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CONTENTS PROCEEDINGS SECTION The Mather Lecture, “ Pattern for Industry ”—Cronshaw ... P65-P76 Annual Report, Balance Sheet and Accounts lor 1944 ... P77-P81 Section Annual Meetings ... P82-P84 Scottish Section P84 Bolton Section ...... P84 General Items : Institute Membership, Obituary, Employment Register,, Institute Meetings ...... P85-P86 TRANSACTIONS SECTION 11—An Analysis of the Irregularities in Worsted and Slivers— Waggett ...... T 131-T 146

ABSTRACTS SECTION ...... A237-A284

THE TEXTILE INSTITUTE ST. MARY'S PARSONAGE, MANCHESTER T E L E P H O N E BLA c KFRIARS 2 0 16

JUNE 1945 THE JOURNAL OF

Vol. XXXVI JUNE 1945 No. 6

MATHER LECTURE PATTERN FOR INDUSTRY*

B y C. J. T. C r o n s h a w

The first Mather Lecture was given in 1919 and since that time, for the annual sequence has been broken only three times, more than a score of addresses have been delivered before the Fellows, Associates and Members of this Institute. Thus the Mather Lecture has become almost an Institution in itself. The series of lectures have shown a great diversity and have ranged widely, seeking subject matter in science, art, education, economics, technology, and industry. All of this is both proper and appropriate and completely within the scope of this Institute which is concerned with the problems of an industry which, though the present vogue is to decry, is nevertheless more diverse and accomplished than that in any other country in the world. One other point, a personal one for those honoured by an invitation to become a Mather Lecturer, does emerge inherently from the gamut of titles which have gone before ; and that is the selection of a theme upon which to address you. The problem of selecting a subject that might seem to have some interest for you and yet to a certain extent be within my own experience, I have endeavoured to solve by the title “ Pattern for Industry.” . I purposely leave out the definite article because to do otherwise would seem to proffer a unique and comprehensive solution for your consumption which I am far from suggest­ ing. Even the inclusion of the indefinite article risks an appearance that is still too rigid, perhaps implying amongst other things that here is pattern which is so to speak “ tailor-made ” and all ready for use. Insofar as the first part of my title is concerned I can assume your interest because the subject of pattern, though used may be in another sense, is the cardinal virtue of the textile pro­ cess of . Nor do I need to stress that it is pattern—the warp and the weft—which gives to textile fabrics such an infinite flexibility in every direction as is unmatched by any other continuous material. As we proceed, I hope we may agree that flexibility is one of the qualities which is inherent in any pattern. The second part of my title—Industry—carries no burden of apology ; in it all of us have a deep and abiding interest. Our whole future directly and indirectly depends upon it. I have had the great advantage of spending 30 years in various capacities in an industry which has its being on the very threshold of science, a'nd it would, I think, argue a culpable lack of curiosity if I had not developed some opinions in regard to one particular type of industry. I can not myself repay the great compliment that the Textile Institute has done me to-day in better manner than by sharing these opinions, duly pointed by examples, with you. * Lecture delivered on the occasion of the Annual General Meeting of the Textile Institute, held in Manchester on 2nd May, 1945- P66 Proceedings

The most I conceive my object to be is to suggest some thoughts that merit your consideration. After all, this Mather Lecture is a personal affair on the part of the lecturer and was never intended to represent any final and definite creed. It is, as I gather from reading what has gone before, such an introduc­ tion to a subject of importance which still allows and, maybe incites, any person who is interested and so minded to do some further voyaging on his own behalf, and to do that voyaging unaccompanied. Judged in this way, the invitation to deliver a Mather Lecture is a much appreciated opportunity to say some things without involving the Institute, committing any colleagues or disturbing any friendships—a privileged occasion to put a point of view which is entirely personal and yet not altogether shorn of that sense of responsibility that arises from being in the sequence of distinction that the Mather Lecture, so far at any rate, has brought to its service. The first approach to our subject is to enquire briefly what is the real business of industry. It seeks, of course, to accomplish many things, but our present need is to discover its ultimate purpose and to hope for such a definition as will clearly and uniquely ascertain its inevitable aim. Many things we know it must accomplish, but those, whilst part of its continuing existence, are not the heart and kernel of its being. It should, of course, have due earning capacity because, as someone said, the man with money in his pocket is the master of circumstances, and I would judge this true of industry also. It must be the means of giving employment, but this is part of the reward of industry and not the thing itself. The heart of Industry is the continuing development of skill; the skill of all its people, aided and abetted without let or hindrance by the manifold resources of a modern and progressing world. And if that skill can make fair claim to be unique then so much the better. That this definition is a correct one is, I think, shown by the fact that if this degree of skill can be brought to bear all other requirements of industry automatically in due course follow. And now in order to proceed further we must, I think, look over our shoulder back into the past. The function of history is much more than to satisfy a curiosity about the past. History is a case book which is available to all of us and it can be made to yield general principles just as efficiently as any medical case book can to the student of medicine. History may not repeat itself in the sense that identical situations are reproduced, for there are inevitable changes in the scale, rate of change, and complexity of human affairs. Nevertheless we can discover the same phenomenon leading to similar results again and again, and even discern old errors cropping up with distressing frequency. For example, Lipson1 in, a recent book points out that unemployment as a problem is four centuries old, and further suggests that present-day writers on this topic will find most of their original ideas for its solution anticipated by a Royal Commission which sat as early as 1622. In Arthur Bryant’s “ Years of Victory ” we can read a vivid record of nine years in the 19th Century which, except in extent and size parallels with uncanny exactness recent events—threatened invasion off these shores, a New Order at our door, a Continental blockade in operation, and a cruel tyranny to fight against. Our own experience is a wonderful and much used expedient for relating cause and effect when the time interval between them is only part of a life­ time, but we need history at our elbow to relate cause and effect when the relationship has tarried beyond a person’s own experience. It is worth while remarking that, normally speaking, most of us prefer a short time relation between cause and effect and are apt to deny this relationship at all if it tarries too long. For this reason history as many of us learnt it in early juvenile days, abounded in simple relationship of cause and effect. Some of you will remember that highly diverting book “ 1066 and all that ,” 2 which poked fun at this human weakness by its deliberately concise and forthright review of English history, adding, moreover, as a postcript to each successive event, “ And that was a good thing,” or, alternatively, “ And that was a bad thing.” Mather Lecture

This notion of cause and effect arose out of man’s natural tendency to look at the world from his own point of view rather than from the point of view of a person anxious to find out the truth about nature, as it actually is. During the last few centuries, encouraged by his apparently increasing control over events, man has come to regard himself as having within his power a definite and deliberate causative effect. Thus it is that the word " cause ” has come to imply the power to compel a particular effect or result. The conditions that constitute the cause of any event are infinite in number, and thedr presence cannot be detected in any simple manner but require analysis by a trained statistical expert and the observations must be done over a wide range or over a long period of time. All so-called scientific laws come from this method of approach. Thus in the search for causes we must seek sequences of events which over periods of time repeat themselves more or less automatically, like the seasons, Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter, or, as does a chemist in an array of experiments, as for example, when investigating chemical reactions in a laboratory. It has been my experience that many of us, although chemists or physicists, and, therefore, trained and skilled in scientific methods, too easily abandon this manner of approach when confronted by a problem not manifestly within our chosen science. As experimental scientists we have been trained to study by experiment not the “ why ” but the " how ” and to take great pains to assure ourselves that the reactions we study are in equilibrium with their surroundings, knowing full well that the degree of stability is conditioned by these circum­ stances. Now investigators in other fields are not so fortunate, since experiments cannot be made deliberately and, therefore, studies must be made of events which have already happened. The biologist and economist must largely proceed in this manner. And there is no reason, merely because we are chemists or physicists with an experimental bench commonly at our service, why we should not upon occasion take unto ourselves another and a different but effective instrument of investigation. Two rules we must have ; our samples must be diverse and numerous. We must have some reasonable assurance that observa­ tions have reached an equilibrium with contributing circumstances. History, provided it is available over a long enough period, can supply the diversity and the numerous- examples and, moreover, can provide this assurance that the cir­ cumstances are in equilibrium with the contributing factors. For, as Professor Collingwood has observed, “ Where there is no strain, there is no history.” If, therefore, over a wide sweep of history we find an event repeating itself we can with reason take it as the likeliest probability for the future. If, too, we can conduct our enquiry over as diverse a field of events we can gather as much confirmation as we are likely ever to achieve. And in taking you over the ground in this manner I am really taking those of you who axe chemists or physicists over familiar hurdles. The method has been variously designated as the “ historical approach,” or “ the scientific approach” ; either term serves equally well, but perhaps the latter will commend itself the more to this gathering. One of the striking deductions I draw from the past is that the size of the effective unit tends always to increase. You may wish for some clear notion of what I have in mind in using the term unit, but I do not think that for our especial purpose we need seek precise definition. Perhaps it will serve If we consider it as any individual thing which is capable of individual existence. Indeed, as we agreed earlier on, the wider our range of examples, the more apparently ill-assorted the collection, the better our sample from the statistical point of view. We are seeking a conclusion that we may believe to be in equilibrium with circumstances. We can begin with the railway locomotive and the year 1829 ; Stephenson’s Rocket ran on four wheels, weighed about tons and drew a train three times its weight at I2| miles an hour. When the jubilee of British railways was Proceedings celebrated in 1875 express locomotives ran on six or eight wheels, weighed in working order 65-70 tons, and were capable of hauling trains 100-150 tons at about 60 miles per hour. Before this war, as we know from our own observa­ tions, express passenger engines were mounted on twelve wheels with an eight­ wheeled tender, weighing in total about 150 tons. They were capable of hauling trains of 750 tons at about 70 miles per hour. In other countries, where certain restrictions are less severe, the increment in size is even more marked. Whereas the U.S.A. began with locomotives much like our own in size, the modem express engines weigh with their -tenders 250-300 tons, maintain speeds of over 70 miles per hour, and draw loads of 1,000-1,500 tons3. There can be traced this same growth factor in railway wagons, but it has been slower. In 1845 the effective load was six tons ; in 1854, eight tons ; and at the present time 10 tons. In the case of wagons for coal it is frequently 12 tons. High capacity wagons up to 50 tons there are also, but these have been confined practically to the shipping coal business. It is worth remarking that in this country we have the smallest capacity wagons in the world. Even South Africa, with its small gauge railway, has larger wagons, and it has been claimed by those who might be expected to have a special understanding that this small capacity wagon is one of the roots of our transport problem ; a resistance, so to speak, to a natural process of evolution.4 It is some fifty years ago since Sir Charles Parsons invented the high-speed turbine for the production of electric power, and here is an example where we can review events from the beginning and see how our notion fares. The city of Newcastle in 1889 installed a 75 kilowatt turbo-altemator. During the period 1903 to 1907 we find the sets increasing to ratings of 4,000 kilowatts. About that time there was a 25,000 kilowatt set built for Chicago. Up to 1932 the largest turbo-altemator installed in England was rated at 75,000 kilowatts. And in U.S.A. to fulfil special requirements a 165,000 kilowatt set had been built5. Other examples of a similar nature will, I think, occur to you. Two others I might mention. Ships, for instance, and we need here no detiiled enquiry ; it is enough to picture in our mind's eye their size in Greek and Roman days ; the familiar picture of the " Mayflower,” which took the Pilgrims to America; and experiences in our own personal voyaging. The dimensions of the average home of the common man has shown a tendency down the ages to increase in size, and we hope in the near peaceful future to discern this same tendency. Now it is part of the plan not to limit our examples, but by taking them over widely differing periods of time and moreover as variously as may be in our search for equilibrium, and so we change over to another field of enquiry. The army is the effective unit in the military art, and we may follow that down the ages:

C r o m w e l l ’ s model army consisted in the beginning of 7,600 cavalry, 14,400 infantry, and subsequently rose to a strength of 70,000. M a r l b o r o u g h , th e first general of his time and a commander with an unbroken career of victory, had together with Prince Eugene’s forces some 120,000 men at his disposal. It is only fair to add that W o l f e in 1759 with 8,000 men took Quebec and as a result put the whole of under the British flag. In 1783, the British forces operating in America were 70,000 strong and of these some 30,000 were mercenaries. W e l l i n g t o n achieved victory at Waterloo with a command of 93.000. B l u c h e r had 120,000. N a p o l e o n opposed them with 124,000. In the South African W ar when R o b e r t s took effective control he disposed a total force of 100,000. When in May, 1901, K i t c h e n e r took over command, the forces had risen to 250,000. In the Great War of 1914 the Kitchener voluntary army alone numbered 2.000.0006. Similar facts in regard to the present war are within your knowledge, and will support this idea of increase in the size of the effective unit. Mather Lecture P69

From the art of war we can turn to one of the great arts of peace and look at education. One unit in this field of endeavour is, of course, the school; another is the local administrative unit. Both, as we shall see, exhibit a rate of increase. U n til 1832 the English Government took no interest or responsibility for popular education, and for a generation after that it took very little. But in 1870 an Act was passed setting up School Boards. Up to that time schools for the poor were either private schools run for meagre profit, or schools controlled by religious bodies. The great Education Act of 1902 had the effect of replacing 2,527 School B oards b y 328 Education Authorities. It has been termed “ A very important rationalisation.” It could equally well be regarded as this same tendency of the unit to increase. A picture of the average School Board of 50 years ago and the average County Council School shows striking changes in effectiveness.7 One traces it, too, in Government. Surely the sequence England, Wales, Scotland—Great Britain—the British Empire, is largely the' urge towards the creation of a more effective unit. After the last war the conception behind the formation of the League of Nations arose out of the enlightened recognition that for the vital matter of the preservation of peace in the world, a single nation, no matter what its size or importance, is a sadly ineffective unit. Are we not paying this idea lip service, at any rate, when we speak of " The Allied Nations ”—the three Great Nations—the peace-loving Nations—as a necessary form of collaboration for the purpose of ensuring the future security of civilisation ? So far our survey has been over wide tracts in historical time, but we can immeasurably increase our scope. There is a vaster tract to survey. We have biological evolution to bear witness for us. There is, as you know, a large species of living matter in which the individual consists of a single living cell; and all living matter can be considered as lying on a, scale where the unit of existence increases in complexity and from unity up to the human being, and certainly in size beyond this. And what is important for us, the biologists believe that not only is this a scale as regards size, but is also the scale grouped in order of time. Put in another way, that the single-celled organisms are the oldest and the highly organised and larger animals the youngest in develop­ ment—a process in fact of evolution. That, so to speak, biologists agree that in the course of time the size of the effective unit does increase.8 It may be that some of you question a little the biological analogy which I bring to our con­ sideration. May I reply by quoting from Professor Hawkins’ presidential address to the Geological Section of the British Association in 1936. He said: “ Those that deny that human institutions are subject to the laws of organic evolution know either no history or no palaeontology.” In a recent book, " The Future of Economic Society,” Glenday establishes a parallel between economic growth and biological growth. In his view, economic growth takes two principal forms : one which is an increase at a simple interest rate, and another which is at a compound interest rate. And what he claims is true of an economic system is also true of a single industry. Let us now look specifically at Industry over the years and observe also this same increase in size of the effective unit. But here especially must we for caution’s sake bring a wide sweep to bear. We cannot do better than begin at the beginning. According to J. L. Hammond ,9 it is possible prior to the so-called Industrial Age, to identify four stages in the supplying of man’s needs. In the first, during the Midcfle Ages, as in early Greek and Roman times, the wants of the common man were supplied either by himself or his family or his neighbours. In the next stage these wants were supplied by a range of specialists—craftsmen—working in a village or small town, organised sometimes in Guilds. In the third stage the provision of these wants became the business of individual or group producers and large-scale merchanting. In the fourth stage it became the business of large-scale production. P70 Proceedings

At that point, the world passes to the industrial age; and in this age we may confine our survey to our own history because the English people were the pioneers of this system. They were first to reap its harvest, to inherit its evils, to resolve largely its problems, and in that efiort, to build for themselves a unique and powerful place in the world. During this development there was a transition from man power to water power and then to steam power, where if we include electricity, in this country at any rate, it still remains. The first effect of this transfer from man power to water power was to move to a new location on the bank of a stream suitable as a source of power, so instead of individual or groups of craftsmen with separate premises, they became gathered together in factories. The change over to steam power intensified the aggrega­ tion to factories. So far we have considered industry in general; we may now be more specific. If we take the manufacture of iron as an example we find that very early on the large unit (for those times) became the rule. Ironmasters often owned their own coal mines. In 1812 there were in the vicinity of Birmingham ten ironworks each of which cost over £50,000 to establish. But this develop­ ment was not confined to any particular district, it was also happening in the country as a whole. Statistics of average annual furnace capacity for three selected years with a gap of roughly 50 years between, show a great increase in unit size. In 1720 there were 59 furnaces with an average annual output of ab o u t 400 tons per furnace ; in 1788, 85 furnaces with an average annual output of 800 tons, and in 1839, 378 with an average annual output of about 3,500 tons per furnace.8 And the unit growth has continued to the present time and is, compared with other countries, still perhaps in need of extending. So much for the iron industry. The pottery industry was first served by master potters, each of whom had a single oven and employed half a dozen men and about four boys; by the middle of th e 18th Century the more enterprising employers began to add oven to oven until the factory arrived .9 I give you no account of the textile industry, neither of cotton nor of wool, willingly recognising the wide and detailed knowledge within my audience; and so you will, I imagine, yourselves, out of your own store of information, add example to my text. The chemical industry never really passed through the individual craftsman stage ; it is principally a development of the industrial age and shows, too, this same tendency. Indeed, up to 1914 in the particular case of the dyestuffs industry, as we all know, the units of the industry did not increase and that particular industry, although it developed magnificently in Germany, was almost lost to this country. We have together, in search of the validity of the view that the size of the effective unit tends always to increase, traversed much historical background, and have come now, I hope, to agree with Herbert Spencer that " Progress is not an accident, but a necessity. It is a part of nature.” Indeed, so general is this tendency for the size of the effective unit to increase, that we may consider there are good grounds for believing that, where over a period this increase in unit size is not observable, that particular unit is not in equilibrium with circumstances. It has therefore some degree of instability and has, so to speak, itself resisted a necessary process of evolution. Our next step is to explore what I believe to be an essential and deliberate need as the size of the unit increases. And here we cęme to what is the main point. I have called this need pattern, by which term I mean certain particular functions and their inherent relationships. The need of a pattern in any unit of organisation is not new. It is always, I believe, present when that unit is effective. But you will require the argument to be pointed with examples and here again in seeking your conviction, I will endeavour to be diverse and various. Sir William Robertson, in the first Mather Lecture chapter of his book, “ Soldiers and Statesmen,” makes in effect this same point when he says ..." the startling achievements of Prussia in 1866 an d 1870 disclosed to the world something of what could be accomplished by a national army acting under the guidance of a highly educated general staff especially when opposed by a less competent adversary.” As we all know, this demonstra­ tion of what I term an essential pattern resulted in all Continental armies proceeding to organise on this model. Nor was the Prussian system new: more elaborate, of course, because of its size. It was Napoleon’s method. Again to quote Bryant, who points out that: " Efficiency was the measuring rod in Napoleon’s army. It acted not in regiments or divisions but in army corps, each with its own staff and independent organisations. Its orders were transmitted swiftly and automatically and the supreme command was left free to plan major instead of minor decisions.” 10 We should, too, take note of the converse and remark how little of pattern ” remained in the organisation of the British Army round about 1895. Cavalry was then the concern of an Inspector General of Cavalry located in and not any affair of the generals under whom the regiments were serving. It was apparently preferred that they should not know anything about cavalry or their duties. The artillery was in a ring fence at Woolwich. The Royal Engineers were in similar circumstances at Chatham. Some of the mis­ management of armies during the Boer W ar were the inevitable reapings of this loss of pattern .11 One example of the effectiveness of pattern has been woven, so to speak, before our own eyes. The Navy, the Army and the Air Force were considered and utilised as separate entities and much thought and discussion went to elaborate and determine the best methods of co-operation: still unaware that co-operation is a delicate plant which does not grow either well or spaciously on partitions. The problem was solved by some degree of disaster and the African Desert; and the Navy, Army, Air Force became a pattern in a single fabric. All the tools, to change the metaphor, in one bag. And thus Pattern came into its own and at the same time to the rescue. Now it is, for the Forces at any rate, universal and obvious. It was the organic pattern for the invasion of Europe ; for South East Asia; for the Pacific. Our American allies call it Task Force, but the name doesn't matter. Lest you think that too many of my examples come from military art (though in defence I must observe that studies in organisation are best made in that type of organisation which has had time to be in equilibrium with circum­ stances ; and of these “ Church ” and “ Army ” are available and usually well documented) we can consider others. So we turn to our own special concern of in d u stry . The first Josiah Wedgwood seems in himself to have been a complete pattern in his particular industry _ The company was famous for cream-coloured ware in which Wedgwood used and developed improvements over his predecessors. He delighted the taste of his generation by his Jasper ware. The Wedgwood showrooms in London became a fashionable resort. Rackham and Read, writing in 1824, give Wedgwood credit for evolving forms which combine fitness of purpose with undeniable beauty of line. He had, they say: “ the insight to see that even under the factory system, there was room for an artist’s intelligence. ’ ’ The pottery industry, even in Wedgwood’s day, sent its ware to America, West Indies, and almost every port in Europe. The clay and flint, the main raw materials, came to them via either Liverpool or Hull and thence by canal either to Winsford in Cheshire or Willington in Derbyshire, and so by horses and donkeys along narrow and tortuous roads to the Five Towns. Improvement in transport was a vital necessity for the pottery industry. Wedgwood started a campaign for good roads and canals; and was successful in that two turnpike roads were built.9 P72 Proceedings

