The Virginia Journal (TVJ) and Communica- Tor

The Virginia

Virginia Association for Health, Physical Education, Journal Recreation, and Dance

FALL 2009 Vol. 30, No. 2

2009 SWVA VAHPERD Clinic held at Radford University. VAHPERD Members,

It is my pleasure to serve as the editor of The Virginia Journal (TVJ) and Communica- tor. Enclosed you will find the Fall 2009 issue. I hope to continue the successful publications of TVJ and Communicator.

However, the success of TVJ and the Communicator only go as far as the members and our submissions. I ask that you continue to submit the quality work you have in the past. Let the state, region and nation know the outstanding work we are doing in VAHPERD. So this is my continued call for manuscripts for the Spring 2010 issue of TVJ and news information for the Communicator. The TVJ and Communicator depend on the submissions from our exceptional professionals working in the field.

So please continue to e-mail me your manuscripts and news by January 15, 2010 as a Word attachment for the two publications. Please follow the manuscript guidelines posted in each issue of TVJ. My contact information is below.

Sincerely, Michael Moore, PhD, ATC Radford University VAHPERD Editor [email protected] 540-831-6218

About VAHPERD Mission Statement VAHPERD Priorities VAHPERD is a professional association of edu- Member Services cators that advocate quality programs in health, Communication physical education, recreation, dance and sport. Marketing and Promotion The association seeks to facilitate the professional Education growth and educational practices and legislation that will impact the profession. Visit VAHPERD’s Web Site VAHPERD Values • Excellence in teaching, research and www.vahperd.org educational practices in HPERD and related professions Learn About: • Positive efforts to promote our disciplines Membership • Professional integrity and high ethical standards VAHPERD • Effective communication within and between Leadership Publications members and related professionals Divisions Resources • An active and healthy lifestyle Students Links • Embracing the role of special and diverse Awards and Grants Forms populations The Virginia Journal Table of Contents Editorial Board Volume 30, Number 2 FALL 2009 Leon Bey Virginia State University President's Message...... 2 Melissa Grim Radford University Executive Director's Message...... 2

Charlotte Guynes President Elect's Message...... 3 Lynchburg College Jay Johnson Past President's Message...... 3 Virginia Military Institute ADAPT to Make a Difference...... 4 Billie Lepczyk Virginia Tech The Impact of a Six-Week Upper Body Resistance-Training Program Using Arm Bands Versus Body Weight on Upper Body Strength...... 6 April Moore Dublin Elementary The "O" Factor: A Review of the Literature and Strategies to Kerry Redican Reduce Childhood Obesity...... 9 Virginia Tech Are You Coaching Mental Skills? Why Not?...... 13 Robert Case Old Dominion University Supervising of Tobacco Advertising Targeting Youth: A Pilot Study of Jamie Best Convenience Stores in Virginia...... 15 Radford University Mosston's Styles of Teaching: A Review of Command Style...... 20

Michael Moore VAHPERD Officers & Directors...... 23 Editor Radford University In-Season Strength and Conditioning Program for Fall Sports: Football, Soccer, and Volleyball...... 26

Henry Castelvecchi The Benefits of Incorporating Networking Into Sport Management Courses Executive Director and Related Experiences at Virginia State University...... 31 VAHPERD President David Sallee Developing a Strength Training Course within a Physical Education Curriculum...... 34 Radford University Guidelines for Manuscript Submission...... 37 VAHPERD President-Elect Vicki Miller Chesterfield Pubic Schools Instructional Development Center VAHPERD Past President Kay Schiltz Chesterfield County Schools

The opinions of the contributors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the attitude or views of VAHPERD, its officers, or the editor of this Journal. VAHPERD does not discriminate in this or any other of its programs on the basis of color, religion, age, gender, national origin, sexual orientation, disability or handicap.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 1 President's Message Executive Director's Message David Sallee Henry Castelvecchi

I want to personally invite you to the 72nd annual VAHPERD conven- Like many businesses, families, and tion in Virginia Beach, November 5th associations the economy has had an -8th. Many people have been hard at impact on VAHPERD. We have seen work making this a great opportunity a decrease of income in the past two to learn and grow. I know that it will years. This year we have tried to reduce be something memorable. our budget without affecting the qual- The theme of this convention is ity of services to our members. Some Reach Out- Reach Up. You could say ways we have cut back include having that it has been the theme of my life. our committees meet online or by email I have been blessed to have so many instead of in person meetings, decreas- wonderful mentors who were willing to help me. All I had to do ing reimbursements for Board Travel was reach out to them. I bet that you have had some similar ex- to meetings, and most noticeable to members we are switching periences. I know there were times that you struggled to find the from a printed Journal in the spring to an online edition. answer only to realize that someone close to you could provide With this being said, we have tried to increase your resources all that you needed. All you had to do was to reach for them. We through a redesigned website that includes job listings; national all have to reach up in our professional lives. There is always and state standards for HPERD, FLE and Drivers Ed compiled someone who is willing to help if we just have the courage to ask. in one location; and are in the process of creating a lesson plan I have also been in the position to provide insight to many stu- database. We have also continued the popular summer work- dents. Many times I have talked with people who were trying to shop, VAHPERD/ Radford ESHE Southwest VA Workshop, and find ways to be better professionals. It is always magic when you have added a new workshop that will service the central and can provide that person with what they need to move forward in eastern part of the state. In addition, VAHPERD has continued their life. I think back to the times I sat outside of my mentors’ to support the Health and Physical Activity Institute. Another offices wondering if I could muster the courage to ask them for way VAHPERD has increased member services is to continue help. It was always more difficult in my mind that it ever was in searching and implementing grants through various companies. person. I wonder where I would be if I did not have the courage We have partnered with Geofitness and Socci to provide sever- to ask. I wonder how many students have needed my help, but al equipment grants and provided a $1000.00 Jump Rope and did not come to see me. Hoops for Heart Coordinators Grant. We continue to seek other We, as mentors, must have the courage to reach out to those grant opportunities to provide more creative funding opportuni- in need. Each of us is where we are in our professional careers ties for the needs of our members. because of what we have learned from others. Our mentors were In addition to this we have tried to make it easier financially on there for us, we have to be there for the next generation. Come our members to continuing to offer reduced membership prices to the convention, share what you know. It is more powerful for to all members who coordinate a Jump Rope for Heart or Hoops someone that you can ever imagine. It changed my life. for Heart event and offer a free membership to those coordinators We are all in this together. We share the same goal, but too who raise $1000. We also offered for the first time at this past often we let thing get in the way of pursing our collective mission. convention, all day complimentary snacks on Saturday for those Together we are strong. We can overcome extreme challenges. attending the Convention. This idea came from much feedback We can do what other only dream of; we can make a difference from Convention attendees last year about having to leave to get in people’s lives. food and missing sessions. Please let us know your feedback on I ask you to come and be a part of our (yours and mine) conven- this aspect of the Convention. tion. Take the opportunity to share what you know and to learn Even though we are looking at cutbacks we are committed to from others. Reach Out-Reach Up our mission of facilitating the professional growth and development of our members through meaningful membership services, Respectfully Yours, current research, best educational practices, and legislation that David Sallee will impact the profession.

Henry Castelvecchi

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 2 President-Elect's Messsage Past President's Messsage Vicki Miller H. Kay Schiltz

The weather feels like summer, but the We are looking forward to another leaves are turning “color”… so, we know successful VAHPERD convention at the it is time for a change… autumn! It is beautiful Founders Inn. This site is perfect also time for our VAHPERD convention for our convention with everything from and time for me to become our President. an indoor pool to a walking trail, tennis I am really looking forward to the chal- and basketball courts, large open fields, lenge and the responsibility. I have a great and all the comforts of a cozy weekend VAHPERD team of dedicated profession- retreat. So bring your equipment and try als that will help me implement our plans to find a minute to enjoy the amenities. to lead the organization forward! We will continue to focus on This year’s convention planning started in January and the “communication”, and we have a great new website to help make work will not stop until the last person leaves the site in No- this possible. In the next year we will also focus on “education/ vember. It is definitely a labor of love and true professionalism. advocacy”: locally, state and nationally to promote and improve I hope you will become involved in VAHPERD by volunteering Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Dance & Sport for our to serve as a section chair or on a committee. You will find the students and teachers; and VAHPERD will also be a part of the names of your Board of Directors in the back of your program (I solution to fight Childhood Obesity. am sure you will find the name of someone you know), feel free VAHPERD is very fortunate to have so many professionals to contact any of them to find out how you can become involved. that volunteer their time and expertise to make our organization It is very rewarding and fun! the best that it can be. I was so proud of VAHPERD at the AAH- Also listed in your program are current and past award win- PERD Leadership Development Conference this past summer. ners. Please take the time to seek out and congratulate them, and When it was my turn to share what we do in VA, such as offering ask questions about how they achieved this success. Remember, educational and networking opportunities: at our convention, at these award winners are teachers just like you, who have been no- the VA Department of Education Health & Physical Activity In- ticed ‘stepping outside the box’. Then take the time to nominate stitute, at our City/County HPE Supervisors meetings, at OHPEP a colleague for an award. Categories for awards can be found on presentations, at the Southwest mini-conference and other outreach the VAHPERD website. We all know deserving people; it only opportunities… my VAHPERD heart was beating fast! But, we takes a few minutes to complete and submit a nomination form. can’t rest on our great accomplishments. And, with our new board As Past President, I am looking at my last months to serve and committee members, I know they will take our organization on the executive board with great pride in my profession and to the next level. a feeling of tremendous success. Our profession, and conven- VAHPERD is very fortunate to have Megan Wolfe (AAHPERD) tion, has come a long way. With each new VAHPERD leader, present “Advocacy 101” to our LDC on January 16, 2010 in Rich- new things have ‘happened’ (‘Make It Happen’ President Kerry mond. Megan was the presenter for the 1st NASPE Lobby Day Redican’s convention theme, 2007), and health and physical edu- and the AAHPERD LDC. She prepared teachers to meet with cation teachers continue to ‘Step Up and Take the Lead’ (my con- their Senators and Congressmen/women to speak knowledge- vention theme, 2008) within their buildings, and with that lead ably about the PEP Grant, FITT Kids bill and the Elementary & VAHPERD is ‘Reaching Up and Reaching Out’ (President David Secondary Education Act. She will prepare us to be “advocates” Sallee’s theme, 2009) and continuing to serve more professionals on the local and state level. VAHPERD’s “own”… Sean Niehoff, in more ways. We are a strong viable organization. ‘The Future Mary Ann Lowery, Henry Castelvecchi, and Kim Clancy will also of VAHPERD is in Your Hands’ (President-elect Vicki Millers’ help with the Advocacy training. VAHPERD is also fortunate to convention theme, 2010). I encourage you to advocate for our partner with the Richmond Sports Backers organization to be a profession and always think and perform outside the box. part of the solution to prevent Childhood Obesity. Richmond With more than ten years of service to VAHPERD, I have had Sports Backers hosts an annual Childhood Obesity Conference the pleasure of meeting and working with many outstanding pro- that brings together national speakers, physicians, politicians, fessionals, not only in Virginia but throughout the Southern Dis- university professors, administrators, health professionals, and VA trict. It will be with great admiration, sadness, and happiness! that I HPE teachers. Together, we can make a difference. I would like step down and step aside for new volunteers to take the lead. Many to see more VAHPERD professionals “present” at this conference. thanks to my husband, who volunteered me for my first position After all, we are the best “health insurance” for our students… on the membership committee so long ago, to the ‘amazing’ Judy quality Physical Education. Johnson, who knows more about VAHPERD than anyone EVER, I’m looking forward to seeing you at our convention in VA and has kept our conventions running smoothly well before I came Beach at the Founders Inn: November 5-8, 2009. Remember, THE on board, and Bob Davis who taught me all about the organiza- FUTURE OF VAHPERD IS IN YOUR HANDS. tions structure and always has a smile and kind word to share. Here’s wishing you a successful and happy teaching experience. H. Kay Schiltz, Past President VAHPERD

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 3 ADAPT To Make A Difference Allison Knighton, M.A.T., James Madison University, Health & Physical Educator for Arlington Public Schools Meghan Wyka, M.A.T., James Madison University, Health & Phyiscal Educator for Henrico Co. Public Schools

To become familiar with the art of adapting instruction for become more comfortable with all students. Sometimes simple varying student abilities in physical education, we spent a week modifications of equipment can create an environment for all at Camp Abilities, a summer camp for children and adolescents students to have an opportunity to be successful in class. When with visual impairments hosted by the Physical Education De- looking at creating modifications in physical education, we orga- partment at SUNY Brockport in NY. This week long camp is nized the task into four different categories: Equipment, Rules, open to those who are legally blind and it offers a chance for Environment, and Instruction. the athletes to fully participate and be successful in a physically Equipment: Modifying equipment can be as easy as chang- active environment. Guiding the athletes to success are coaches ing the color and size of the equipment or adding sound to en- from all over the world who, while subscribing to the camp’s hance the lesson. Students with visual impairments perform bet- motto, “Believe You Can Achieve,” spend time working with ter when there is a strong contrast between the ground colors participants on an independent basis while they participate in (floor, walls, and ceiling) and figure colors (ball). For example, a swimming, biking, gymnastics and other activities. Both the ath- brightly colored red ball provides more contrast for the students letes and coaches benefit from this week-long camp experience; versus a neutral colored ball. Having larger, brighter targets in the athletes develop sport specific- skills, confidence and a sense a throwing unit allows for a higher rate of successful practice of independence while the coaches expand upon their pedagogi- (Graham, 2006). Students with visual impairments also enjoy cal content knowledge (PCK) and an awareness of these athletes’ the effect of sounds that determine the completion of a task. For abilities. example, in an archery unit, students aim at a target filled with In addition to the coaches, Camp Abilities also enlists the help colorful inflated balloons.When the target is hit, a balloon will pop, of specialists who also have visual impairments and have com- thereby relaying the information that the student has hit the target. peted at elite levels. These specialists break down sport- specific Another way to incorporate sound into physical education lessons skills with appropriate cues and progressions. The presence of is with the use of beeper balls and bells. When working on catch- these successful athletic figures at camp motivates the athletes to ing, for example, using a beeper or bell ball enables the student to renew their positive attitudes about their own abilities in sports. independently track the location of the ball in relationship to him/ With their spirits high, they are continuously encouraged to prac- herself (Lieberman, 2008). Many activities in physical education tice their skills and to realize that with time they too can accom- classes incorporate walking, jogging, and running. Equipment can plish their goals by overcoming obstacles that others may see be used to modify these activities to enable students to participate as impossible. with their peers. For example a tether, a short rope held between At the end of the week, athletes are recognized for their hard a guide runner and student with a visual impairment, allows both work and, hopefully leave believing they can achieve. We left students to move their arms freely in a natural running motion. this experience with greater insight into the adapted world where The tether acts as a guide between the two students and allows we now feel more comfortable embracing the opportunity to for both verbal and nonverbal directions while moving throughout work with students of all abilities. Participating in this event the environment. A guide wire is another piece of equipment that filled us with the urgency to encourage other teachers to make students can use while running. A guide wire is a rope or wire small adjustments when teaching that can make a difference for connected to two points with a loop attached that assists students all students. in moving from point A to point B safely and independently. It can With that in mind, the following describes the lessons learned be set up outside on the track for the 50 meter run and/or inside the regarding modifications to teaching and an acronym that can be gym for the pacer test (Lieberman, 2008). applied to improve instruction. The modifications and acronym Rules: In addition to modifying the equipment, a teacher can focus specifically on students with visual impairments and ideas also adjust the rules for the entire class which can enhance stu- for improving instruction for all students in physical education. dent motivation and engagement. For example, the rules in the game of softball can be modified by increasing the number of Modifications strikes before a batter is called out. When games likes Goal- Working with students who have visual impairments in a phys- ball and Beep Baseball are in play, the volume level of the par- ical education setting can create frustration. In many situations ticipants and audience must remain silent in order to focus their teachers may be challenged to go outside their comfort zones hearing attention on the sound of the ball and its location (Lieber- and realize that daily routines may need alterations. Researching man, 2008). information pertaining to students’ needs and medical conditions Other rule modifications include small-sided games, blindfold- may improve the quality of the lesson and time in class. It is ing all students with or without visual impairments, and prompt- important to remember that parents and the community can be ing specific communication phrases before skills are performed. a valuable resource benefiting instruction. Being more knowl- Small- sided games allow all students to have more time in good edgeable can help the teacher develop their teaching styles and practice and alleviate the confusion that exists in larger games

