx'sai

/ Rataran(at tostikyan,6rrq(?00,r) 'L.r"r\, Storytetling, and Sreaking th€ Slt\ng."ln Se(od l't t\ott:Role Ploying ond Stoty in 6onesond Ploy- obleMedrc, ed\ted by PatHarrigan and Noah Wardrjp-Fruin, 5-13. Cambridge,l.lA: MIT Press. CraMord,Garry (2004). Consuning Spott: Fons, Spo,t, ond Culturc. London:Routledge. Fiske,John (1992). "The Cutturat Economy of Fandon."ln TheAdot- ing Audience:Fon Culture ond Populotl4edio. edited by LisaA. l-ewis, 30-49.London: Routledge. Jenkins,Henry (2003). "Transmedia Storyt€tting." Technology Review, January15. (http://wMr.technoLogyreview.com/Siotech/13052/) (accessedJuty 2007). Jenkins,Henry (2007). "Transmedia Storytetting 101." Confessions of an Aca-Fanll,ebtog, tlarch 22. (http://wwn.henrienkins.org/ 2007/03/transmedia_stoMettinq_101.htmt)(accessed June 2007). Lombardi,Chris (1995). "War Crime in ReaITime." Conputet Goning Wottd726i229. Lowood,Henry (2006a).'High-Performance Ptay:lhe Makingof llachinima."In Videogofiesond Art: Inte6eattons ond Intercchons, editedby AndyCtarke and Grethe Mitchetl, 59-79. Bristol:InteLtect. Lowood,Henry (2006b). "Storytjne, Dance/Music, or PvP?Game llovi€sand Community Playe's in ,/o d oI V,/orcraft."Gones dnd Cul- ture1 (october):362-382. Lowood,Henry (2007a). "Found Technotogy: Playe6 a5 lnnovators in the l.lahngof tlachinirta."ln InnovotiveUset ond Unupected outrozres(l,lacArthur toundation S€ries on DigitatMedia and Learn- ing), edjtedby TaratilcPhe6on. Chicago: Macarthur Foundation. Lowood,Henry (2007b). "'lts Not EasyEeinq Green': ReaLTjme GameP€rformance in tllorctoft."ln Videogdne/Ployet/Tetl.edited by BarryAthn3 and Tanya Krrywinska, Manchester: Manchester Univer sity Press. l,larjno.Paut (2005). "The Machinima FAQ (Updated 8.03.2005)." Academyof MachinimaArts and Sciences. (hftp://machinima.org/ machinima-faq.htmt)(accessed october 2006). l,!unhBteedrcreen(2003). "Worctuft lll I Pissedoff Unit ouoteCol tedion-"(http://wwvr.gamefaqs..om/compute/doswin/fi te/ 589475/18116> (accessed Juty 2007). Murray.Janet (1997), lionlet on the Holodeck.Cambridqe, i{A: MIT Press. Pardo.Rob (2000). "Staqes ol StorcroftBrood Wof Campaign De. sign.' ln Gone kcets oI the Soges,edited by ilarc Sattz- mann,141-142. ^esign:?nd €d. Indianapotis: Brady Games. white, HaydenV. (19751.l'letohistory: The Historicol Inognotton n llinetenth-CenturyEurcpe. Bathmore: Johns Hopkins Univerity Pre3s.