The original dyestufls industry founded by Sir William Perkin is a lesson both in the need for pattern and the penalty of the lack of it. The story is well known to you, but one should emphasise the complete pioneer character of the undertaking which involved Perkin as scientist, inventor, technologist, and chemical engineer. It is well known, too, that after Perkin withdrew from the industry decay set in, for there were few organic chemists available in those days to restore the pattern. Perkin’s own vouchsafed reason for leaving the industry was that he might devote more time to scientific research. It has always seemed to me a sad commentary that subsequent events showed that Perkin could have, with greater effect, fulfilled his avowed intention by remain­ ing within the industry he created. And Perkin himself lost something also ; ceasing to be technologist and producer, he almost ceased to be scientist. Away from industry, he missed the inspired direction that came to him from within. Industry being, as Robert Burton puts it, " a lodestar to draw all good things.” Much of the pattern in the past has been supplied by two persons. In 1872, Brunner and Mond set up a business together to develop the Solvay process for the manufacture of soda ash. Brunner acted as the salesman, accountant, cashier ; Mond looked after the manufacture. It was a new industry and beset with trials and tribulations which accompany birth. Mond himself said: ‘ ‘ Everything that could break down did break down and everything that could burst did burst.” Mond experimented on gas producers, which resulted in the Mond Gas Producer, and discovered the process for refining nickel and prepared the carbonyl of nickel, iron and other metals. ' He was a Fellow of the Royal S ociety .12 In fact producer, technologist and scientist. His home in London was a centre for scientific and artistic people. Here again, we can remark “ pattern.” J. B. Lawes, in 1843, established a large works in the neighbourhood of London for the manufacture of superphosphate. He carried out in conjunction with Dobson, and later with Gilbert, a systematic series of agricultural investiga­ tions, in the field, in the feeding shed, and in the laboratory. His manufacturing interests extended to tartaric and citric acids, and much of our knowledge of the chemistry of these materials is due to his investigations. Right to the end of his life his interest in research continued. He was a Fellow of the Royal S ociety.15 Again we find producer, technologist and scientist. “ Pattern” surely again. The firm of Spencer, Chapman, and Messel, in 1875, developed a catalytic process of sulphuric acid, out of Messel’s researches on catalysts. Messel was both a technologist and a scientist. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and rejoiced in friendship with most of the distinguished chemists of his day, not only in this country, but throughout the world .12 And so again “ pattern ” em erges. This list of examples could be extended, but there is no need to court your weariness and in any event you can supply'further examples from your enquiry and knowledge. Two others I will, however, give to emphasise how universal is the need of “ pattern” in any organisation. Are not universities an example of the importance of pattern? Indeed, the idea is implicit in the derivation of the term itself. Not, in fact, one subject, or two, but the whole pattern. It is an ill-equipped university that seeks either continued existence or reputation with few subjects to teach in its " schools.” Is it not the necessary aim of " Red Brick University ” to add diversity as well as scholarship to its pattern? There is pattern, too, in Government. To quote Burke, “ The King and his faithful subjects, the Lords and Commons of this realm—the triple cord which no man can break .” 13 Perhaps after our five years travail and suffering we realise that the matter of pattern is thankfully within our tradition ; a so-to- speak typically British solution utilising and requiring free men and free minds. Mather Lecture P73 And now we must attempt some summary of how far we have progressed. I have tried to show that this notion of pattern within any organisation is neither novel nor new. That it is even in industry an inherent factor in successful adventurings. That it is, too, a criterion for the continuing existence of industry. We have seen how on occasion the essential pattern again in industry has disappeared or become obscured in latter years, due to the failure to recognise that as the unit tends always to increase in size, “ pattern,” to be safeguarded, in the organisation requires a more formal and deliberate existence. Glenday, whom I have quoted before, says, “ For every structure there will be a most convenient size ’ ’ ; and a large ' ‘ change in size inevitably carries with it a change of shape and structural materials. This growth in size automatically involves a progressive unbalancing of the forces on whose co-ordination the stability of the structure depends.” Our next and final task is to study and—although you will have already in the examples chosen from industry discerned some clue—resolve this pattern for industry into its essential components. Nothing could be more apposite and topical than an opinion from a pioneer of Radio-location, an opinion doubtless bom out of the burdens and difficulties of advancing simultaneously a new branch of science, a new technology of manufacture, and a new usefulness. In a word, a new industry. So let me quote from the concluding paragraph of an article which Sir Robert Watson-Watt wrote for the Sunday Times som e tw o years ago: “ The scientific method must pervade all stages of production and all stages of the product; the scientific worker must live with the maker and the user.” But we may, I suggest, go further than, this and say that he actually is the maker, he is the user, and he is the management and an essential part of the direction. And there, gentlemen, you have now the essentials of the pattern—research, production, and selling. A trinity of resolve and endeavour. They may be diversified and extended, as you wish, but they are the fundamental com­ ponents. It is not enough merely to create departments bearing these names; pattern is only achieved by interweaving into each other so that separate identity is merged into a unique whole. Research is really an attitude of mind which brings a particular method of approach to a problem and it should not be confined to the research department. It is, for instance, the animating spirit of the production department. Observe Professor Bemal writing recently in The Observer on “ A New Industrial Revolution.” He says . . . “ The scientist is not ‘ someone ’ to be called in if things go wrong . . . Science is also entering into the production process itsetf.” I agree with Professor Bemal except that I have shown it is not a novel development, just a temporary loss of the essential pattern ; it was the very, pattern of the Industrial Age, only in those days they were not accustomed to exclusive terms like “ scientist ” or ‘' scientific worker ’ ’ ; nor had the word ‘ ‘ technologist ’ ’ then as nowadays a slightly disparaging accent. In order that you may have no doubt on this point I will ask you to consider four quotations about industry in the past. “ No nation has been more industrious than the English in mechanic arts, and the world to this day is obliged to them for many of their useful inventions and discoveries.” That, gentlemen, was said in 1691. Hear, too, this, said in 16 9 5: " New projections are every day set on foot.” And this, said by Dean Tucker in the middle of the 18th Century: "Few countries are equal, perhaps none excel the English in the numbers and contrivances of their machines to abridge labour. The English are uncommonly dexterous in their contrivances of the mechanic powers.” And now Hammond, the historian of industry, in his Industrial History w ho s a y s : p74 Proceedings

“ Before this age, inventions had come slowly and at long intervals. In th e 18th Century inventions were incidents rather than events and inventions not a kind of miracle but almost a habit.” 9 It was called discovery and invention in those days ; it tends to be called research to-day: but it is the same process at work. It was part of the internal pattern of successful industry then, it is part of the pattern of successful industry to-day. ( I pray you not to be disheartened because these, accounts of British industry do not match the reports which are now being written about British industry. There is a growing view that we can import ready-made remedies for the problems of British industry much as we import commodities like wheat, cotton, wool, oil, minerals, etc. Dur one remedy is to discover our own unique solutions, then we have a new-born and triumphant skill within our grasp. To rely in this matter upon the skill of other countries is inevitably to fall behind in the race every so often, and then have the melancholy business of catching up all over again. To get into difficulties and then extricate oneself with a foreign skill may seem to exhibit a degree of brilliance—but it is not the kind of skill with which industry has its heart and being. The ultimate concern of industry, as we agreed earlier on, is to deploy skill and talent and to this there are no artificial limits unless we set them ourselves. But we do set limits if we regard technology as being a meaner partner of science. As we have already seen, the great technologists of the past were scientists also. Not scientists turned technologists, but persons who were both because they could not otherwise be either. John Mercer was, I imagine, as proud of being a printer as he was of being a Fellow of the Royal Society. Industry is a vast affair and so therefore is technology, and I suggest the very magnitude is a cogent reason why industry, or, if you like, technology, must contribute of their own efforts a great proportion of discovery and inven­ tion. The conception that an inventor, provided he fully discloses in writing the method of working his invention so that technology may in due time advance, shall be rewarded by the privilege of exercising exclusively his new­ found skill for a term of years, is an English one. All the civilised world has copied this idea of “ Letters Patent.” But only to a nation of inventors could this notion have come. That surely is a sufficient argument for research being part of the inevitable pattern of industry. But some of you may doubt whether research, although desirable, is possible in a small organisation. For myself I have no doubts, but on this point let me quote Edward H. Land, who developed The Polaroid Company in the United States from a small laboratory in the early 1930’s. He says: ‘‘The small'business that incorporates its own research department is adaptable, mobile, socially integrated and profitable.” 14 I t has been said the world has suffered because there have been latterly too many inventions ; my view is that there are too few. The physical size and the limited natural resources of this country make a great export business the inevitable goal of its industry, and that is possible only by deploying within our industries such an abundant measure of superlative skill that discovery and invention become almost a habit. I believe that from within industry there can come a capacity for direction of research that can come in no other manner, and if industry does not take advantage of this inherent opportunity then it is forever lost. Industrial research is, I think, more in the nature of an orchestral performance requiring, of course, accomplished performers but nevertheless benefiting from a skilled direction which arises within the industry itself. The analogy is, of course, the conductor, and although I know a distinguished musical critic takes the contrary view, nevertheless there are orchestras and there are conductors who " in conjunction,” as the astrologers say, produce a performance not possible in other circumstances. Mather Lecture *75 I should make it clear, however, that this direction comes not from any particular person inside the industry, but arises naturally out of the pattern. On this matter of "direction” C. E. K. Mees, of the Eastman Kodak Co., than whom no one has better right to speak, said: " No director who is any good ever really ‘ directs ’ any research—what he does is to protect the research men from the people who want to direct them .” 14 We see, therefore, that research and production within industry are patterned together in an abiding relationship. Research has been defined as "the search for the repeatable experiment,” and so one could term production the regularly repeated experiment, but it cannot expect to continue if it be merely repeated without improvement, year in and year out. And now we come to our third component, selling. The ability of industry to continue manufacturing is in the long run also its ability to continue selling. And so selling is part of the pattern. We sometimes forget that production and sales are merely different terms for the same objective. They must over a period coincide or grave penalties will be incurred. You may have observed that in the trinity of Research, Production, Selling, none can effectively stand as separate and unrelated effects and each is capable of leavening the other. Selling depends partly on research, certainly in a progressing age. It is com­ pounded partly out of courtship and demonstration, but it still has to be leavened by the same restless spirit of enquiry and adventure to fit it to the rest of the pattern. Is it not true thą,t what we have come to call technical service really is nothing more than research picking up a directive course from the act of selling? I have kept most of my quotations to the last deliberately that I might perhaps give emphasis to the fact that I am to-day preaching no new philosophy, so I will point this argument with an experience of Sir William P erkin in 1893: " Before aniline purple could be introduced for woollen and mixed fabrics, weeks were spent in Bradford in finding out suitable methods of apply­ ing i t .” 15 And there you have pattern for industry—Research, Production, Selling, not separate but, to use your own familiar terms, doubled, twisted and inter­ woven into a flexible and wonderful fabric. And in the raw material available for the pattern, there is both heritage and future. The future we cannot measure, but the heritage is a big one. In one branch of science alone, chemistry, it is already immense, and whilst chemical theories do become out of date its facts do not, and so in the chemical literature there is a vast record of observation and experiment, somie of which is doubtless awaiting a riper development. A colleague of mine, Mr. W. A. Silvester, has calculated that in Liebig’s Annalen, the 'B erichte, Journal of the Chemical Society, there are over three quarters of a million pages of chemistry. If one adds in the more specialised journals the«figure climbs to about eight millions. If also we add in the printed specifications of patents taken out in the various countries, the mass of knowledge becomes astonishingly great. Such then is the text book of chemistry, and that is only the present edition, for in normal times it receives an abundant addition each year. And the other sciences are equally at our disposal. My belief is that what can be achieved once can be achieved again—the repeatable experiment again. So, may I therefore conclude with a quotation from Hammond’s Industrial History ? " In th e 18th Century England’s industry seemed the most important thing in the world. Men of enterprise and talent turned to industry for a career. Industrial development was at hand and it put pressing problems and offered tempting prizes to the imagination and energy of the age. It was natural for disciples of Sir Isaac Newton to turn to industry.” P76 Proceedings

REFERENCES 1 “ A Planned Economy or Free Enterprise.” 2 By Sellar and Yeatman. 3 I am indebted to a colleague of mine, S. Ellingworth, for these particulars. 4 " Handbook of the Science Museum : Land Transport—Railway Locomotives— Rolling Stock. Part I. Historical Review.” 5 " Science Museum Handbook : Electric Power. JPart X. History and Development.” 6 Sheppard’s “ A History of the British Army.” 7 “ The English People,” D. W. Brogan. 8 " General Zoology,” Tracy I. Storer. 9 “ The Rise of Modern Industry,” J. L. Hammond. 10 “ Years of Victory.” 11 “ Soldiers and Statesmen,” Field-Marshal Sir William Robertson. 12 “ History of the British Chemical Industry,” Stephen Miall. 18 “ Letters on a Renegade Peace.” 14 “ The Future of Industrial Research.” Papers and Discussions published by The Standard Oil Development Co. 1 15 Chemical Society Memorial Lecture, by Perkin. “ Origin of the Coal Tar|Industry and the Contribution of Hoffman and his pupils.” 5th May, 1893. Report for Year p77 ANNUAL REPORT, BALANCE SHEET AND REVENUE ACCOUNT for 1944

Presented to the A n n u a l G e n e r a l Me e t in g *, at Manchester, Wednesday, 2nd May, 1945.

The Council has much pleasure in presenting the following Report, Balance Sheet and Accounts for the year ending 31st December, 1944. Balance Sheet and Accounts. A surplus of Income over Expenditure is shown for the year, although due to additional activities the surplus is less than in the previous years. Again an increase in membership shows itself in the total subscriptions received. The Finance Committee is satisfied with the generally improving position of the accounts ; the Committee is confident that any reserves will be used to good purpose when the Council’s plans are completed for the future development of the Institute’s activities. Annual Meeting Manchester was again selected as the centre which would be suitable for most members, but it is hoped to have the meeting in another area as soon as travelling is more convenient. The attendance was the largest for some years. Mr. T. H. McLaren of Dundee was elected as President, and presided at the successful luncheon which followed the Annual Meeting. Mather Lecture The Mather Lecture, which was held in conjunction with the Annual Meeting, was delivered by Professor G. D. H. Cole on the subject of " Educational Reconstruction with some Special Reference to the Textile Industries.” There has been a lively demand for reprints of the lecture from many parts of the country. Publications Committee, and the “ Journal ” There has been an increasing demand for the Journal throughout the year, and the value of the publication in scientific and technological circles appears to be high. Because of paper restrictions it was not possible to supply the Journal to all who wished to have it, and this was particularly regretted in the case of important government departments both at home and abroad. However, towards the end of the year authority was-obtained to print additional copies and all demands are at present being met. Modification in the printing of advertisements became essential, but thanks to the helpful co-operation of many of the advertisers it was possible to overcome the difficulties. As communications with foreign countries improve, and as overrun countries are liberated, further requests for the Journal are received. There is every indication that the circulation will be higher than ever before, as soon as conditions become more normal. More papers have been forthcoming for the Transactions Section, but because of paper restrictions it has not always been possible to print the accepted papers as early as would normally have been the case. The Committee, however, is doing everything possible in order to reduce the delay to a minimum, and prospective contributors should not be deterred from submitting material on these grounds. It has been noted on several occasions, particularly in correspondence from abroad, that the acceptance of a paper for publication in the Transactions Section of the Journal is considered to be the highest distinction obtainable. The increase in Sectional activity has been reflected in the additional pages taken up by reports of lectures. It is emphasised however that the Proceedings Section is not restricted to the reports of lectures. Contributed articles have, in fact, been included during the past year. The Abstracts Section has continued its useful service. Any decrease has been due to the effect which a general shortage of paper supplies throughout the world has played in reducing the total quantity of all kinds of literature. During the absence of the technical editor valuable services were rendered by Dr. F. C. Wood, Honorary Editor of the Proceedings Section, and by others, particularly the staffs of research associations. Diplomas Committee and Institute Diplomas From applications and enquiries received, announcements of vacancies, and other evidence, there is every indication that the merit of the Institute’s diplomas is receiving increasing recognition. More and more people connected with the textile industry see the necessity" of having contact with the professional body, and particularly by means of the hallmark which is given by the Associateship and Fellowship. *A report of the Annual General Meeting appeared in the May issue of the Journal. P78 Proceedings

The Institute’s Examinations for the Associateship Diplomas were held as usual in 1944. The Preliminary Examination was held on 21st April, 1944, and the Examination in General Textile Technology was held cm 24th May, 1944, at Belfast, Glasgow, London, Manchester, Baroda (India), and Cambridge (U.S.A.). In the Preliminary Examination there were three successful candidates from a total of four. In the Examination in General Textile Technology, sixteen candidates were successful out of a total of 25. Applications for the Institute’s Diploma during 1944 totalled 71 (23 Fellowship and 48 Associateship), as against 53 in the previous year (12 Fellowship and 41 Associate­ ship). During the year 12 Fellowship and 29 Associateship Diplomas were awarded. The total number of applications since the Charter was granted in 1925, reached 1,441 (418 Fellowship and 1,023 Associateship), of which 311 for the Fellowship and 661 for the Associateship were successful.

National Certificates in In 1944 there were 39 (44) candidates for the Ordinary and Higher|Certificates, 31 (36) Certificates being awarded, 3 (1) with Distinction (the figures in brackets are for 1943). Seventy-one courses are now recognised at 27 Colleges and Schools.

Textiles and Designs Committee : Institute Competitions. Again the War-time Competition was the chief section in place of the normal Crompton Competition ; in addition there were separate competitions for worsted cloths, and for designs for printed fabrics. The latter competition, which, attracts large numbers of entries from the Art Schools, draws to the attention of this type of student, the particular requirements of design as applied to textile fabrics. Students in all competitions are to be congratulated on the quality of their work, produced at a period when there are so many distractions to take up their time. The total number of entries in 1944 was 106, showing an increase of 37 over that of the previous year. The Committee gave assistance with the adjudication of competitions organised by the Education Department of the County Council.

Scholarships and Studentships. The fourth Institute Scholarship was awarded to Mr. R. Sanderson, of Nelson, who is now taking a degree course in the Department of Textile Industries at Manchester College of Technology. It was a grant from the trustees of the Cotton Trade War Memorial Fund that made possible this scholarship. The Committee hopes to offer an additional scholarship when conditions allow many of the younger men, who are at present fully occupied outside their normal occupation, to resume contact with the textile industry. A Research Studentship, granted under the scheme published in 1943, was awarded to Mr. R L. Kitchen, A.T.I., of Huddersfield, who is undertaking investigations on the subject of “ The Action of Hypochlorites and Related Compounds on Proteins, with Special Reference to their Use in Rendering Wool Unshrinkable.” In accordance with the scheme facilities for research are being provided by the University of Leeds.

L ib ra ry The library facilities are being increasingly used by members, and by outside ’’bodies. During the past four years many of the volumes have been housed at the Scottish Woollen Technical College, Galashiels, but the books have been available through the post. It is evident from the publications borrowed during the year, that members are keenly watching any new developments within the industry. The Abstracts Section of the Journal stimulates a keen demand for current scientific and trade journals.

Industrial Recruitment and Development Committee A new departure for the Committee was the arrangement of a conference to discuss “ Dust in Cardrooms.” The large attendance at the conference demonstrated the interest which there was in the subject, and the discussion drew attention to the many problems which still await solution. The Committee hopes to arrange similar functions in order to consider other subjects which, if successfully tackled, could add to the efficiency of the textile industry.

Textile Term s and Definitions The work of the Textile Terms and Definitions Committee is progressing. That the Committee’s labours are necessary is demonstrated by the appeals which are received for the clarification of different aspects of textile terminology. Correspondence on various terms is being received from abroad as well as from this ccymtry, and if the Committee’s actions lead to international agreement on terms and definitions as well as to clarification within the textile industry of this country, the Committee will feel rewarded for the lengthy deliberations and strenuous efforts which the subject demands. Report for Year p 79

Institute Development Committee The personnel of this Committee has been strengthened, and it has been asked to review the Institute’s position particularly as regards post-war development. During the year the Committee presented to the Council a report on “ Future Development of the Institute ” which was accepted in principle. More recently detailed consideration has been given to the recommendations within the report, and as soon as conditions permit it is hoped that action can be taken to put the recommendations into practice. Such items as organisation of Sections, premises, staff, Journal, library, and relationship with other bodies, are receiving attention.

Standardisation in Textiles. During the year the series of standard testing methods for narrow'fabrics was con- pleted and published as Tentative Textile Standard No. 10. This series, prepared on behalf of the Narrow Fabrics Directorate, was very comprehensive, and in normal times would have been divided into several individual standards. However, the Unification of Testing Methods Committee intends to use the series as a basis for further application to textiles generally. At the same time as Tentative Textile Standard No. 10 was published. Tentative Textile Standard No. 9 also appeared and dealt with a method of measuring cloth thickness under certain loads. In connection with the tests for narrow fabrics, the Institute received a grant from the Ministry of Supply towards the cost incurred. The series of papers on Cloth Strength Testing was also continued with the publica­ tion of the ninth paper. Towards the end of the year there were discussions between representatives of the Institute and of the Cotton Board on Standardisation work so far as the cotton industry is concerned. The Cotton Board has proposed a scheme of action, and the Institute is prepared to supply technical assistance and advice if the proposals become operative. A committee has been formed to which the Institute has nominated two representatives.

Council 'and Committee Meetings. The following is a record of meetings held during 1944 :—Council, 11 ; Finance and General Purposes, 11 ; Publications, 11 ; Diplomas, 11 ; Joint Committee re National Certificates, 2 ; Institute Development, 7 ; Textiles and Designs, 1 ; Emergency, 1 ; Scholarships, 5 ; Unification of Testing Methods, 5 ; Industrial Recruitment and Development, 2 ; Textile Terms and Definitions, 9 ; Lancashire Section, 3 ; London Section, 1 ; Midlands Section, 2 ; Yorkshire Section, 3 ; Scottish Section, 5. In addition 10 siib-committees met on 15 occasions for the consideration of special matters. The total number of meetings for 1944 was 105 as against 92 in the previous year.

Section Activities The Sections generally during the past session have shown a very healthy activity. More meetings have taken place than in any other year since the war started. There have also been harmonious relations with other bodies; in addition to joint lectures which have been arranged the Institute’s members have received many invitations to attend functions organised by other societies, and in return, have invited other bodies to the Institute’s functions. The record of meetings held is as follows :—Irish Section, seven meetings, one visit; Lancashire Section, sixteen meetings, two visits ; London Section, four meetings; Midlands Section, seven meetings; Scottish Section, one meeting ; Yorkshire Section, seven meetings.

Membership The" membership list at the end of 1944—to be carried forward to 1945—was made up as follows :—Honorary Life Members, 16 ; Life Members, 70 ; Ordinary Members, 1,851 ; Junior Members, 93 ; total, 2,030 as against 1,840 at the end of 1943. Of the numbers at 31st December last, 231 had been admitted to the Fellowship and 512 to the Associateship. The Institute regrets to announce the loss by death, during 1944, of the following members: J. D. Athey (Robin Hood’s Bay), A. M. Bell (Halifax), R. Bleasdale (Blackburn), J. B. Brazier (Macclesfield), J. Emsley (Bradford), J. Hampson (Bolton), Sir Arthur Haworth (Manchester), W. Hunter (Bradford), W. Lockhart (Kirkcaldy), T. Roberts (Dewsbury), F. Watkins (London), W. Wilkinson (Blackburn).

21st March, 1945. p8o Proceedings Accounts p 8 i p82 Proceedings

Section Annual Meetings Irish Section The Annual Meeting of the Irish Section was held in Belfast on Tuesday, ioth April, 1945, when Mr. F. J. W. Shannon, F.T.I., was in the chair. After the minutes of the last Annual Meeting had been accepted, Mr. H. J. Dorman, the Honorary Secretary, read the report for the past session in which he indicated that an increase in membership had taken place. The following Committee members who were due to retire were re-elected: G. W. Beatty, F. Bradbury, F. J. W. Shannon, A. J. Turner. In addition Mr. G. Shaw was co-opted to fill the vacancy on the Committee caused by the resignation of Mr. J. Ashworth. An interesting programme of lectures was proposed for the next session. During the meeting Dr. A. J. Turner read a report on recent activities of the Institute, with particular reference to the post-war programme. A vigor­ ous discussion followed in connection with the award of Associateship and Fellowship diplomas. Lancashire Section Mr. R. J. Smith, F.T.I., was Chairman at the Annual Meeting of the Lancashire Section held in Manchester on Saturday, 24th, March. Minutes of the previous Annual Meeting were read by Mr. H. C. Barnes, the Honorary Secretary, and were accepted. The Chairman then gave a report on the past session, drawing attention particularly to the series of lunch-time meetings, and to the annual dinner which had been so successful. He also commented on the recent decision to have a section of the Institute in Bolton sis an experi­ ment in creating more localised sections. As a result of a ballot the following members were announced as being elected to the Committee for a period of three years: J. Airey H. P. Curtis P. T. Gale H. C. Barnes A. Draper L. Morris F. Chadwick H. Fullard F. I. Sharp Following the business meeting there was an instructive talk on " Motion Study ” which was illustrated by films. The lecturer was Miss A. G. Shaw. Since the Annual Meeting was held the Committee has unanimously re­ elected Mr. R. J. Smith as Chairman and Mr. H. C. Barnes as Honorary Secretary for the coming year. London Section The London Section Annual Meeting was held on Wednesday, n th April, Mr. A. Mason, F.T.I., being chairman. Following the acceptance of the minutes of the previous Annual Meeting, the Chairman gave a report of activities during the session, pointing out that membership of the Section had increased. It was noted with regret that Mr. H. R. Murray Shaw had resigned from the position of Honorary Secretary on leaving the area; the thanks of the Committee were recorded for his valuable services, and also to Mr. A. R. Down for acting as Hon. Secretary in the emergency. Six nominations had been receiyed for the six vacancies on the Committee and the following were declared elected: A. R. Down F. J. Henley W. C. Whittaker A. Gowie R. S. Meredith H. Woodman A hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Mason for the considerable efforts which he had made as Chairman of the Section during the past year. After the meeting an interesting talk on "The Narrow Fabric Industry” was given by Mr. Hugh L. Robinson. There was a wide variety of samples displayed and a lively discussion followed the talk. Section Annual Meetings Midlands Section The Chairman, Mr. H. A. Turton, F.T.I., presided at the Annual Meeting of the Midlands Section in Nottingham on Saturday, 17th March. The minutes of the previous Annual Meeting were adopted. Mr. T. A. Purt, the Honorary Secretary, then gave a report on activities during the past year, during which the membership had substantially increased. An interesting programme of lectures had been held and it was hoped that support would continue to increase during the coming years. The following members nominated to fill the six vacancies on the Committee were declared as elected: W. A. Edwards S. W. B. Lacey E. M. Walker H. Henshaw E. Turner E. Wildt Many suggestions were made when the programme for the next winter session was considered. Following this Mr. H. Ibbetson, Acting General Secretary of the Institute, gave a brief synopsis of the aims and objects which the Development Committee had for increasing the Institute’s activities and membership. At the beginning of the meeting Dr. E. Wildt, in his capacity of Vice- President, presented the Fellowship Diploma to Mr. W. A. Edwards. Mr. Edwards has since been elected as Chairman of the Midlands Section, while Mr. J. C. H. Hurd was elected as Honorary Secretary. The latter office was previously held by Mr. T. A. Purt for a period of twelve years, and the Com­ mittee’s warm appreciation of his valuable services was recorded.