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 4 with higher numbers of students and larger spaces. Blindfold- A.D.A.P.T. ing all students regardless of their visual abilities gives everyone The modifications previously discussed are not limited to stu- an equal playing field and gives students without visual impair- dents with visual impairments; therefore, we created an acronym ments the chance to understand the obstacles their peers with vi- that reminds us of what is important when working with all stu- sual impairments face in physical education. It also encourages dents in physical education class. The ADAPT acronym stands them to be more reliant on other senses like hearing and touch for Ask, Develop, Achieve, Promote, and Teach. Asking ques- while performing daily activities. Finally, for all students to tions to gather information is the first step in learning about your be aware of what is happening, specific communication phrases students. Ask your students about their likes, dislikes, skills, com- need to be consistently used in the classroom. A common phrase fort levels, and outside interests because gathering information used is “Are you ready?” which checks to see if the student is about your audience will enable you to create lessons where stu- ready to participate in the next activity such as catching, hitting, dents are more engaged and motivated to learn. Develop choices or moving to the next place. Change the way you practice saying in your lessons: the teacher must apply the information learned “I got it” by reserving it for after the object has been retrieved to from their students. Within your lesson, activities should be de- inform the other students in the class that the play is complete. veloped with modifications and extensions offering all learners For safety reasons, there needs to be a common phrase or word the opportunity to succeed through developmentally appropriate that will alert students with visual impairments that an object is tasks. For example when teaching jump rope, develop options coming their way. This phrase or word needs to be understood that allow students to work at his/her personal pace. Students can by the entire class so that everyone can use it when necessary. begin where they feel most comfortable: jumping over a line, us- Environment: For students to be successful in the activities ing a side swing, or using the full rope swing. All options benefit prepared for class, the environment must be set up for easy navi- students’ cardiovascular endurance while furthering their skill gation. When the layout of the gymnasium changes, it is impera- ability. After asking students questions and developing lessons tive to communicate these changes to the students with visual with choices, the teacher’s focus turns to the individual student’s impairments to prevent injury. An easy way to show students achievement. Achievement oriented activities promote individu- the set up of the area being used is to create a tactile board. This al skill progression; therefore, documenting student achievement board uses different textures and layers to create a “visual” map throughout the year allows students to visually see the improve- of how the space is laid out. The student with visual impairment ment and transformation that has occurred. Personal achieve- uses their fingers and hand to trace the tactile board and under- ment can boost confidence and empower students to be more stand where everything is within the area. Eliminating clut- physically active in and outside of school. Along with creating an ter and keeping doorways accessible are also important safety achievement oriented environment, it is important to promote in- factors to consider. Along with equipment placement, it is im- dividuality and independence in the classroom. Using the Sport portant for the teacher to place him/herself in close proximity to Education Model teaches students to become “literate and enthu- the student with visual impairment, especially during instruction. siastic sportspeople.” (Siedentop, 1998) Students are taught to Teachers can use music as a motivational tool in the classroom independently keep score, officiate, set up and break down equip- but it can serve another purpose for students with visual impairment, and to perform and teach skills (Graham, 2006). Promoting ments. Music can be used as a directional tool when trying to independence also develops personal responsibility, which is an find the touchdown zone for football, the home plate for base- aspect of growing into adulthood. Lastly, teaching goal setting ball, or the finish line on the track. As the music gets louder, the gives students a purpose for their actions. Goal setting is not student understands their proximity in relationship to their final only applicable to physical education but encourages students to destination. set goals for other dimensions of their lives. Instruction: With proper teacher placement and a strong voice, the teacher is able to effectively communicate class instruction. Conclusion Because the student is unable to see demonstrations, verbal ex- Our experience at Camp Abilities provided us with insights re- pectations of the activity must be specific with the purpose stated. garding how to create an environment that promotes the success The teacher’s voice also serves as a way for the individual to nav- of all students with varying abilities. We look forward to em- igate themselves around the area. Additional instructional strate- bracing the Camp Abilities’ motto, “Believe yYou Can Achieve,” gies include minimizing background noise and using peer tutors in our own classes, when applying the A.D.A.P.T. concepts and to foster student learning in your classroom. Tactile modeling creating modifications. is also an instructional technique that can be used to help the student “feel” the body positioning and movement of a particular References skill on another individual. For example, when teaching a bas- Graham, G. (2006). Children Moving: A Reflective Approach to ketball defensive position, the teacher should stand in the desired Teaching Physical Education. McGraw-Hill Humanities Social. position while the student uses his/her hands to physically outline Lieberman, L. (2007). Camp Abilities: Teaching Individuals with the teacher’s body position: arms out wide, fingers spread, feet Visual Impairments. Retrieved November 2008 from http:// shoulder width apart and knees bent. Although tactile modeling campabilities.org/tvic-index.htm. can be beneficial to learning, it is important for teachers to realize Siedentop, D. (1998). What Is Sport Education and How Does It that it is an invasive technique and should be used only when he/ Work? JOPERD, Vol. 69. she deems it necessary.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 5 The Impact of a Six-Week Upper Body Resistance-Training Program Using Arm Bands Versus Body Weight on Upper Body Strength Eric Brubaker, Instructor, Department of Health Sciences, Liberty University

Literature Review Resistance Training Methods In the world of fitness there are many specialists who have Resistance training exercises have been proven to enhance up- varying opinions on what type of exercises are needed in order per body muscular strength and endurance (Anderson & Kearney., for an individual to be considered healthy. Upper body strength 1982). As a result many school districts have turned to resistance is one component that is considered important in overall fitness, training techniques since it has been shown muscular endurance since many everyday activities are dependent on it. Upper body and strength can be enhanced through their use (Johnson, 1974). strength can be improved through various resistance training With exercise plans that include high resistance exercises strong methods, such as body weight resistance and resistance bands. and powerful muscles have been the result (Anderson and Kear- Studies have proven that these training methods can significantly ney, 1982). Resistance band training demands more force at the help in increasing or maintaining upper body strength (Rupnow, end of the movement as the band is lengthened out. This results 1985). This review was conducted to examine the impact of re- in an overload of the muscle, which allows it to gain strength in sistance bands and body weight resistance training programs on the fibers (Berry, 2004). Body weight resistance, an alternative upper body strength. training method, utilizes the use of static strength in order to overcome a heavy resistance (Rupnow, 1985). Certain types of Problem Begins in the Schools these exercises such as pull-ups are widely used as fitness tests Cutbacks in the nation’s school systems have forced school for upper body strength (Nelson, Yoon & Nelson, 1991). Both districts to reduce the amount of physical education class time each resistance bands and body weight exercises provide the body with student receives per week. As a result children lead more sedentary a resistance that will help increase muscular strength (Berry, 2004) lives leading to the weakening of muscle fibers in the body. Ad- (Nelson et al., 1991). ditionally much of the modern technology eliminates many upper body strength tasks required at home or work (Rupnow, 1985). As Upper Body Resistance Exercises a result of physical education cutbacks and increased technology Studies on Body Weight Resistance Exercises Presidential Physical Fitness test scores are on a decline (English, Body weight resistance field tests have been conducted and 1989). To improve these scores it is recommended students per- have conclusively shown the importance of upper body strength form 1 set of 6-15 repetitions of upper body exercises at least 2-3 to fitness tests scores (Rupnow, 1985). Due to the high percent- times per week (Faigenbaum, et al., 2001). Through the plans age of students who are overweight many field tests involving of action the schools can provide a more inviting atmosphere to body weight resistance are modified. One specific research study exercise, allowing the students to be more successful in attaining testing upper body strength utilized pull-ups, flexed arm hang, fitness goals (Rupnow, 1985). Physical educators are encouraged push-ups, Vermont modified pull-ups, and New York modified to not only teach primarily motor skill activities, but also include pull-ups. These modifications were utilized in order to reduce the upper body strength exercises in daily lessons (Rupnow, 1985). number of zero scores received due to out of shape participants (Pate, 1993). Body weight resistance exercises possess negative Upper Body Strength Gains aspects like these, but various research studies have concluded Upper body strength gains can be made in both females and that it improves muscular strength. males when resistance training methods are utilized (Johnson, Anderson and Kearney (1982) reported in a research study 1974). One study reported resistance training can lead to an that resistance training using body weight resistance can enhance increase in muscular strength in children of both genders (Faigen- muscular performance. Other studies have proven that arm and baum, et al., 2001). Strength gains in men and women may differ upper body strength gains are prevalent when body weight resis- as a result of certain variables. Studies have shown that males, tance exercises are utilized (English, 1989). The downside to body however, have more testosterone resulting in higher absolute gains weight resistance exercises is that high body weight can sometimes in muscular strength than women (Heyward & McCreary, 1977). conflict with a person’s ability to be successful (Pate et.al., 1993). Heyward & McCreary (1977) stated that upper body strength of By being creative and utilizing body weight resistance exercises non-athletic females was 43% to 63% less than that of males. and activities, teachers are able to guide students into reaching Johnson (1974) found the use of resistance training methods with a level of exertion needed for maximum muscular development young males and females improved upper body strength for both (Rupnow, 1985). As a result of the high number of zero scores genders. Pushup scores for males increased by 18.6 repetitions, on body weight resistance tests some teachers have tried various with pull-ups and dips also showing significant improvement. techniques to achieve improvement in these tests. Daily push-ups, Females displayed improvement in pushups, pull-ups, and dips. pull-ups, and rope pulls have been utilized; however, no significant The score improvements provide evidence that the fitness scores difference in strength gains have been reported. English (1989), can be improved among both genders through the utilization of stated innovative methods like “The Muscle Machine” allowed resistance training methods (Johnson, 1974). students the opportunity to make strength gains using body weight

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 6 resistance. The Muscle Machine is composed of a ramp, two week period the participants were put through ten exercises using carts, and a bar at the top of the ramp. The ramp is adjusted to the resistance bands to increase dynamic strength. The results different levels to provide a higher resistance. The lower angle of the test showed the resistance bands made a safe and effec- allows students with troubles doing pull-ups the opportunity to gain tive increase in dynamic strength of the participants (Zion et al., some upper body strength through this modified version (English, 2003). Zion et al., (2003) stated the test showed this method of 1989). Research showed body weight resistance was used with therapy could be used for elderly patients to increase their muscular this method allowing students who could not do one pull-up on strength, functional ability, and promote physical activity. Other the chinning bar the opportunity to succeed. The results of the studies have shown resistance bands provide less stress on the research showed significant upper body strength gains from the body’s joints than traditional resistance training (Wallace et al., muscle machine resulting in fewer zero scores by the participants 2004). The downside to resistance bands is the need for equip- (English, 1989). ment, whereas other body weight resistance methods require no By gaining increased amounts of strength through body equipment (Wilson, 2000). weight resistance exercises Rupnow (1985) stated students were As described above. strength training involving youths have able to perform motor skills with greater ease. Research suggests shown to have many positive results. Studies have illustrated the use of modified push-ups can help increase upper body strength that utilizing resistance and strength training at a young age helps and endurance for students of varying abilities and ages (Nelson in prevention of cardiovascular disease. Other health related et al., 1991). Modified push-ups are done by having the feet topics that are affected are reduction in blood pressure, improve- shoulder width apart in the regular push-up position, bending at ment of basic motor skills, early development of good posture, the hip, keeping knees straight and placing the hands on the floor. and improved flexibility (Roberts, 2002). Roberts (2002) stated This is considered the up position. The student bends his elbows previous studies have shown resistance training at a young age and touches the forehead to the partners hand on the ground to interfered with the development of the child’s body. However, achieve the down position. The push-ups are done through a recent studies have shown resistance training at a young age is safe cadence of up/down. The test stops when the student is unable to and effective in gaining strength and endurance. Roberts (2002) keep up with the cadence. The test is given over a two minute stated the results of the test showed the ability to develop peak time period (Nelson et. al, 1991). The modified push up exercise strength occurs at puberty, so therefore it is safe and effective to was also found to be more easily administered than the regular utilize resistance training exercises at a young age. fitness push-up test, because repetitions were more easily able to be counted (Nelson, et al., 1991). Other resistance exercises that Summary help students achieve their fitness goals are modified pull-ups, such Both body weight and band resistance training programs have as the Vermont pull-up or the Muscle Machine (Nelson et al. 1991; been found to be successful in gaining upper body strength and English, 1989). As school’s attempt to improve students upper endurance. Each program boasts results which show it can help body strength innovative methods using body weight resistance increase upper body strength better than any other program avail- exercises are being utilized (Pate, et al., 1993). able. Fitness experts around the world have their own idea of which exercise component is the most effective in gaining upper Studies on Resistance Bands body strength. Finding out which resistance training method is Resistance bands in a workout have been proven to be effective the most beneficial is what this project will address. in gaining muscular strength and endurance (Wallace, 2004). The Fire Cadet Strength and Conditioning Recruit training utilizes resistance bands to prepare cadets for the 18-week Firefighting References Recruit training program. In many cases bands connected to free Anderson, T, & Kearney, J. (1982). Effects of Three Resistance weights were used as attachments during free weight resistance Training Programs on Muscular Strength and Absolute and exercises. The results of the exercises showed a significant in- Relative Endurance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and crease in upper body strength of the cadets (Berry, 2004). In a Sport, 53, 1-7. study by Wallace, Winchester & McGuilgan (2004), at Cornell Berry, M. (2004). Using Bands Five Tips to Success. Retrieved University, the impact of resistance bands during an eight week January 28, 2005 from http://strengthcats.com/usingbandstips- session was investigated. One group used bungee bands while tosuccess.htm . the other used weight training techniques. During the eight week English, A. (1989). The Muscle Machine and Upper Body process both groups used identical exercise routines. Results of Strength. Strategies, 2, 18-21. the study showed the group which used the resistance bands had a Faigenbaum, A, Loud, R, O’Connell, J, Glover, S, O’Connell, significant improvement in muscular strength. The other control J, & Westcott, W. (2001). Effects of Different Resistance group showed improvement, but was not able to exceed the efforts Training Protocols on Upper-Body Strength and Endurance of the resistance bands (Wallace et al., 2004). Development in Children. Journal of Strength and Condition- An 8-week study investigated the impact of a resistance band ing Research, 15, 459-465. program designed to improve muscular strength of home bound, Heyward, V, & McCreary, L. (1977). Analysis of the Static injured elderly women (Zion, Meersman, Diamond, and Bloom- Strength and Relative Endurance of Women Athletes. Re- field, 2003). The goals of the test were to safely and effectively search Quarterly, 48, 703-710. increase the muscular strength of the patients. During the eight

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 7 Johnson, R. (1974). Effects of Manual Negative Accentuated Battle. Journal of Physical Education Recreation and Dance, Resistance on Strength and/or Muscular Endurance. 56, 60-63. Nelson, J, Yoon, S, & Nelson, K. (1991). A Field Test for Up- Wallace, B., Winchester, J., & McGuilgan, M. (2004). Effects of per Body Strength and Endurance. Research Quarterly for Elastic Bands on Force and Power Characteristics During the Exercise and Sport, 62, 436-441. Back Squat Exercise. Presented at the 2004 NSCA National Pate, R, Burgess, M, Woods, J, Ross, J, & Baumgartner, T. (1993). Conference. Minneapolis, MN. Validity of Field Tests of Upper Body Muscular Strength. Wilson, M .A. (2000). Favorite Resistance Band Exercises. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 17-24. Retrieved January 29,2005 from http://www.sitandbefit.com/ Roberts, S. (2002). A Strong Start: Strength and Resistance resistance_band.htm . Training Guidelines for Children and Adolescents. American Zion, A.S., Meersman, R., Diamond, B.E., & Bloomfield, D.M. Fitness, 22, 51- 55. (2003). A Home Based Resistance-Training Program Using Rupnow, A. (1985). Upper Body Strength Helping Kids Win the Elastic Bands for Elderly Patients with Orthostatic Hypoten- sion. Clinical Autonomic Research Journal. 13, 2.

2009 SWVA VAHPERD Clinic held at Radford University

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 8 The "O" Factor: A Review of the Literature and Strategies to Reduce Childhood Obesity Dr. Rodney Gaines, Virginia State University and Liberty University, Associate Professor and Head Strength & Conditioning Coach Jacey Bailey, Christy Gibbons, Megan Hurley, Krystle Matthews, Cory McLeod, Laura Miller, Liberty University Students

Obesity in children is increasing at an alarming rate. “Results parents. What can school systems and teachers do to help with from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System suggest that the crisis? obesity prevalence has increased by more than 50% among adults Childhood obesity is becoming more of an epidemic as years between 1991-1999” (Strauss, 2001). Obesity is now affecting pass. Thirty years ago children were playing in their yards and over 90 million Americans (ACSM Resources Manual, 2009). In were being involved with sports. In the present time, children are 2003-2004 33.6% of U.S. children and adolescents were classified sitting in front of their television playing video games and eating. as overweight or obese (Ogden et al., 2006). Unfortunately, this problem is the result of a parent’s irresponsibil- Obesity is commonly determined by looking at a person’s BMI ity to force their children to stay active by monitoring their amount or body mass index (BMI). It can be found by the following formu- of time doing sedentary activities. The parents’ determination to la: (body mass in kilograms divided by height in meters squared) encourage their children to participate in exercise will be a major or (weight in pounds divided by height in inches squared)*703. role in whether that child can lead a healthy lifestyle.. This formula is a good assessment to classify someone as under- According to “Roundup of Obesity Studies” researchers have weight, adequate, overweight, or obese. A BMI equal to or greater linked obesity to depression, mood swings, and anxiety problems than 30 is an indication of obesity, while 25-29 is a sign of being in both children and adults based on a survey of nine thousand overweight. Underweight is having a BMI under 18.5 and this one hundred twenty-five adults. As we know obesity is an issue can put a person at risk for osteoporosis. Other measures are for that our society is being faced with on a day to day basis. Our women to have a waist/hip ratio of <.86, and men <.95. Obesity busy lives and fast-food chains are playing a huge roles in the may also be determined by waist size, where women are classified obesity epidemic; however, this study shows how early of an age as obese if they have a waist size of 88 cm, and men have a waist this epidemic is starting. According to this article there was a circumference of 102 cm. This is translated as 35 inches forwo twenty-five percent higher probability with emotional issues if the men and 40 inches for men. Typically, with skin fold calipers a participants were obese. The research in this article also showed body fat>32% for women and >25% for men are indicators of obese participants had some damaged brain cells and those who obesity as well (ACSM Resource Manual, 2009). were physically active and fit aged better according to a study Obesity puts anyone at a higher risk for cardiovascular disease performed in Scotland. The terms “baby fat” is not something one (CVD). There is also a strong correlation between obesity with outgrows anymore, but more of a warning sign that is continuing other chronic diseases. Metabolic syndrome is where a person to rapidly grow. Research showed children that were overweight has been classified as obese, high blood glucose, high blood and had a body mass index great than eighty-fifth percentile at the cholesterol, and high blood pressure. Some associate this with ages two, three, and four and a half were five time more likely syndrome X, and it puts a person at 4x greater risk of developing to be overweight at the age of twelve. Children that were over- heart disease. Increased abdominal fat is associated with metabolic weight in preschool and elementary school were sixty to eighty syndrome. We also know that metabolic syndrome is associated percent more likely to be obese at the age of twelve. An even with hypertension, type II diabetes, dyslipidemia, and obstructive more alarming research performed was a study by the University sleep apnea. Children with obesity are at a greater risk of develop- of Florida. Researchers studied eighteen people who had been ing CVD (Center for Disease Control, 2007). Obesity does cause morbidly obese, which means weighing one hundred and fifty insulin insensitivity, which may lead to type II diabetes (Krauss et percent of their normal body weight, when they were only four al., 1998). There are five main causes of obesity: energy imbal- years of age. This article also goes into Prada-Willi syndrome and ance, sedentary lifestyle, poor diet balance, endocrine disorders, how it is a genetic cause for childhood obesity. The article, “Risk and lack of exercise (ACSM Resource Manual, 2009). and Protective Factors in the Development of Eating disorders,” Children become less active as they move through adolescence also records low self-esteem, weight concerns, dietary restraints, (ACSM Resource Manual, 2009). Obesity can cause a number body dissatisfaction, depression, and negative emotionally being of malfunctions of the body. The short and long term effects may reasons for obesity (Roundup of Obesity Studies, 2007). include: psychological and social problems, physical incapabilities, An alarming two-thirds of adults and one-third of children are type 2 diabetes, sleep apnea, cancer, high cholesterol, high blood obese according to this article. An even more alarming statistic pressure, liver damage, coronary heart disease, and osteoarthritis. is one in every thirteen deaths in the European Union is related In order to solve the problem, we need to determine the common to excess weight according to this article(Devi, 2008) When one causes. There needs to be a nationwide commitment to physical consumes more calories than they work off the cells become activity for both children and adults. Primarily, it starts with the large resulting in obesity and obesity, if started when young, is

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 9 extremely harder to tackle as adults. More research concluded were other students with similar observable characteristics who that Lisa Mohebati believes there are two different types of feed- attended schools not located near fast food restaurants. Models ing styles. The first type of feeding style is the indulgent style, predicting youths overweight and obesity showed that a youth had defined ast the parent just giving in to the child’s wants not thinking 1.06 times the odds of being overweight and 1.07 times the odds of about the long term effect of unhealthy eating or lack of physical being obese if the youth’s school was near a fast-food restaurant” activity. The other feeding style is referred to as the dictatorial or (Davis, 2009). With these findings it would be important for the authoritative style in which the parent is in control and insensitive school systems to meet with the fast food restaurants and the local to the child. (Devi, 2008). Many parents in today’s society are area, and see if these restaurants can offer healthier choices. One becoming more and more consumed with their careers and busy thing is to reward students for eating healthy off the menu. They lifestyles to even see just how dangerous childhood obesity is. could receive some type of reward for making health choices. They continue to use fast-food as an answer to no time for cook- The greatest reduction in physical activity occurs during the ing or television and/or video games as a babysitter. Correcting adolescent years. There was some question whether there were childhood obesity before it is too late is crucial to the lives of our any correlations between Physical Activity (PA) and Emotional children in our society today and the world as we know it (Devi, Self-Efficacy (ESE). A study by Valors, Umstattd, Zulig & Paxton 2008)With this study, hopefully the importance as well as risk fac- (2008) investigated the relationship between PA and ESE in the tors to conquering childhood obesity in our nation will be noticed state of South Carolina, and the sample size included 3836 youth. but also taken seriously. The CDC Youth Risk Behavior Survey of PA and the ESE Scale In 2009, Harris, Kuramoto, Schulzer, & Retallack, looked at were used to analyze as instruments, and analyses included logistic the effect of school-based physical activity interventions on body regression and multivariate models. This study showed there is mass index in children. The study was a meta-analysis, and it a drop from 69% in physical activity from ages 12-13 to 38% by included Medline, Embase, CINAHL, and the Cochrane Central ages 18-21. Physical activity may enhance the physiological and Register of Controlled Trials before and after interventions. These psychological aspects of children. A drop in physical activity programs were all school based, and lasted a minimum of 6 months. may be associated with social isolation, depression, anger, stress, There were 398 relevant articles, but only 18 of the studies met the and anxiety. Youth and adolescents participating in sports may criteria for time and evaluation requirements. Most of the students enhance their physical activity and emotional self-efficacy (Valors were primarily from elementary school systems, and the average et. Al, 2008). Life-long programs should be promoted in schools, time of the studies were 6 months to 3 years. In this study the worksites, and community organizations, and these programs will Meta-analysis failed to show a significant improvement in BMI, enhance enjoyable experiences, build emotional self-efficacy, and and there were no consistent changes in other measures of body promote cognitive learning. Results also revealed significant dif- composition using skinfolds and the bodpod. In conclusion this ferences by race and gender. Results also indicated significance meta-analysis showed that school-based physical activity interven- between reduced PA, moderate PA, and strength/toning exercise tion programs failed to improve BMI, but it did have other health were related to reduced ESE for specific race and gender groups. benefits (Harris et al., 2009) This study shows there is a strong relationship between lower Fast food has become an intricate part of American culture, physical activity and self-efficacy, and this validates the need for especially teen America. More than 9 million children are cur- more physical activity improvements in adolescents (Valors et rently considered obese, and millions more are on the (Harries et al., 2008). al., 2009). According to the text “Fast food consumption by 2 to Jaser, Hall, Jefferson, & Grey (2009) addressed the issue of 18 year olds increased 5-fold from 1977 to 1995; by the latter year, depressive symptoms and at risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus. The fast food was consumed at 9% of eating occasions and comprised study looked at whether there is a correlation between depressive 12% of daily caloric intake,’ almost 1/3 of all youth is now eating symptoms in urban youth and does this put them at a higher risk at fast food restaurants on any given day.’ One study reports that for type 2 diabetes mellitus. The study consisted of a self-report weekly consumption of fast food by young adults is directly as- of 198 youth, and it investigated depressive symptoms and health sociated with a 0.2 unit increase in body mass index (BMI). This attitudes. Those with a BMI in the 85% had a higher clinical puts our youth at risk for unnecessary health risk. The study was evidence of depressions. Hispanic youth reported higher level of to determine if the proximity of fast food restaurants to schools in depressive symptoms for several behaviors and attitudes. Some California had an effect on students’ weight. The results were as of the behaviors and attitudes included a lack of desire to exercise, follow: “The average BMI for students in the sample was 21.7kg/m low motivation, and lack of ability to work at high intensities. squared, which the CDC considers a healthy weight for boys and Depressive symptoms for several health behaviors were related girls aged at least 12.5 years old. About 27.7% of our sample was to a higher BMI and fasting insulin levels. The findings in this overweight, and 12% of our sample was obese. Half of the students study signify a greater emphasis and concentration in the minority were girls, and the racial/ethnic composition was largely white and youths. In order to combat this problem, youth should be treated Hispanic. About 30% of the sample was in middle school. Over for both the emotional issues along with encouraging physical one third of the students attended schools in suburban areas. Over activity. In the previous review the author Jaser saw that there half of all the students attend schools near or within one half mile was a relationship between physical activity and emotional self- of a fast food restaurant. The results indicated that youth who at- efficacy. The interventions can’t address PA alone, but all inter- tended schools located near fast food restaurants were heavier than ventions should consider the behavioral aspects of the youth and

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 10 adolescent as well when it comes to obesity. (Jaser et. al., 2009). sweetened beverages account for 11-16% of the daily calories of In considering intervention programs, another consideration children (Dietz & Hunter, 2009) Another consideration is for for provoking the youth and adolescents to become more active insurance companies to recognize obesity as a medical condi- is the idea of the walking to school (Kong, 2009). Kong’s (2009) tion, and allow obese people to have paid visits to dieticians and study investigated the effects of the type of modality used to get physical therapist. There also needs to be more intervention in to school, such as walking or bicycling and its impact on physi- child and daycare centers (Dietz & Hunter, 2009). Although one cal activity. There has been little data to investigate the modality study showed that school based intervention programs may not be of youth and adolescents mode of activity. In this study primary improving the BMI in children, there has been a halt in the increase school age children wore an accelerometer, and this recorded min- of youth obesity from years 2003-2006 (Dietz & Hunter, 2009). ute by minute physical activity. Total volume of physical activity There needs to be more media attention given to the problem and hourly physical activity patterns were estimated and groups of along with programs before, during and after focusing on school children were compared by mode of travel to school. Data were wellness policies. There needs to be better food services, and an collected as part of the European Youth Heart Study. There were increase in walk to school campaigns. a total of 332 children and the average ages were 9.7 years. Find- We know that exercise and physical activity are grave com- ings showed children who walked to school were more physically ponents for maintaining ideal weights in everyone. One of the active than those who traveled to school by car. The cycling group major interventions across the country will be to continue physical was significantly different than walking, but only when looking activity and exercise in the school systems. It should be mandated at boys (Cooper et al., 2009). A similar study showed that those nationwide that all schools k-12 should have 60 minutes a day set students who commuted to school were significantly more active aside for physical activity. Physical activity and exercise reduces than the students who traveled by car (Cooper, 2003). These find- visceral fat loss in abdomen, positive effect on glucose metabo- ings warrant for more intervention in walking school buses and lism. The American College of Sports Medicine recommends 60 programs promoting students to commute to school in a manner minutes daily and obese individuals may need to exercise 60 to to increase physical activity. The walking school bus is a program 90 minutes daily. The intensity level should be 40-60% of the where students walk to school instead of taking the bus, and the maximum oxygen uptake, and there should be an accumulation students are supervised by parents or school personnel. This is of 240 minutes. It may also be beneficial for obese individuals to also where personal trainers could play a part in helping the kids exercise twice a day to increase the excess post oxygen consump- with exercise. Programs could be developed where more students tion and the increase in the calories burned at rest. All teachers, are commuting to school through walking or cycling. Programs coaches, and personal trainers should be careful when working could be setup, where different bus routes would require students with overweight clients, because there are great risk of falling, to walk to certain points, and safety of students walking need to osteoarthritis, and thermoregulatory issues. There needs to be a be considered. high level of motivation and goal setting on the part of the teacher. According to Dietz and Hunter, 2009, obesity accounts for 25% There should be gradual progression of intensity and duration, of the increase in per capita medical cost between 1987-2001. flexibility, warm-up, and cool-down. The leader should educate With all the hype about obesity in youth, there has actually been the youth on proper hydration and attire, and also educate in the no increase in youth obesity in the years 2003-2006. The media area of temperature and humidity( Acsm Resource Manual, 2009) coverage making the public more aware of obesity tripled from the In closing, here are some additional considerations for the years of 2000 to 2004 as reported in the Journal of Law, Medicine, framework. Teachers are somewhat over engaged with grading and Ethics. Because of the increase in media coverage, the aware- and classroom management. There has been a significant increase ness of the obesity crisis in everyone has caused more awareness in personal trainers over the last 10 years, and school systems and caution. There has been a public health framework developed could contract in or hire personal trainers to specifically work with to concentrate on six areas to help combat obesity (Dietz & Hunter, overweight students and clients. School systems may also want 2009). The public health framework has six areas of concentration to consider hiring fulltime registered dieticians for each school to assist in the obesity crisis: systems, and a close alliance between the teachers, coaches, and 1) Increased Physical Activity (PA) registered dieticians would be established. Many school systems have added strength and conditioning coaches and athletic trainers, 2) Increased breastfeeding in infants but the next wave of budgets need to include personal trainers, and dieticians. Schools could apply for grant money that will pay the 3) Increased fruits and vegetable additional staffing that will help with the youth and adolescents who have weight issues. In this way the kids receive one on one 4) Reduced consumption of high energy foods intervention, and the workouts will be more confidential and inti- 5) Reduced consumption of sugar sweetened beverages mate. This would allow for all students who have weight issues to receive the intervention needed. Personal trainers could possibly 6) Reduced television time work with students by having them come to school 30-60 minutes early, and also it could be incorporated into homeroom and break It is believed that none of these strategies would work alone, and times. One last consideration is to hire consultants in the area of emphasis needs to be put on all six to help in reducing obesity exercise and sport psychology, and these individuals will help with (Dietz & Hunter, 2009) The research indicates that for ages 2-19, behavioral issues along with working with the teachers, personal

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 11 trainers, and coaches. This is the next push needed to aid in the Devi, Sharmila. (2008). Progress on childhood obesity patchy in obesity crisis in our youth. Parents would need to be on board, the USA. The Lancet, 371(9607), 105-6 and one good thing with the personal trainers and dieticians, they Dietz, W. & Hunter, A. (2009, July). Legal preparedness for obe- could intervene with the parents as well. The next decade May sity prevention and control. Journal of Law, Medicine, and see an increase in personal trainers, dieticians, sport psychologist, Ethics. 9-14 and strength coaches in the K-12 system. Harris, K.C., Kuramoto, L.K., Schulzer, M., Retallack, J., (2009). Effect of school-based physical activity interventions on body mass index in children: a meta-analysis. CMAJ. 180(7),719-726. REFERENCES Jaser, S.S., Hall, M.G., Jefferson, V., & Grey, M. (2009). Corre- lates of depressive symptoms in urban youth at risk for type 2 ACSM Resources Manual (2009). Exercise Prescriptions in Spe- Diabetes mellitus. Journal School Health,. 79,286-292. cial Populations: Women, Pregnancy, Children, and Elderly. Kong, A., Sussmon, A., Negrete, S. Patterson, N., Mittlemon, R., Baltimore, MD, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, p. 668, & Hough, R. (2009, July). Implementation of a walking school Candida, H. (2009). Tackling childhood obesity. Primary Health bus: Lesson learned. Journal of School Health, 79(7), 319-325. Care, 19(4), 22-24. Krauss, R.M., Winston, M., Fletcher, B.J. & Grundy, S.M. (1998). Center for Disease Control and Prevention Primry Prevention Obesity: Impact on cardiovascular disease. Circulation. Working Group. (2004). Primary prevention of type 2 diabe- 111,3481-34818 tes mellitus by lifestyle intervention: implications for health Roundup of Important Obesity Studies (2007). Journal of Physical policy. Ann Intern Med, 140(11), 951-957. Education, Recreation & Dance,78(4), 3. Cooper, A., Page, a., Foster, L., & Qahwaji, D. (2003 ). Commut- Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., Curtin, L.R., McDowell, M.A., Tabak, ing to school: Are children who walk more physicall active? C.J., &Flegal, K.M. (2006) Prevalence of overweight and American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25(4), 273. obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. Journal-American Cooper, A., Andersen, L., Wedderkopp, N., Page, A., & Froberg, Medical Association, 295, 1549-1555. K. (2005,). Physical activity levels of children who walk, Strauss, R.S. & Pollack, H.A. (2001). Epidemic increase in child- cycle or are driven to school. American Journal of Preventive hood overweight, 1986-1998. Journal-American Medical Medicine, 29(3), 179-184. Association, 286, 2845-2848. Davis, B. & Carpenter, C. (2009). Proximity of fast-food restau- Valors, R.F., Umstattd, M.R., Zulig, K.J., & Paxton, R.J. (2008). rants to schools and adolescent obesity. American Journal of Physical activity behaviors and emotional self-efficacy: Is Public Health. 99(3), 505-510. there a relationship for adolescents. Journal of School Health. 78, 321-327.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 12 Are You Coaching Mental Skills? Why Not? John W. Creasy, Ph.D., Assistant Professor - Health & Human Performance, Roanoke College Matt Rearick, Ph.D., Assistant Professor - Health & Human Performance, Roanoke College James Buriak, ATC, Associate Professor - Health & Human Performance, Roanoke College Lindsay Wright, Roanoke College

Introduction: Qualitative Interview Results Across all levels of the athlete continuum, from youth through Question 1: Do you feel that mental skills are important to develop professional sports, psychological preparation is as essential to in your athletes? If so, how important do you feel these skills are? success as physical conditioning, adequate hydration and proper 100% of the participants agreed that mental skills are important nutrition. For many athletes psychological barriers impede perfor- in an athlete, and are very important or vital to their programs. mance as well as the ability to enjoy otherwise meaningful experi- Each coach felt that mental skills were as important to develop in ences. Since the early 1980s sport psychologists have stressed the athletes as physical skills. Moreover 80% of coaches mentioned importance of psychological or mental training through research that the overall performance of their athletes is related to their in areas such as concentration (Durand-Bush, & Salmela, 2002), ability to focus under pressure. motivation (Gould, Dieffenbach & Moffett, 2002), imagery (Gould, Eklund & Jackson, 1993) and mental toughness (Jones, Hanton Question 2: Do you work with your team in an attempt to develop & Connaughton, 2002). Much of this work reinforces the need to their mental skills? develop mental skills training programs designed to assist athletes 9% of the coaches (2 out of 22) responded that they work with in managing the various psychological impediments to success their team to develop mental skills. (Murphy, 2005). Mental skill training focuses on the positive aspects of an ath- Question 3: Why do you feel that coaches in general do not spend lete’s performance, abilities and preparation while enabling an enough time on developing mental skills? athlete to gain more control over their performance. Mental skills 100% of participants provided the same two reasons for not spend- training is most effective when implemented in a routine training ing more time on developing mental skills. The first was due to program and must be practiced often (Porter, 2004). Athletes from NCAA time restrictions and the second was due to a general lack amateur to the elite can improve their performance by practicing of knowledge or comfort level in providing mental skills training. mental skills as diligently as they practice their sports; however data also suggests a divergence between attitudes towards mental Question 4: Do you feel a program designed to develop mental skills training and actual implementation of effective programs. skills for your athletes would be useful to your program? For example, Gould, Hodge, Peterson, and Petlichkoff (1987) 100% of participants agreed that a mental skills development conducted a study which addressed this dilemma with intercol- program would be beneficial as long as it would not be time- legiate wrestling coaches. Although 82% of the coaches in this prohibitive. study rated mental skills as important components in determining wrestling success, only 9% of those same coaches reported suc- Question 5: If a program were designed to take no more than 15 cess in developing mental skills in their athletes. Therefore, even minutes a week, would you consider adding it to your practice though coaches and sport performers are aware of the significance time? and impact of mental skills in sports, they have problems develop- 100% of participants agreed if a program took no longer than 15 ing these skills systematically. minutes a week they would add it to their practice regime.