Scottish Section The Scottish Section held its Annual Meeting in Edinburgh on Saturday, 31st March, when Mr. W. H. Wilkinson was Chairman. When the minutes of the last Annual Meeting had been received, Dr. A. W. Stevenson, the Acting Honorary Secretary, gave the Committee’s report for the past year. He explained that in view of the scattered nature of the area and the diffi­ culties of war-time travel it had not been possible to arrange many functions. He anticipated, however, that increased activities would follow as conditions improved and that the larger membership would mean additional support for lecturers. Mr. H. Ibbetson, the Acting General Secretary of the Institute, addressed the meeting on Institute activities in general, and on the work of the Development Committee in particular. The Chairman gave the result of the ballot to fill the vacancies on the Committee, and declared the following elected: A. W. Blair D. N. R.. McEwan A. W. Stevenson Suggestions were then received from members for the coming season’s activities. After a brief interval, a lecture was given by the President, Mr. T. H. McLaren, on “ Home Grown Flax,” illustrated by numerous samples and two films. He said that due to urgency of needs for war purposes, the decision was made at the start that home-grown flax would not be retted. It was thus not suitable for the finer but had served our urgent national needs for sail cloth, tarpaulins and such vital matters as parachute cords. Nevertheless, some of the samples shown were remarkably soft but it was admitted that the post-war position in relation to the pre-war producing centres was uncertain. The films showed the cultivation of flax on a Scottish farm, and the develop­ ment of machines for pulling. '(Owing to labour shortage hand pulling, as practised in the older centres, was impossible). The second film showed machinery for the initial treatment of flax developed and built in Scotland. A brisk dis­ cussion followed the lecture in which it was admitted that flax growing would probably return to its old location after the war. A vote of thanks to the President for his lecture was proposed by Mr. Black of Dunfermline and heartily given. Proceedings Yorkshire Section Mr. W. Hardacre, F.T.I., acted as chairman at the Annual Meeting of the Yorkshire Section, in place of Mr. Foster Pickles who was absent because of illness. The members expressed the sincere hope that Mr. Pickles would soon be restored to good health. The meeting was held in Bradford on Thursday, 22nd March. After the adoption of the minutes of the previous Annual Meeting, the Honorary Secretary gave the report for the past session. He was pleased to record an increase in membership, and he gave details of the Section programme which was considered very satisfactory. The following members were elected to fill the eight vacancies on the C o m m itte e : J. Dumville E. J. Poole B. R. D. Sharp H. D. Halliday H. Richardson P. P. Townend W. Hardacre T. H. Robinson There were several suggestions for both lectures and visits for the next session’s programme. During the meeting a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to the retiring officers. At the Committee meeting which followed, the officers unanimously elected for the session 1945-46 w e re : Chairman—W. Hardacre Vice-Chairman—H. D. Halliday Hon. Secretary—R. G. Oversby Asst. Hon. Secretary—S. Shann

Scottish Section

On Saturday, May 19th, Scottish members and their friends to the number of a b o u t 50, visited the works of the North British Rayon Company in the historic Border town of Jedburgh. After a brief talk on the general principles of viscose manufacture, illustrated by samples showing the progress of the material and its use in weaving and , the visitors broke into small parties and had the opportunity of seeing every process from the pulp boards to the finished product. Tea was provided in the canteen when a vote of thanks to the Company for their hospitality was proposed by the President of the Institute.

Bolton Section

The Council of the Institute recently approved a suggestion from the Lancashire Section Committee that a new type of Sectional organisation within the Institute should be tried. There is a feeling that the present sections are too large for the close contact between members which is desirable, and as a trial it is intended to form a more compact section in the Bolton area. Although Bolton comes within the Lancashire Section at the present time, it is hoped that in due course the new Section, when it is organised, will be autonomous. In the opening stages, however, it will have the help and full support of the Lanca­ shire Section Committee. As a first step, it is intended to hold a meeting of the Institute s members at the Technical College, Manchester Road, Bolton, on Friday, 20th July, at 7 p.m., when the organisation of the new section will be considered. Members interested are asked to attend the meeting when any assistance will be welcomed. General Items P 8 5

General Items Institute Membership The following applicants were elected to membership at the June meeting of Council: — O rdinary. Ladislaus Balassa, Ph.D., The United States Co., Gardner Building, 40, Fountain Street, Providence 3, Rhode Island, U.S.A. (Research D irector). Aldo Balladon, Devonshire Hall, Cumberland Road, Leeds, 6 (Student, Leeds University). Harold Barnes, 3, Princess Street, North Coburg, Melbourne, Australia (Textile Chemist). William Binks, 103, Endlebury Road, Chingford, London, E .4 (Shipping Agent, Convoys Ltd., Midland Bank Chambers, 147, Market Street, Bradford). Eric Brown, 119, Hardy Mill Road, Harwood, Near Bolton (Chemist, Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., Sunnyside Mills, Bolton). Eric Cartwright, St. Winifreds, Queens Gate, Bramhall, Cheshire (Assistant Cotton Controller, 3, Albert Street, Manchester). Rubin Chazan, 124, Hayarkon Street, Tel-Aviv, Palestine (Director of the Dyehouse of Delfiner Silk Industry Ltd., P.O. Box 243, Tel-Aviv, Palestine). Harry Cunliffe, F.C.S., c/o Turnbulls Ltd., Hawick, Roxburghshire (Works M anager). Samuel Farey, c/o Stirling Henry Ltd., Flemington, Sydney, N.S.W., Australia (Mill Superintendent). Wilfred Denis Lawson, 14, Harrow Road, Brooklands, Sale, Manchester ( and Cloth Merchant, 89, Fountain Street, Manchester). Ernst M. Loewenthal, Ph.D., M.Inst.B.E., c/o Lux Lux Ltd., 24, St. George Street, Hanover Square, London, W.i (Textile Company Director and M anager). Frederick Robertson Elliott Lusty, Messrs. Phipps & Son Ltd., Guildhall Road, Northampton (Textile Director). Horace David Norman, 4, Gaulby Lane, Stoughton, Near Leicester (Factory Manager, D. Byford & Co. Ltd., Abbey Lane, Leicester). George Robinson, 38, The Grove, Hipperholme, Near Halifax (Chemist, John Crossley & Sons Ltd., Dean Clough Mills, Halifax, Yorks). James A. Rodgers, 25, Thirlmere Gardens, Salisbury Avenue, Belfast (Works Manager & Chemist, Whiteabbey Building Co. Ltd., Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim, N. Ireland). Joseph Seidler, c/o Silkella Ltd., 2 1, Forster Square, Bradford (Managing D irector). Eric Smith, 19, Hazel Grove, Sutton in Craven, Near Keighley, Yorks (Student, Leeds University). A. G. Southern, Greystoke, Macclesfield Road, Wilmslow, Cheshire (Yarn Agent, c/o Stephens & Southern, 2, Cathedral Street, Manchester). George S. , 58, Castle Street, Haulgh, Bolton (Self-Actor Minder, Croal Spinning Co. ( 1920) Ltd., Deane, Bolton). John Wallwork, 3 1, Thorns Road, Astley Bridge, Bolton (Technical Assistant, British Cotton Industry Research Association, Didsbury, -Manchester). Junior. Brian Oxley Chatterton, " Woodthorne,” 1, Acre House Avenue, Lindley, Huddersfield (H.M. Forces). George Stephen Deutsch, B.Sc.Tech., A.M.C.T., 59, Holly Lane, Erdington, Birmingham, 24 (Research Assistant, Fort Dunlop, Birmingham). Leonard Gregory, 440, Warrington Road, Abram, Near (Textile Trainee, Lancashire Cotton Corporation, Empress Mill, Higher Ince, Wigan). p86 Proceedings

Igor Israelitas, B.Sc.Tech., 19, Anson Road, Victoria Park, Manchester, 1.4 (Research Student). Robert Kerr, 28, Westend, Dairy, Ayrshire (Assistant Chemist). Joseph Alfred Sadler, 3, Valley Road, Pemberton, Wigan, Lancs. (Textile Trainee, Lancashire Cotton Corporation Ltd., May Mills, Pemberton, W igan). Frederick John Seller, in , Hollycroft, Hinckley, Leics. (Assistant Factory Manager, W. Moore & Osborne Ltd., Druid Street, Hinckley). Brian Hamer Thornley, 12, Ashbee Street, Astley Bridge, Bolton (Technical Trainee, Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., S.unnyside Mills, Bolton).

Obituary The Institute regrets to announce the death of the following members: — R. T. Phipps, Northampton. J. T. Wood, Stockport. R. Taylor, Oldham. A. Yewdall, Leeds.

Employment Register The following announcements are taken from entries in our Register of members whose services are on offer. Employers may obtain full particulars on application. No. 243—Member, age 44 years, desires position as Textile Weaving Manager, at home or abroad. City and Guilds Full Technological Certificate. Experience in Cotton, Linen, and Rayon, also factory planning and engineering. Specialist in Sizing for all yarns. No. 244— M em ber, 41 years of age, requires additional agency for Children’s Wear, Ladies’ Fine Gauge Hosiery, Blouses or Silk, and Crepe Underwear. Established connection with the stores and larger retailers in London and Suburbs north of the River Thames.

INSTITUTE MEETINGS

LANCASHIRE SECTION F rid ay , 13th Ju ly , 1945— Manchester. 1.0 p.m. Lunch-time meeting at the Institute’s premises. “ Fabrics for Industrial Uses—Textiles and Driving Belts—An Historical Review ” by D. G. Hinchcliff (Small and Parkes L td .). F rid ay , 20th Ju ly , 1945—B o lton. 7.0 p.m. Meeting at the Municipal Technical College, Bolton, to consider the formation of an Institute Section in the Bolton area.

JUNE 1945 T131

THE JOURNAL OF THE TEXTILE INSTITUTE

11—AN ANALYSIS OF THE IRREGULARITIES IN WORSTED YARNS AND SLIVERS

B y G. W a g g e t t {Copyright by the Textile Institute.)

INTRODUCTION One of the most important properties of a good worsted yarn is uni­ formity of thickness or levelness. Absolute uniformity is an ideal which is unlikely to be obtained from fibrous material but this ideal is still the cri­ terion by which the practical spinner judges his products. Examination of commercial yams shows that the average founts of one particular lot varies from frame to frame, from bobbin to bobbin, and even from one yard to another, but a closer inspection of very short lengths shows that even in apparently level stretches (there is an alternation of thick and thin places occurring at approximately regular intervals. The former type of uneven­ ness is possibly due to causes which may be eliminated by more careful processing but the latter short-range irregularity is essentially bound up with the present method of machine drafting and general processing. The basic feature of almost every process in wool yarn manufacture is to obtain and preserve a random distribution of the various lengths of fibre in a particular blend. The preliminary operations are concerned chiefly with cleansing the material and acquiring a random arrangement of fibres by mixing, whilst the attenuation processes that follow tend ito disturb this particular distribution and resort is had to doubling in an attempt to pre­ serve the random distribution so far as is practicably possible. Daniels1 has been able to show from a statistical treatment that perfect uniformity of yarns and slivers cannot possibly be obtained even when the fibres are arranged in a perfectly random fashion, and he has also proved that the deviation from absolute uniformity increases with reduction in the number of fibres in the cross-section. Length analyses of tops have shown that the fibres at this stage are very evenly distributed, but as the tops are reduced in thickness by drafting operations this arrangement is destroyed to a greater or lesser degree. Balls2 has suggested that this re-distribution of fibres in a non-random fashion is due to the peculiar method of roller drafting. A perfect drafting mechanism would be one in which all fibres moved with the speed of the back rollers until their leading ends reached the effective nip of the front rollers when they would immediately assume the speed of these rollers. In this way all fibres issuing from the front rollers would be in the same order as when fed into the back rollers, but would be more widely spaced along the length of the sliver depending on the amount of draft employed, while a random distribution could be pre­ TI 32 u —An Analysis of the Irregularities in served and the irregularity of the subsequent yarns kept down to the basic minimum mentioned above. The control of fibres during drafting is, how­ ever, far from satisfactory. In English drawing, the ratch is set to accom­ modate the length of the longest fibres and it is conceivable that those particular fibres will very largely move as required. The shorter lengths, however, when released by the feed rollers will float in the sliver matrix until gripped by the front rollers and the irregular movement of these floating fibres is the weakness of roller drafting. Various attempts have been made to control these so-called floating fibres such as the lateral bind­ ing of fibres by twist and the use of carriers to retain the twist until the latest possible moment, the use of a series of comparatively heavy small rollers as in French ring and worsted mule spinning, and the use of a depth of pins as with fallers and in porcupine drawing. Balls2 suggests that many floating fibres move prematurely with the speed of the front rollers either by cohering with fibres that are positively gripped by the front rollers or by direct entanglement with them. The process is cumulative, for the greater the number of fibres moving forward with the speed of the front rollers, the more floating fibres are likely to be drawn forward prematurely by inter­ fibre cohesion. In this way a comparatively large number of floating fibres will be drawn forward at one time to give a thick place in the issuing sliver and this will be followed by a corresponding thin place due to the loss of fibres by premature movement. This cycle will repeat periodically and will give rise to a succession of thick and thin places along the length of the sliver or yarn which Balls has termed the drafting wave. Drafting waves are probably common to all types of textile fibre as they are caused by the mechanical methods of drafting and are thus independent of the nature of the material being processed. The original work on this subject was done on cotton by Balls, but Gogdings3 and Martindale* have both shown that the same peculiarities apply equally to wool, and both have described the factors influencing the length and amplitude of these waves. An examination of graphs showing the variation of thickness along the length of a yam or slubbing can give much valuable data on the previous history of the material, and this method of analysis is now one of the standard routine tests in up-to-date testing houses for examining faulty cloth. A skilful observer can readily pick out any abnormal periodicity and, by measuring the repeat, he is frequently able to trace correctly the original fault. A good example of such use is given by both Balls2 and Barker and Stanbury5, where the fault was the now well-known mule draw effect. The tracing of hidden periodicities has been helped greatly by the introduction of periodographs. The utility of these tests has been appreci­ ated by some progressive spinners who, instead of allowing evenness of yarns to be judged visually insist on graphs being made of each new lot being spun, which is then accepted or rejected by some responsible person. Neglecting faulty or careless processing, unevenness of slivers and yarns is thus presumed to be due to two factors, a basic irregularity due to a random distribution of fibres and a further degree of irregularity due to the faulty re-distribution of fibres by drafting rollers. It is with the latter that this work deals. During drafting it would appear that the bulk of the prematurely moving fibres must necessarily be short ones for otherwise there would have been sufficient cohesion between themselves and other neighbouring fibres along the sliver to prevent any such irregular move­ ment. Hence a thick place will contain an excessive amount of short fibre and, other things being equal, the average length of the fibres at such a place will be below the average for the bulk. Similarly, as a thin place is thin simply because its shorter fibres have gone to form a preceding thick place, the average length of fibres at a thin place ought to be longer than the average. Part I of this work is an attempt to test this hypothesis. Worsted Yarns and Slivers— Waggett TI33

The procedure to be adopted is theoretically very simple, namely to isolate thick and thin places and to find the distribution of fibres at these points. The thick and thin places are very easily found by one of the con­ tinuous regularity testers and the distribution of fibres at these points can be obtained by a laborious measurement of the individual fibres at each such point. It was thought at first that this long direct analysis could be avoided by finding, by an indirect method, the average length of the tuft of fibres at each selected point along the yarns, but this proved to be abor­ tive and the laborious routine of measuring fibres, one by one, was finally decided to be the only satisfactory method. Yarns were made from a series of blends obtained by dividing a 64s wool into two lengths on a Lister comb and blending these two constituents in various proportions, this being preferred to blending two commercial tops of different lengths due to greater probable variations in fibre diameter and other characteristics. These blends were drawn and spun on the French system and samples were taken for analysis from all the later stages of drawing, and from the spun yarn. In this way, the effect of the initial fibre distribution on the regularity of the yarn was also obtained and some useful deductions were made. This represents Part II of this work.

EXPERIMENTAL Part I— 1. Processing The material used for this work was! a 64s Australian matching. It was scoured by the ordinary alkaline system, carded, backwashed, gilled on the first strong box and then on the can box of the ordinary open system of drawing, so as to put the material into cans suitable for feeding the Lister comb. The comb was set to take out as noil all material below 35 inches in length which formed the “ short ” portion, the remainder being classified as “ long.” This particular length was chosen in an attempt to get equal weights of long and short tops after taking out the true noil from each during later combing. The long portion was given two gillings and then combed on the French comb, which removed the few neps and straws and a very little short fibre. A tear of 38 to 1 was obtained. The short portion was re-carded, gilled twice and then combed on the same French comb with suitable re-adjustments to feed and tufting motions, but the main settings of the comb remained unaltered so that both received essentially the treatment they would have received had they been combed together as a single lot. The tear of the short material was 2'5 to 1. The long and short tops were blended in various proportions as follows to give a range of seven lots, each of the same “ quality,” whose fibre dia­ grams varied from the high shouldered long tops to the very short Con­ tinental type of top. Lot A 100 per cent. ‘ ‘ long ” Lot B 90 per cent. 10 per cent. “ short ” by weight, Lot C 75 per cent. 25 per cent. ,, ,, Lot D 50 per cent. 50 per cent. Lot E 25 per cent. 75 per cent. Lot F 10 per cent. go per cent. ,, Lot G 100 per cent. ,, The use of two separate commercial tops, one short and the other long, was avoided, as the same range could not have been obtained and any slight difference in quality might have introduced other more variable factors. The two tops and the five blends from these tops were next processed on standard French drawing machinery and spun on a standard French frame, sufficient material being used for each lot so as to TI34 11—An Analysis of the Irregularities in avoid any false results due to piecenings and runnings-out. The basic drafts and doublings employed were the following: —

Doublings Draft Weight (drams per 40 yds.)

Draw Box 2 4-0 120 Reducer 2 4-0 60 Slubber ... 2 4-0 30 Intermediate 3 3-6 25 Rover 3 3-8 20 ,, 3 4-0 15 Finisher ... 3 4-0 11-25 3 3-75 9-0 3 3-6 7-5 ,, 3 3-9 5-75 3 3-8 4-5 ,, 3 3-6 3-75

It will be noted that, after gilling, the weight of the slubbings was re­ duced rapidly in accordance with the writer’s idea that French drawing does not function to the best advantage with heavy slivers. Few doublings at the front and many at the end is the rule that has been kept in mind. Incidentally, the replacement of the first few drawing boxes by high speed gill boxes, making four or five gilling operations to three or four drawing operations would be a much better system. Each lot was treated on its merits, such minor changes as porcupine speed and weight of carriers being made when thought desirable. Samples of roving were taken weighing n j dr., j i dr., 5f dr., 4Ł dr. and 3! dr. per 40 yards and part of these were spun to 1 / 16s, 1 / 24s, 1 / 32s, 1 / 40s, and 1 /48s worsted respectively. No ratches were altered on the , but the arrangement of carriers was altered when thought necessary to secure better yarns. Rather a high twist was inserted so that the yarn regularity tester would function more easily and give better results. French drawing was used in this work so as to avoid the use of oil which might influence the free movement of fibres, to keep fibre breakage down to a minimum by reason of the absence of twist and the use of low drafts, and to prevent any unevenness due to dragging bobbins during winding-on. Specially soft balls were made at all stages, skewers were made to turn relatively easily and rotating creel rollers were in operation to assist drawing of the slubbings from the bobbins with the minimum amount of drag and to prevent jerking of the bobbins due to intermittent movement.

2 . Regularity Testing Several different methods are available for finding the position of the thick and thin places. The original method was to cut a yarn or sliver into short equal lengths and weigh consecutive lengths on a microbalance, a method that still remains the fundamental test against which all continu­ ous testing apparatus must be calibrated. It is a tedious process, it must be carried out under controlled humidity conditions, and by cutting the material any checking or further analysis of any particular point becomes impossible. Several pieces of apparatus have since been evolved that are capable of recording, accurately and quickly, the variation in thickness along the length of yarns and slivers ; among them are those due to Astbury and Lomax,11 the Wool Industries Research Association4 and the British Cotton Industries Research Association for slivers, while for yams Worsted Yarns and Slivers— Wag gett T135 there are models devised by Astbury,6 Saxl1 and the British Cotton Indus­ tries Research Association8 besides the use of projection microscopes and photo-electric cells.5 The best of these instruments were thought to be those devised and built at Didsbury by the B.C.I.RA. and permission was readily given by the Director for the use of these machines in the present set of experiments. The principle of all sliver regularity testing is extremely simple. Slabbing or roving is directed into a narrow rectangular channel A which is cut from the periphery of a hard steel wheel. A presser wheel B compresses the sliver into a rectangular mass with a pressure of about one ton per square inch, one side of the rectangle being the width of the channelling and the presser wheel, and the other proportional to >the cross-seotional area of the sliver (assuming uniform pressure and uniform compressi­ bility of material). Variation in cross-sectional area causes B to rise and fall and this movement is magnified and recorded by several different methods. By rotating A and allowing B to be rotated by frictional contact with the material a continuous record of thickness variations can be obtained.

More difficulty is experienced with yarns, for the application of pres­ sure to yarns during testing leads to faulty results. All yams possess twist which binds the fibres into a more or less circular cross-section, and unless the twist is very soft, the application of pressure will merely cause a certain amount of flattening to take place and the cross-section will become ellipti­ cal. The softer the twist the more nearly does the cross-section approximate to a rectangle when under pressure until finally, with softly twisted rovings, one can be certain that the proper rectangular shape is always being obtained. Unfortunately, the fault is aggravated further, for irregularities in the thickness of a yarn cause corresponding irregularities in twist distri­ bution— thus a thick place contains less turns per inch than a neighbouring thin place. The thick place is thus more easily compressed and may easily register the same diameter as a more tightly twisted fine place. The method that has been evolved for testing yams for regularity is to pass the yarn slowly over a smooth plane surface and allow- a convex metal shoe to ride on the upper surface of the yarn. Just sufficient pressure is exerted on the shoe to keep it in contact with the yarn— usually 1 to 2 \ grams is quite sufficient. The movement of the shoe is magnified and recorded in many different ways. Superficially, the prin­ ciple appears to be quite simple and logical, but there are a few points which are open to criticism due to the nature of the irregularities in the yarns. The majority of yarns do not possess a cylindrical cross-section but are slightly elliptical. IP the yarn has been spun fairly tightly on to tubes, spools or bobbins, conditioned, which causes swelling, and then allowed to stand for a short period, it is usually definitely flat. As the yarn is held fairly heavily tensioned across the lower surface, the upper shoe as it touches the yarn will cause it to rotate until the major axis of the elliptical cross-section is horizontal. A second fault is the lack of distinction between fibres in the body of the yarn and “ beard hairs ” which protrude outwards from the yarn. In the above method of testing these beard hairs are smoothed down, by the shoe and the recorded dia­ meter is rather greater than the singed diameter. With low quality worsteds and most woolleną this divergence may be considerable. The fault is still more serious in other methods of testing. Thus, the photo-electric method, which is theoretically sound, has been totally discarded because the beard fibres stop the same amount of light as would a core of fibres, thus giving 11—An Analysis of the Irregularities in values which are much too high. For the majority of botany and fine worsted yams, the fault is probably negligible, but for other types one remedy is to singe the yarn before testing. Much depends, of course, on the ultimate use of the yarn as to the actual diameter that must be recorded. A record of the variations in diameter along about five metres of all the yarns and rovings was obtained on the B.C.I.R.A.’s apparatus. The points on the material corresponding to the beginning and end of each graph were obtained by tying two knots of yarn round the material about five metres apart, which came out on the photograph as abnormally thick places and were easily identifiable. By measuring the length of the material tested and the length of the corresponding graph the actual con­ traction ratio was obtained and the points on the material corresponding to any particular position on the graph could easily be identified.