Present Investigation: Conclusion: In an effort to further clarify the divergence between the impor- It is apparent, within our small sample group, coaches across all tance and implementation of mental skills training, semi-structured NCAA divisions in which we interviewed feel the development of interviews were conducted with twenty-two National Collegiate mental skills is an important contributor to overall athletic perfor- Athletic Association (NCAA) coaches from a mix of Division mance. Each coach interviewed indicated that mental skills were I, II, III male and female sports teams. Each participant had a important for their athletes to possess yet only 9% (2 out of 22) minimum of ten years of experience as a head or assistant coach responded that they made a deliberate attempt to develop mental at the college level, in their specific sport. Interview questions skills with their team or individuals on their team. These findings and procedures were approved by the Internal Review Board at are in line with those of Gould, Hodge, Peterson and Petlichkoff Roanoke College (Study Number: 09HP024). (1987) and indicate a need for the development of those skills. Coaches were surveyed in an effort to determine: Based on additional feedback, coaches cite the lack of knowl- 1.) If coaches are implementing mental skills training? edge and time restrictions as primary impediments toward the 2.) What factors influenced mental skills training? development and implementation of mental skills training. Time 3.) What kinds of programs could be successfully integrated restrictions in particular make it challenging for coaches and/or into practice schedules? program developers to design a comprehensive mental skills pro-

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 13 gram. Yet, many coaches suggested that a pre-designed program, which included 10 to 12 sessions of 15 to 20 minutes of mental training per week, could be implemented. In conclusion, it appears a short, focused mental skills training program can be implemented into typical practice routines and schedules. Even though short sessions would by no means sub- stitute for a comprehensive mental skills program, they provide a distinct opportunity to finally implement important mental skills training into practice sessions. Furthermore, findings from this study also support those of Bull, Shamrock, James and Brooks (2005) who indicated coaches need an integrated coaching team (from skill development, to conditioning to psychology) to assist in the selection and implementation of the most comprehensive training program for athletes.

References: Bull, S.J., Shamrock, C.J., James,W. & Brooks, J.E., (2005). To- wards and understanding of mental toughness in elite English cricketers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 209-227 Clough, P., Earle, K. & Sewell, D., (2002). Mental Toughness: the concept and its measurement. In: Cockerill, I., Editor, (2002). Solutions in sport psychology, Thompson, London. Durand-Bush, N., & Salmela, J. (2002). The development and maintenance of expert athletic performance: Perceptions of world and Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psy- chology, 14, 154-171. Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., & Moffett, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172-204. Gould, D., Eklund, R., & Jackson, S. (1993). Coping Strategies used by U.S. Olympic wrestlers. Research Quarterly for Ex- ercise and Sport, 64, 83-93. Gould, D., Hodge, K., Peterson, K., & Petlichkoff, L. (1987). Psychological foundations of coaching: Similarities and dif- ferences among intercollegiate wrestling coaches. The Sport Psychologist, 1, 293-308. Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). What is this thing called Mental Toughness? An investigation of Elite Sport Performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 205-218 Murphy, S. (2005). The Sport Psychology Handbook. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Porter, K. (2004). The Mental Athlete. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 14 Supersizing of Tobacco Advertising Targeting Youth: A Pilot Study of Convenience Stores in Virginia Phoebe Butler Ajibade, EdD, Assistant Professor, North Carolina A & T State University, Human Performance and Leisure Studies ABSTRACT of the five cigarette companies accounted for more than 90% of Convenience stores have become a major location for the all sales in the United States in 2005, five are headquartered in display of tobacco advertisements since the Master Settlement the South (Maxwell, 2007). These five are: the Altria Group Inc. Agreement (Wakefield et al, 2002). This study examined tobac- Philip Morris USA (49.2%), Reynolds American Inc. (27.8%), co displays at convenience stores to assess the types, frequencies Lorillard (9.7%), Commonwealth Brands (3.7%), and Liggett and characteristics of tobacco displays in two tobacco-manufac- (2.4%) (Maxwell, 2007). turing states. Observations of 50 convenience stores located in Convenience stores account for the largest number of retail urban sections of Virginia were made to record the presence of tobacco sales (Center for Tobacco Policy and Organizing, 2007) Point-of-Purchase (POP) measures: exterior ads, interior ads, in the U.S.; this is concerning since the majority of youth go to promotional campaigns, age limit signage, self-service tobacco, convenience stores at least once a week (Point of Purchase ad- and functional items (containing the logos of the companies). vertising Institute, 1992). Recent studies have found a relation- This nonrandom purposive sample of included stores located ship between teen smoking and POP marketing (Slater, 2007). within a 100-mile radius of tobacco manufacturing companies. The visitations coincide with a subtle increase in the numbers of The assessments were conducted using observational methods young smokers. for content analysis. The findings confirmed a higher prevalence This study seeks to add to the literature regarding tobacco- of interior and exterior ads, as well as promotions (for reduced marketing strategies in the South and POP tobacco advertising cost cigarettes) than found in earlier studies (Terry-McElrath, targeted toward Southern youth. Prior studies examined POP 2002). All of the stores also contained special promotions for for tobacco products in California, Boston, Massachusetts, and less expensive and discounted cigarettes. Hawaii. The purpose of this study was to assess the types and frequencies of tobacco advertisements and displays at conve- INTRODUCTION nience stores in Virginia. In particular, it assesses POP market- Tobacco use remains the leading behavioral cause of death, re- ing at convenience stores through measures cited in prior studies sponsible for nearly 440,000 deaths per year (CDC, 2002). Large (Terry-McElrath, 2002): (1) exterior ads, (2) interior ads, (3) numbers of Americans continue to smoke despite the well-docu- low height ads (3 feet high or lower), (4) age limit signage, (5) mented health risks that are associated with chronic tobacco use. special promotions, (6) self-service versus clerk assisted tobacco Smoking is associated directly with asthma, chronic bronchitis, products, and (6) functional items (e.g. change cups, clocks). lung cancer, coronary heart disease and emphysema (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2001). It is a high cost activity, studies METHODS indicated that between 1997–2001, cigarette smoking was esti- Sample Selection mated to be responsible for $167 billion in annual health-related A purposive sample of 50 convenience stores was selected for economic losses in the United States ($75 billion in direct medi- this pilot study. In order to be included in the study, the stores cal costs, and $92 billion in lost productivity); this translates to had to be within a 100 mile radius of tobacco manufacturing $3,702 per adult smoker (CDC, 2006). companies and be “chain-based” convenience stores (e.g. Hess, In part, the 1998 master settlement agreement (MSA) places Exxon, Shell). In Virginia, 50 stores were selected in Richmond, limits on the ways in which tobacco products can be advertised, Newport News, Hampton, and York County. Convenience stores promoted and sold in the United States. The MSA bans tobacco were excluded if they were privately owned (e.g. not part of a advertising via television, radio and billboards. The prohibition chain). This study examined patterns among chain stores. Previ- of billboard advertising triggered a massive growth of tobacco ous studies have shown that privately owned stores have more advertising in retail stores (Wakefield, 2002). Much of this ad- tobacco ads placed outside and inside of the stores. Also, service vertising was of the form known as “point-of-purchasing” ad- stations that did not have attached convenience stores were ex- vertisement (POP) for tobacco on store windows and around the cluded. counters. POP tobacco promotions and advertising have been found to Data Collection be more common in retail stores located in the Southern region Observations were made and recorded at 50 convenience of the United States, as compared to other regions (Ruel et al, stores in Virginia. The protocol that was used included unob- 2004). This may be in part because the tobacco industry has trusive data collection. Notes were taken inside and the results historically served as a major source of economic development were recorded outside of the store. The form was created for this in the South (Landon, 1933). The most powerful tobacco pro- study by the researcher and based on the variables that were cited ducing companies in the United States are located in Virginia in earlier research of POP measures (Terry-McElrath, 2002). Ad- and North Carolina (Landon, 1933 & Maxwell, 2007). Further, ditionally, a checklist of characteristics was completed.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 15 Upon entering the stores’ parking lots, the trained coder recorded the presence of signs containing tobacco company logos and prices in and on parking lots, gas pumps and store windows/ doors. The interior windows, doors, walls, and counters were examined for tobacco advertisements and displays. Notations were made regarding the location of the displays and signs. Descriptive statistics including frequencies and percentages were used to calculate the presence of interior and exterior ads, low height ads, self-assisted versus clerk assisted products; functional items, age limit signs, and special promotions. Low height ads are 3 feet high and placed at the eye level of young children. Self assisted tobacco products require the store clerk for purchase. Functional items include items containg the logo or ads from the tobacco company that a customer would use for shopping (cart, basket, clock). Special promotions consist of Self-assisted versus Clerk-assisted Products reduced pricing either by special purchase (buy one, get one free) The majority (82%) of stores did not have self-assisted to- or reduced priced tobacco. bacco products. However approximately 1/5 stores did contain products on the counters and beside the counters that customers RESULTS could pick up themselves. A few stores also contained tobacco Exterior Signs products that were beside the potato chips and/or candy on aisles Ads were located in the parking lots of most stores. The ma- that were not directly beside the check out counter and in direct jority of the stores (86%) had signs on the windows and doors vision of the store clerk. One store had signs advertising Kool that could be seen from the outside of the store (Table 1). These products in the back of the store on a counter for self-serve foun- signs usually indicated the company name and logo, and pricing tain drinks. Most of the self service tobacco products consisted of products. Many stores had a high number of signs (more than of cigars and blunts. Only one store had reduced price cigarettes five). Several stores had signs that were very large –poster size. in a clearance basket located on a counter beside the check out counter. Interior Signs All of the stores contained interior signs with pricing, brands Functional Items and company names. The sizes of the interior signs varied from The only functional items that were noted were counter mats. small to very large. The signs were located in the front of the None of the stores in this study contained clocks or grocery carts stores, on the counters, on the walls directly behind the cash reg- bearing the names or logos of the manufacturers. ister. Signs were often located near the candy and soda foun- tains. Several stores (30%) had signs in the aisles where they Age Limit Signs could be exposed to heavy traffic. The majority of the stores (98%) contained age control signage. These signs were usually located on the front door or win- dow beside the door and at the check out counters. The signs were often placed 3 feet high and could be considered low height ads. Several age control signage also expressed that a purchaser of tobacco products for youth younger than age 18 could be pe- nalized.

Special Promotions All of the stores in this study provided special promotions for tobacco products. These promotions included multi-pack spe- cials, and discounts. Gift-with-purchase offers were also avail- able at all of the stores. The types of gifts ranged from ashtrays to shirts.

Placement of Tobacco Products Low Height Ads Tobacco display racks were located behind the register at all of The majority (80%) of the stores contained low height ads (3 the stores (100 percent). The candy was also located at the check feet high – at eye level of children) on the store windows and out counter in most stores(90%). Several stores (24 percent) had doors where they could be seen from the outside of the store. self-service cigars and cheap cigars located on the front or side Low height ads were also found on the inside of the stores in counter beside the candy or potato chips. Most tobacco products locations including the counters and walls. Often the signs re- were located behind the counter where they would still be very garding age limit restrictions were also placed as low height ads. visible to people purchasing candy.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 16 Table 1. Characteristics of POP Measures at 50 Convenience Promotional giveaways and price breaks may be also as- Stores sociated with the transition to regular smoking among youth (Slater, 2007). A recent study reported retail advertising (higher POP Characteristic % levels of advertising, lower cigarette prices and greater avail- Interior ads, any vs none 100% ability of cigarette promotions) were associated with smoking uptake by youth (Slater, 2007). Advertising increased the likeli- Low height tobacco ads 80% hood of youth initiating smoking, cheaper cigarettes increased Exterior ads 86% the likelihood of smoking at most levels of uptake and avail- Functional objects, any vs none 100% ability of promotions increased the likelihood that youth will Self service tobacco 18% move from experimentation to regular smoking (Slater, 2007). Tobacco advertisements were highly prevalent and often cov- Multi-pack discounts 100% ered the front of the store windows. The signs were usually Age Control Signage 98% brightly colored neon signs (i.e. orange, lime green, blue) and N=50 placed in prominent places that would be impossible to miss by young people. Signs were found on the check out counters, at Other Types of Advertising the pumps and in the parking lot entrance driveways. The signs Unique banners and signs that promoted tobacco were record- at the entrance were usually large enough to be seen from the ed. “This time try a little cigar” and “smoke shack” are examples street. Signs were also found beside candy, chips, and sodas in of signage located on the inside of the convenience stores which the majority of the stores. Earlier findings indicated youth were establish pro-tobacco environments that expose patrons to high more likely to shop for cigarettes at stores that had highly visible levels of tobacco related advertisements and promotions. exterior signage (Henriksen, 2004). Low height ads consisted of both tobacco ads and age limit DISCUSSION signs. It was interesting that the age limit signs were placed low. The purpose of this paper was to describe retail marketing Previous studies have found youth were more likely to attempt of tobacco products in Virginia. The findings of this study add to purchase cigarettes, if there was age limit signage present to the literature on POP strategies in locations (Henriksen et al, (Voohees, 1998). Self service products were mainly flavored and 2002; Wakefield et al, 2002; Novak, 2006; Glantz, 2006). Few low cost tobacco items including cigars, blunts, and chewing to- studies have examined tobacco advertisement at a local or state bacco/lozenges. These types of products may have been placed level (Glantz, 2006). The present study reveals patterns of POP to attract youth smokers. advertising and tobacco display patterns at convenience stores Several stores (18%) had self-service cigars and cheap cigars in a major tobacco manufacturing state. Stores in the Virginia located on the front or side counter beside the candy. One store are aggressively marketing tobacco. Many of the POP strategies had a large self-service section of flavored tobacco products di- used appeared to target youth despite promises made in the MSA rectly beside the potato chips. In McElrath’s study, 44.4 percent and tobacco control efforts by public health workers. of the convenience/gas stores had self-service cigarettes. Al- The retail environment has witnessed a steady increase in the though there is a lower prevalence of self-service tobacco in this amount of in store and parking lot banners, signage, and displays study, there may be a reversal of the previous trend to discontinue that feature the brand names and prices of cigarettes (Wakefield self-service tobacco. The purpose of eliminating self-service to- et al, 2002). This study examined tobacco displays at conve- bacco sections was to reduce theft and to require youth to prove nience stores in Virginia and documents the types of displays that their age prior to purchasing tobacco products. Having one out retailers used in the South to sell tobacco products. of five stores providing self-service tobacco is a trend that should Earlier location-based studies have looked at point-of-pur- be monitored in the future. This could have adverse effects on chase marketing trends in California, Boston, and Hawaii. The the MSA’s goals to reduce youth smoking. findings of this study show there is greater POP advertising in The findings from this exploratory study suggest that increas- convenience stores than found in earlier studies (Terry-McElrath, ing youth’s exposure to tobacco is a goal of tobacco marketing 2002). All of the stores contained special promotions for reduced in convenience stores. Thus, the public health community must price cigarettes. Earlier studies found that one-fourth of the stores continue to push for tobacco control (Austin & Altman, 2000) used special promotions (Terry-McElrath, 2002) Perhaps, there and anti smoking campaigns (Fichtenberg & Glantz, 2002). is a goal to create a marketing niche for “cheap cigarettes.” Sev- The challenges of tobacco control and advocacy in tobacco- eral stores had shoppers indicate they were buying large amounts dependent communities, which have lost income as a result of of tobacco in Virginia and taking it to relatives in New York declining sales are daunting. It is important to monitor point- where the price of tobacco products is much more expensive. of-purchase marketing and to actively educate youth and parents Low cost cigarettes may also attract youth smokers. Increasing regarding the strategies that are being used. Aggressive efforts the cost of tobacco products may distract youth from smoking. from the public health community will be needed to counteract Higher costs may be a deterrent to some smokers, more so than the marketing phenomenon that may potentially produce an in- other influences (Biener et al, 1998, Chalouka, 1999; Harris & creased demand for tobacco products. Chan, 1999; Johnson & O’Malley and Bachman, 2000).

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 17 Limitations Beiner, L., Aseltine, R., Cohen, B., & Anderka, M. (1998). Reac- This study only examined retail stores in Virginia and North tions of adult and teenaged smokers to the Massachusetts to- Carolina. Stores were selected based on availability, time and bacco tax. American Journal of Public Health, 88(9), 1389- resources rather than random selection. However the findings of 191. this pilot study are valuable in understanding the types and char- Bloom, P. (2001). Role of slotting fees and trade promotions acteristics of tobacco ads in retail settings in tobacco manufactur- in shaping how tobacco is marketed in retail stores. Tobacco ing states. They reveal the need for greater monitoring of retail Control, 10(4), 340-344. advertising and more aggressive advocacy for tobacco control. Capehart, T. C. (2001). Trends in the Cigarette Industry After the Only 100 stores were examined. Analysis of a different data Master Settlement Agreement. TBS-250-01. Washington, set may have produced different results. Therefore, it is impor- D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture. tant to expand the sample size in future studies. Celebucki, C. & Diskin (2002). A longitudinal study of exter- This is the first qualitative study of tobacco retail advertising nally visible cigarette advertising on retail storefronts in Mas- in Virginia and North Carolina. The descriptions of tobacco dis- sachusetts before and after the Master Settlement Agreement. plays can be useful to researchers and tobacco activists as they Tobacco Control, 11, 47 – 53. monitor the tobacco industry’s presence in convenience stores. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2006). Youth Continued monitoring of strategies used by tobacco companies risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2005. MMWR Sur- to communicate with customers is critical. veillance, 55(5), 101-108. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2002). Future Research Point-of-purchase tobacco environments and variation by This study was exploratory and used convenience sampling. store type--United States, 1999. MMWR Reports, 51(9), 184- Descriptive statistics were used to measure the study variables. 187. Comparison between the various types of convenience stores (ur- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2002). An- ban/suburban) was not conducted. This study also did not cal- nual smoking-attributable mortality, years of potential life culate variations based on proximity of the convenience stores to lost, and economic costs--United States, 1995-1999. MMWR schools. Thus, future studies should consider looking at a larger Report, 51(14), 300-303. sample of stores in the south as well as stores that are in proximi- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco Use Among ty to schools. Finally, an examination of the effects of reductions Adults—United States, 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Week- in anti-smoking campaigns should also be conducted. ly Report [serial online]. 2006;55(42):1145–1148 [cited 2007 Mar 13]. Retrieved on October 4, 2007 from: http://www.cdc. What this paper adds gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5542a1.htm. Previous studies have examined the display of tobacco prod- Center for Tobacco Policy and Organizing (2007). Ciga- ucts at convenience stores in California, Massachusetts, and Ha- rettes Generate Big Revenue for Convenience Stores: waii. National studies have also been conducted. This paper Analysis of 2007 State of the Industry Report. Retrieved on examined the retail marketing of tobacco products in the major December 12, 2008 from:http://www.center4tobaccopolicy. states where tobacco products are grown and manufactured: Vir- org/_files/_files/5376_Cigarettes_Generate_Big%20Rev- ginia. The findings indicated there is massive POP advertising enue.pdf. that is youth oriented. Health and physical educators can use Chaloupka F & Pacula R. (1999). Impact of Price on Youth To- this information in teaching consumer health and working with bacco Use. San Diego, California: National Cancer Institute. youth athletes. Making teachers aware of strategies used by the Chronic Disease and Injury Control. (2006). The facts on teen tobacco industry to attract and maintain youth smokers will arm tobacco use in North Carolina. Retrieved July 18, 2006 from them with valuable background information regarding this issue. http://www.communityhealth.dhhs.state.nc.us/tobacco/facts. htm. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dewhirst T. (2004). POP goes the power wall? Taking aim at The author thanks Shavon Hines for her assistance with re- tobacco promotional strategies utilized at retail. Tobacco Con- search. The assistance of Drs. Paul Ankomah, Cynthia Pugh, trol, 13(3), 209-10. Joanne Morse and Stacey Plichta for reviewing earlier versions Feighery E., Ribisl K., Schledidier N., Lee R. & Halvorson S. of this paper are appreciated. Funding from the North Carolina (2001). Cigarette advertising and promotional strategies in A & T State University’s Division of Research for research as- retail outlets: results of a statewide survey in California. To- sistance and release time is also appreciated. bacco Control, 10(2), 184-188. Fichtenberg C & Glantz S. (2002).Youth access interventions do REFERENCES not affect youth smoking. Pediatrics, 109(6), 1088-1092. Austin WD & Altman, D. (2000). Rural economic development Glantz, K., Sutton, N. & Arriola, J. (2006). Operation storefront vs. tobacco control? Tensions underlying the use of tobacco Hawaii: tobacco advertising and promotion in Hawaii stores. settlement funds. Journal of Public Health Policy, 21(2), 129- Journal of Health Communication, 11(7), 699-707. 156. Henriksen L., Flora J., Feighery E. & Fortmann S.P. (2002). Ef- Babbie, E. (1992). The practice of social research. (6th ed.). fects on youth of exposure to retail tobacco advertising. Jour- Chapter 11. California: Wadsworth. nal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(9), 1771-1789.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 18 Henriksen L., Feighery E.C., Schleicher N., Haladjian H., & Point-of-Purchase. Bates #500164188-500164208; 1978. Fortmann S. (2004). Reaching youth at the point of sale: ciga- Retrieved October 11, 2005, from:http://www.tobaccodocu- rette marketing is more prevalent in stores where adolescents ments.org. shop frequently. Tobacco Control, 13(3), 315-318. Slade J. (2001). Marketing Policies In: Rabin R, Sugarman S, Hu T., Sung H., Keeler T. (1995). Reducing cigarette consump- eds. Regulating Tobacco. New York, NY: Oxford University tion in California: tobacco taxes vs an anti-smoking media cam- Press; 2001: 72-110. paign. American Journal of Public Health, 85(9), 1218-1222. Slater, S. J., Chaloupka, F.J., Wakefield, M., & Johnston, L.D. Landon C. (1933). The coming of industry to the south. Annals (2007). The Impact of Retail Cigarette Marketing Practices on of American Political Social Science, 153, 43-53. Youth Smoking Uptake. Archives of Pediatrics and Adoles- Maxwell JC. The Maxwell Report. Year End & Fourth Quarter cent Medicine, 161, 440-445. 2006 Sales Estimates for the Cigarette Industry. Richmond, Terry-McElrath, Y., Wakefield, M., Giovino, G., & VA: John C. Maxwell, Jr., 2007 [cited 2007 Mar 13]. Barker,D. (2002). Point-of-purchase tobacco environ- National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2001). Research Report: Nic- ments and variation by store type--United States, 1999. otine Addiction. Washington, DC: US Department of Health MMWR, 51(9), 184-7. and Human Services. Voorhees, C., Yanek, L., Stillman, F., & Becker, D. (1998). Novak S., Reardon S., Raudenbush S., & Buka S. (2006). Retail Reducing cigarette sales to minors in an urban set- tobacco outlet density and youth cigarette smoking: a propen- ting: issues and opportunities for merchant intervention. sity-modeling approach. American Journal of Public Health, American Journal of Preventive Medicine,. 14(2),138-142. 96(4),670-676. Wakefield, M., Terry-McElrath, Y., Chaloupka, F., Barker, C., Point of Purchase Advertising Institute (1992). The Point of Pur- Slater, S., & Clark, P. (2002). Tobacco industry marketing at chase Advertising Industry Fact Book; Englewood, NJ. point of purchase after the 1998 MSA billboard advertising Pucci, LG; Joheph, HM & Siegel, M (1998). Outdoor tobacco ban. American Journal of Public Health, 92(6):937-940. advertising in six Boston neighborhoods. American Journal Yerger, V. & Malone, R. (2002). African American leadership of Preventive Medicine, 15, 155-159. groups: smoking with the enemy. Tobacco Control, 11(4), RJ Reynolds Tobacco Co. New Product Introduction Through 336-345.

2009 SWVA VAHPERD Clinic held at Radford University

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 19 Mosston's Styles of Teaching: A Review of Command Style William C. Thomson, Ed.D., Assistant Professor, Longwood University

The rich heritage of twentieth century Health and Physical Ed- ton asserted that every activity we might teach to our students ucation literature is a result of numerous influential authors and would have some elements or movements which we would wish continues to impact teaching today. Certain elements of teaching students to copy, or reproduce, in a precise manner, but every are applicable across disciplines, whether in the classroom or on activity would also contain some movement situations in which the playing fields. One writer in particular, Muska Mosston, no- we would want students to create, or produce, their own unique tably contributed to Physical Education’s body of literature with movement patterns (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). So, teachers his detailed descriptions of the characteristics of various teaching use different styles because they have differing lesson objectives methods. In categorizing these “Styles of Teaching” the strengths from day to day. and weaknesses of each method of teaching a physical education A second reason for learning about and using different teach- lesson were analyzed. Mosston’s analyses showed that for any ing styles is that, obviously, students vary in their learning styles. style a teacher might choose, certain aspects or possibilities of Some students require close supervision and prescribed learning the teaching-learning situation were facilitated while other as- tasks while others thrive in creative endeavors. Not all learn the pects were diminished. In other words, there are always strengths same way, so it makes sense to teach in a variety of ways. and weaknesses inherent in any teaching strategy (Mosston & Finally, teachers may simply have a personal desire to be bet- Ashworth, 2002). Mosston’s work depicts the various Styles of ter, to grow as a teacher. Like a skilled builder who can master a Teaching as existing along a continuum based upon the types of variety of tools and techniques, some teachers may want to learn decisions the teacher and learner will be required to make during more ways in which to present material and provide learning op- the lesson segment in which the particular style is used (Mosston, portunities for their students. 1992). This article will provide background information regarding the Spectrum of Teaching Styles, and a description of how What are the various Styles we might consider? the first style along this continuum - the Command Style - is used Mosston describes many differing styles of teaching, arrang- and note it’s advantages and disadvantages. Subsequent articles ing them along a continuum defined by the role of teacher and in a proposed series will offer insights into each of the Teaching students in decision making and performance execution. Moss- Styles, and offer practical suggestions regarding how they may ton’s styles are designated with a letter and a brief descriptive be used by physical educators. word or phrase. They are: Style A - the Command Style; Style B - the Practice Style; Style C - the Reciprocal Style; Style D - the Why study and use different Styles of Teaching? Self-check Style; Style E - the Inclusion Style; Style F - Guided Styles of teaching are the “tools” of the teaching trade. In us- Discovery; Style G - Convergent Production; Style H - Divergent ing the analogy of these teaching styles as tools, it is important Production; and Style I - Going Beyond (Mosston & Ashworth, to emphasize that one tool is not better than another, only more 1994). Table #1 displays each style name along with one distin- appropriate for a given task. A hammer is not “better” than a guishing characteristic of the style. screwdriver, only more appropriate for the task of driving a nail. Different tools are therefore required for different jobs. Like- Style Style Name Characteristic wise, a particular teaching style may be more or less suited to A COMMAND Students only move on signal a certain teaching/learning situation. This is the first answer to B PRACTICE Self-paced student practice the question: “Why use different teaching styles?” Because we C RECIPROCAL Feedback from a peer observer as teachers may have different learning objectives for different D SELF-CHECK Feedback to self lessons throughout a unit of instruction, we need to rely on dif- E INCLUSION Multiple levels of task difficulty ferent methods of teaching to help our students achieve those F GUIDED Learning directed by questions objectives. At one point in a unit of instruction, we may want DISCOVERY students to reproduce a movement in a precise, particular man- G CONVERGENT Students converge on one ner, with little or no variation from a model presented by the PRODUCTION correct answer teacher. When we teach students how to use the forearm pass H DIVERGENT Multiple correct solutions to problem in volleyball, for example, we may explain and demonstrate this PRODUCTION task and then have them practice the task with the goal of moving I GOING Students conceive problem and in a precise way using the prescribed technique. However, later BEYOND solution we may ask students to use the movements in creative ways that are not pre-planned by the teacher. For example, small groups of Table #1 students may be given the task of designing plays to use against a man-to-man defense in basketball. Each group may be able Some background on the Styles of Teaching Spectrum to form plays that logically will work, though the plays of each Joined by colleague Sara Ashworth, Mosston’s conception of group differ from the other groups. Naturally these diverse situ- teaching styles evolved over time (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). ations require a different approach to the lesson. In fact, Moss- These styles are divided into two main categories. On the one

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 20 hand are those styles categorized as “Reproduction” styles. The ing characteristic of the Command style is that the students only name comes from the idea that in each of the teaching situations move on a signal (a “command”) from the teacher. These sce- in this category, the students try to copy a movement demon- narios may serve to illustrate how this style plays out in the gym. strated by the teacher or a skilled demonstrator. For example, Scenario one: A teacher introduces a line dance to the class. S/ in a tennis lesson on hitting forehand groundstrokes, a teacher He stands in front of the group and demonstrates the first few would demonstrate and describe the correct technique for hitting steps of the dance. Next, s/he asks the students to follow along as the shot, and after this demonstration the students would begin, s/he leads the students through these steps. As additional steps in some way, to practice hitting forehands. They are trying to are demonstrated the students are again required to follow/mirror mimic (i.e., reproduce) what they have seen the teacher demon- the teacher’s lead. They are copying, or reproducing, the moves strate, and they are judged to be more successful the closer their the teacher makes, and are only doing so when the teacher signals actions come to the actions which were demonstrated. The five the move to be made. If the teacher says “grapevine right”, the styles in this category are the first styles listed: the Command, students perform a grapevine step to the right. They only per- Practice, Reciprocal, Self-Check, and the Inclusion Styles. Each form a given step when it is signaled by the teacher. style asks students to reproduce some skill or movement that has Scenario two: Overhead setting is being introduced to a class in been demonstrated, though each varies in the way in which stu- a volleyball unit. The class formation consists of two lines, each dents practice the movement task and the way in which they will facing the other. Students will be working in pairs with the stu- receive performance feedback about their movements. dent across from them in the other line. Diagram #1 depicts this The second main category of teaching styles is comprised by formation. Students X1 and Y1 are partners; X2 partners with what are termed the “Production” styles. The primary charac- Y2 and so forth; “T” represents the Teacher. teristic here is that, unlike the Reproduction styles, students are not shown a particular way of performing, but rather are asked X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 . . . Xn (Line 1) to perform creatively or to solve a movement problem without T n prior demonstration. They are asked to figure out a solution with Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 . . . Y (Line 2) teacher guidance, but not with a direct teacher demonstrated “solution”. For example, imagine groups of students within a Diagram #1 class are asked to create a dance routine using some number of steps (which may have been demonstrated in previous lessons) The teacher has explained and demonstrated the correct tech- to a particular piece of music. These groups may create different nique, and now asks the students in line #1 (who each have a ball) dances, yet each one “solves” the movement problem of incor- to prepare to pass to their partners in line #2. The teacher may re- porating sequences of steps or moves given the music provided. mind the students of the skill movement cues (hand position, arm Likewise, teams of students in a basketball unit may be asked to movements, foot position, etc), and the students wait for a signal create some number of offensive plays to run against a man-to- before passing the ball. On that signal, perhaps “ready, pass!” or man defense. The teacher has chosen not to have them copy a something similar, the students execute the skill, passing the ball prescribed formula, but rather to have them think creatively (and across to their partner, who receives and holds on to it. Next, hopefully take more ownership) to figure out how best to attack the teacher reminds these students in line #2 of the correct tech- this particular kind of defense. nique, and they wait for the “go” signal to pass the ball back to their partner in line #1. In this way, a few well-controlled skill Characteristics of Command Style teaching repetitions are repeated. Before each skill repetition the teacher The Command Style of teaching (Style A) is the first compo- reminds the group of the skill cues, and perhaps makes general nent along Mosston’s spectrum. In this style, all decisions about comments about group performance, and then provides an au- the learning situation are made by the teacher. Consider some dible signal for the students to perform the skill. In other words, of the decisions to be made: How many skill repetitions will everybody passes the ball at the same time, and all have waited the students perform? When will they begin to practice the skill for the command to perform the practice trial. to be learned and when will they stop? Where will the students The goal in this situation is to provide a so-called “movement stand? At what pace or tempo will they practice the skill? In foundation” for the skill or task to be learned. The teacher wants command style teaching, all of these decisions are made by the the students to experience a few controlled, precise repetitions. teacher prior to the beginning of the lesson. With this foundation laid, the teacher can be more certain when it In this style, as in the first five styles, a typical lesson cycle is appropriate to move on to more complex uses of the movement would follow this pattern. The teacher introduces, explains, and (e.g., using it in game activities). demonstrates how to perform a certain motor task such as drib- bling a soccer ball, performing the leg lunge exercise, or juggling Style A – Strengths two beanbags. The demonstration is critical because, when it As noted in the opening paragraph, each style has its’ own comes to learning how to perform a motor task, visual learning strengths and weaknesses. In the Command Style, the pace of is the most common learning medium. As Magill (1998) notes, learning is very much controlled by the teacher. Students are we have a strong “tendency to give vision a predominant role learning a task and are asked to practice it using precise move- when we perform motor skills”. This demonstration is followed ments. Going at this slower, controlled pace, students are not by a time of student practicing of the task. The most distinguish- rushed to perform. Waiting for the signal from the teacher, all

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 21 students in the group move together; there are none who lag cues which he/she is trying to learn, and these reminders from behind others in terms of number of skill repetitions. With the the teacher coupled with a controlled number of repetitions at, teacher reminding the group about correct skill technique, per- usually, a slow to moderate pace allows time for this information haps before each trial, students have multiple opportunities to processing to occur. With emphasis on information processing, hear and practice recalling the skill cues in addition to practicing it is expected that the information about performing the task will the skill. be transferred from short term to long term memory, allowing for recall of that stored information at future practices (Shea, Shebil- Style A - Weaknesses ske, & Worchel, 1993). As the reader can see, the fact that the teacher is giving start and Two obvious weaknesses are apparent in this Style. First, the stop signals to the group means there is little or no opportunity style does not lend itself to providing feedback to individual stu- for the teacher to provide any performance feedback to individual dents. The teacher’s time is used giving group signals and oc- students. If the teacher were to do so, it would mean all students casional group feedback. If the teacher takes time to provide would be left standing and waiting, doing no skill repetitions, feedback to one student, all other students in class would be idle, while the teacher talks with the one student. Again, the essence waiting for the next “go” signal to perform a practice trial. Fur- of this style is that students only move or perform a task upon ther, students who already can perform the task, or who learn receiving a signal or command from the teacher. So, while an oc- the task quickly, will be ready to move on at a faster pace. The casional group feedback comment may be made by the teacher, time taken for group signaling will, therefore, be a hindrance to this style does not attempt to provide corrective feedback to indi- these students, slowing down and limiting their opportunity for viduals. Further, students who are more (motorically) advanced additional practice trails. In other words, the risk is that these may be ready to move on to more gregarious activity. They may students will be bored. be bored by the slower pace. This, obviously, can lead to behav- Style A offers perhaps the most straightforward way of intro- ior management issues. ducing new motor skills to a class. In doing so it allows stu- In summary, the Command Style follows this pattern: dents to establish correct movement patterns at a learning pace (1) Teacher describes/demonstrates the skill to be learned; (2) designed to insure that no student is overly rushed for informa- Command signals are used to direct the student’s pace of practice tion processing time. However, this methodical pacing can leave and number of practice repetitions; (3) Student success is judged some students straining to move at a faster rate. How then can a in terms of similarity to the demonstrated model of performance. teacher structure the leaning situation so that all students practice at a pace more appropriate to their individual abilities? For the Why employ this method of instruction? answer, the discussion moves to the next Style along the contin- When asked “What would be the strength or strengths of this uum, Style B, in the next installment of this series on the Styles style of teaching?”, students in teaching methods classes invari- of Teaching. ably answer along these lines: “It keeps the students are under control”. They see this style as one which a major factor ap- References pears intended to control off-task or improper behavior as much Magill, R. A. (1998). Motor learning: concepts and applications as practice a motor skill. However, while student behavior man- (5th Ed.). McGraw-Hill, Boston. agement and the manner in which students learn motor tasks are Mosston, M. (1992). Tug O War, no more: Meeting teaching related they are not the same thing. One hopes the class is “under learning objectives using the Spectrum of Teaching Styles, control” regardless of the Style of Teaching being used. There- Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 63, fore, on further examination, the best purpose of the Command 27-31. Style of teaching is to provide a learning situation in which stu- Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (1994). Teaching physical educa- dents have the opportunity to practice a very few, discrete trials tion (4th Ed.). Macmillan, New York of a skill in hopes of building a learning foundation for future im- Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (2002). Teaching physical educa- provement of that skill. Motorically, the learner can concentrate tion (5th Ed.). Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco. on learning the very basic aspects of the skill, “getting the hang Shea, C., Shebilske, W., & Worchel, S. (1993). Motor learning of it” so to speak. Cognitively, the learner is reminded of the skill and control. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 22 Officers & Directors 2008-2009 Directory BOARD OF DIRECTORS