3 . Analysis of Uneven Places Each of the graphs in turn was rolled out at full length on a table ; any outstanding irregularities were marked and the distance of each such point from the beginning of the graph obtained. The corresponding points on the material were then found and a Wilkinson tuft* extracted. The possible error in finding, corresponding positions in yarns and graphs was negligible ; in fact, after the first few yarns the material was not even tensioned by a standard weight during measurement, for once the approxi­ mate position, that is + 4 cm., was found in the ordinary way, the true position could easily be identified visually, as only the more irregular points had been selected. In the case of the few slivers that were tested the material was twisted tightly during measurement, so that the proper position for extracting tufts became recognizable. Wilkinson tufts were taken at each selected point. It was thought at first that a simple average of the lengths of the fibres in the tufts would be sufficient to show the absence or presence of abnormal amounts of short or long fibres, so the tufts obtained in this way were allowed to remain at least 24 hours under standard humidity conditions (22‘2° C., 65 per cent. R.H.) and then weighed. The number of fibres in each tuft was counted against a black ground and by knowing the average fibre weight per centimetre, the average length of the fibres at a particular cross-section was obtained. The average fibre weights were obtained from direct measurements of lots A and G, the remaining lots being calculated from those. Three fairly large cross-sectional samples were obtained from each of the tops A and G and allowed to remain 24 hours under conditions of controlled tem­ perature and humidity. They were then weighed separately on a sensitive chemical balance and the individual fibres in each tuft were measured for length using the slow but the only accurate method due to Sever.' The errors introduced by this method are not inconsiderable. The tufts are very small in the case of the fine yarns and an error of + 0 00005 g. can be as much as + ii per cent, of the total weight. Similarly, an error of two or three in counting the number of fibres in the smallest tufts can be appreciable. More serious is the fact that the fibre weights of the long and short tops are different (5-112 x io^‘ and 4-515 xio-6 g./cm.

* A Wilkinson tuft is made in the following way. A short length of cotton thread is fastened tightly round the yarn at the point selected for examination and the yarn at each side of the cotton is untwisted and gently pulled away, care being taken to avoid breaking fibres. Starting at one of the outer ends of the tuft, the fibres are separated by combing with a fine dissecting needle and by steadily working towards the cotton thread any fibres not passing through it are combed away. After combing both sides of the cotton, one is left with a tuft that contains all the fibres passing through the cross-section at the cotton thread. Worsted Yarns and Slivers— Waggett TI37 respectively) and that one cannot be certain that in single tufts of the blends there is the correct proportion of the two constituent tops. The most serious objection, however, and the one that caused the writer to abandon this method altogether, is the possibility that excessive short fibre in a tuft may be masked by absence of medium length fibres or an equally excessive amount of long fibre. To avoid these errors, new graphs were obtained on yarns of the same blends suitable thick and thin points identified on the yarn and Wilkinson tufts removed as before. All the fibres in each tuft were then measured for length individually. Tables 1, 11, 111, iv, v give relevant data ob­ tained from these measurements for the i/i6s, 1/24S, 1/32S, 1/40S and 1 /48s yarns respectively. Fibres from four tufts were measured in each case representing two thick places and two thin places. The second column of these tables.gives the number of fibres in each tuft so that thick and thin places can easily be identified. Column 4 gives the median and columns 3 and 5 the lower and upper quartiles respectively for the lengths of the fibres in each group. Column 6 gives the differences between the readings of columns 3 and 4 while the last column presents the differences between columns 4 and 5.

Table I. Analysis of Uneven Places in l/16s Yarn

(1) (2) (3) ' (4) (5) (6) (7) No. of Lower Upper Lot fibres in Q uartile Median Quartile (4)-(3) (5)-(4) cross-section (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.)

A. 138 6-8 7-9 9-4 1 1 1-5 122 5-7 6-9 8-5 1-2 1-6 74 5-6 6-9 8-2 1-3 1-3 71 5-2 6-8 8-6 1-6 1-8

B. 131 6-2 7-4 8-8 1-2 1-4 120 5'8 6-9 8-2 1 1 1-3 92 51 6-3 7-6 1-2 1-3 90 5-3 6-8 7-9 1-5 1 1

C. 122 5-9 7-6 9-4 1-7 1-8 116 4-8 6-5 8-6 1-7 2 1 93 5 0 6-3 7-9 1-3 1-6 71 5-8 7-3 8-5 1-5 1-2

D. 120 3-6 5-5 7-9 1-9 2-4 82 4-4 5-7 6-8 1-3 1 1 81 4-8 5-8 7-8 10 2-0 68 5 0 7-0 . 8-9 2-0 1-9

E. 121 4-3 5-3 7-3 10 2-0 77 4-6 5-5 6-6 0-9 1 1 68 3-8 5-0 6-4 1-2 1-4 63 3-5 5-0 6-8 1-5 1-8

F. 150 4-0 4-7 5-7 0-7 1-0 147 4-3 5-5 6-3 1-2 0-8 79 4-0 5-2 6-6 1-2 1-4 67 4-2 5-3 6 0 1-1 0-7

G. 144 4-2 5-4 6-9 1-2 1-5 122 4-1 5 0 6-0 0-9 10 81 4-2 5-3 6-5 1 1 1-2 79 3 7 50 6-3 1-3 1-3 t i 38 i i — An Analysis of the Irregularities in

Table II. Analysis of Uneven Places in l/24s Yarn (1) (2) (3) (4) . (5) (6) (7) No. of Lower Upper Lot fibres in Quartile Median Quartile (4)-(3) (5)-(4) cross-section (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.)

A. 75 6-4 7-95 9-1 1-55 115 66 6-15 7-5 9-47 1-35 1-97 47 6-3 7-9 9 0 1-6 2-1 38 6-2 7-35 8-9 1-15 1-55 B. 69 6 1 7'4 8-8 1-3 1-4 69 5-9 7-2 8-7 1-3 1-5 41 6-2 7-4 8-6 1-2 1-2 37 6 0 7-4 8-9 1-4 1-5 C. 79 5-7 7-2 9-3 1-5 2-1 53 5 1 6-2 7-8 1 1 1-6 39 4-3 5-63 6-9 1-33 1-27 30 6 1 7-2 9-3 1 1 2-1 D. 85 4-4 5-4 6-3 10 0-9 77 4-3 5-2 6-2 0-9 1-0 50 4-4 • 5-6 7-0 1-2 1-4 47 4-0 5 0 6 1 1-0 1 1 E. 97 3-9 5-08 5-98 1-18 0-90 89 4-42 5-32 6-08 0-90 0-76 45 3-92 4-7 5-9 0-78 1-2 41 4-6 5'7 6-6 1 1 0-9 F. 92 3-92 4-72 61 0-8 1-38 87 4-3 5-05 5-9 0'75 0-85 41 3-6 4-75 617 115 1-42 39 4-37 515-1 6-1 0-78 0-95 G. 96 3-9 4-9 5-8 1-0 0-9 90 4-1 5'2 6-2 1 1 10 55 4-0 4-9 5-9 0-9 10 51 4 1 - 5 1 6-2 10 1 1

Table III. Analysis of Uneven Places in l/32s Yarn

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) No. of Lower Upper Lot fibres in Quartile Median Quartile (4)-(S) (5)-(4) cross-section (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) A. 54 6-1 7-8 9-2 1-7 1-4 52 4-7 6-4 7-9 1-7 1-5 22 4-3 5-3 6-7 1-0 1-4 22 4-1 5 6 6-8 1-5 1-2 B. 56 6-27 7-2 8-5 0-93 1-3 54 5-73 7-0 8-13 1-27 113 29 6-1 8 1 945 2-0 1-35 22 5'2 7-5 9-2 2-3 1-7 C. 52 4-77 5-9 7-4 113 1-5 44 4-65 7-0 8-9 2-35 1-9 32 3-9 4-7 6-8 1-8 2 1 28 4-2 • 5-8 7-9 1-6 2-1 D. 64 5-2 6-6 7-8 1-4 1-2 61 5 0 6-2 7-4 1-2 1-2 57 4-8 6 1 7-5 1-3 1-4 33 4-8 6-2 7-6 1-4 1-4 E. 77 4-8 5-8 6-75 1-0 0-95 62 4-6 5-5 6-4 0-9 0-9 41 4-6 5-65 6-65 1-05 10 32 4-7 5'6 6-55 0-9 0-95 F. 97 4-32 51 5-8 0-78 0-7 68 4-2 5-07 5-8 0-87 0-73 42 3-82 4-37 5-3 0-55 0-93 35 3-45 4-2 5-3 0-75 1 1 G. 73 4 1 4-95 5-9 0-85 0-95 65 4-45 5'3 6 0 0-85 0-7 36 3 9 505 5-75 115 0-7 34 4-3 5-2 6-35 0-9 115 Worsted Yarns and Slivers— Waggett

Table IV. Analysis of Uneven Places in l/40s Yarn (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (V Lot. No. of Lower Upper fibres in Quartile Median Quartile (4)-(3) (5)-(4) cross-section (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) A. 57 5-6 7-1 8-8 1-5 1-7 54 5-1 6-5 8-2 1-4 1-7 32 4-9 5-9 71 10 1-2 27 4-9 5-5 71 1-6 1-6 B. 58 5-0 6-4 6-9 1-4 1-5 57 4-8 6-15 7-65 1-35 1-5 33 4-8 6-3 7-8 1-5 1-5 31 4-75 6-05 7-5 1-3 1-45 C. 56 .51 7-0 9-0 1-9 2-0 53 5-1 6-8 8-7 1-7 1-9 38 4-8 6 1 7-7 1-3 1-6 25 4-4 5-4 7-7 10 2-3 D. 51 4-4 5-3 6-75 0-9 1-45 43 4-8 6 0 8-4 1-2 2-4 26 4-0 5-8 8-3 1-8 2-5 22 5-3 7-1 8-8 1-8 1-7 E. 57 4-2 4-85 5-9 0-65 1-05 42 3-8 5-1 6-9 1-3 1-8 35 4-1 5-1 5-7 1-0 0-6 28 4-3 4-9 6-4 0-6 1 F. 62 4-2 5-1 605 0-9 0-95 51 4-0 5-0 5-95 1-0 0-95 39 3-9 4-9 6-5 10 1-4 37 3-9 4-85 5-95 0-95 1 1 G. 80 4-6 5-3 6 0 0-7 0-7 77 4-4 4-97 5-7 0-57 0-73 27 3-3 4-8 ' 5-3 1-5 0-5 18 3-8 5-5 6-55 1-7 1-05

Table V. Analysis of Uneven Places in l/48s Yarn (1) (2) ( 3) (4) (5) (6) (7) No. of Lower Upper Lot fibres in Quartile Median Quartile W-(3) (5)-(4) cross-section (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.)

A. 43 5-9 7-1 8-15 1-2 1-05 41 5-32 6-32 8-1 10 1-78 16 4-3 5-6 9-1 1-3 3-5 15 6-7 7-5 9-3 0-8 1-8 B. 52 6-95 7-75 8-8 0-8 1-05 45 4-9 6-65 7-67 1-75 1-02 28 5-55 6-8 8-3 1-25 1-5 22 4-4 5-75 6-5 1-35 0-75 C. 40 4-35 5-45 6-6 1-10 1-15 30 5-3 7-3 8-7 2-0 1-4 26 4-25 5-75 7-1 1-5 1-35 22 5-0 5-8 6-55 0-8 0-75 D. 26 4-4 5-8 7-3 1-4 1-5 25 4-2 5-0 7-4 0-8 2-4 20 4-9 6-8 9-5 1-9 2-7 19 4-0 4-9 6-6 0-9 1-7 E. 80 4-0 4-7 5-5 0-7 0-8 68 4-2 5-0 5-78 0-8 0-78 25 3-8 4-65 6-2 0-85 1-55 15 3-67 4-7 5-7 1-03 1-0 F. 69 4-1 4-9 5-75 0-8 0-85 61 3-9 4-8 5-7 0-9 0-9 30 3-8 4-65 5-65 0-85 1-0 27 3-8 4-65 5‘6 0-85 0-95 G. 61 3-95 4-8 5-55 0-85 0-75 37 4-02 4-95 5-95 0-93 1-00 19 3-88 4-60 5-22 0-72 0-62 19 3-37 4-65 5-55 1-08 0-90 TI40 ii—An Analysis of the Irregularities

The data of Tables 1 to v have been collected together in Table v i which shows the average values of the constants for the thick and the thin places of each lot. Table VI. Analysis of Uneven Places in All Yarns (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Lower Upper Lot. Q uartile Median Q uartile (3)-(2) (4)-(3) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.) (cms.)

A. Thick 5-78 7 1 5 8-68 1-37 1*53 A. Thin 5-25 6-43 8-08 1-18 B. 1*63 Thick 5-76 7-00 8-21 1-24 1*21 B. Thin 5-34 6'84 8-17 1-50 C. 1*33 Thick 5-08 6-69 8-44 1-61 1*75 C. Thin 4-77 6-00 7-63 1-23 1*63 D. Thick 4-47 5-67 7-22 1-20 1*55 D. Thin 4-60 6 0 3 7-81 1-43 1*78 E. Thick 4-28 5-21 6-32 0-93 111 E. T hin 4T 0 5-10 6-29 1-00 119 F. Thick 4-14 4-99 5-90 0-85 0-91 F. Thin 3-88 4-80 5-91 0-92 111 G. Thick 4-18 5-08 6-02 0-90 0*94 G. Thin 3-86 5 0 1 5-96 115 0*95 i..ne cnier iea/ture 01 tnese tables, especially seen in Table vi, is the almost consistently lower values of the lower quartiles, medians and upper quartiles for the thin places as compared with the thick places. This could be explained in one of three ways. Firstly, the fibres at a thin place may be shorter in length than those at a thick place ; secondly, there may be excess short fibre at the thin places, or, thirdly, there may be a deficiency of long fibre. In both the second and third cases, however, the differences between the upper quartiles and the medians should decrease whilst the differences between the lower quartiles and the medians should increase due to the general shape of fibre diagrams. This is not borne out by the figures in Columns (5) and (6) of Table v i. In the first suggested explana­ tion, it may be maintained that the general shorter fibre lengths are due to extra breakage during the combing of the Wilkinson tufts caused by the extra twist at the thin points. This was realised at the beginning and great care was taken to avoid this possibility by carefully untwisting all the ends of the tufts before combing. Worsted Yarns and Slivers— Waggett T I4 1

Further evidence in support of the first explanation is provided by Figs. 1 to 7, which show the average fibre diagrams for the two thick places and the average fibre diagram for the two thin places in the seven lots of 1 / 16s yarn. They show close agreement with the figures of Table vi. There is no evidence of excessive long fibre nor of excessive short fibre in the case of the thin places but, in general, there is a tendency for these fine places to have diagrams that are slightly shorter in fibre length than corresponding diagrams for the thick places. It would also appear from these diagrams that there is greater divergency in the lots containing the greater amount of long fibre. JIĄ2 11—An Analysis of the Irregularities in

These figures and graphs would at first suggest that Balls’s hypothesis on roller drafting is either incorrect or that there are so many other factors entering into fibre movement that any simple explanation on the lines of Balls's can only remain pure hypothesis. It should be remembered, how­ ever, that only some of the grossest irregularities have been used for these analyses and it is possible that distributions more in line with the extension of Balls’s work mentioned previously in the introduction, obtain at the less irregular points. This logical extension of Balls’s hypothesis and the figures obtained in this work need not be inconsistent, for they may both obtain in the same yam, being different degrees of the same phenomenon. It is very Worsted Yarns and Slivers— Waggett T I4 3 probable that Balls’s hypothesis is basically correct. The fibres that are most likely to be moved prematurely by inter-fibre cohesion are the shortest ones, and it is probable that the drafting wave is formed as suggested in the intro­ duction. In this case, the thicker parts will have more of the short fibre than the thin parts. . It is also probable that circumstances arise during drafting when longer fibres are moved prematurely which, being cumula­ tive, would cause a general premature disturbance to take place, giving rise to a very thick place in the yam and consequently leaving a very thin part to follow. Such a movement of fibres would give fibre diagrams at the gross places similar to those found in this work. The premature movement of longer fibres may be caused by cohesion or entanglement with other fibres, especially still longer ones, or it may be caused by a faulty distribution of the longer fibres due to previous drafting processes. TI44 11—An Analysis of the Irregularities in If this conclusion is substantially correct it would imply that, in practice, one needs to start with a well-blended top of the most suitable fibre diagram and to use as few drafting processes as possible consistent with reasonable attention to other relevant factors.

Part II— The Effect of Staple Diagram on Irregularity. The wool originally chosen for the previous series of experiments was a typical open drawing type. When divided into two portions on the Lister comb, the resulting shorter top had a fibre diagram typical in length and shape of the needed for successful processing on Continental mach­ inery, while the longer portion was unsuitable for this type of drawing and spinning. Experience would suggest that as more and more long fibre was added to Lot G, the short top, the resulting yarn would suffer to a corres­ ponding degree. The following work was carried out on the graphs used in the previous part to confirm this point.

The degree of irregularity of the yarns was measured by the coefficient of variation of diameter. There have been several ingenious devices adopted for finding automatically the mean value of an irregular wave form and also the mean and standard deviations. One of the most successful is said to be the “ harp ” developed by Balls. Many of the instruments devised for this purpose, however, have not proved to be very successful and many workers at the present time obtain these deviations by measuring the ordinates at fixed intervals down the graph. This was adopted in the present case, the actual procedure being as follows: A narrow strip of paper was accurately marked in millimetres and gummed to one of the shorter sides of an ordinary wooden set-square. The graph was stretched out on a flat table and a ruler placed against that edge of the paper which represented the body of the yarn. The set-square was run down the ruler Worsted Yarns and Slivers— Waggett TI45 and at 5 mm. intervals the ordinate was measured and recorded. If one person records measurements as another runs /the set-square down the ruler and call out the various readings, a remarkable speed can be obtained. From these data the figures of Table v n were obtained. The average co­ efficients of variation are given in Table v m and are shown in graph form in Fig. 8.

Table VII

Mean Standard Coefficient Counts and Quality " D iam eter ” deviation of (mm.) (mm.) variation (%) 9 dram s. A 60-0 6-47 10-78 B 60-5 5-53 9-14 C 69-7 596 8-56 D 61-2 4-87 7-96 E 67-1 4-46 6-64 F 63-4 3-72 5-87 G 61-9 4-36 7-04

1\ dram s. A 77-5 9-21 11-88 B 67-3 6 3 6 9-45 C 71-2 9-97 14-00 D 711 4-45 6-26 E 70-5 4-58 6-50 F 80-6 5-99 7-43 G 72-5 5-38 7-42 l/12s A 68-3 6-76 9-80 B 57-2 5-45 9-54 C 60-1 5-26 8-75 D 62-5 5-23 8-37 E 671 6-73 1003 F 60-5 5-37 8-88 G 62-8 5-04 802

l/16s A 71-5 8-59 12-00 B 61-3 7-04 11-49 C 63-2 5-84 9-24 D 59-2 6-20 10-48 E 61-2 569 9-30 F 67-2 5-56 8-27 G 62-0 503 8-11

l/20s A 72-9 6-86 9-41 B 74-3 6-54 8-80 C 75-4 6-97 9-24 D 690 5-55 805 E 73-5 7-14 9-58 F 73-0 6-71 919 G 75-0 6-60 8-80

l/24s A 58-8 4-99 8-50 B 54-5 4-46 8-17 C 46-6 4-41 9-48 D 62-3 5-38 8-63 E 53-3 4-53 8-51 F 564 4-99 8-84 G 52-1 4-23 8-1^

The figures of Table v m show that certain fibre diagrams ars associated with less level yarn than others and demonstrate in a simple way how important it is, in the case of French drawing and spinning, to start with a material that has a diagram suited to the machine settings. This is important in view of the present tendency to draw and spin longer wools on modified French machinery. ii—An Analysis of the Irregularities in

Table VIII. Average Coefficients of Variation of Yarns and Rovings.

Lot Coefficient of variation (%) A 10-40 B 9-43 C 9 0 5 D 8-29 E 8-43 F 8-08 G 7-92

The figures of Table v i and the diagrams of Figs. i to 7 have shown that there is a greater divergency of 'the staple diagrams at thick and thin points in the case of the blends containing much long fibre, whilst Table vm and Fig. 8 have shown that .these same blends are associated with less level yarns. It would appear to suggest that unevenness and an irregular fibre distribution go hand in hand, the former probably being a direct result of the latter. In general, it can probably be said that even yarns can be obtained only by a regular distribution of all the fibre lengths along the length of the yarn, and if this regularity is departed from, unevenness in the yarns must necessarily result.

SUMMARY The irregularities in a range of worsted yarns have been examined for composition of fibre length and the results explained by fibre movement during drafting. It has also been shown that greater unevenness in the yarns corresponds to a greater irregular disposition of the various lengths of fibre.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to express his deep gratitude and indebtedness to Professor J. B. Speakman of Leeds University for his kindly interest and helpful criticism. Acknowledgment is also made to The Worshipful Com­ pany of Woolmen for whose Silver Medal Competition part of this work was designed.

REFERENCES

1 H. E. Daniels. See J. G. M artindale. / . Text. Inst., 1492, 33, P 2 1. ! W. L. Balls. " Studies of Quality in Cotton.” Macmillan, 1928. 3 A. C. Goodings. J. Text. Inst., 1931, 22, t i . 1 J. G. Martindale. J. Text. Inst., 1942, 33, pg. 5 G. R. Stanbury and S. G. Barker. J. Text. Inst., 1 9 2 8 , 19, T 40 5 ; 1 9 3 1 , 22, T 38 5. 8 R. Lomax. Thesis for Ph.D. Degree, Leeds University, 1930. 71. J. Saxl. J. Text. Inst., 1 9 3 5 , 26, T 7 7 . •A. E. Oxley. J. Text. Inst., 1922, 13, T 5 4 . ®W. Sever. J. Text. Inst., 1 9 3 2 , 23, P 1 5 1 . Received 2/ 11/44 Department of Textile Industries. Leeds University. JUNE 1 9 4 5 A 2 3 7 THE JOURNAL OF THE TEXTILE INSTITUTE

1—FIBRES AND THEIR PRODUCTION (B)— A n i m a l Silkworm Eggs: Rearing. V. M. Appadhorai Mudaliar. Indian Textile ]., ‘945> 55- 240-241. The writer describes the shell of the silkworm egg and the process of hatching. He emphasises the importance of care during the laying- to-hatching period, including free ventilation, loose spreading and packing of the egg sheets, and uniform temperature. Many graineurs and rearers in India appear not to realise that the eggs are alive. C. Silk: Production in Brazil. “ Times” Trade and Engineering, 1945, 56, March, 18. The rise of sericulture and silk manufacture in Brazil is noted. In 1942 exports were 4,985 lb. of silk cocoons and 6,483 lb. of floss silk. C. Silkworm Gut: Production. A. T. Janakiraman and N. K. Gururajan. J. Sci. Ind. Research (India), 1945, 3, 355-358. Silkworm gut, the stretched and hardened silk gland of the silkworm, is used for surgical purposes for ligatures and also for fishing lines. The worms are soaked in a dilute solution of acetic or citric acid for 3-4 hours and the head and a portion of the thorax are then cut. The abdomen of the worm is gently pressed until the two silk glands come out. Each silk gland is then held at the ends with the thumb and forefinger and extended to its maximum length with uniform force. From silk glands of 2-3 in. in length it is possible to prepare guts of 12-14 hi. in length having a tensile strength of 3 to 5 lb. To effect degumming and bleach­ ing, the guts are treated with a very dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide made alkaline with ammonia. The bleached guts are washed in water and dried in the shade. Sterilization and preservation are ensured by soaking in a solution of normal saline and autoclaving under pressure. The guts are then transferred to sterilized glass tubes filled with an alcoholic solution of an aniline dye. C. Clun Forest Sheep. T. N. Wilks. /. Min. Agric., 1945, 51, 497-9. T he characteristics and distribution are described of the Clun Forest sheep, which is a general-purpose breed distinguished for its high fecundity. W. British Breeds of Sheep in Australia, C. J. Daley. Pastoral Rev., 1944, 54. 326-327, 388-389, 456-457, 598-600, 664-666; 1945, 55, 27-28. Articles published in response to requests from breeders of British sheep in Australia. The breeds described are Border Leicester, Romney Marsh, English Leicester, Lincoln, Southdown, Dorset Horn, Ryeland, Suffolk and Shropshire. Reference is made to the origin and history of these breeds. W.