EXECTUTIVE COMMITTE GENERAL DIVISION President Vice President David Sallee Rodney Gains Radford University Liberty University [email protected] [email protected]

President-Elect Vice President Vicki Miller Susan Ragan-Pimblett Chesterfield County Public Schools Instructional [email protected] Development Center [email protected] Past Vice President Lynne Bennett Past President Chesterfield County Public Schools Instructional Development Kay Schiltz Center Carver Middle School [email protected] [email protected] Student Representative Executive Director Curtis Walker Henry Castelvecchi Gateway Virginia State University Crestwood Elementary School [email protected] [email protected] Student Representative Alternate Parliamentarian Alex Geiger Steve Ames Lynchburg College Radford University [email protected] [email protected] Student Advisor Kevin Sperry DANCE DIVISION Lynchburg College Vice President [email protected] Tammy Render Seven Pines and Donahoe Elementary Schools [email protected] HEALTH DIVISION Vice President Vice President-Elect Tom Nadeau Mary Ann Laverty Mills Godwin High School Woodside High School [email protected] [email protected] Vice President Elect Past Vice President David Hunt Jeri Lloyd [email protected] Dominion High School [email protected] Past Vice President Deanna Castelvecchi Chester Middle School [email protected]

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 23 PHYSICAL EDUCATION OTHER PROFESSIONALS WHO MAY BE INVITED Vice President TO ATTEND BOARD MEETINGS Jeannie Trainum Williamsburg James City County Schools Journal/Newsletter Editor [email protected] Michael Moore Radford University Vice President Elect [email protected] Jenny Aubel Hillside Elementary School Convention Manager [email protected] Judy C. Johnson [email protected] Past Vice President Regina Kirk Website Coordinator Albemarle County Schools Michael Maina [email protected] Roanoke College Department of Education Health and Human Performance [email protected] RECREATION DIVISON Vice President Jump Rope for Heart Coordinator Donna Schirmer Gwen Hairston P.B. Smith Elementary School [email protected] [email protected] Hoops for Heart Coordinator Vice President Elect Charotte Kelso Sean Neihoff [email protected] Eagle View Elementary School [email protected]

Past Vice President Terry Gooding [email protected]

2009 SWVA VAHPERD Clinic held at Radford University

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 24 VAHPERD Section Chair Members 2008-2009 Division Position Section First Name Last Name Dance Chair Dance Education Pam Washburn Dance Chair Elect Dance Education Michelle Breedy Dance Past Chair Dance Education Michelle Lutrell

Dance Chair Dance Performance Quiana Erb Dance Chair Elect Dance Performance Marilyn Marloff Dance Past Chair Dance Performance Katherine van den Heuvel

General Chair City/County Supervisors Bill Deck General Chair Elect City/County Supervisors Shelia Jones General Past Chair City/County Supervisors Fred Milbert

General Chair College/University Chair Elizabeth Wood General Chair Elect College/University Chair OPEN General Past Chair College/University Chair Jay Johnson

General Chair Girl’s and Women’s Sports Jillian Hornbaker General Chair Elect Girl’s and Women’s Sports Misti Boyd General Past Chair Girl’s and Women’s Sports Linda Thompson

General Chair Men’s and Boys Athletics Kevin Sperry General Chair Elect Men’s and Boys Athletics Leon Bey General Past Chair Men’s and Boys Athletics Chris Tuck

General Chair Research Greg Soukup General Chair Elect Research OPEN General Past Chair Research Michael Moore

General Chair Sport Management OPEN General Chair Elect Sport Management OPEN General Past Chair Sport Management OPEN

Health Chair College and University Beth Johnson Health Chair Elect College and University Monte Sparkman Health Past Chair College and University Thomas Rhodes

Health Chair Community and Worksite Michele Semko Health Chair Elect Community and Worksite Lisa Rucker Health Past Chair Community and Worksite Robin Shephard

Health Chair School Health Cathy Hawkins Health Chair Elect School Health Carrie Reynolds Health Past Chair School Health Karen Pegoraro Physical Education Chair Adapted Tom Moran Physical Education Chair Elect Adapted Matt Lucas Physical Education Past Chair Adapted Kari Nadeau

Physical Education Chair College Tracey Fluharty Physical Education Chair Elect College Susan Nye Physical Education Past Chair College William C Thomson

Physical Education Chair Elementary Cordell Watkins Physical Education Chair Elect Elementary Kelly Clark Physical Education Past Chair Elementary Michael Kilgannon

Physical Education Chair Middle Oneida Williams Physical Education Chair Elect Middle Duke Conrad Physical Education Past Chair Middle Joyce Hinton

Physical Education Chair Secondary Mark Brandenburger Physical Education Chair Elect Secondary BJ Santos Physical Education Past Chair Secondary Lynne Gilbert

Recreation Chair Leisure Activities Terrica Woolridge Recreation Chair Elect Leisure Activities Michael Cooke Recreation Past Chair Leisure Activities David Blevins

Recreation Chair Outdoor Recreation Chad Triolet Recreation Chair Elect Outdoor Recreation Bobbi Conrad Recreation Past Chair Outdoor Recreation OPEN

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 25 In-Season Strength and Conditioning Program for Fall Sports: Football, Soccer, and Volleyball Dr. Rodney Gaines, Virginia State University and Liberty University, Associate Professor and Head Strength & Conditioning Coach Dr. Linda Person, Karyl Bacon, Johanna Jensen, Cindy Loerh, Aaron Odell, Pierre Tinsley

Strength and Conditioning of Athletes is a year round endeavor, Depending on the size of your weight-room, you may be able and no longer can coaches wait until 8 weeks before the start of to have two teams in at once. The strength and conditioning coach the season attempting to get athletes in peak condition. The year has to lead from the middle. Several key meetings need to be round program is referred to as we know of as the macro cycle. conducted before the teams arrive for conditioning. The second That encompasses the offseason workouts, transition periods, pre- meeting is with the Head and assistant coaches for each of the season workouts, and in-season workouts. The following article sports. This article will be focusing on in-season conditioning will give in detail considerations for the in-season workouts for for football, volleyball, and soccer. I would set up a meeting last fall sports. As a strength and conditioning coach, you will have one-two hours, and listen to needs of the Head coaches for football, to be knowledgeable in the following areas: leadership, teaching, volleyball, , and soccer. It may be good to have the athletic trainer testing and warm-up, exercise prescription and conditioning, in on this meeting as well, because the strength and conditioning biomechanical considerations for football, volleyball, and soccer. coach can get a better assessment of who is injured and also build a team relationship with the athletic training staff. During this Leadership-Dr. Rodney Gaines meeting with the coaches it would be important to discuss work- In order to get a new season going, I would schedule a meeting out times, expectations, injury reports, freshmen athlete training with the Athletic Director. During this initial meeting you may considerations, and travel schedules. Most inseason workouts want to prepare to discuss budget and needs, scheduling of the are twice a week with an emphasis on maintaining the strength weight room and fields, maintenance and cleaning of the weight and conditioning won during the offseason and preseason. Next, room, cleaning supplies for the weight room, and ask what is if you didn’t meet with the athletic trainer, it would be important expected. I would propose a tentative strength and conditioning to setup a meeting with them to make sure all athletes have had schedule for the use of facilities, and since it is fall the offseason a physical, eligibility requirements, and also ask for assistance in sports will have higher priority. The revenue sports, such as incorporating exercises in that will help with injuries prone for football and basketball will have some hedging. The goal is to that sport. For example, the Head Athletic trainer may have some respect the requests of all the coaches and along with the Athletic great new exercises for shoulder strengthening of the rotator cuff Director come up with a manageable schedule for you, the coaches, or hamstring strengthening exercises. and the athletes. Some teams may be grouped together. Also, Another important goal for the strength and conditioning profes- remember that the in-season sports will only need 1-2 workouts sional to think about is his or her training philosophy. At the end a week to maintain and enhance strength during the season. Here of the day it is about providing a quality strength and conditioning is an example of a schedule below: program that will increase sport-specific strength, confidence and

TIME MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY 5:00-6:00am Men’s Basketball Men’s Men’s Basketball Basketball 6:00-7:00am Women’s Basket- Women’s Women’s Women’s Women’s ball Volleyball Basketball Volleyball Basketball 7:00-8:00am Men’s Track Men’s Track Men’s Track 12:00-1:00pm Men’s and Wom- Men’s Soccer Men’s and Wom- Men’s Soccer Men’s and Women en’s Tennis en’s Tennis Tennis 2:00-3:00 Women’s Track Women’s Track Women’s Track 3:00-:6:00 Football Football 4:00-6:00 Baseball and Soft- Baseball and Soft- Baseball and Soft- ball, Golf ball, Golf upper ball, Golf lower body body

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 26 motivation, injury prevention, great conditioning, and leadership. practice time is limited. Lacking the decision making skills and The coaches and athletes will only respond better to the strength the knowledge needed to make adjustments at the appropriate coach who has a servant type leadership style and a passion to help time during competition may cause participants to be unsuccess- them. It is essential to always look for a win-win situation when it ful (Hopper, 2002). All athletes expect their coaches to lead and comes to coaching. The coaches and athletes will remember you provide opportunities for skill development. As coaches, how do for the relationship more than the repetitions. Some of the things we communicate precisely what we expect our student athletes the strength and conditioning professional has to be great at are to do? Below are a few recommendations that have helped many being on time for workouts, enthusiasm and passion for the weight coaches to be successful. room, dynamic warm-ups, teaching proper technique and most of all encouraging the athlete along with giving constructive feedback • Plan ahead for each practice with early preparation. and criticism. They will respect you for the hard workouts you • List goals and objectives that can be attained. pushed them through to make them a champion, but they will not appreciate negative language and poor treatment. I think you have • Demonstrate and explain the purpose of the skill(s) and the need to start each day with a smile and a servant’s heart. You have to for learning the skill(s). incorporate mental toughness into the workouts, but at the same • Instruction of skill(s) should be sequential. time it should take a win-win approach. Last, in reference to leadership, is to keep it fun, exciting, and • Break down (part, whole) the skill when necessary. lead as if you were an athlete. It is important to think about how • Provide cues (words, critical statements) to help athletes focus you would want to be treated. There are several leadership styles on the specific skill so they can perform with a minimum of that may be engaged during the course of the in-season. One style unnecessary effort (Graham, 2008). is more directive. The directive style may be needed when there is a lack of focus or experience. The directive style is used when • Coaches should be repetitive when using cues throughout prac- the athlete is unable and unwilling to participate in the workouts. tice period. This could be laziness or inexperience by a freshmen athlete. The • Be a clear and an effective communicator. Delivery must be second style is consulting leadership style. In this style of leader- clear, concise and relative. ship, the athlete is unable or lack the ability to perform due to lack of experience with the exercises or technique, but they are will- • Allow ample time for demonstration and guided practice. ing to do the workouts. In this consulting style of leadership, the • Coaches must consider the opportunities during practice that can coach spends more time teaching technique to the athlete. Another be used to pinpoint (having participants demonstrate) the desired leadership style which may work well is the participatory style skill (Graham, 2008). When athletes can clearly demonstrating of leadership. In this style of leadership, the athlete is able and his or her understanding of the skill, this is an opportunity for knows how to do the workouts, but he or she is unwilling. This the coach to have the entire team to observe their teammates in may be an athlete who is overcoming an injuring, facing personal action. problems, overweight, and/or lack motivation. With this athlete it may require more motivation, and at times this athlete may execute • Provide lots of feedback. Athletes love to hear what their coach better with one on one workouts with the strength coach. The last has to say about their participation in practice and in competition. style of leadership is the delegating style. The delegating style of • Feedback should be specific and given with purpose. leadership can be used when the athlete is highly motivated, injury free, able, and willing to work at the skills. This type of athlete • Assessment should be done at the end of each practice. can be left alone, and you are confident that he or she will follow • Athletes should discuss skills learned at the end of each practice workout schedules when you are not around. and they should be given an opportunity to demonstrate and explain the skill that was learned. Graham, 2008) Teaching - Dr. Linda Person - Using the Pedagogical Approach in Sports Skills During competition, athletes are expected to perform skills with Athletes need a clear understanding of how to perform a skill little thought of how to perform them. If this is to occur, athletes correctly just as with young children who may be inexperienced. should be given the opportunities to practice skill(s) In other words, Using a pedagogical approach in sports skills is certainly very skills should be automatic. helpful with young adults. It is important to introduce sports skills If coaches are holding athletes accountable for a victory, then for understanding even with experience athletes. If coaches expect coaches should be responsible for helping athletes to achieve the athletes to perform well, athletes must be able to transfer the skill necessary skills needed to win championships. from “practice to performance” in a game situation (Hooper, 2002). Having the knowledge and background to perform a skill correctly will lead to success (Hopper, 2002). Time on the playing field or GOALS AND TESTING: Cindy Loehr court focuses on two things: skill development and championships (Naylor, 2006). It is important to help the student athletes to set goals using Many times outside of team practice, an athlete’s additional the acronym “SMARTER”. The strength and conditioning Coach along with the Head Coach can help the athletes set SMARTER

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 27 Goals:

Goals Personal goal Performance Team Training goal SPECIFIC Get all A’s Gain 1000yds-Run- Win Conference Bench 300lbs ing Backs (RB) MEASURABLE Yes-grades Yes-End of Season Yes-Win all games I’m at 280lbs now ACCEPTABLE Look at previous What did they gain It is always realistic Is it realistic in- grades-Realistic year before? to win. season? RECORD Study notes daily Write out goals Write out goals Bench 3x a week TIME-CON- December 2009 Must accomplish Must win this year Must accomplish by STRAINT within 10 games 2009 Dec. 2009 EVALUATE Look at grades and Receive feedback Win every game Work at higher inten- quizzes each week- each week from sities each week- see teachers weekly coaches and team- Work off of 1RM mates each week REVERSIBLE Prepare for negatives/ I will overcome You can still do it Reduce weight if sore setback adversity/injury even if lose one or injured

The goals for the football players would also include communica- in this order (Baechle and Earle, 2007). This is an important time tion so there is no confusion in which route is being run and who is to collaborate with the position coach, because they may have covering who. Running backs and wide receivers should improve specific test they want to do before the season starts. the times of their sprints because you can always run faster and that way the quarterback can get the ball out to them faster and there is less of a chance for him to be tackled. The entire team Nutritional Considerations-Joanna Jenson should improve their speed and agility so they can avoid being Nutrition for athletes is essential not only for performance but tackled and beat out their opponents. also in reducing injuries. Let’s start by talking about the nutrition For soccer teams, some important goals to reach would be im- an in-season volleyball player needs.. According to theACC.com proving sprint times and also improving the times of endurance carbs are important like any other sport but simply just eating runs. Improvements on any agility tests would be necessary. carbs isn’t going to give the power that the player needs. These Increasing the volume of lower body workouts would also be players need “simply rich carbs” such as milk, yogurt or “meats, a good goal for each individual athlete. For the team there can cereals, beans or peas” which increase performance An athlete always be better communication with passing the ball around and should consider reducing salty foods, and consider eating more utilizing everyone for when it is necessary. fruits and nuts. All three of these sports including volleyball need to use every A player loses fluid constantly so “a minimum of 2 cups of fluid one of its players because every athlete brings a different character prior to playing, 4-6 oz of fluid every 15 minutes of play and an and set of skills with them. Communication within every sport additional 2 cups of fluid after practice should be consumed to is very important and it should be a part of daily workouts. Agil- management symptoms of dehydration” (ACC.com). ity is another common goal all three of these sports teams need As for a football player carbohydrates need to be the main food to improve on so every athlete is performing to the best of their group. This doesn’t mean they can go out and eat ice cream, white ability in a game. bread etc. It needs to be complex carbohydrates such as yogurt, It is important to assess all of the athletes in performance before wheat bread etc. This food group gives the players the fuel and the season start. The freshmen athletes may not be skilled enough energy to play the game. For a pre-game meal, choose low fat to do some of the lifts, especially the Olympic lifts. It is crucial the foods. Always choose grilled or baked foods that are high in strength and conditioning professional take caution to minimize the protein rather than fried. Fried foods do nothing but slow your risk of injuring an athlete right before the season. It may be wiser system down which is the worst thing going into a big game. to do 3 rep maxes instead of 1 rep maxes on Bench, Squat, Power (http://central.hcrhs.k12.nj.us/strength/stories/storyReader$14) Clean, Push Jerk, and any other lifts. It would be important to get Pre-competition meals are essential for performance. The play- bodyweight, body composition, height, goals, and again make sure ers need to eat 3-4 hours prior to the game. (Baechle and Earle, they have completed a physical before testing. Other assessments 2008) Carbohydrate Loading is a term often used among athletes which are beneficial are the T-drill for agility, pro shuttle run and who have to exercise for a long period of time. Post-exercise meals 40 yard dash for anaerobic capacity, vertical or broad jump for are equally as important. For the athletes training in two a days or power, and the 1.5 mile run for aerobic conditioning . You should don’t have a huge recovery time, they need to have large amounts always test the agility, speed, strength, anaerobic, and aerobic test of carbs. According to a study done by Tarnopolsky “as long as