(C)— V e g e t a b l e Cotton Seed: Characters and Lint Production. J. O. Ware, W. H. Jenkins and D. C. Harrell. J. Heredity, 1944, 35, 153-160 (through Plant Breed. Abstr., 1945, 15, 62). The location and size of fuzz tufts do not appear to affect the lint percentage, lint index, staple length or seed index of the varieties Westberry, Bleak Hall and Andrews. Naked seeds of Seabrook produce lower lint percentages and lint indices than the normal, but staple length and seed index are little affected. None of these characters appears to be significantly correlated with fuzz grade in the variety Gaddis. C. Indian : Grades and Standards, Presidency. J. S. Ponniah. Indian Textile J., 1944, 55, 155-157. The author reviews the history of the evolution of cotton standards in the Madura and Adoni areas of the Madras Presidency by Messrs. Ralli Bros., Messrs. A. and F. Harvey, and Messrs. A238 i —Fibres and their Production

Volkart Bros., and describes the standards now established by these exporters. C. American Cottons: Variety and Manuring Trials in Louisiana. J. M. Jenkins. Louisiana Sta. Bui. 383, 1944, 19 pp. (through Exp. Sta. Rec., 1945, 92, 198). Highest average yields of lint cotton at the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., 1938-42, were from Dixie-Triumph 366, 549 lb.; Station Miller, 531 lb.; and Stoneville-2 B, 405 lb. These varieties and Deltapine appear well adapted for the rice area. Yields of 20 out of about 100 cotton varieties and strains grown in 1928-42 and manurial experiments are reported. A rotation of co tto n 2 years and com with soybeans 1 year, 1932-39, failed to increase the yield of seed cotton, and low average production of com indicated that such a rotation would not be profitable. Cotton and corn, grown in rows spaced 4, 5 , and 6 ft. apart, made highest average yields, 1934-38, 699 lb. of seed cotton and 10 bushels, respectively, from 4-ft. spacing. C. American Cotton Strains: Yields, Length and Other Characteristics. J. W . Neely and S. G. Brain. Mississippi Sta. Circ. 121, 1944, 8 pp. (through E x p . S ta . R ec., 1945, 92, 202). Yields of seed cotton and lint per acre, ginning percentage, bolls per pound of seed cotton, classers’ staple length, and fibre measurements, including bundle strength, length uniformity, and length at the upper half mean are tabulated and discussed for 49 strains in a study of new strains, 49 in miscellaneous advanced strains, and 25 Delfos advanced strains, all grown at the Delta Sub-station in 1943. C. Upland Cotton: Effect of Potash Level on Characters. J. H. Turner, Jr. / . Amer. Soc. Agron., 1944, 36, 668-698 (through Exp. Sta. Rec., 1945, 92, 202). When four strains of upland cotton, differing in foliage characteristics, were studied in 1941-44, significant increases in acre yield of seed cotton were shown between 20-, 40-, and 80-lb. levels of potash (K 20) on Tifton sandy loam. Differences found between the light-foliaged strain and the three strains of heavier foliage were highly significant. The heaviest foliaged strain seemed to give the largest response to higher potash levels, whilst the lightest showed a greater bloom production. No definite effect of bloom production was identified with potash levels. Increases in boll size accompanied increase in potash, and differences were also found between all strains, with average boll size larger as foliage became denser. Leaf loss was lower for the higher potash levels. Light-foliaged types lost the most leaves, and differences were present between each strain, with leaf loss diminishing as foliage was denser. High bloom production was not indicative of high yields, different foliaged types showed differences in setting efficiency, and high potash levels were of benefit in setting more fruit. Strain x treatment interactions were significant for all measures of production efficiency. C. Cotton Seedlings: Infection by Colletotrichum Gossypii. C. H . A rndt. Phytopathology, 1944, 34, 861-869 (through Exp. Sta. Rec., 1945, 92, 221). When infested seeds were germinated at 18, 22, 25, 29, 33 and 36° C., anthracnose lesions appeared earliest at 290 an d 33 °. Relatively low per­ centages of seedlings were infected and killed at 33 °; a t 29° much larger pro­ portions were infected and killed, but not so large as at 220 a n d 250. The last approximated to the optimum temperature for maximum infection and injury to the hypocotyls and cotyledons, at 180 the incidence of seedling infection was greatly reduced, and at 36° there was no infection at all. All seedlings infected a t 25° an d 220 were killed before the fourteenth day; at 330 many of the lesions remained small and did not greatly retard seedling growth. The percentages of the seedlings of the lots killed in the laboratory at 220 were indicative of the response of these lots to seed treatment in field plantings. C. Verticillium W ilt: Dissemination in California. B. A. Rudolph and G. J. H arrison. Phytopathology, 1944, 34, 849-860 (through Exp. Sta. Rec., 1945, 92, 221). Isolations over a 5-year period from 3,371 mature cotton bolls on plants severely affected with V. albo-atrum showed that the fungus had reached only 150 receptacles and penetrated to the bases only of the placental columns of two bolls. Since in no case had it reached the seed, internal infection is highly improbable. Contamination of the lint by spores and microsclerotia is believed to be equally improbable; 11,723 cultures made from tiny black bodies— erumpent or superficial—on diseased cotton stalks failed to yield the pathogen, indicating that microsclerotia are not produced on the old dead stalks over­ !—Fibres and their Production A239 wintered in the field. Spore production was never observed in the field on any plant in California and probably never, or at least very rarely, takes place. Cotton lint proved a poor medium for the fungus to grow upon; only when constantly saturated in culture tubes did it support growth. It seems highly improbable that such conditions would be found in the field or in cotton piles at the gins. All the evidence is against the infection or contamination of the lint by the fungus on an economically important scale. C. Co-operative Cotton Gin Associations: Patronage Dividend. W. E. Paulson and R. T. Baggett. Texas Sta. Bui. 649, 1944, 30 pp. (through Exp. Sta. Rec., 1945, 92, 285). The sources and disposal of profits, the objectives of patronage dividends and the problems of determining equitable patronage dividends due to the several types of businesses conducted by a gin, and the profit and non­ profit aspects are discussed. The running bale, lint cotton, seed cotton and departmental and semi-departmental plans of computing dividends are described and the equity of each discussed. The methods of computing dividends used by three associations are discussed and compared. C. World Cotton Supply, 1945-46. International Cotton Advisory Committee. Textile Mercury and Argus, 1945, 112, 445, 459. It is estimated that the world surplus of raw cotton for export will reach in the 1945-46 season about 22^ or 23 million bales. The normal peace-time consumption of cotton by import­ ing countries was about 13 million bales, but in 1944-45 was as low as 3I-4 million bales. The difficulties of the situation are discussed. C.

(D)—A r t i f i c i a l Cotton Fibres: Strength Changes on Conversion to Viscose Rayon. H . H off­ m ann. Zellwolle u. Kunstseide, 1944, 2, 45-48 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 4132). The chemical operations of the viscose process, carried out so as to retain the fibre structure, exert a surprisingly slight effect on the strength of single cotton fibres. Dry strength is hardly diminished provided the ripening period is not extremely long. A longer period of ripening causes lowering of wet strength. The lowest relative wet strength was still 86 per cent, and thus much higher than the 50 per cent, of rayon. It might be possible to avoid the completely dissolved stage, which appears to be responsible ’ for the low strength of rayon, by utilizing directly the plastic properties of the xanthate. C. Kehlheim Hollow Fibre: Production and Properties. R . Stoll. Zellwolle u. Kunstseide, 1944, 2, 51-61 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 4199). The hollow space is formed by generation of gas during coagulation (of the viscose). The details of preparation are not given, but the fibre is claimed to be totally different from any similar product, and to have better physical properties and greater uniformity. The specific volume of one type of Kehlheim hollow fibre is 2-50 c .c ./g ., as compared with 1-40 for normal staple fibre. The thin- walled fibre collapses into a flat, cotton-like ribbon, but the inside walls of the lnmen do not seal up. Swelling in water is increased 20-30 per cent, and drying time is increased 15-25 per cent. Dye absorption is greater than for other viscose fibres. With the darker dyes, and especially after ironing, there is an undesirable glossy appearance to the fibres which cannot be overcome by the addition of dulling pigments. C. “ Ardil ” Ground Nut Protein Fibre: Production and Properties. D. T raill. Chemistry and Industry, 1945, 58-63; Textile Manufacturer, 1945, 71, 71-73. An account is given of the extraction of proteins from ground nuts, the pro­ duction of fibres by extrusion of alkaline solutions of ground nut protein in coagulating baths containing sodium sulphate and sulphuric acid, followed by a suitable hardening treatment, and the properties and uses of the fibre (Ardil). Ardil is a cream coloured, crimped fibre with a soft wool-like handle, and a water absorption of the same order as that of wool. Ardil but in a manner different from the felting of wool and fur. The results of fabric wear tests on an abrasion apparatus show that Ardil alone has a poor resistance to abrasion, but that Ardil does not reduce the wear of other fibres as much as might be expected. Actual wear tests on garments made from Ardil-wool and Ardil- viscose mixtures indicate that the wearing qualities of these union fabrics are about the same as those of 100 per cent, wool fabrics. Thermal insulating value measurements suggest that an all Ardil fabric and an Ardil-wool fabric will give the same insulation as an all-wool fabric of the same thickness and structure. Ardil is moth-proof. It has an affinity for dyes normally used in A2ĄO i—Fibres and their Production dyeing other protein fibres and solid shades can be produced on wool-Ardil unions with level dyeing acid dyes. Ardil also shows good affinity for direct cotton dyes. Ardil has been processed successfully in the worsted, woollen and cotton systems. Ardil-wool and Ardil-viscose mixtures have been made into satisfactory fabrics and 50/50 Ardil-wool yarns have given satisfactory results in knitting. A fibre of similar properties can be produced from soya p rotein. C. Zein: Preparation. C. D. Evans, R. J. Foster and C. B. Croston. In d . E ng. C hem ., 1945, 37, 175-177. A laboratory procedure for the preparation of zein consists in extracting com gluten with isopropyl alcohol, concentrating to a heavy phase solution, precipitating from this by spraying into cold water, and drying the resulting protein at low- temperatures. The zein from the dilute alcoholic extract is concentrated to a heavy zein phase by a non-polar solvent which selectively removes part of the alcohol from the extract. The precipitate is finely divided, granular, and free from the occluded solvent which proves so troublesome in conventional laboratory methods of preparing zein. Curves showing the phase relations of mixtures of alcoholic zein solutions and light petroleum which are important in the concentration are discussed. The method is also suitable for the recovery of modified zein preparations. C. Rayon Spinnerets: Perforating and Repairing. C. C. D ow nie. Silk and R a yo n , 1945, 19, 440, 441, 449. An illustrated account is given of the methods by which the walls of freshly bored holes in the spinneret are protected while the metal is trued and polished. Usually, a coating of a soluble metal (e.g. copper) is applied .by electroplating under reduced pressure (to draw off gas bubbles). In more recent methods, the holes are plugged with synthetic resins that melt at below 5000 C. The protective layer is finally removed by solution in an acid or by melting. C. Artificial Collagen Fibres: Production. A. von Buzagii. Kolloid Z., 1942, 101, 149-156 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, A. I, 61). The capacity of solutions prepared from natural tendon, particularly calf tendon, by the action of dilute acetic acid, to form collagen fibres depends on the method of preparation and particularly on the acetic acid concentration. The dissolution of collagen in dilute acids is analogous to the peptisation of other gels. Collagen solutions prepared with a medium concentration of acetic acid have the greatest capacity for forming fibres. By selective adsorption with quartz it is possible to isolate a constituent the presence of which is essential for the production of fibres. The various fractions produced by adsorption appear to differ only in physical structure and degree of dispersion, and the thread-forming constituent apparently consists of secondary particles with an ordered structure. Solutions which are originally unsuitable for fibre formation are capable of forming fibres after slow coagulation. In the neighbourhood of the isoelectric point the structure of the adsorption layers from collagen solu­ tions on various negatively charged surfaces (quartz, collagen, sodium pectate, and agar membranes) is fibrous. C. Man-made Fibres: Developments. H. W. Rose. Rayon Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 605-607. A broad review of new trends in the processing of man- made fibres, including (1) treatment of the yams in cake form, (2) spinning long, fine fibres, (3) the use of low-twist yams, and (4) rayon cord tyres. C. Viscose Syrup: “ Extension ” Testing. P. C. Scherer. Rayon Textile M o n th ly, 1945, 26, 69-71, 117-119. An apparatus is described by means of which the distance can be measured to which viscose syrup can be drawn out before the thread breaks. This distance is called the “ extension.” A rod is plunged to a depth of 1 mm. under the surface of the syrup and then lifted out at a rate of o-8 cm. per second. An electric circuit is completed through the syrup, the rod, the grid and element of a vacuum tube and a 22^-volt battery. Another circuit involving a transformer actuates means to leave a trace of electric spark punctures on a record paper so long as the syrup thread is intact, and the length of the trace measures the “ extension.” Syrups were prepared from a sample of sulphite pulp and the test was applied to show the effects of ripening time and other conditions. Results are given in tables and graphs. They indicate the following: (1) Extension runs parallel with viscosity. (2) Extension increases with ripening time up to the point at which gelling occurs. i —Fibres and their Production (Patents) A 2 41

(3) Increase of temperature increases the slope of the extension and viscosity curves. (4) Extension is independent of surface tension. (5) Addition of glycerin to increase the viscosity also increased the extension. C. Transparent Cellulose Wrapping Film: Production. British Cellophane Co. Silk and Rayon, 1945, 19, 427-429, 444. Recent patented processes are reviewed for the production of Cellophane that is tough and flexible, not sticky, resistant to moisture penetration, and able to protect metal from rusting. C.

P a t e n t s Cellulosic Raw Materials: Pulping and Bleaching. G. B. Fowler (Spring­ field, Massachusetts, U.S.A.). B.P.567,774 of 24/8/1942:2/3/1945. Cellu­ losic raw material is impregnated with an acid-reacting substance in the presence of a wetting agent, and then treated with chlorous acid, a chlorite or chlorine dioxide. The bleached product may then be treated with pulping or lignin-dissolving chemicals. Details are given of procedures for the treatment of flax, wood chips, and cotton linters. C. Cellulose Esters: Preparation. Ltd. B.P.567,893 of 8/6/19143 : 7/3/ 1945 (Conv. 14/7/1942). In a process for the esterification of cellulose in the presence of an inorganic acid esterification catalyst and a solvent for the cellulose ester, the inorganic acid is eliminated and is replaced by an organo-mineral acid before the ripening operation. Suitable agents for neutralising the acid catalyst are magnesium and calcium acetates and car­ bonates and zinc acetate and oxide. As the organo-mineral acid there may be employed any acid derivable from a di- or poly-basic mineral acid by replacing one or more, but not all of its hydroxyl groups by an alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl or other organic radical, or any partial ester of a di- or poly-basic mineral acid with an alcohol. The amount of the organo-mineral acid added may be between 5 and 50 per cent., preferably between 8 and 20 per cent, of the weight of the original cellulose. Between 25 and 100 per cent, of water, calculated on the weight of the original cellulose, may be added before or during the ripening operation, which is preferably carried out at a temperature of 30-100° C. The application of this process to the acetylation of cellulose in the presence of sulphuric and acetic acid is described. C. Casein Threads: Production. Courtaulds Ltd. and R. L- Wormell. B.P. 567,904 of 29/7/1943:7/3/1945. A process of improving the resistance of lactic casein threads to attack by hot liquids comprises subjecting the threads to a preliminary hardening treatment and then treating them with an aqueous solution containing formaldehyde and at least 30 parts by weight of calcium chloride and between 3 and 7 parts by weight of hydrochloric acid per 100 parts by weight of the solution. Preferably the preliminary hardening treat­ ment is effected in a bath having a p H value between 6 and 8; a suitable liquid consists of an aqueous solution of formaldehyde and sodium sulphate in w hich th e p H is adjusted as required by the addition of alkali. C. Polystyrene Sheet Materials: Production. British Celanese Ltd. B.P. 567,985 of 30/4/1943: 13/3/1945:9/6/1942. In a process for the manufacture of films, foils and other sheet materials by casting a solution of polystyrene on to a casting surface, the polystyrene is dissolved in a medium that contains o-5 to 25 per cent, by volume of a monohydric alcohol which has at least 5 C atoms and at ordinary temperatures is not soluble in water to an extent exceeding 10 per cent, by weight of the water. The solution is cast in the usual way and the cast material is preferably heated to expel the solvent. Films, foils and other sheet materials produced in this way can be readily removed from the casting surface without further treatment. C. Transparent Polyamide Articles: Production. E. I. Du Pont de Nemours 6 Co. B.P.568,044 of 23/4/1943:15/3/1945 (Conv. 25/4/1942). A process for producing a transparent article from a metal salt-alcohol solution of a syn­ thetic linear polyamide, comprises dissolving a film-forming or fibre-forming synthetic linear polyamide having a quench index above 125 mils, when deter­ mined by a specified method, in a solution consisting of water-soluble metal salt-methanol or ethanol solutions, forming an article from the solution, evapor­ ating the alcohol from the formed article at a rate sufficiently slow to prevent the formation of bubbles therein and before the article comes into contact with water or an atmosphere having a relative humidity above 50 per cent, and A2Ą2 2—Conversion of Fibres into Finished Yarns washing the metal salt from the article with water having a temperature not exceeding 40° C., and drying the article. The metal salt may be calcium chloride. Transparent synthetic linear polyamide films produced by this method are comparable in strength, elongation and ultra-violet light transmission to regenerated cellulose films of similar thickness and superior in tear resistance, water permeability and thickness. C.

Cellulose Esters: Production. British Celanese Ltd. (1) B.P.568,047 of 2 8 / 4 /‘ 9 4 3 :' 5 / 3 /> 9 4 5 (Conv. 28/4/1942 and 29/7/1942). (2) B.P.568,051 of 8/6/1943:15/3/1945 (Conv. 3/7/1942). (1) A process for the production of organic acid esters of cellulose comprises esterifying cellulose with an organic acid anhydride in the presence of an acid catalyst and of a solvent for the primary ester formed and ripening the primary ester with water in solution in at least two stages, the commencement of each of which is marked by an increase in the amount of water and a decrease in the amount of catalyst present in the solution. Preferably more than two stages of ripening are employed, the amount of catalyst being reduced and the amount of water increased at the commencement of each of the first two stages and in sub­ sequent stages the amount *of water only being increased. The catalyst may be sulphuric acid. The amount of catalyst may be reduced by neutralisation with magnesium and/or calcium acetate. The esters produced by this method are of high stability, low in sulphate, and of high heat resistance. They are suitable for the production of fibres, moulding compositions, etc. (2) In a pro­ cess wherein cellulose is esterified in the presence of an inorganic acid catalyst and of a solvent for the ester so as to produce a solution of the cellulose ester and the solution is subsequently ripened, the whole of the acid esterification catalyst is neutralised before the ripening operation is complete, and the water employed in the ripening operation is added in two or more stages. The pro­ ducts do not require further stabilizing treatment and are suitable for moulding. C. Cellulose Esters: Production. British Celanese Ltd. B.P.568,098 of 8/6/1943 : Jl9 / 3 / 1945 (Conv. 3/7/ 1942). A process of ripening a cellulose ester comprises reducing by neutralisation the amount of the inorganic catalyst in the solution before the ripening operation, to o-i-i per cent, of the weight of the initial cellulose material, and ripening the cellulose ester at a temperature above room temperature in two or more stages, before each of which water is added to the solution. The application of this process to cellulose acetate produced by acetylating cellulose in the presence of sulphuric acid is described. The temperature of ripening is preferably 6o°-9o° C., the total amount of water added for the ripening operation is preferably 60-240 per cent, of the weight of the original cellulose, and the neutralisation of the acid catalyst is prefer­ ably effected by means of a mixture of calcium acetate and magnesium acetate. Cellulose esters obtained by this method are unusually stable, and can in general be used for moulding even without a separate stabilisation step. C.

Alginate Threads: Production. Courtaulds Ltd. and E. E. Tallis. B.P. 568,177 of 19/2/1943:22/3/1945. Threads, filaments, films and the like are obtained from sodium alginate by spinning a solution into a bath containing a salt of an alkaline earth such as calcium chloride, a small quantity of a cation-active compound such as cetylpyTidinium chloride, and a small propor­ tion of an organic acid such as acetic acid, in the substantial absence of free mineral acid. By this method it is possible to obtain, without the addition of oil to the spinning bath, alginate threads which do not adhere to one another. C. 2—CONVERSION OF FIBRES INTO FINISHED YARNS (A)— P r e p a r a t o r y P r o c e s s e s Blowroom Laps: Weight Regularity and Humidity Control. Textile R ecorder, 1945, 62, March, 39, 57. The writer calls attention to the fact that lap weights are bound to vary with the atmospheric humidity and briefly describes methods for allowing for this in testing lap regularity. One method is automatic control of the atmosphere. The other is to prepare a set of com­ pensating weights, varying with the moisture regain of the cotton, to add to the scale pan when weighing the laps. C. i— Conversion oj Fibres into Finished Yarns A 2 4 3

Sliver Tester Condensed Charts: Application. C. H. Plummer. T extile Research J., 1945, 15, 10-14. The original chart speeds available in the Saco- Lowell sliver tester give ratios of sliver to chart of 1 : 1 and 12: 1. Modifica­ tions of the tester made by the Chicopee Manufacturing Corporation include the provision of additional gearing providing for ratios of 144: 1 and 1728: 1. The slowest chart speed, accordingly, condenses the record of 1,728 yards of sliver (a complete case of sliver) on to 1 yard of chart. The 1728: 1 ratio is particularly useful for studying long period irregularities, the 144:1 ratio for closer examination of long period irregularities and the study of shorter period irregularities, and the 12: 1 ratio for further analysis. Records made with each of these ratios from poor and normal drawing sliver and poor and normal card sliver are presented and discussed. Records showing the effect on card sliver of defective feed roll gears are also presented. C. Roving Frame Bobbin Drives: Kinematic Errors. S. L. Gerliard. J. A pplied Physics, 1945, 16, 26-31. A swing gear bobbin drive, a simple chain drive and an improved chain drive are studied. Erroneous displacements of the bobbins are first calculated and the speeds resulting therefrom are determined. It is found that the speed variations of the chain drives are linear over the entire height of the bobbin, and for the improved one are slightly less than for the simple drive. The swing gear variations are linear in all but the upper third of the bobbin, where they change more rapidly, and are about as bad as those for the simple chain drive. The influence of the speed variations on the regu­ larity of the roving is discussed and a curve is given showing the calculated variations produced by the bobbin drive along the roving as unwound from the bobbin. The variations are quasi-periodic, with increasing amplitude and frequency as the barrel of the bobbin is approached. The complexity of the variations in the product resulting from the combination of two rovings in subsequent processing is indicated. In an experiment in which about a dozen packages were picked at random and tested for size variation as a function of height on the bobbin and direction of traverse by weighing individual one-yard lengths, it was found that there was as much variation within bobbins and between bobbins as there was between heights on the bobbin. No perceptible difference was observed between successive layers, that is, between carriage rising and carriage falling. The conclusion may be drawn that the errors in existing bobbin drives may produce variations in roving size, but that these variations are imperceptible among those originating in other causes. C. Rayon Staple: Spinning. F. S. Culpepper. Rayon Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 571-573- Practical hints are given on the processing of rayon staple on the cotton system, including blending, carding, drawing and spinning. C. Semi-combed and Double-carded Yarns: Comparison. Platt Bros. & Co. Ltd. Textile Weekly, 1945, 35, 734- Arguments are given for the superiority of semi-combing (removing a small proportion, say 6 per cent., of short fibre) over double-carding and a table gives the organisation for spinning 50s from a 130Z. scutcher lap. The new model Nasmith comber is recommended for extracting such low percentages of short fibre. C.