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 28 adequate calories are consumed, a mixture of carbohydrates, pro- main lifts, the athlete will want to put in some other exercieses like teins and fat are just as effective as carbohydrates alone at replacing straight leg dead lifts, RDL( Romanian Deadlifts), weighted dips, muscle glycogen.” (Baechle and Earle, 2008) pull-ups, one arm rows, military press, or some rotator cuff work. After the lifts the athlete will finish with jumping split squats and For in season soccer players the nutrition needed is slightly dif- stretching. Running will occur within the practices but the coach ferent. Generally speaking the players need to be including all of may incorporate six 50 yard sprints on Mondays. the food groups in their diet not only carbohydrates. Proteins need to be seventeen percent of the diet; fats are twenty seven percent In season Conditioning for Volleyball - Karyl Bacon-Liberty of daily intake and carbohydrates are fifty six percent. (Tzvetkov, University Volleyball, Student-Athlete 2002) According to overspeedtraining.com, “it is recommended A good warm-up for a volleyball player before a workout is to eat four or five times a day if the players work out twice a day.” extremely important. In order to perform the necessary lifts it’s Carbohydrates do need to be increased two days before a game. vital the athlete’s muscles and joints are loose and stretched. To But soccer players’ pre-competition meal varies from football begin, the athletes should start with a jump rope routine, each ex- players. Instead of consuming all carbohydrates the players need to ercise lasting 30 seconds. This allows for blood to start circulating eat light, such as a little meat or fish, salad or fruit. Right before a and for the muscles to begin loosening. Next the muscles need to game, players are encouraged to drink hot tea to keep their energy be stretched. This would be done in a static fashion with a band and to keep glycogen levels high. (Tzvetkov, 2002) wrapped around the foot. The athlete would stretch the quads, Soccer players can become easily dehydrated so Gatorade and hamstrings, calves, and most importantly the hip flexors. This water are essential days before a match. However, during halftime allows for increased flexibility of the hips and muscles when done food such as oranges can be served. correctly. As a continued warm-up, the athletes would move to perform hurdle jumps as well as box jumps to prepare their bodies In summary this section did not focus on the micronutrients. for the upcoming exercises. Not only are these exercises beneficial It is beneficial for student-athletes to take a multi-vitamin and for loosening up the muscles, they are sport specific. In season, mineral supplement to guarantee meeting all of the needs of the the weight room regimen is lighter in terms of volume and inten- athlete. Athletes should have lost any weight they needed to lose sity than it would be at any other time during the season. This is before the season starts, and trying to lose weight in-season may be precautionary as to not injury any players during their competition detrimental to performance. Most athletes will lose an additional season. The power lifts that are performed, because volleyball is a 5-10lbs during the pre-competition period. A formula for calculat- power sport, are the power clean, squat, push jerk and push press. ing an athlete’s calorie needs is the following: Bodyweight(kg) All of these exercises help in the explosive movements necessary x 24 x1.6 .he athlete should be eating meals before and after on the court. They work on the quadriceps, hamstrings, glutius practice and games. It is essential for the athlete to consume wa- maximus, and hip flexors extending in a powerful way. Along ter and carbohydrate during the practice and games. Endurance with the power exercises, there are auxiliary exercises performed athletes need 1.2-1.4 grams/kg of bodyweight. The athletes who to balance out the muscle and keep them strong. Those exercises need power and strength should be consuming 1.6-2.0g/kg(Acsm include the bench press, glute-ham raises, reverse hyper extensions, Certification Review, 2009)Fat intake should be no higher than Romanian dead lifts, pull ups, and cubans. Some of the most 35% of the diet, and the athlete should stay closer to 20% of the common injuries in the sport of volleyball are shoulder, knee, and calories in fat if the goal is weight loss. ankle injuries. Pre-habilitation exercises are performed in order to strengthen tendons and muscles around the joints so injuries Considerations for American Football and Soccer - Pierre are less likely to occur. In regards to all of these injury sites, Tinsley and Aaron O’Dell, Liberty University Student band resistance work is done to stabilize the joints and tendons A football in season workout consists of lifting two times a so they become stronger and more capable of handling the load week. On Mondays and either Wednesday or Thursday are the that is being put on them. The last set of exercises performed are typical training days. On both days an athlete will do a full body for the core to strengthen the muscles of the abdomen. The core workout. The workout will start off with some light plyometrics is such an important part to the sport of volleyball. It is where a doing ten pogo jumps, six squat jumps, six rocket jumps, six star lot of power comes from when hitting the ball. In order to ensure jumps, and jumping split squats with six on each leg. Then go this strength some exercises that can be performed are lower abs, into a dumbbell complex to get the body ready to workout. This sit-ups and static core. dumbbell workout will consist of lateral lunges, jump shrugs, squat jumps, muscle cleans, and muscles snatch, and clean and Workouts and Conditioning-Dr. Rodney Gaines, Dr. Linda press. The athlete will do each exercise six times. After that the Person, Karyl Bacon, Aaron O’Dell, Cynthia Loehr, Joanna athlete will start the main lifts, which are cleans, bench, and squat. Jenson, and Pierre Tensley On Mondays the hang clean will be executed and on Wednesday or Thursday power cleans from the floor will be performed. The Volleyball In-Season Workouts athlete will bench and squat both days. The athlete can switch Warmup, Stretching, and Plyometrics up the lifts by adding bands or changing grips for the bench. The Jump Rope routine, Ballistic stretching with bands, Hurdle Jumps, reps and percentages of weight will vary each week. After the and Box Jumps

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 29 Day 1-Inseason Volleyball Day 2-Inseason Volleyball Summary Clean Pulls 4x6 Dumbbell Hang Snatch 4x6 In summary it is important you meet with all key personnel Medicine Ball Sit-ups 3x10 Push Jerks 4x6(80% of Max) before setting up the strength and conditioning program. Some of the meetings should include the athletic director, Head Athletic Squat 4x8 (80% of max) Dumbbell Bench Press 4x8 Trainer, Head and Assistant coaches for each sport, and also meet Romanian Dead Lifts 3x10 Db Pullovers 3x10 with the athletes with the permission of the Head coach before hand Bench Press 4x8 (80% of Max) 3 Way Dumbbell Laterals 3x21’s to go over weight room expectations and goals. It is important to Pull downs 3x10 Barbell Curls 3x8 take control of your weight room, and do not allow any horseplay. Weighted dips 3x10 Tricep Pushdowns 3x8 All athletes should see the weight room and training fields as an extension to their practice. It is not a place to lounge. Once you have had all key meetings, it is important to educate athletes in Soccer In-season Workout the areas of nutrition, spiritual growth, motivation, training, and Soccer Warmup-1/2 mile jog, pull knees to chest, Frankenstein flexibility. I also encourage giving out a monthly newsletter to walks, lunges with twist, high knees, butt kickers, knees to chest your athletes, and it is a way to keep them growing educationally jumps, and split squats throughout the in-season. For more information, please contact us. Day 1 Day 2 Workouts References: Box Jumps 2x6 Depth Jumps 2x6 Aerobics and Fitness Association of America(1995). Personal Squats 3x8 (80% of max) Bench Press 3x8 (80% of Max) Trainer Fitness Counselor Certification Study Guide. Printed Romanian Dead lifts 3x8 One Arm DB Rows 3x8 in United States. Aerobics and Fitness Association of Resistance Band Good Pull-ups 3x8 America. Mornings 3x10 Baechle, T, & Earle, R (2008). Essentials of Strength Training and 2 Hand Med Ball Overhead Romanian Dead lifts 3x10 Conditioning.Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Bompa, T. & Haff, G (2009). Periodization. Human Kinetics Throw 3x10 Cook, G.(2003). Athletic Body in Balance. Champaign, IL: Hu- Power Drops 3x10 Pike Jumps 2x10 man Kinetics. Depth Pushups 3x10 Power skips 2x10 Foran, B.(2001). High-Performance Sports conditioning.Cham- 45 degree Sit-ups 3x10 45 degree setups 3x10 paign, IL: Human Kinetics. Gatz. G.(2009). Complete Conditioning for Soccer. Champaing, IL: Human Kinetics FOOTBALL IN-SEASON WORKOUTS Graham, G. 2008. Teaching children physical education. 3rd edition Warm-ups and Stretching - Skips, Shuffles, Cariocas, 10 Pogo Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Jumps, 6 Squat Jumps, Split Squats, Stretch Hopple, T (2002). Teaching games for understanding: The impor- SUN. (High Sch.) OR MON. (College) WED. OR THUR. tance of student emphasis over content emphasis. Journal Power Clean 4x6 (80% of Max) Push Jerk 4x6 (80% of Max) of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 73(7), 44-48. Squat 4x10 (80% of Max) Hang Snatch 3x6 Maxwell, J.(1993). Developing the Leader Within You. Nashville, Lunges 3 x8 Dumbbell Box Steps 3x6 TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc. Bench Press 4x8 (80% of Max) Incline Barbell Press 4x8 Naylor, A. 2006. Coaches’ Competitive Decision Making: Implica- Incline Barbell Press 3x8 Barbell Shrugs 3x8 tions for Player development. Journal of Applied Psychology, Barbell Rows 3x8 Close Grip Bench 3x8 17, 179-196. Neck Exercises Barbell Curls 3x8 Scates,A. & Linn,M.(2003). Complete Conditioning for Volleyball. Reverse Hypers 3x10 Incline Sit-ups 3xfailure Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Tzvetkov, Galia (2002). June 26, 2009. from http://www.overspeedtraining.com/Nutrart.htm

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 30 The Benefits of Incorporating Networking Strategies Into Sport Management Courses and Related Experiences at Virginia State University Curtis Walker, Junior, Sport Management Concentration, President, HPERD/Sport Management Majors Club, Virginia State University Leon Wright Bey, Professor, HPERD Department, Virginia State University, Petersburg, VA

The fusion of networking strategies into undergraduate sport tributed immeasurably to this aim. A little over two years ago, a management classes and concomitant activities at Virginia State new NASCAR course, “The Business and Marketing of NAS- University (VSU) is viewed as one of the quintessential elements CAR,” was introduced to sport management students at VSU. of the instructional delivery process. While the theory-practical Throughout that course, students were exposed to a wide variety experience paradigm that serves as the core of the educational of practitioners with whom they had the opportunity to estab- experience is still in full force, it has become increasingly ap- lish long-lasting relationships. They also had the opportunity to parent that an understanding of the power of networking must attend press conferences and races at Richmond International complement this traditional model. Raceway (RIR) that marked the first time that most of those stu- Input from a variety of prominent sport management practitio- dents had been to any motor sports event. ners and information derived from other sources indicate our stu- As an outgrowth of that class, VSU students have attended dents must become adept at the art of networking before they can other events at RIR, the most recent of which was a race in May expect to experience success in the field of sport management. 2009. Last September (2008), VSU also hosted its first NASCAR Whether it is gainful employment, a highly coveted internship, a Symposium that featured some of the top minority motor sports committed mentor, and/or other goal that they seek, skillful net- leaders in the nation. working will likely be a deal maker. One of the key VSU liaisons for the latter event was Jona- It is not uncommon for today’s successful sport management than Young, Major Gifts Officer, who works very closely with practitioners to be selected for high-level positions without hav- the HPERD Department on motor sports and other projects. This ing gone through the traditional interviewing process. The max- past summer, he also helped to coordinate another major event. im, “It is not what you know, but whom you know that counts,” Through an invitation that was extended by one of the speakers often influences the job selection process and the outcome of sig- at the aforementioned Symposium, and the May 2009 HPERD/ nificant business decisions. Those who land jobs and accomplish Sport Management Leadership Symposium, Mr. Todd Ervin, Se- other goals in this regard can typically trace their success to: rela- nior Director of Brand Strategy and Market Insights for Interna- tionships that have been nurtured with key decision-makers over tional Speedway Corporation, and Doug Fritz, President of Rich- a period of time; recommendations from influential supporters; mond International Raceway, 80 middle and high school students observations of their work ethic, personality, and performance by were able to attend the IRL SunTrust Indy Challenge race at RIR various observers; and other reasons. in June 2009. These students attended VSU’s Undergraduate Despite this phenomenon, students should not make the er- Bridge Program (UBP) that is designed for students who have an roneous assumption that they must focus purely on the art of net- interest in engineering, science, math and technology. working at the expense of their academic pursuits. Neither should Another key liaison who, has been of great benefit to the they eschew opportunities to compete for positions through tradi- HPERD Department is Dr. Deanne Williams, Director of the tional channels. VSU Hospitality Management Program. Not long ago, she ex- Given that students with high grades and impressive experi- tended an opportunity to join her in her efforts to develop a ences who interview well often make attractive impressions, they partnership with her alma mater, The University of Technology, should still aspire to excel academically and pursue opportunities Jamaica (UTECH). Through her selfless networking endeavors, through standard career search channels. Nevertheless, they must and the support of key administrators at VSU and UTECH, an realize that good grades and interviews alone may not be good official partnership was established. Representatives from both enough. institutions have participated in events at both sites. Moreover, Students with great credentials who lack people skills, a strong HPERD students have benefited from the presence of Dr. Wil- work ethic, good character, and/or relationships with influential liams’ collegiate classmate, Anthony Davis, UTECH’s Director leaders in the field may find it very difficult to experience success of Sport, whose participation as a panelist at each of the last three in the very people-oriented sport management profession. HPERD/Sport Management Leadership Symposia has added an With that in mind, one aim of sport management courses and re- international perspective to those events. lated activities at VSU is to create a variety of networking oppor- Developing relationships with key individuals such as those tunities that complement the aforementioned theory – practice mentioned above (and many others) provides multiple oppor- model while contributing to our students’ holistic professional tunities to support a variety of causes, beyond those that yield growth. These hands-on activities, that include, but are not limit- personal gain. Embracing the need to assist others in an unselfish ed to, numerous speaking engagements by exemplary executives, manner is a key networking principle that is recommended for give them a realistic view of what is needed to succeed in today’s students to embrace. competitive marketplace. Since 2006, celebrated speakers and moderators have provided Recent motor sports initiatives are among those that have con- such altruism by helping students make the connection between

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 31 theoretical concepts and authentic experiences via their partici- Although this article does not accommodate an opportunity to pation in the aforementioned HPERD/ Sport Management Lead- acknowledge the abundant contributions that we have received ership Symposium. The variety of magnificent leaders who par- from a wide variety of contributors, the immeasurable backing ticipated in the May 2009 conference (see lists below) reflected of the aforementioned and other supporters such as: HPERD De- the theme of the event, “Diversity in Sports,” while underscoring partment alumni, Mike and Reggie Lee (and their business part- our goal of providing extensive networking opportunities for our ner, Ruben Gracia) who recently initiated an endowment fund students. that will provide scholarships for HPERD students; Harvie (see above list of speakers) who recently donated $17,000.00 worth of weight training equipment to the HPERD Department; the Visiting Speakers and Moderators Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association (via Monique Mor- • Troy Arthur, Director of Diversity and Inclusion, NCAA gan, Associate Commissioner) and HPERD graduate, Demetrius • Juan Chavez, Coach, Richmond Strikers Soccer Club Millner who (along with the Lee brothers and many others) serve • Liz Clarke, Author and Sportswriter, The Washington Post as sponsors of our symposia, is directly attributable to network- • Jolie Dalton, President, VisABILITY Marketing & Consult- ing relationships that have been built over a period of time. In ing Group LLC addition to that type of support, certain HPERD students have • Anthony Davis, Director of Sport, University of Technology, also been able to accrue other benefits via various networking Jamaica strategies and their participation in numerous professional devel- • Todd Ervin, Senior Director of Brand Strategy and Market opment activities, such as the HPERD/Sport Management Ma- Insights, International Speedway Corporation jors Club (Club). • Allan Harvie, President/GM, Richmond Renegades Ice According to Curtis Walker, a rising junior who serves as Club Hockey Team President, “The heart of this organization is our ability to net- • Juliet Gilliam, Senior Director, Corporate Outreach, ESPN, work. That ability is what keeps our group alive. Members of Inc. our organization have received internships and job opportunities • Arnold Grevious, Charlotte Sales Manager, Fox Sports Car- because of this skill that has led me to a road of success. Through olinas networking, I have been able to serve in leadership positions such • Dr. Michael W. Jackson, Director, Graduate Programs, Sport as President of the HPERD /Sport Management Majors Club and and Recreation Administration, Temple University Student Representative on the Board of Directors of the Virgin- • Stephen M. Lewis, Senior Sports Editor at DigitalSports. ia Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and com Dance. Networking also led me to an internship with the CIAA • Juan Lizama, Reporter, Richmond Times – Dispatch where I serve under the Associate Commissioner, Ms. Monique • Mike London, Head Football Coach, University of Rich- Morgan,” Walker continued. mond What is interesting about Walker’s success is that not long ago, • Vernoca L. Michael, President/CEO, The Legendary Blue neither he nor many of his contemporaries understood how to Horizon, Philadelphia, PA engage in networking activities. Walker suggests, “Networking • (Luncheon Keynote Speaker) is a skill that is taught, not inherited.” • Chris Miles, Weekend Sports Anchor, WDBJ News7, Roa- In light of his philosophy, listed below are some networking/ noke, VA personal development tips for students that may be of benefit to • Sean Robertson, Sports Anchor, WTVR News Channel 6 those who support his viewpoint and/or to professors who may • choose to integrate them into their instructional strategies:

VSU Speakers Who Appeared on the Program 1. Seek professional development assistance from programs • Dr. Weldon Hill, Interim Vice President for Academic Affairs on your campus to assist with finding career opportunities, • Dr. James Hunter, Vice Provost interview techniques, resume building, etc. • Dr. Andrew Kanu, Interim Dean, School of Liberal Arts and 2. Become active in your profession as a student. Join pro- Education fessional organizations, read professional journals and attend • Dr. Serena Reese, Chair, HPERD Department conferences to stay abreast of current developments and net- • Peggy Davis, Athletic Director work with key leaders in the field.. • Regina B. Tyler, Director of Upward Bound Program 3. Always wear appropriate business attire to interviews and • Dr. Paulette Johnson, Associate Professor, HPERD Depart- other important functions. Walker advises that networking ment and Cheerleading Coach can take you but so far. He recommends that students create • Dr. Linda Person, Associate Professor, HPERD Department a wholesome image or brand for themselves that will cause &Women’s Tennis and Volleyball Coach them to be worthy of consideration for jobs and other oppor- • Jacquel Chisholm, Former President of the HPERD/Sport tunities. Management Majors Club (May 2009 Graduate) 4. Attend etiquette classes and other related activities to un- • Dr. Leon Wright Bey, VSU HPERD Department Professor & derstand how to comport yourself in various environments Symposium Founder and to avoid being outclassed by competitors.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 32 5. Always arrive early, and not just on time, for interviews 10. Be kind to and network with everyone. Remember, “There and any other occasion. This will likely make a favorable are no Big I’s and no Little U’s.” Never think that you are impression on prospective employers and other significant better than anyone else. Remember that everybody is impor- individuals. tant and virtually everybody knows someone who can help 6. Use proper grammar when communicating with profes- you. sionals via e-mails, text messages, voicemail messages, etc. Eliminate superfluous music and/or verbiage. 11. Attend events. Participate in golf tournaments and other 7. “Get Ready and Stay Ready.” Prepare ahead of time for functions where major deals are often made. Serve as a vol- all engagements by studying the language, backgrounds, and unteer for various charitable causes to establish a reputation customs of the people you expect to encounter and the mis- as a concerned member of the community and to meet new sion and other aspects of any organization that you plan to people. approach. Such knowledge will likely create the image of a 12. Be sure to express your gratitude. Send “thank you” cards, critical thinker and industrious individual. letters, or e-mails within 24 hours of a particular meeting. 8. Be humble and a good listener. Do not talk too much about Maintain regular contact with those you meet and do not your accomplishments or ask for favors too quickly. Spend make the mistake of only contacting them when you need more time learning about how you can assist others than the their help. other way around. In many instances, relationships must be patiently cultivated before you can expect to be granted tan- Speaking of expressing gratitude, the author hereby acknowl- gible or intangible benefits. edges the support of the aforementioned administrators, Drs. 9. Always carry business cards, even if you are a freshman. Hill, Kanu, and Reese, and many others for their great assistance. Mark important information on the back of cards you receive It is largely because of their support that we have been able to so that you can keep good records. Establish a database and /or engage in so many fruitful networking events. purchase business card holders to keep track of your contacts.