(B)— S p i n n i n g a n d D o u b l i n g Saco-Lowell Ring Frame. Saco-Lowell Shops. Textile Manufacturer, 1945, 71, 66-67. An illustrated account is given of (1) a compact frame designed to facilitate cleaning, creeling and piecing, B.P.563,079 and 550,248; (2) a new builder motion, B.P.563,898. C. Cotton Spinning Machinery: Development. G. H. A. Sington. /. T extile In s t., 1945, 36, P13-2.3. C. Mule Spindle Bearing: Lubrication. Textile Weekly, 1945, 35, 77S, 782. As a contribution to the solution of the problem of mule spinner’s cancer, the writer stresses the need for fresh attempts to design a mule spindle bearing with which lubrication is possible without splashing. C. Long-fibred Rayon Staple: Processing on Roving and Spinning Frames. B. M cComb. Rayon Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 574-576, 621-623. ( 0 A dvice is given on the choice between one and two processes of roving, suitable twists, drafting systems, overcoming friction, the use of a sliver condenser, roller setting, care and lubrication of the rollers and saddles, cleanliness and control of static electricity, as factors involved in the processing of long-fibred rayon A 2 4 4 2— Conversion oj Fibres into Finished Yarns staple on roving frames. (2) Hints are given on suitable twists, drafts, spindle speeds, etc., for spinning blends of rayon staples i| to 3 ins. long. C. Worsted Spinning: Ratch and Carrier Settings. S. S m ith . Textile Mfr., 1945, 71, 19-20. Practical considerations are discussed with regard to setting ratches and carriers, with the object of diminishing fibre breakage and obtain­ ing optimum fibre control. Settings depend largely on the proportions of the various lengths of fibres in the top, which can be assessed from the rough triangle formed by a tuft drawn from the top. W. Standardisation in Worsted Spinning. D. Wilson. Text. Rec., 1945, 62, No. 744, 42, 56. Standardisation of worsted yarn qualities, counts, twists and pack­ age sizes would reduce production costs and maintain and possibly increase efficiency. Counts could be standardised with only slight modifications to the set of fabrics; a suitable range would be 2-count intervals up to 1/24S and 4- count intervals above 1 / 24s. There is scope for independent bodies, e.g. research institutions, to fix suitable twist standards, e.g. soft, medium and hard. There is also the need for the standardisation of sizes of packages, especially for weft yarns. W.

(C)— S u b s e q u e n t P r o c e s s e s Cotton Tyre Cord: Stretching, Strength an d Extensibility. H. J. Pllilipp an d C. M. C onrad. J. Applied Physics, 1945, 16, 32-4.0. C otton ty re cords, differing with regard to gauge, construction, and variety of cotton, were sub­ jected to stretching treatments involving various combinations of tension, heat and moisture. All these treatments increased the strength of the cords, but reduced their gauge and elongation at 10 lb. The greatest increase in strength was produced by stretching in a swollen condition in the presence of heat. Increases in count-strength product from 48 to 83 per cent, were observed. Experiments showed a reciprocal relationship between the strength and the elongation at 10 lb. obtainable by single-stretching treatments of tyre cord, which makes impossible the control of elongation, independently of strength. Elongations of the bone-dry cord of about 6 per cent, at 10 lb., which is con­ sidered to be the optimum for such cords, could be obtained only with negligible increase in strength. The original elongation was restored by treating highly stretched tyre cord with water at room temperature for 30 min. or with boiling water for 3 min., whilst most of the increase in strength resulting from stretch­ ing was retained. A tyre cord that had been stretched in the hot and wet state, after treatment with water had equal elongation, but greater strength as compared with the untreated cord. A dual-stretching method was devised which permits the control of elongation at 10 lb. independently of strength. The treatment consists of two phases: the first imparts to the cord the maximum potential breaking strength and the second serves to adjust the elongation at 10 lb. to a pre-determined controlled value, while maintaining over 90 per cent, of the maximum count-strength product. Control of the elongation is achieved by proper selection of tension and degree of swelling during the second phase of the dual-stretching treatment. C.

(D)—Y a r n s a n d C o r d s Novelty Yarns: Construction. Textile Weekly, 1945, 35, 677-8, 680. Illu s­ trations are given of twelve examples of novelty yarns (slub, knop, gimp, boucle) produced by Messrs. R. Greg & Co. Ltd., in which colour effects are obtained by the use of different fibres or dyed yarns; e.g. five " Neochrome ”- dyed viscose yarns which form differently coloured knops in turn. C. Rayon Tyre Fabric: Manufacture. American Viscose Corporation. R a yo n Textile Monthly, 1945, 26, 72-73. A series of clear pictures shows the following stages in the production of rayon tyre fabric from “ Ray flex ” high-tenacity rayon yarn. (1) Stretching on beams and impregnation with a composition that assists subsequent rubbering. (2) Single-end twisting. (3) Four-end spooling. (4) Cable cord tw isting. (5) W inding th e co tto n w eft from cones. (6) W eaving on automatic looms. (7) Splicing surplus cord. C. Wool Hosiery Yarns. W . D avis. Text. Mfr., 1945, 71, 7-8. Worsted and woollen hosiery yarns are described, with particular reference to the raw materials used, methods of manufacture, and suitability for various purposes from the point of view primarily of the machine knitter. W. 3—Conversion of Yarns into Fabrics A245

P a t e n t s Twisting Spindle. Courtaulds Ltd. and G. Curtis. B.P.568,032 of 9/9/1943: 14/3/1945. Apparatus for use in unwinding and simultaneously twisting yam from a yarn package rotating at at least 7,000 revolutions per minute, comprises in combination a rotatable yam package support and a solid, fixed spindle having at its lower end a ball bearing capable of carrying the weight of the yam package support and the yarn package and a ball or roller bearing arranged at its upper end at or near the centre of gravity of the yam package, the natural frequency of vibration of the spindle when loaded with the yam package support being considerably less than 7,000 vibrations per minute. C. Yarns: Twisting and Winding. British Celanese Ltd. B.P.568,139 of 28/6/1943:20/3/1945 (Conv. 1/7/19.42). A yarn package tapered at both ends comprises a number of main layers of yarn each covering substantially the whole length of the package, and a number of subsidiary layers successively displaced along and covering part of the length of the package. Such a package is produced by traversing both the yarn and the package to and fro at different frequencies and over distances the sum of which is substantially equal to the length of the package. Preferably the yam is traversed rapidly, and over a distance greater than half the total length of the package so that the length of each subsidiary layer exceeds half the length of the package, whilst the package is traversed slowly, and over a distance equal to the remaining part of the length of the package. Preferably the ratio of the fre­ quencies is not an exact whole number. The winding is carried out on a twisting and winding machine comprising a spindle for carrying the yarn package, means for guiding the yarn to the spindle and means for traversing both the spindle and the guiding means to and fro in the direction of the length of the spindle with different frequencies and over distances whose sum is sub­ stantially equal to the total length of the package to be wound. A ring spin­ ning machine in which the yarn guiding means are in the form of a ring and traveller mounted on a ring rail is the most satisfactory form of machine. The invention is particularly advantageous in the production of large packages of yarn, e.g. of the order of 700-1400 g. weight or more. It is particularly suitable for use in the production of artificial yams, as a means for collecting the yam continuously with its production. The packages may be used without further processing in knitting and weaving operations. C. Thread Tension Measuring Device. A.-G. Brown, Boveri & Cie (Baden, Switzerland). B.P.568,231 of 2.8/11 / 1942 : 26/3/ 1945 (Conv. 15/12/1941). In a device for measuring thread tension on spinning, doubling and similar machines, the tension is transmitted by a pulley over which the thread passes to a spring balance in such a manner that a pointer moving on a scale and actuated by the spring balance continuously indicates the actual value of the prevailing tension of the thread. C. 3—CONVERSION OF YARNS INTO FABRICS

(A)—P r e p a r a t o r y P r o c e s s e s Barber-Colman Automatic Spooler. Textile Mercury and Argus, 1945, 112, 447-8,-452, 457; Textile Weekly, 1945, 35, 876, 878, 880. An illustrated descrip­ tion is given of the Barber-Colman automatic spooler, the importance of which is stressed in the “ Platt ” report. C.

(B)— S i z i n g Spun Viscose Warp Yarns: Effect of Stretching in Sizing. W. E. Shinn and P. l'.'Biggers. Textile Research J., 1945, 15, 15-19. Sizing tests were performed in which the tensions were progressively increased to give a range of stretch varying from approximately 1 to nearly 15 per cent. Other factors, such as size mixture, tape frame speed, drying temperature, etc., were kept constant. It was found that a warp can be made from 30s yarn spun from ij-inch, ij-denier viscose staple and the yarn subjected to a stretch of nearly 14 per cent, between the squeeze rollers and the first drying cylinder before end breakage occurs at this point. This figure approximates to the total dry extensibility of the unsized yam. At 15 per cent, serious end breakage occurs on the first cylinder, because of the tendency of the warp to contract in drying. The tensile strength of the sized yarn was in no case less than that of the unsized yarn and increased with stretch up to 12 per cent. The lowest average A246 3—Conversion of Yarns into Fabrics

single-thread breaking load of 8-51 oz. per thread was recorded for yarn stretched 1 per cent. The highest breaking load of approximately 10 oz. per thread was recorded for yarns stretched 12 per cent. Residual elongation at the breaking point showed a marked decrease as the stretch was raised. For each increase of 1 per cent, in stretch there was a reduction of approximately 0-5 per cent, in residual elongation. In weaving, the highest end breakage per 100 picks occurred with warp subjected to the highest stretch and resulted from cut-outs at the healds, caused by the passage of knots. Fabrics made from warps stretched 12 per cent, dyed as well as fabrics made from warps stretched only 1 -75 per cent, and did not exhibit “ shiners.” C. Electronic Control Instruments: Application. H. Mildendorp. R a yo n T e x ­ tile Monthly, 1945, 26, 89-90.' A brief review is given of the use of the Brown “ Moist-O-Graph ” control on the tape frame and of other automatic controls, chiefly of the electronic type, in bleaching, mercerising, dyeing, drying, and steam raising. C. Sizes without Food Value: Composition. G. R. Kaulen. Tekstil. Prom., 1944, 4, No. 7, 15-18 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 8177). Sizes were developed from mixtures of “ beneficiated ” clay (I), sodium silicate, 400 Be solution (II), alginate (III), tragacanth (IV), glue (V), and oleic or rosin soap (50 per cent.) (VI). The mixtures that were found to be satisfactory were: (a) I 100, II 5, IV 30, V 3, VI 10 kg. per 1000 1. of water; (b) I 100, I I 5, V 30, V I 5; (c) I 120, I I 5, V 5, V I 30; (d ) I 120, II 2, III 6, VI 5. Clay was “ beneficiated ” by dispersion in 2 parts of water with 0-2-0’3 per cent, of 400 Be sodium silicate and an equal quantity of 40° Be sodium hydroxide. If not all these ingredients are available, beneficiated clay can .still be used to effect a saving of part of the starch usually employed in sizes. C.

(C)— W e a v i n g Shuttle: Control of Traverse. A. Sumner. Textile Manufacturer, 1945, 71, 54, 60. Practical hints are given on the setting of the loom mechanism to secure good traverse of the shuttle, and the cost of smashes is worked out as evidence of the economy value of good traverse. C. Weaving Shed: Re-starting. I. L a ird . Textile Manufacturer, 1945, 71, 55-57. Practical advice is given on the overhaul of belting and looms, the issue of weft, the starting of the warp-entering room, and the attraction and training of labour. C. Overpick Loom: Mechanics. J. H. Strong. Textile Mercury & Argus, 1945, 112, 423-428. The mechanics of the loom over-pick are discussed under the headings (1) the power consumed in picking, (2) even and regular picking when the speed of the loom is altered, (3) securing control over the shuttle all the time it is in alteration, and (4) synchronizing the motion of picking with the other motions of the loom. It is claimed that none of the available motions is perfect in all these respects. C. (D)— K n i t t i n g . Model 80-W Shog Machine. J. W. Hughes. Cotton (U.S.), 1944, 108, No. 12, 145-148. An illustrated description is given of the 80-wrap shog machine (Standard-Trump Bros, and Scott & Williams Inc.) for producing half-hose with as many as 80 different colours. Wrapping or wrap striping is described as a means of feeding an ingrain-dyed yarn to one or more needles along with the regular knitting yarn, casting off then being accomplished so that the wrap yarn covers the regular yarn of the wale. Shogging is a means of stag­ gering the wraps at succeeding courses; shogging backward and forward involves offsetting the wrap stripe at various stages of the knitting in the opposite direction to the cylinder rotation and in the same direction, respectively. C. and Velon Hosiery: Development. C. W. Bendigo. Textile World, 1944, 94, N o. 10, 90-91, an d Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1945, 34, 34-37. Velon yarn is being developed for hosiery purposes, although it cannot be dyed by known methods; 100-den., 8-10 fil. yarn has been knitted successfully on full-fashioned machines, as fine as 51 gauge. Nylon hosiery is expected to start with 30- or 40-den. yarn for the legs and 70-den. yarn for the welts. Various practices in the dressing of the yarn for knitting are mentioned. The synthetic yarns display an objectionable sheen in warp-knitted fabrics and the production of 3— Conversion of Yarns into Fabrics (Patents) A 247 twist (thrown) yarns is awaited to overcome the difficulty. Nylon staple is giving attractive results in fully-fashioned sports hose and very soft, fluffy sweaters. The tow-to-top method of manufacturing the fibre and the spun- silk system for twisting it solve the problem of producing the necessary low- twisted but strong yarn. C.

(G)—F a b r i c s “ Lumite ” Polyvinyl Derivative Insect Screen: Production and Application. H. H. Purvis. Cotton (U.S.), 1944, 108, No. 12, 916-98. A broad, illustrated account is given of the weaving of “ Lumite ” insect screen cloth from " Saran ” polyvinyl mono-filaments and of its uses in jungle warfare. The material has specific gravity 1 -68-i -70, softening point 240-280° F., and absorbs less than o-1 per of water on immersion for 24 hours. It is six times as strong as conventional screen cloth and is non-inflammable and resistant to chemicals and light. C. Manufactured Fibres: Uses in Military and Post-war Fabrics. H. W. Rose. Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1945, 34, 26-29. Developments in the use of manufactured fibres for war purposes are reviewed and the probable continuation of some of these applications and the development of other uses after the war are dis­ cussed. Military applications quoted include the use of nylon and cellulosic for various types of parachutes, tyres, tow ropes, sewing thread, electric wire insulation, raft sails, etc., nylon for shoelaces, tents, hammocks, mos­ quito netting, glass fibre for insulation and for fireproof curtains, Vinyon and Saran for insect screens, and cellulosic rayon and Aralac in uniform materials. C. Cheney Brothers Mills, Manchester, Connecticut: Development. R a yo n Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 611-618. An illustrated account is given of the his­ tory of this fine-goods concern and of plans for new equipment to celebrate its centenary. Products made during the war include nylon parachute cloth, silk cartridge bag cloth, aerial delivery cloth, tow target cloth, wire bearing acetate rayon cloth, nylon mosquito netting, nylon tent and screening fabrics, alpaca and wool fabrics, silk insulating yarns, nylon cloth to be coated for insulation, nylon sewing thread and nylon bjraided cord for parachute shroud lines. The normal production includes , upholstery fabrics and “ ribbonzene ” non-woven ribbons. One illustration shows parachute testing from a revolving arm supported on a tower. C. Momie Cloth: Construction. P. G. Alexander. Rayon Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 562. An analysis is given of the alternative drafts for the popular 66-ends 40-picks momie cloth and the pegging plan is shown. C. Spun Rayon Fabrics: Construction. Irving Teplitz. Rayon Textile Monthly, ' 944. 25, 553-554. 623. (1) Brief particulars are given of the following popular spun rayon fabrics: tropical “ worsted,” , , , , “ wool” crepe, doeskin, fuiji, luana, butcher linen. The “ Tebilized ” finish is recommended for several of them. (2) Post-war developments are fore­ shadowed. C. P a t e n t s Cruciform Yarn Package. Donisthorpe & Co. Ltd. and Shirley R. Ellis. B.P.567,737 of 30/9/1943:28/2/1945. A yarn package, particularly a pack­ age of mending wool or other yarn in comparatively short lengths, consists of a card having four spaced recesses in its periphery, and a “ cord ” of yarn bent on itself to provide a bight at one face of the card from which the legs of the “ cord ” extend to the other face through two of the recesses and back to the first face through the other two recesses, said legs being passed through the bight at the first face. Preferably the card is symmetrical and cruciform in shape. c. Smallware Loom. T. B. Wilkinson and J. Webster. B.P.567,836 of 30/10/1942:6/3/ 1945. In a smallware loom of the kind in which a coloured thread is picked up by the weft thread coming from the shuttle and is drawn through the shed and tied in by the weft thread, the selection of the coloured threads and their movement to cause them to be selectively entrained by the weft thread are effected by auxiliary jacquard or equivalent mechanism independent of the normal shed-forming mechanism. C. A248 3— Conversion of Yarns into Fabrics (Patents)

Warp Let-off Device. Sulzer Freres Soc. Anon. (W interthur, Switzerland). B.P.567,851 of 11/6/1943:6/3/1945 (Conv. 11/7/1942). In a warp let-off device of the type in which the forward movement of the warp is effected by the loom through a coupling, especially a friction coupling, and the tension of the warp is kept uniform, there is provided, in addition to the relative move­ ment in the axial direction of the two coupling members which is determined by the position of the tensioning device, an axial movement which is caused by a device actuated by the driving mechanism of the loom. This axial movement which is produced by a cam driven by the loom may act on that coupling member which is moved in accordance with the position of the tensioning device, or alternatively may act on the other coupling member. The engaging force acting on the coupling and due to the tensioning device can be put out of operation during the time when the tensioning device is applying tension to the warp for the next beating-up. The tensioning device during the time when the engaging force acts on it can be held stationary by a clamping device. C. Straight-bar . William Cotton Ltd., W. G. Macdonald and W. A. Cooper. B.P.567,994 of 9/7/1943:28/3/1945. In a Cotton’s Patent or other straight-bar knitting machine of the type equipped with automatic welt- turning apparatus, including a welt bar movable away from the needles during the production of at least a part of the welt fabric and towards the needles to restore the welt to them, and with biassed draw-off apparatus for connection to a welt rod, there is provided mechanism for relaxing the pull of the apparatus during the advance of the welt bar. In a machine wherein the draw-off apparatus comprises a shaft or other rotary member biassed to rotate in a draw-off direction there may be a coupling which idles during the draw-off rotation and mechanism for operating the coupling to rotate the member in the reverse direction at the required time. This coupling may comprise a ratchet wheel for transmitting the reverse rotation to the shaft or other rotary member, a pawl carrier rotatable about the axis of the ratchet wheel, a pawl on the carrier, a device for holding the pawl out of engagement with the ratchet wheel, and means for moving it into engagement upon rotation of the carrier. C. Circular Knitting Machine Wrap-thread Feed Mechanism. Bentley Engineer­ ing Co. Ltd. and F. E. Deans. B.P.568,130 of 27/4/1943:20/3/ 1945. A cir­ cular knitting machine is provided with thread guiding mechanism comprising in combination a number of thread guides mounted in a carrier and angularly displaced around the axis of the needle cylinder, a swinging link for each thread guide pivotally mounted in the carrier, a pivotal connection between each thread guide and its link, the pivotal axes of the thread guide and link being both parallel with the axis of the needle cylinder, and cam mechanism co-operating with each thread guide and link first to move the thread guide radially into its feeding position and then to swing it to cause the thread guiding portion of the thread guide to move across a preselected number of needles and finally with its link to return to the initial position. Conveniently, each thread guide is mounted at the free end of a swinging link, the opposite end of which is pivotally mounted in the carrier. C. Loom Treadle Motion. H., R., H. and O. Staubli (trading as Gebr. Staubli & Co., Horgen, Switzerland). B.P.568,193 of 29/6/19143:22/3/1945 (Conv. 29/6 / 1942). A treadle motion for looms with one eccentric per heald shaft is characterised by the feature that each of the eccentrics is provided with a boss spur-toothed on both sides, and that the eccentrics with one another by means of these spur teeth upon a common shaft with any angular displacement selected at will, the totality of the eccentrics being undisplaceably held, both axially and angularly between two positioning rings adjustably mounted fast upon the common shaft and engaging in the outermost eccentrics by means of similar spur teeth. The number of teeth on the bosses is the lowest common multiple of the number of heald shafts required for the different weaves that it is desired to produce. C. Knitted Garment Self-sustaining Border. R. Haddan (Scott & Williams Inc., U.S.A.). B.P.568,233 of 25/3/1943:26/3/1945. A self-sustaining border for a knitted garment comprises not more than two courses having all the stitches drawn to one side interknit in repeated recurrence with an equal or greater number of rib courses, whereby the courses having the greater number of plain 4— Chemical and Finishing Processes a 2 49 stitches form rows of spaced protuberances on the back of the fabric. Pre­ ferably a rubber yarn is enclosed in certain courses, i.e. embedded in the fabric without coming in contact with the skin of the wearer. With stocking tops of this construction markings produced on the leg are not deep continuous grooves, but series of spaced horizontal rows of points or other indentations not deep enough to interfere with the circulation. C. •

4—CHEMICAL AND FINISHING PROCESSES (A)—P r e p a r a t o r y P r o c e s s e s . Foaming, Wetting, Washing and Dispersing Agents: Constitution. J. H etzer. Textilberichte, 1943, 24, 177-183 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. A b str., 1945, B II, 1). The constitution and properties (wetting powers, deter­ gent action, etc.) of well-known textile auxiliaries (e.g. Igepons, Sapamine, Melioran F6, Ultravon, Lamepon A, Medialan A, Nekals, Tetracarnit, Leo- phene, Igepals, and Peregal) and of numerous other synthetic compounds are discussed, emphasis being laid on the importance of the balance between hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups in their molecules. C. Wetting Agents: Efficiency. E. D. Daruwala, B. 0 . Tilak and K. Ven- kataraman. J. Indian Chem. Soc., Ind. Ed., 1944, 7, 24-28 (through B rit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, B II, 18). Sodium lauryl-2-sulpho-p-toluidide was superior in wetting and dispersive power to 5 out of 6 commercial textile auxiliaries. C. C-Alkylaniline Derivative Wetting Agents: Properties. B. D. T ila k an d K. Venkataraman. J. Sci. Ind. Res. (India), 1945, 3, 290-298. A report is given of the preparation of various derivatives of C-alkylanilines and of determina­ tions of the stability, wetting power (Herbig number and time of sinking), calcium soap dispersing power, and Congo rubine number of the products. Wetting agents prepared by condensing myristic, palmitic and stearic acids and the mixed fatty acids from coconut, cottonseed, groundnut and mowhra oils with £-toluidine-2-sulphonic acid were less efficient than lauryl-/>-toluidide-2- sodium sulphonate, although the myristic and coconut oil fatty acid com­ pounds exhibited good all-round properties. The mowhra oil fatty acid com­ pound showed remarkable resistance to hard water and excellent protective colloidal action. Lauryl-o-toluidide^-sodium sulphonate had better properties in general than the ^-toluidide-2-sodium sulphonate. The shifting of the C-alkyl group from the p- to the o-position to the amino group in the oleyl derivatives diminished the protective colloidal action. The influence of the introduction of C-alkyl groups in the aromatic ring in lauryl and oleyl deriva­ tives of sulphanilic acid was studied by comparing these compounds with lauryl and oleyl o-toluidide-5-sodium sulphonate. In both cases the introduc­ tion of a C-methyl increased the wetting powen but decreased the resistance to hard water and protective colloidal action. The effects of dialkylation and further alkylation of a number of derivatives were studied. In general the lauric acid compounds were better wetting agents, as tested by both Herbig number and flotation tests, than the corresponding oleic acid derivatives, and were also more efficient with regard to calcium soap dispersing power and pro­ tective colloidal action. The products obtained by condensing o-toluidine-4- and 5-sulphonie acids, and m-4-xylidine-6- and 5-sulphonic acids with the acid chloride of the mixed fatty acids of coconut oil were less effective than the corresponding lauric acid condensates. C. Wetting Agents: Wetting Power. S. A. Melikhov and M. A. Tutunov. Legkaya Prom., 1944, 4, N o. 3, 23-26 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 6245). W ettin g agents exam ined w ere (1) K o n ta k t, (2) N ekal B N , (3) Sulfoam ide (a sulphonated amide of ricinoleic acid), (4) alizarin oil, (5) alizarin-kerosene emulsion, (6) Kontakt-kerosene emulsion, and (7) alizarin-Kontakt-kerosene emulsion. Wetting power was determined by (a) measuring the height of rise in a cotton fabric of a coloured aqueous solution to which was added 0-5, 1 • o and 2-o g./I. of wetting agent, (b) the time in minutes for a cotton fabric 3x3 cm. to submerge in 1, 5 and 10 g./I. solutions of the wetting agent at 20 and 50°, (c) the gain in weight of a 100-m. strip of a raw cotton fabric sub­ merged for 1 min. in an aqueous 0-5, i-o and 2 g./l. solution of the wetting agent at 20 and 50°, and allowed to drain for 3 min. The wetting powers of the substances tested are in decreasing order: (3), (2), (1), (5), (7), (4) and (6). A250 4— Chemical and Finishing Processes

The simplest, most rapid and most reliable method for determining the wetting power is the submersion method, and next the method of increase in weight. Most effective wetting agents for kieied and bleached cotton fabrics were (3), (2) and (1) in this order. The effects of these wetting agents on the depth, tone, purity and evenness of colour were tested with 16 direct, 2 acid, 2 sulphur and 2 vat dyes. With direct dyes the effectiveness of the wetting agents in decreas­ ing order is (3), (1), (2), (5), (4). For sulphur and acid dyes (3) gave best results. With vat dyes (3) gives no improvement. C.