2009 SWVA VAHPERD Clinic held at Radford University

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 33 Developing a Strength Training Course within a Physical Education Curriculum Jack B. Johnson, Ph.D., CSCS, Assistant Professor, Virginia Military Institute

Why do people lift weights? Do all strength programs create should be obtained by participating in this course. These five the same results? How do I get bigger and stronger? Will strength goals are: training make me slower and stiffer? These are just some of the 1. To introduce pertinent terminology and definitions that questions that I have attempted to answer in my Weight Training will enable the student to understand the basic concepts II (Theory and Design) course at VMI. and theory’s pertaining to strength training. When I attended college we did not have classes that examined 2. To introduce proper and effective strength training pro- the design and theory of strength training. Luckily now those grams. classes exist and I am fortunate to be a professor who is teaching 3. To incorporate recent research in the field of physical train- these exciting courses. Strength and Conditioning classes have ing. become very popular for students at the High School and Col- 4. To utilize and incorporate proper safety procedures and legiate level and they are commonplace among many Physical protocol. Education programs throughout the nation. Many people value 5. To introduce proper and effective strength training tech- the importance of resistance training as a means to improve upon niques to the student. one’s physical performance, appearance, reduction of injury, and their psychological well being (Faigenbaum and Polakowski, The format of the strength course is composed of scientific and 1999, p. 73). practical material that will introduce the student to the practice It seems that many strength training courses are becoming of strength training. This course is divided into two distinct sec- more prevalent and popular, but there is still a relatively small tions. The first section will provide the student with a scientific percentage of people participating in strength training activities background that is concurrent with scientifically researched ma- (Chevan, 2008, p. 554). “Accordingly, CDC analysts found that terial. The second section of the course will provide the student the prevalence of strength training has only increased slightly with basic safety protocol, exercise technique acquisition, and in the 1998-2004 period from 17.7 to 19.6% and that 21.9% of program design implementation. In simplistic terms, the first men and 17.5% of women were strength training 2 or more times section will provide the necessary scientific background to elicit per week in 2004” (Chevan, 2008, p. 554). Although small, an understanding of basic training concepts and philosophies. the number of people strength training is increasing and that is This section is consequently followed by a practical application promising. Education is the key to providing key information section which will focus on exercise techniques, safety protocol, that is pertinent and applicable to people that are interested in and program development. Therefore, the first section will be starting a strength program. Many people are starting to obtain based in the classroom while the second section will be based this information through classes offered in High School and Col- in the weight room. The intention of the course is to expose leges. This is a welcome trend since many people obtain their the student to both the science and the practical application of information through “muscle magazines” that may not provide strength training. researched information that can be used for the implementation An outline for the strength course will be presented below. of a sound physical training program. The outline will consist of the two sections and the teaching ob- What should be included in a Strength (Weight) Training jectives for each of the 15 weeks. course? What should the curriculum entail? Should it be held in the classroom or the weight room? Should the course take a Section I - Section I of the strength course will consist of 7 more practical approach or be a theoretical class in design? This weeks that will meet in the classroom. (Exercise science and article is devoted to the design of a strength training course for a Principles of strength training) college undergraduate Physical Education curriculum. Although this is designed for a college curriculum this information can be Week 1 Anatomy and Strength training terminology modified to accommodate a High School’s Physical Education Week 1 will focus on the anatomy of the human body as well as program. understanding and comprehending the various strength training This course is designed to introduce various strength training terminology that is used within the field. (i.e. – various bones, methodologies to the student by using a practical approach to muscles, tendons, compound sets, super sets, conjugate method) strength training techniques. Furthermore, this course will provide the students with scientifically researched information for Week 2 Bioenergetics of Resistance Training the purpose of designing and understanding the implementation Week 2 will focus on the body’s ability to produce energy and of a strength training program. Goals are important and setting how that will relate into the development of strength programs. goals for a strength course is absolutely essential. “Goal setting “Understanding energy use and production in biological systems helps direct and focus attention on the things that really matter” forms the metabolic basis for the concept of specificity of exer- (Stone, Stone and Sands, 2007, p. 234). There are five goals that cise and training. Understanding how energy is produced for

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 34 various exercises, and how energy production can be modified Section II - Section II of the strength course will consist of 8 by specific types of training, makes it possible to design more weeks that will meet in the strength training facility (weight efficient and productive training programs” (Stone et. al., 2008, room). (Exercise safety, exercise technique, and Program p. 63). Implementation will be addressed during this section.)

Week 3 Nutrition Week 8 Bench Press Technique and Upper Body Assistance Nutrition will be the focus of discussion for week 3. Proper Exercises nutrition will elicit a positive training effect for endurance and (Safety and Technique) power athletes. “The science of sports nutrition has also helped The bench press exercise is one of the most popular exercises us understand the different nutrition demands associated with that people incorporate to improve upon the strength of the upper different types of activities. A failure to consider the nutrition body. This class will dedicate time to emphasize proper tech- implications of the activity will most certainly lead to problems nique that will help students perform a safe and effective bench in training and to performance outcomes that are below the capa- press exercise. Class time will also be dedicated to teach and bilities of the athlete” (Benardot, 2006, p. 234). implement exercises that are designed to improve the strength of the upper body. Exercises for the chest, back, arms, abdominals, Week 4 Biomechanics and traps will be introduced and performed. “No matter how Biomechanics of strength training is a very important entity to sound an exercise program is, it won’t be effective without the grasp. Gaining an understanding in Biomechanics will give the proper execution of the exercises that make up that program” student the ability to comprehend movement of the muscle at the (Stoppani, 2006, p. 221). cellular level and also movement of whole muscle. “Biological mechanics deals with the application of physical laws to biologi- Week 9 Squatting Technique and Lower Body Assistance cal motion. In humans, biomechanics concerns the interaction of Exercises the skeletal and neuromuscular systems in creating movement” (Safety and Technique) (Stone et. al., 2008, p. 45). Students will learn how to perform the back squat and the front squat. Other squatting techniques will also be obtained during Week 5 Types of Strength Training Exercises this class period. “All squats are not the same (like any other ex- Descriptions of various types of strength training exercises ercises), with each variation producing different training results” will be discussed during Week 5. “Strength exercises are classi- (Siff, 2003, P. 40). Many lower body assistance exercises will fied in various ways. For example, they may be static (isometric) also be demonstrated and implemented. Therefore, exercises that or dynamic (concentric, eccentric, reversible, isokinetic). They focus on the gluteus maximus, quadriceps, hamstrings, and calf may concentrate on particular muscle groups, whose compara- muscles will be a priority. tive strengths are called strength topography. Or they may be classified according to how specific they are to the sport task” Week 10 Power Clean Teaching Progression (Zatsiorsky and Kraemer, 2006, p. 135). Therefore, it is impera- (Safety and Technique) tive for the student to comprehend different strength training The power clean is an Olympic lifting exercise that develops exercises and methods. This will enable the student to choose power. Therefore, this exercise incorporates speed, a distance exercises that may benefit their needs and goals. the bar has to travel, and a load (weight). “The power clean can be a very valuable exercise, since it involves the powerful action Week 6 Concepts of Resistance Training of many joints and muscles, as well as promoting speed and co- This week’s instruction will focus primarily on the various ordination under loading” (Siff, 2003, p. 49). Olympic lifting is types of resistance training programs. For example, power lifting more complex to perform; hence the exercise progression must programs are very different in technique and design than Olym- be more intricate. Variations of the power clean, such as; clean pic lifting programs (Fry et. al., 2003). “Weightlifting (Olympic pulls, power clean from mid-thigh, Olympic deadlift to knee, lifting), power lifting, bodybuilding, supplementary resistance and front squats will be demonstrated and executed during this training (athletic training), and physiotherapy” (Siff, 2003, p. 6), week’s class. are all resistance training programs that will elicit a very specific and diverse outcome. Week 11 Power Snatch & Push Jerk Teaching Progression (Safety and Technique) Week 7 Resistance Training Design Variables The power snatch and the push jerk are Olympic lifting exer- This week’s class periods is devoted to the comprehension of cises. Both exercises are used to increase one’s power output. the “resistance training program design variables” (Baechle and Just like the power clean, the power snatch and the push jerk are Earle, 2008, p. 382). These training variables are keys to suc- exercises that incorporate speed, a distance the bar has to travel, cessfully designing and implementing a sound resistance training and a load (weight). “Many times, structural exercises involve program. “Designing a resistance training program is a complex the need for advanced lifting techniques (e.g., power cleans, process that requires the recognition and manipulation of seven power snatches), which require additional exercise technique program design variables” (Baechle and Earle, 2008, p. 382). coaching beyond simple movement patterns” (Fleck and Krae-

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 35 mer, 2004, p. 159). Therefore, we have devoted two weeks to students will be exposed to many strength training concepts they introduce Olympic lifting exercises to the student. will in no way be considered masters of all methodologies and exercise techniques pertaining to the field of strength training. Week 12 Athletic Workout (Workout #1) (Practical Imple- Therefore this course is designed for students to establish a basic mentation) knowledge and understanding of strength training philosophies The students will perform an athletic workout that will con- and theories. It is recognized that many concepts and theories sist of Olympic lifts, core strength movements (e.g., bench press, are not covered within this course. Time is a constraint, therefore back squats), and assistance exercises. The course instructor many of the important concepts and theories have been presented should pick a workout that will be specific to a sport like soccer, while others have not. This is unfortunate but beyond the scope football, or basketball. Goals and objectives will be given by the of a one semester course to cover all pertinent material. instructor prior to the workout so the students may comprehend “Strength training accords many health benefits and is asso- the desired direction of the strength workout. ciated with reducing the risk of a number of disease processes among adults including osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, and Week 13 Powerlifting Workout (Workout #2) (Practical diabetes” (Chevan, 2008, p. 553). Strength training is impor- Implementation) tant to, not only, people seeking athletic improvement but it is Students will perform a workout that will contain elements also important for one’s overall health and fitness. It is impera- of a powerlifting program. Therefore, the student will be intro- tive that people incorporate a strength program within their daily duced to exercises that are concurrent with a conjugate training lives and education can be a catalyst for this healthy endeavor. method program. This method contains “max strength day” movements and “dynamic-speed day” movements designed to REFERENCES produce maximal strength on the three competitive powerlifting Baechle, T. & Earle, R. (2008). Essentials of Strength Training exercises (back squat, bench press, deadlift). and Conditioning. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Benardot, D. (2006). Advanced Sports Nutrition. Champaign, IL: Week 14 Olympic Lifting Workout (Workout #3) (Practical Human Kinetics. Implementation) Chevan, J. (2008). Demographic Determinants of Participation This workout will contain exercises that are specific to the in Strength Training Activities Among U.S. Adults. Journal of enhancement of the competitive Olympic lifts (Clean and Jerk, Strength and Conditioning Research. 22 (2), 553-554. Snatch). The complete lifts of the clean, jerk, and snatch will Faigenbaum, A.D. & Polakowski, C. (1999). Olympic – Style be performed by the student, as well, as variations of each lift. Weightlifting, Kid Style. Strength and Conditioning “Olympic-style weightlifting is an excellent training method for Journal, 21(3), 73. developing power. It consists of two movements, the clean and Fleck, S.J. & Kraemer, W.J. (2004). Designing Resistance Train- jerk and the snatch. The derivatives of those movements are ing Programs. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 159. what make up the majority of the training exercises” (Gambetta, Fry et. al. (2003). Muscle Fiber Characteristics of Competitive 2007, p.189). Power Lifters. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Re- search. 17 (2), 402. Week 15 Bodybuilding Workout (Workout #4) (Practical Gambetta, V. (2007). Athletic Development: The Art & Science Implementation) of Functional Sports Conditioning. Champaign, IL: Human Students will perform a bodybuilding workout during this Kinetics. week’s class. Bodybuilding principles and training regimes will Siff, M.C. (2003). Facts and Fallacies of Fitness. 6th ed. Denver, be followed by the student. Students will be reminded that the CO Supertraining Institute. main physical goal of bodybuilding is the development of hy- Siff, M.C. (2003). Supertraining. 6th ed. Denver, CO: Supertrain- pertrophy, which is the enlargement of the muscle being trained ing Institute. (Baechle and Earle, 2008, p.100). Therefore, the volume and Stoppani, J. (2006). Encyclopedia of Muscle & Strength. Cham- load of the workout will be manipulated to follow a bodybuild- paign, IL: Human Kinetics. ing regime. Stone, M.H. & Stone, M. & Sands, W.A. (2007). Principles and Practice of Resistance Training. Champaign, IL: Human Ki- Summary netics. This course is designed to expose students to strength train- Zatsiorsky, V.M. & Kraemer, W.J. (2006). Science and Practice of ing theories, program design procedures, exercise physiology Strength Training. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. concepts, safety, and exercise technique protocol. Although the

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 36 Guidelines for Manuscript Submission

The Virginia Journal is published twice yearly (Fall and Spring) Illustrations by the Virginia Association for Health, Physical Education, Illustrations such as pictures, graphs, and drawings are valuable Recreation and Dance. Deadlines for submitting materials for additions to manuscripts. Please send these embedded within your inclusion in the spring and fall issues are January 15th and July manuscript. 15th respectively. Manuscripts should be sent to Dr. Michael Moore, TVJ editor, by email in an attached WORD document. Reviewing and Editing Each e-mail attachment should not be greater than 4 MB. In Each article is reviewed by three members of the Editorial submitting a manuscript, the author affirms that it has not been Board. Sometimes a guest editor is asked by the editor to published or accepted for publication elsewhere, unless otherwise review a manuscript depending upon the topic. To be accepted stated in writing. for publication the article must be approved by at least two of these persons. Reasons for rejecting articles include: topic is Manuscripts not of interest to the profession or to only a few members of the Manuscripts follow the form of the Publication Manual of the Association, topic is of interest but has already been thoroughly American Psychological Association and must be typed on 8 1/2 discussed in the literature, manuscript discussion is too general by 11 inch paper. The attached manuscript must be double spaced and vague, poor research techniques, or the manuscript is poorly except that direct quotations of three or more lines in length are written. In some instances a manuscript may be rejected but to be single spaced and indented. the author is invited to revise and resubmit it with corrections. Manuscripts should not exceed 10 double-spaced pages of Manuscripts accepted are subject to editing to conform to the narrative including the citation page. Pages should be numbered Journal format. consecutively. The name and institution of each author are inserted on a title page but not on the narrative. There should be provided Final Acceptance for Printing on the title page biographical information on each author. This After the editor has compiled the journal issue, it is sent to the biographic information should include name and position at time printers. VAHPERD’s executive director, president and president- of manuscript submission. elect then edit The Virginia Journal. These three VAHPERD References should be listed at the end of the manuscript and members are provided with a minimum of two drafts for their should be arranged in alphabetical order. Each reference cited in revision and comment. Upon their approval, the final document the article must be listed, but only those cited should he included. is printed and distributed. Sources should be cited by placing the author’s name and date of publication followed by a page number when appropriate in parentheses: i.e., (Cowlick & Rice, 2003). The reference should be cited following the quote or fact noted. References listed at the end of the article should contain the following information: 1. The author, editor’s or compiler’s name, in reverse order (surname, followed by first and middle initials). 2. The exact title. Titles of books, pamphlets, periodicals, and newspapers are underlined: titles or articles within periodicals or books are not underlined and precede the periodical or book in which they are found. Only the first word of the title is capitalized and the title is followed by a period. 3. Titles of books are followed by place: company, date of publication. The date, volume, and page numbers follow the title of a journal. If each issue of a journal begins with page 1, include the issue number after the volume number in parentheses. Volume numbers should be italicized, issue numbers should be in parentheses and not italicized for journals. Please see below and the following web page for further examples of APA styles of various sources. http://lib. radford.edu/Resources/handouts/styleguides-apa.asp

Examples of Citations American Dietetic Association. (1999). Dietary guidance for healthy children aged 2 to 11 years. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 99:93-101. Kulwicki, A., & Rice, V.H. (2003). Arab American adolescent perceptions and experiences with smoking. Public Health Nursing, 20, 177-183.

FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 37 FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 38 FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 39 FALL 2009 • VAHPERD • 40

The Virginia Journal Publication Specifications Submission Deadlines: January 15 and July 15

Manuscript Specifications: All manuscripts and announcements should be submitted by email as a WORD attachment. See page 37 for more information.

Authors: Please include your name, position, address, email address, and telephone number. Authors are strongly encouraged HAVE YOU MOVED? to be members of both VAHPERD and AAHPERD. Please send your change of address information to: Henry Castelvecchi Executive Director [email protected]

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