(B)— B o i l i n g , S c o u r i n g , D e g u m m i n g a n d W a s h i n g Sized Textile Materials: Enzyme Desizing. H. Rath (with D. Keppler and I. Roesling). Textilberichte, 1944, 25, 18-21, 58-64 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, B II, 20). The chemistry and mechanism of the subject are discussed, with special reference to the relative merits of pancreatic, bac­ terial and malt amylase preparations. All three are without effect on the degree of polymerisation of the cellulose, and they all result first in rapid decreases in the viscosity of starch paste. The rate of disappearance of the iodine-starch colour decreases in the above order, and is a rough measure of the rate of dextrinisation, but the rate of viscosity fall with malt amylase is less than with the others. Commercial preparations, however, are not pure, and the above effects may therefore be masked, e.g. by inhibition of activity due to adsorption of substrate, or to the presence of certain metal ions (e.g. Cu, Zn, Hg, Co, Ni), or of residues on the fabric from washing, wetting, and bleaching agents. Methods of control and analysis are described. C.

(G)— B l e a c h i n g Chloraminę: Action on Cellulose Fibres. R. Haller. Textilberichte, 1944, 25, 54-58 (through (Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, BII, 11). Cottonseed contains in unidentified substance which produces hydrochloric acid with chloraminę and is absent from the native fibre. The degree of attack of a fibre by treatment with chloraminę increases with the protein content. In the presence of proteins hypochlorite bleaching agents can form chloraminę which has a tendering effect, but fibres (e.g., cotton, flax and ) which in practice undergo first an alkaline kier boil and then a treatment with a hypochlorite do not lose strength appreciably by reason of the formation of chloraminę. Such loss of strength, where it occurs, is associated with the formation of oxycel- lulose. The effects of gaseous and aqueous chloraminę are compared. C. Sodium Hypochlorite Solutions: Stability and Use in the Chlorination of Water. P. Landolt. Monatsbull. schweiz. Ver. Gas-u. Wasserfachm., 1943, 23, 52; J. Amer. Water Works Assoc., 1943, 35, 1503 (through Water Pollution Res. Summ. Current Lit., 1944, 17, 69). Chlorination of water at small and medium water works can be successfully carried out with sodium hypochlorite solution, prepared by passing chlorine gas into a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide; the resulting solution has high disinfecting power and is almost odourless. Its use has been restricted because of lack of suitable apparatus for its application and because the solution is unstable. Experiments were made to determine the effect of storage on solutions of sodium hypochlorite of varied strengths. All the solutions contained more than 10 g. of excess uncombined sodium hydroxide per litre. The solutions were stored in green bottles in the dark. Solutions containing 44 g. of chlorine per 1. with 4 per cent, available chlorine were stored at 90 C.; the solutions showed no loss of chlorine after 3 months, but after 6 months 1 g. of chlorine per 1. was lost. Solutions stored at a temperature of 190 C. lost 1 g. of chlorine per 1. in the first month, none in the second month, and 1 g. per 1. in each succeeding month. When stored at higher temperatures the losses were greater, especially from more concen­ trated solutions. Exposure to direct sunlight increased the instability of the solutions. C.

(I)—D y e i n g Algol Furoyl-derivative Dyes: Production. A. Mangini and B. Weger. B oll, sci. facoilta chim. ind. Bologna, 1942, 3, 223-231, 232-242 (through C hem . A b str., 1945, 39, 4177). (1) The authors demonstrate the potential usefulness of furfuraldehydes in dye chemistry by producing algol dyes from furoyl deriva­ tives of 1-amino-, 1:5- and 1 :8-diamino-, and i-amino-2-bromoanthraquinone. Furoyl and benzoyl derivatives behave similarly in dyeing in sulphuric acid. The absorptions are almost identical. Both behave the same toward alkaline 4— Chemical and Finishing Processes A251 reducing agents. Details of various derivatives and their spectroscopic behaviour are given. (2) The authors show the similarity of benzoyl and furoyl derivatives of i-amino-2-bromo-4-arylaminoantbraquinones in spectroscopic and dye properties. The furoyl derivatives are less soluble than the benzoyl derivatives. C. Azoic Dyes: Development. S. Y ates. Industrial Chemist, 1944, 20, 489-497, 605-615, 667-669. The history of azoic dyes is reviewed and tables are given of representative products in which the columns are headed (1) Commercial nam e, (2) Source an d reference to published lite ra tu re , (3) C hem ical nam e, (4) Constitutional formula, and (5) Notes (uses, etc.). Table I covers the “ napthols ” and II the “ bases.” C. Naphthol Dyes: Application. A. E. Hirst. Cotton (U.S.), 1944, 108, N o. 12, 85-87; 1945, 109, No. 2, 108-111; No. 3, 107-110, 112. A broad review is given of the history of the naphthol colours and of modern methods of applying them in dyeing and printing. Many recipes are provided. C. Manufactured Fibres: Dyeing. A. W. Etchells. Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1945, 34, 29-34. A survey of problems encountered in the dyeing of cellulose acetate rayon, nylon, Vinyon, Vinyon E, Aralac, Fortisan and Fibre B, and Viscose Rayon Fibre G. C. Viscose-Acetate Rayon Mixture Fabrics: Single-bath Dyeing. E. Herrmann. Textilberichte, 1943, 24, 361-362 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, BII, 19). Methods are described in which Celliton, Cellitonecht, and Cellitozol dyes (I.G.) are used for the acetate rayon and substantive azo dyes and dyes which require after-treatment for the viscose rayon. C. Brenthols: Determination. C. H. Giles. /. Soc. Dyers &• Col., 1945, 61, 47-49. A method for determining members of the Brenthol series (arylamides of 2-hydroxy-3-naphthoic acid and related compounds) in solution is described which is based on measurements of ultra-violet absorption by means of the Spekker absorptiometer. Results of determinations of Brenthols in stock solu­ tions and in dyebath exhaust liquors by this method are presented. This method is simpler and gives more accurate results than the method previously described in which azo solutions and visible light were employed. Deter^ minations of the substantivity of Brenthol AT for cotton, linen and viscose rayon by the application of the new method are reported. C. Vat Dyes: Application. R. S. Stribling. Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1945, 34, 99-104. The chemistry of the vat dyeing process is briefly discussed and an account is given of the development and advantages of a continuous process involving (1) deposition of the vat dye on the fabric by the pigment padding procedure, (2) drying the padded fabric, (3) re-padding with a solution containing sodium hydrosulphite, caustic soda and common salt or sodium formaldehyde sulphoxylate, (4) steaming the fabric for less than one minute at 212° F., and (5) oxidation by any of the conventional processes. A process in which the goods are padded with reduced dye and developed in a boiling soda ash booster, and a reduced pad-rope development process are also described. Recent developments in the vat dyeing of yarn in package form are discussed. C. Aralac and Soybean Fibre: Affinity for Acid Dyes. A. N. Patterson. R a yo n Textile Monthly, 1945, 26, 29-30. A comparison has been made of the affinities of wool (Australian 64s), Aralac and soybean fibre for Alizarin blue. The dye­ bath (dye 2 per cent, on the weight of the fibre, Glauber salt 10 per cent., acetic acid 56 per cent.) was heated to 1 io° F., the fibre was entered, and the bath was gradually raised to the boil. Absorption of dye was measured colorimetrically at 15 minute intervals up to 1 hour or 75 minutes and the p H of the bath was also checked. A table gives the data for the pure fibres and for 1 : 1-mixtures of wool and the manufactured fibres. Although differing from wool, both manufactured products gave satisfactory dyeings. The p H readings of Aralac and soybean fibre in warm water are given as 6-5 and 4-0, respectively. C. “ Fiberglas ” Fabric: Dyeing and Printing. W. H. Page. Rayon Textile M o n th ly, 1944, 25, 565. Brief reference is made to recent progress in the dyeing and printing of spun glass fabrics by means of pigment emulsions of the water-in-oil type. Dark shades still present some difficulty. C. A252 4— Chemical and Finishing Processes

Rayolanda Fabrics: Processing. Courtaulds Ltd. Textile Weekly, 1945, 35> 2I(4 -222, 266-270, 316-322, 500-510, 690-2, 882-886. “ Rayolanda ” is a chemically modified cellulosic fibre with affinity for wool dyes and recommended for use in admixture with wool or “ Fibro ” viscose rayon staple. Detailed advice is given on the spinning of the fibre on cotton, woollen, worsted and flax machinery, on weaving, and on the preparation, bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing of “ Rayolanda.” C. Dyed Cellulose Acetate Rayon: Gas Fading. M. B aron. T ein tex, 1943, 8, 264-271 (through Chem. Zentr., 1943, ii, 2265 and Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 816s). The combustion gases of a Bunsen burner were collected in a bell jar, cooled to 20°, and the rayon specimens were exposed to these gases. The gas contained about 10 g. of sulphur in 100 cu. m., mostly as carbon disulphide, and approximately 3 g. of nitrogen oxide in 10 1. The dyes tested belonged to the anthraquinone and the azo group series. The action of the combustion gases largely agrees with the reaction of a solution of nitrous acid. Nitrogen- bearing products, such as />-nitraniline , combine with the combustion gases with the formation of diazo compounds. Many dyes fade badly under the influence of combustion gases and light. Dihydroxyethylaminoanthra- quinone changes from bright red to blue. Dyes on nylon do not fade. C. Blacks for Wool Dyeing. D yer, 1945, 93, 149-151, 185-188. The main problem in dyeing wool black is the choice of dye rather than its application, many factors requiring consideration, including the stage of manufacture at which the wool is to be dyed. Black dyes for wool are classified, but not rigidly, as acid, chrome and combination blacks, with their various sub-groups, examples being given of representative types. Details are given of their methods of application, and of their suitability for dyeing wool at all stages of manufacture, union fabrics containing wool, and wool hats, and also for reserving effect threads. Their fastness properties to manufacturing processes, as well as to light, rubbing and perspiration, vary greatly and are discussed in detail. W.

(J)— P r i n t i n g Calico Printing in India: Developments. N. K. Patel. Indian Textile ]., 1945, 55, 242-245. A broad review is given of popular styles of calico printing now carried out in India. C. Rayolanda Fabrics: Printing. R. A. McFarlane. Textile Manufacturer, 1945, 71, 74-77, 79. Directions are given for the preparation for printing and the printing and finishing of Rayolanda fabrics in discharge, resist and print-on styles. Suitable dyes are listed and recipes are provided. C. Acid Dyes: Printing on Cellulosic Material. W. Meitner. /. Soc. D yers 6- Col., 1945, 61, 33-36. Some 12 acid dyes produced by Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. can be printed on viscose rayon by the use of pastes containing urea. The urea seems to have a solubilising or dispersing effect on the dye. Under fairly wet steaming conditions it is possible to omit the urea from the printing paste. Consideration of the particle sizes of the dyes determined from diffusion meaurements leads to the conclusion that only acid dyes with a particle size above a certain minimum can be successfully printed on cellulosic material. It seems probable that fixation takes place through the formation of dye aggregates within the fibres. The necessary conditions for the fixation of an acid dye on viscose rayon are—(1) The dye must exist under steaming conditions as particles of different sizes, i.e. the dye must be polydispersed. (2) The pore size of the fibre must fall within the limits of the different sizes of the dye particles. Dyes with larger particles are required for cupram- monium rayon than for viscose rayon and it seems reasonable to conclude that cuprammonium rayon has bigger pores than viscose rayon. By adding tannic acid to the print paste, the range of dyes suitable for the printing of cuprammonium rayon can be extended. C. Block Prints: Production. E. S. Beton. /. Soc. Dyers &• Col., 1945, 61, 29-31. The old print-on, wax resist, and madder-dyed styles are discussed, and the methods of producing specific examples of these are outlined. Changes resulting from the discovery of mauve, the discovery and development of dis­ chargeable direct dyes and the tin discharge style, and the development of the sulphoxylate-formaldehyde discharge style are reviewed. Examples are discussed and compared with modem block prints, including prints on rayon. C. 4—Chemical and Finishing Processes A253

Calico Printing Styles: Evolution. J. S. Heaton. /. Soc. Dyers &• Col., 1945, 61, 31-33. The author gives an account of the development of styles in calico printing from early times up to the present day. C. Dyeing and Printing Methods: Comparison. J. W. Reidy. J. Soc. Dyers &■ Col., 1945, 61, 37-38. Dyeing and printing methods for the application of basic, mordant, acid, direct, sulphur, vat and azoic dyes and pigments are compared, and the dyeing and printing of cellulose acetate rayon and nylon are briefly considered. C.

(K)—F i n i s h i n g . Acid Finishes on Cotton. Textile Recorder, 1945, 62, March, 45-46; April, 46, 65. A historical review of the development of acid finishes from the time of Mercer, with special reference to the Heberlein processes, and recent processes of the Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. in which the effects of sulphuric and other mineral acids are restrained by means of formalin. C. Cotton Cloth: Trimming, Cropping and Shearing. H. Marsden. T extile Manufacturer, 1945, 71, 119-121. An illustrated account is given of modern machines for the continuous trimming of selvedges, cropping of box-loom floats, loop cutting and similar final operations of the cloth store. C. Raised Knitted Rayon Fabrics: Microscopical Examination. R . Lasse. Textilberichte, 1944, 25, 97-102, 133-137 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, BII, 13). The suitability of various circular- and warp-knitted rayon fabrics for raising is discussed and photomicrographs of these fabrics before and after raising are reproduced in the original. C. Raising Machine. Tomlinsons (Rochdale) Ltd. Textile Manufacturer, 19145, 71, 68-69. A brief account is given of a new model of Tomlinsons’ 18-roller raising machine in which the card rollers are positively driven by Brammer link V- belts from a countershaft on the variable side of a positively infinitely variable gear that is under finger-tip control through a hand wheel. The usual cloth speed is 29 yards per minute. C. Resin Finishes: Recent Developments. D. H. Powers. Amer. Dyes Rept., 1945, 34, 77-79. Developments in the application of synthetic resins to textile materials during the past two years are reviewed. In the field of surface coat­ ings work has centered on the development of replacements for rubber. Poly­ vinyl butyrals and resins of the polyvinyl chloride type have been used for raincoats and similar materials whilst butyl rubber has proved suitable for duplex or two-ply fabrics. For the production of fireproof, waterproof, mildewproof duck for army tents, a combination of highly chlorinated paraffin and antimony oxide has been used as the fireproofer and copper naphthenate as mildew preventive, with resins such as polyvinyl chloride, ethylcellulose, modified alkyds, modified phenolics, and solvent soluble methylol ureas or melamines as binders. Melamine resins have beeii applied to the shrink-proof­ ing of wool and to the production of stabilized and shrink-resistant rayons and cottons which are also resistant to damage by chlorine. The melamine type resins -have also been used for the production of durable permanent finishes on nylon nettings. Water dispersions of a wide range of resin types have been developed which show promise for coatings, for increasing the strength, durability and resistance to shrinkage of fabrics, and for waterproofing. Dis­ persions of vinyl resin polymers in organic non-solvents show promise for various applications. A polymer of colloidal silica (Syton), which is described as an anti-lubricant, modifies the handle and strength of rayon. Experiments have been made with resin bonded roving and sliver. C. Synthetic Resins: Application in Finishing. G. Landells and C. D. Weston. Textile Recorder, 1945, 62, March, 47-48, 57. A broad review is given of the use of polymers and co- polymers of the polythene, polyvinyl, acrylate, metha­ crylate and nylon types in finishing. C. Hosiery: Finishing. E. J. Siegrist. Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1945, 34, 88-91. Delustring, filling and stiffening agents, softeners, splash-proofing compounds, and rubber and resin finishes for hosiery are reviewed. The advantages of a laboratory for testing finished products and evaluating finishing materials are indicated, and methods of testing for abrasion resistance, distensibility, recover­ ability and stretch endurability, and snag resistance are outlined. The advantages of applying finishes before or during the dyeing operation are A254 4— Chemical and Finishing Processes pointed out, and it is stated that a few finishes have been successfully applied before dyeing and that some work has been done on finishes for use in the dye bath. ' C. Permanent Cellulose Finishes: Application. D. M. Martin. Rayon Textile M o n th ly, 1945, 26, 25-28. A broad review is given of “ permanent finishes ” including acid and alkaline mercerisation (Heberlein processes), the use of cuprammonium solutions of cellulose (e.g. the Willesden process), but prin­ cipally the use of " catalytic activated caustic solutions ” of cellulose in caustic soda. C. Urea- and Melamine-Formaldehyde Condensates and Resins: Structure. William Feast. British Plastics, 1945, 17, 36-44, 66-73. A useful review is given of the literature on the structure of (1) primary and (2) secondary urea- formaldehyde condensates, (3) urea-formaldehyde resins, (4) melamine-form- aldehyde condensates and resins, including “ melam,” “ melem ” and “ mellon,” and (5) alkylated resins. C. Some Factors Contributing to the Felting of Wool. M. Harris. Amer. Dyes. R e p ., 1945, 34, P72-6. The tendency of hair fibres to curl under felting con­ ditions is shown by the examination of small felt-like balls of hair which formed in the coat of a cocker spaniel, and also by Berg’s studies of the felting proper­ ties of rabbit hair (these A b s., 1937, A 703). In warm aqueous solutions the wool cortex tends to contract, but not the cuticle, owing to its different struc­ ture; a curling or bending of the fibre results. This is confirmed by an experiment on the behaviour, on the release of tension, of stretched rubber bands coated with various solutions of cellulose acetate in acetone. Assuming that wool behaves similarly, the curling tendency will depend on a certain ‘ balance of power ’ between the cortex and the cuticle, the balance being strongly in favour of the cuticle. The relation of the curling tendency to carrotting and to shrink-resistant treatments is discussed. The curling is not the sole cause of felting, but has not so far received sufficient emphasis. W. Shrink-resistant Treatments for U.S. Army Socks, etc. H. F. Clapham. Amer. Dyes. ., 1945, 34, P68-72. Wool socks (cushion sole) made shrink- resistant by the chlorination and Freney-Lipson alcoholic potash methods had a 60 per cent, longer wearing life in field tests than untreated controls. A chlori­ nation process was adopted for immediate use, and investigations were made on other treatments. Halogenation yielded excellent shrinkage control, and, if not excessive, modified the wool without decreasing the wear. A simple chlori­ nation process giving excellent results on wool socks (cushion sole) consists of wetting the socks out thoroughly with a chlorine-resistant wetting agent, and then adding, over approx. 10 min., 4 per cent, calcium hypochlorite (70 per cent.), based on the weight of the socks, and previously dissolved in water, and running for a further 20 min.;' 1 per cent, sodium bisulphite is then added as an antichlor and run for 5 min., after which the socks are well rinsed and dyed in the usual manner. With the exception of the final rinses, the entire process is carried out cold (about 750 F.).; the p H of the treating bath should be between 9 and 7 -5; a small amount of tetra sodium pyrophosphate added to the last rinse water may facilitate dyeing. Melamine resin treatments were successful for wool sleeping bag fabric, but for socks the processing was complicated by the fact that adequate curing facilities are not available in the majority of the knitting plants. The Freney-Lipson process has the disadvantage of requiring highly specialised equipment, but was especially suitable for finished items (socks, sweaters, etc.), since the treatment did not materially affect the colour or disturb boarding done during finishing. In the enzyme treatment modifica­ tion of the wool fibre was excessive. The methods used in field tests for evaluating the wearing qualities of socks are described. W. Observations on the Theory of Felting. J. Schofield. /. Soc. Dyers &■ Col., 1945, 6i, 77. Reference is made to Martin’s paper on the theory of felting (these A b s., 1945, A 112), in which the importance is emphasized of the necessity of compression in obtaining felting. In the milling machine, cotton warp flannel requires 8 h.p. in 4-5 hr., and papermaker’s felt 20 h.p. in 15-20 hr.; this indicates that the truly felted structure is mechanically produced by forcible displacement of fibres under the stresses employed (see this 1942, 33, T 189). M artin’s paper also shows the difficulty of assessing the degree of milling by the 4-—Chemical and Finishing Processes A 2 5 5 area shrinkage test, a fact confirmed by the author’s investigations. The temperature effect in milling is briefly discussed. W.

(L)—P r o o f i n g D.D.T. Insecticide: Application. I. M. Heilbron. Textile Manufacturer, 1945, 71, 78-79. A report of a lecture and discussion. It was reported that army shirts that had been louse-proofed by impregnation with D.D.T. were effective after five washings by a steam laundry and eight domestic washings. Steps were being taken to renew the impregnation in field laundries. [In a note, the editor reports that the solubility of D.D.T. is about o-i gm. per litre. Its effect is bound up with its volatility; in oil films it is ineffective. There is a risk of ill effects on the wearer if attempts are made to give garments a heavy initial impregnation.] C. Heavy Textiles: Rot-proofing. E. K. Woodford. /. Sci. Ind. Research (India), 1944, 2, 182-186. The nature of damage to cotton and bast fibres caused by microbiological agencies is briefly discussed. A classified list is given of the more important rot-proofing treatments which are being considered for use in India. They include treatments with Cu, Fe and Cr, tannins, and pro­ ducts obtained from coal tar, wood tar and petroleum. The choice of treat­ ment is considered in relation to problems of supply. A process for vegetable dyeing to an approved camouflage shade, having a certain copper content and a rot-proofing effect which renders the goods very serviceable, is mentioned. The application of hot, plasticised pitch and the use of emulsions of used gear oil and of bituminous emulsions are recommended as useful maintenance measures for pitched tents, sandbag revetments and similar semi-permanent structures. Antiseptics for use in sizes and finishes are briefly discussed. Chemical tests, a soil burial test, Thom’s test, and a method of testing the susceptibility of a treated fabric to micro-biological attack are outlined. C. Proofed Textiles: Recent Developments. M. Harris and Gypsy B. Franken- berg. Chem. &■ Eng. News, >945, 23, 147-149. R ecen t developm ents in th e production of waterproof and water-repellent, mildew-resistant and shrink- resistant fabrics, in laminated and bonded products, in manufactured fibres are reviewed. Progress in the study of the functional properties of fabrics, especially in relation to military requirements, and probable future develop­ ments are briefly discussed. Reference is made to the range of "Jo cloths ” developed by the U.S. Quartermaster on the principles of the Shirley Institute stormproof cloths. C. Preventol G D .: Determination in Textiles. See Section 5C. C. Polythene: Development. “ Times” Trade and Engineering, 1945, 56, Ja n ., 5, Feb., 9. A concise account is given of the history of Polythene, from 1932, its manufacture by the polymerisation-condensation of ethylene under high pressure, and its uses as “ synthetic gutta percha.” Plant capacity for pro­ ducing polythene has increased 19-fold since 1940. C. Rot-resistant Textile Materials: Production for Tropical Use. W. H. Weston. Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1945, 34, 91-95. Conditions to which heavy textiles such as tentage and tarpaulins are exposed in the tropics are described, and it is suggested that deterioration results chiefly from the action of fungi and bac­ teria. The origin and nature of the fungi attacking such textiles in the Pacific theatres of war are discussed. The complexity of the problem of control is emphasized and present methods of proofing are criticised. It is suggested that it might be better to apply mildew-, flame- and water-proofing agents separately instead of in one bath, and that fungicides might be more effective if yarns were impregnated with them instead of the treatment being applied to the fabric. The possibility of modifying the cellulose to make it chemically unavailable to moulds is also mentioned. C. Rayon-Cotton Fabrics: Processing. I. Teplitz. Rayon Textile Monthly, 1945, 26, 67-68. Brief particulars are given of the construction and processing of shoe , corset cloths, cotton-back , “ tackle ” raincoat cloths and various water-repellent fabrics. ’ C. Waterproof Film-coated Rayon Fabrics: Production. — K eh ren . T extil- of waterproofing by means of films of synthetic material, superiority of the berichte, 1944, 25, 126-129 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 624*). Advantages A256 4—Chemical and Finishing Processes (Patents) product over rubberized goods, suitable treatment for producing this type of finish, properties of a suitable film, and the outlook for the future are discussed. C. Water-repellent Fabrics: Renewed Treatment and Performance. G. P . F u l­ to n . Amer. Dyes, Rept., 1945, 34, 95-98, 104. W ater repellents are classified into durable, semi-durable and non-durable types according to whether the hydrophobic properties they impart to fabrics persist throughout the life of the garment and survive the normal cleansing operations, survive one launder­ ing or dry-cleaning, or last only until the garment is laundered or dry-cleaned. Garments treated with the non-durable type must be treated again after cleansing, and garments treated with the semi-durable, or even durable, types will often benefit by fresh treatment. When cleansing is effected by launder­ ing, the renewed treatment is usually done in water with products containing a wax and/or metallic soap, aluminium acetate or formate, an emulsifying agent, and sometimes a resin. When a garment has been dry-cleaned it is pre­ ferable to treat it in an organic solvent, such as Stoddard solvent, using pro­ ducts containing waxes, metallic soaps, such as aluminium stearate, and resins. The procedures are briefly discussed and the possibility of applying water repellents in organic solvents in textile finishing plants is mentioned. The influence of fabric structure and the nature of the support on water repellency is discussed and reference is made to recent developments in the use of fabric constructions which allow excessive swelling of cotton yarns when wet, thus producing a sealing of the fabric. Methods of testing the hydrophobic charac­ teristics of fabrics, the resistance to penetration of water when striking with given energy of impact, and the durability of the repellent are outlined. C. Constitution and Toxic Action of Natural and Modern Synthetic Insecticides. P. Lauger, H. Martin and P. Muller. Helv. Chim. Acta, 1944, 27, 892-928 (through /. Soc. D yers

P a t e n t s . Cloth Stretch or Shrinkage Indicating Device. Porritts and Spencer Ltd. and C. P. Porritt. B.P.567,784 of 29/6/1943:2/3/1945. In a device for indicat­ ing stretch or shrinkage in continuously moved lengths of material having indicators to measure the speed of the material both before and after a variation in length, the indicators are interrelated so as to compensate for the difference in speed between the material before and after the variation in length so that variations in the ratio of the speeds can be determined by inspection. C. Bonded Fibrous Materials: Production. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., E. R. Angel and F. C. Wood. B.P.567,878 of 24/ 11/1942:7/3/1945. A process for the manufacture of improved bonded fibrous materials consists in impreg­ nating a fibrous material in the form of a sheet or in the form of loose fibre? with an aqueous solution or aqueous dispersion of a crystalloidal condensation product of low molecular weight (derived from formaldehyde and a component capable of ultimately yielding with formaldehyde a thermo setting synthetic resin) so as to incorporate not more than 10 per cent, by weight of the con­ densation product in the fibres, further condensing the material within the fibres, and subsequently forming the fibrous material into a mass with a thermoplastic bonding agent. The untreated fibrous material to which the process is applied may be of any desired character, either cellulosic or non- cellulosic and in massive form, such as wadding or felted masses, or in the form of sheets or webs, e.g. wood veneer, paper or textiles. The preliminary treatment with a resinous condensation product of low molecular weight has the effect of stabilising the product to dimensional change, when it is subject to the action of moisture. C. Silk Screen Printing Apparatus. A. J. Roberts. B.P.567,896 of 21/6/1944: 7/3/1945. In a manually-operated silk screen printing apparatus a squeeze carriage is adapted to slide backwards and forwards on a runner frame carried by the screen frame, and the apparatus is characterised in that the two squeegees are carried by end brackets pivotally mounted in the carriage and in that the carriage is provided with a pair of pivoted handles for moving it back­ wards and forwards across the screen, the end brackets carrying the squeegees 4—Chemical and Finishing Processes (P a te n ts) A257 being so coupled to the handles that, as the handles are moved from a pulling to a pushing position for moving the carriage, the brackets are swung about their pivots to position the squeegees in the desired way. C. Web Feeding Device. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd. and L. C. Nield. B.P. 567,953 of 3/9/1943:9/3/1945. In a band or web feeding device comprising a wheel or drum having pins that move radially outwards and inwards, the band or web is engaged by the pins and is transferred from the wheel or drum to the machine, e.g. a stenter. The device is preferably combined with a wheel or drum having bristles, such bristles preferably being disposed on the wheel or drum that carries the pins engaging the web. The device may be power-driven in such a way that its speed is slower, equal to, or faster than the the stenter pins. C. Vinyl Polymers: Dyeing. American Cyanamid Co. B.P.568,037 of 31/12/1942: 15/3 / 1945 (Conv. 6/12/1941). A method of dyeing vinyl polymers and copolymers comprises subjecting the polymer to the action of a dyebath, containing an azo dye of the formula Ar.N: N.B.NX.(CH2)!/.(OC,!H4)2.OR where Ar is an aromatic radical belonging to the group of benzene and naph­ thalene radicals which may be substituted by alkyl, alkoxy, nitro, amino or acylamino groups, chlorine or bromine, and combinations of these, where B is a member of the group consisting of radicals of the benzene and naphthalene series which may be substituted by halogen atoms, or alkyl, alkoxy and acyl­ amino groups and combinations of these, where X is a member of the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, aralkyl, alkoxyalkyl and polyalkoxyalkyl radicals, y is 2, 3 or 4, z stands for zero or any whole number, and R is alkyl. Examples are given of the application of this method to the dyeing of polyvinyl chloride- aoetate fibres. The dyebath may contain an assistant, e.g. dibutyl phthalate, which is capable of swelling the polymer without dissolving it. C. Lead Chromate Pigments: Improvement of Light-Fastness. E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co. B.P.568,072 of 2/6/1943:16/3/1945 (Conv. 3/6/1942). A process of improving the light-fastness of a lead chromate pigment comprises treating it with one or more compounds of aluminium and/or of an element of the fourth group of the Periodic Table which yields an insoluble white oxide, together with an insoluble, colourless compound of a rare earth metal. In a preferred method the pigment is treated with relatively small amounts of freshly precipitated, finely-divided hydrous oxides of aluminium and titanium, together with one or more freshly-precipitated, hydrous oxides of a rare earth m etal. C. Linear Super Polyamides: Acid Treatment Preparatory to Dyeing. T ootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., R. P. Foulds, W. H. Roscoe and W. H. Watson. B.P.568,092 of 8/3/1943:19/3/1945. Textile material containing a synthetic linear polyamide is treated with an aqueous solution of a strong acid at a con­ centration such that the material is rendered capable of being dyed deeper but without substantial delustring, the aqueous solution being selected from the group consisting of sulphuric acid of 42-47° Tw., hydrochloric acid of 14-16° Tw., nitric acid of 25^-30° Tw., orthophosphoric acid of 10-12 volumes of acid of 1-75 sp. gr. to 12 volumes of water and formic acid of at least 65 volumes of acid i-2 sp. gr. to 35 volumes of water, but less strong than 80 volumes of acid of 1 - 2 sp. gr. to 20 volumes of water. The textile materials may be in the form of yams, but the invention is particularly applicable to fabrics. All-over or local effects may be produced, and mixtures of nylon with other textile fibres may be used to give special effects. C. Surface Active Compositions: Production. Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. (E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co.). B.P.568,102 of 12/7/1943: l!9 / 3 / 1945- Surface active compositons comprising aliphatic and/or cycloali­ phatic sulphonates are made by hydrolysing and neutralising with aqueous caustic alkali, aliphatic and/or cycloaliphatic sulphonyl halides obtained by the action of sulphur dioxide and a halogen or a sulphuryl halide on normally liquid or solid aliphatic and/or cycloaliphatic hydrocarbons, and purifying the result­ ing aliphatic and/or cycloaliphatic sulphonates by extraction of their aqueous solution with a hydrocarbon or a relatively inert derivative thereof, which is normally solid and which melts at a temperature below the boiling point of the aqueous solution in the liquid state. The normally solid hydrocarbon may be paraffin wax or naphthalene. C. A 258 5 — Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects

Nylon Filaments and Bristles: Coating. Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. B.P.568,150 of 5/7/1943:21/3/1945 (Conv. 6/7/1942). Filaments or bristles composed of a synthetic polymeric amide are coated with a polymer of an olefine oxide by bringing them into contact with the polymer contained in a suitable liquid vehicle, draining, and then evaporating the liquid from the sur­ faces of the fialments or bristles. A suitable polymer is the polymer of ethylene oxide known as “ Carbowax ” 4000 compound. The coating solution is pre­ pared by dissolving the polyethylene oxide in water. Bristles treated in this way can be handled satisfactorily in automatic bristling machines. C. Sulphurised Oil Proofing Agent: Application. E. Bader. B.P.50S,i8i of 14/4/1943:22/3/1945. Fibrous materials, such as wood pulp, hair, jute, asbestos, cotton, wool, leather, silk or , or threads or sheets or other material made of the fibres, are rendered resistant to moisture, acids or sol­ vents by treatment with a solution or aqueous dispersion of the resin or rub­ bery material obtained by the action of sulphur chloride on fatty oils and in particular by materials known as Texylon. It is advantageous to use also basic accelerators such as zinc oxide, lime, calcium carbonate, magnesium oxide or sodium carbonate, so that the sulphurised oil becomes insolubilised on the fibres. The accelerators may be compounded with the material to be treated or with the sulphurised oil and their action may be promoted by the action of h eat. C. Wool Grease and its Constituents: Recovery by Froth Flotation. R. B. Booth and A. M. Webb. U.S.P.2,352,365 of 27/6/1944. Emulsified wool grease is recovered by treating steeping and scouring liquors, before or during froth flotation, with a grease-liberating agent, e.g. sulphuric acid. Over-froth­ ing is prevented by the addition (5-25 lb. per ton of liquor treated) of petroleum distillates (specific gravity 30-900 Be). A much greater amount of grease is recovered than by centrifuging or by previous flotation methods. W.

5—ANALYSIS, TESTING, GRADING AND DEFECTS

(A)— F i b r e s American Cotton: Fibre Characters and Spinning Quality. T. S. Harris. Cotton (U.S.), 1944, 108, N o. i i , 93-96; No. 12, 100-102. A number of examples are given of the work of the testing laboratory at the Tallassee Mills, U.S.A., which is equipped to do immaturity tests (Shirley Institute method), fibre strength tests (Pressley instrument) and stapling tests (Suter-Webb sorter and Hertel Fibrograph) as well as the familiar yarn tests. (1) Fibre strength and yarn strength. Fifty bales of cotton were tested for fibre strength and the strongest six and weakest six were selected for spinning tests, both individually and as two 6- bale mixings. Particulars are tabulated. In the mixings, the weak fibre gave significantly weaker and poorer looking yarn in 13s count. One of the bales of weak fibre gave yarn as strong, in 22s, as the strong fibre but it was found that the compensating factor was longer staple. By multiplying the " fibre length at the 25 per cent, point ” (point on the staple diagram where 25 per cent, of the array is longer than the staple length and 75 per cent, is shorter), by the fibre strength a quantity called the “ cotton strength factor ” was obtained that accounted for the high yarn strength of th is w eak co tto n . (2) Mixing of staples. Tests were made on the blending of a stock of f-in. cotton for use in the mill’s regular i-in. cotton qualities. Poor results were obtained from blends with if-in. and i-in. cottons but satisfactory results in blends with longer cottons. Mixings were made as follows: (A) iA-in. cotton 75 per cent., i-in. 25 per cent.; (B) iyj-in. 75 per cent., fi-in. 25 per cent.; (C) i-in. 83 per cent., iys-in. 17 per cent., the average lengths being approximately equal. Mixing A gave the strongest yarn and fewest “ ends down,” although the range of staple length was so much wider than in (C). However, the fibre strength was greatest in (A) and also the “ cotton stre n g th fa c to r.” (3) " Character ” and spinning quality. That fibre strength and length alone do not determine all that is comprised in “ spinning quality ” is shown by a comparison between the popular Stoneville 2B cotton and a delivery described as of “ soft character.” Judged by length and fibre strength the “ soft ” cotton should have given nearly as good a yarn as Stone­ ville but it proved to be hopelessly bad. It contained nearly 50 per cent, of immature fibre and was extremely neppy. (4) Tests on a new strain of cotton. 5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects A 2 5 9

A new strain, Bobshaw No. i, gave a markedly better yarn than Stoneville 2B; it was somewhat shorter in length but coarser and stronger. C. Manufactured Fibres: Properties. W. D. Appel. Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1945, 34, 21-26. The structure and physical and chemical properties of manufactured fibres, including cellulosic, protein, polyamide, vinyl resin, vinylidene chloride and glass fibres, are discussed and compared with those of the natural fibres Tables showing composition and structure, dimensions, tensile strength extensi­ bility, recovery on unloading, modulus of elasticity, relative stiffness, relative toughness, density, softening point and burning rate are presented, together with moisture absorption curves. C. Microscope: Applications in Cotton Research. T. L. W. Bailey, Jr. and Mary L. Rollins. Textile Research J., 1945, 15, 1-6. A pplications of th e m icroscope to the study of the structure of cotton fibres, yarns and fabrics, the effects of various treatments on them, and the penetration of sizes, finishes and proofing agents, are described. Photographs of the Hardy hand microtome and photo­ micrographs of cotton fibres and yarns, and cross-sections of a rayon-cotton mixture fabric, a yarn stained to show starch sizing, acetylated and deformed fibres, chemically treated yarns, yarns showing penetration of the preservative for rot-proofing, and unstretched and wet-stretched tyre cord and tyre cord with adhering rubber are presented and discussed. C. Denier: Evaluation. L. Shapiro. Rayon Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 560-561; 620. (1) The writer points out that on the United States standard definitions of the yard, metre, pound and gram the factor for converting denier to yards per pound should be 4,464,483, instead of 4,464,528. The round value of 4,464,500 is recommended. (2) On the British definitions of the pound and yard, the value is 4,464,496. For most purposes, the round figure 4,464,000 is sufficient. C. Electron Microscope: Applications in Textile Research. D. G. Drummond. Photographic J 1945, 85B, 4-5. Limitations to the use of the electron microscope in textile research are pointed out and applications to the study of the structure of fibres and the structure and mode of attachment to the fibre of dyes, water­ proofing agents and similar materials are discussed. Methods of disintegrat­ ing cotton for examination are briefly described. Electron micrograms showing fragments of a cotton hair disintegrated in a paper beater, globules of wax from a waterproofing emulsion, and fibrils of commercial wood pulp with attached particulate matter are presented and discussed. C. Nylon Solutions in m-Cresol: Fluidity. J. Boulton and D. L. C. Jackson. / . Soc. Dyers &■ Col., 1945, 61, 40-47. A comparison is made between m-cresol and formic acid with regard to their suitability as solvents for viscosity measurements on nylon solutions. They are compared for flow properties, sensitivity, stability, and convenience in use. w-Cresol is preferred. Results for a number of yarns have been obtained for sulphuric acid attack and photo­ chemical degradation. In each case the relationship between loss in strength and rise in fluidity is independent of the origin of the nylon. Photochemical degradation results in a smaller rise in fluidity for a given loss in tensile strength than is the case for acid degradation. Measurements of fluidity of solutions of low concentration of nylon in w-cresol are described, and it is shown that intrinsic viscosity is dependent upon concentration over a wide range of dilutions. Data are given from which the fluidity, as defined for an 8g. per 100 c.c. solution of nylon in m-cresol, can be deduced from viscosity measurements made in more dilute solutions for yarns degraded by acid attack. C. Textile Fibres: Nomenclature and Classification. E. Karrer. Rayon Textile M onthly, 1945, 26, 20-21. The suffix “ fil ” is used as the basis of all group names in a classification of fibres. The first main division is into " natfils ” and “ synfils.” The former are divided into " orfils ” (organic) and " inorfils ” and orfils again into “ profils” (protein) and " celfils ” (cellulose). Other proposed terms are " soyfils ” (soybean), “ penfils ” (pea nut), “ casfils ” (casein), “ visfils ” (viscose), " cufils ” (cuprammonium), “ celacfils ” (cellulose acetate), and so forth. C. Strained Animal Fibres: Setting, J. R. Hind and J. B. Speakman. /. T e x ­ tile Inst., 1945, 36, T19-34. C. A 2ÓO 5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects

Wool Clips: Prevention of Overclassing. ' Ja so n .' Pastoral Rev., 1945, 55, 23-24. Details are given of the Australian Pastoral Co.’s instructions for pre­ paring clips without overclassing. Seven market lines are made for greasy wools (AAA, AA, A, 1st Combing, Broken, ;st Pieces and Bellies) and 3 for scouring (Broken, Stained Pieces and Locks). Lambs’ wool is classed as 1st Lambs and Lambs, from which only the stained wool is to be- picked. Of the total weight of the clip in a normal year, only about 7J per cent, should be in the 3 lines to be scoured. In exceptional cases some modification of these instructions may be necessary to meet seasonal variations. W.

(B)—Y a r n s . Autographic Stress/Strain Tester. C. W. Harris. Rev. Sci. Instruments, *945> I(>. 5-6. A simple autographic stress/strain tester is described. It is connected to the test object by a single wire cable that passes over three freely rotating pulleys, two of which are fixed with respect to the machine, whilst the middle pulley is constrained to move along a definite path, its motion being opposed by a spring or weight restoring forces. A desk chart attached to this moving pulley moves against a fixed pen and the arrangements are such that load is measured in a purely radial direction, and deformation in the circum­ ferential direction on the desk. The tester is small, has low inertia, and is most useful for testing compliant structures encased in refrigerators, ovens, or other inaccessible locations. A chart showing the fifth or equilibrium cycle stress/ strain curve for a Neoprene-rubber compound at various temperatures, and the Cartesian plot of the recorded data are illustrated. The machine is well adapted to measuring the elastic properties of textile cords. The cord is passed through and operates the tester itself, thus eliminating one grip in the test section. A reproducible starting point is obtained with a load of a few grams. Slack cords record neither load nor deformation before this point. In this case the derived stress/strain curve is based on the strained length at all times. C. Sized Spun Rayon Warps: Abrasion Resistance. Textile Research /., 1945, 15, 19-21. Tests were made on a modified fabric abrasion tester in which a drum covered with 300A silicon carbide paper was reciprocated to and fro on 20 single ends of the yarn until breakage occurred. The machine was operated at a speed of 86 cycles per min. The speed of the abrasion drum was thus roughly half that of the reed in an automatic loom. The tension applied to each thread under test was 1 oz. or approximately one-eighth the average tensile strength of the yarn. This test combines abrasion testing and tensile testing and the readings recorded represent the number of cycles required to reduce the tensile strength of the yarn 87J per cent. It was found that abrasion resistance was improved through application of all sizing agents. The lowest durability factor (abrasion resistance of sized yam /per cent, size on yarn) was observed for a highly-soluble dextrin, and the highest for methylcellulose. Corn and tapioca gums, and thin- and thick-boiling starches gave intermediate values. Low-boiling gums were the most satisfactory as the chief adhesive substances in sizing spun viscose warps. The addition of water-soluble synthetic products frequently improved wearing quality without loss of abrasion resistance. The addition of oils and fats as softeners to a starch or gum size paste lowered the abrasion resistance below that obtained by use of the starch or gum alone. No consistent correlation was found between abrasion resistance and weaving performance although the highest weaving efficiency was obtained from a warp having the highest rating in abrasion resistance. The addition of softeners frequently lowered abrasion resistance but improved weaving efficiency. There is a minimum abrasion resistance which must be maintained for a given construction. This value is the average abrasion caused by weaving plus a reasonable margin of safety. Above this margin abrasion resistance is of no value and may be detrimental, especially if it is attained at the expense of other properties such as flexibility or extensibility. C. Cellulose Acetate Yarns: Take-up and Twist. H. R. Mauersberger. R a yo n Textile Monthly, 1945, 26, 74-75. Average values are tabulated for per-cent, contraction, resultant denier and yards per pound corresponding with the insertion of 5, 10, 15 . . . 50 turns per inch in 55-den. 18-fil., 55/36, 75/24 (bright and dull), 75/50, 100/40, 100/66, 150/60, and 300/ 100 cellulose acetate yarns (" Acele ” brand). The contractions are usually lower than for compar­ able viscose yams (about 5 per cent, less at 50 t.p.i.) except for the 300-den. 5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects A 2 ÓI yams in which acetate rayon contracts about i J per cent. more. The contrac­ tions increase regularly with increasing yarn denier and, for the same yarn denier, with increasing filament number. C.

(C)— F a b r i c s Fabrics: Wettability; Tensiometric Determination. H. Wakeham and E. L . Skau. J, Amer. Chem. Soc., 1945, 67, 268-272. A tensiometric method is described for the evaluation of surface wettability by measurement of the contact angle with an ordinary interfacial tensiometer. The sample, in the form of a circular disk half an inch in diameter, is adjusted to a position parallel to the surface of the water and then pressed with gradually increasing force down into the surface. As the disk is pushed down the angle that the edge of the water makes with the upper surface of the sample gradually increases. The maximum value attained is the advancing contact angle; when the sample is pushed further down the hydrostatic pressure of the water at the edge of the sample causes the water to move across the surface of the sample. The contact angle is thus a function of the force or the maximum reading on the tensiometer measured at the moment that the liquid surface breaks and the sample submerges. Contact angles corresponding to various depths of penetration and to various tensiometer readings of the force applied have been determined experimentally and found to be in good agreement with values deduced from theoretical considerations. The application of the method to the measurement of contact angles of water on fabric and paper samples is illustrated and precautions and sources of error are discussed. Typical results are compared with results obtained by an optical method. C.

Hydrostatic Pressure Testers: Comparison. G. J. Mandikos and B. A. R yberg. Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1945, 34, 37-40. Photographs are given of the hydrostatic pressure testers due to Suter and to the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists and a comparison of these two instruments is reported. In the A.A.T.C.C. tester the water meets the fabric from below whilst in the Suter tester the water meets the fabric from above. Army poplins, , , jungle cloth and duck were used in the tests, and tests were made with water at various temperatures. The results show that an increase in temperature lowers the hydrostatic pressure resistance of a fabric. Plots of A.A.T.C.C. values against Suter values at 70°, 80° and 90° F. give three straight lines which are almost coincident. The equations for these three straight lines are .4 = 1-31s —4-5, A — i - 32S— 3-7, and A = 1 ■ 32S — 4-0, w here A is the value obtained on the A.A.T.C.C. tester and S the value obtained on the Suter tester. An average line, A = 1 • 32.S — 4, might be used with a tem pera­ ture range of 80 + 50 F. The A.A.T.C.C. tester affords easier control of tem­ perature, has lower initial and running expenses, and requires only about one- fifth the amount of fabric required by the Suter tester. Care must be exercised in filling the well of the A.A.T.C.C. tester so that no air is trapped in the well or in the tubing. The Suter tester has an air outlet in the fabric holder. The authors express a preference for the A.A.T.C.C. hydrostatic pressure tester. C.

“ Readex ” Micro-print Reading Apparatus: Application in Textile Laboratories. Lucille Finley. Cotton (U.S.), 1945, 109, No. 2, 102-104. The “ Readex ” is a device that facilitates the reading of micro-prints.' The writer shows that, with minor modifications, it is a useful tool for cloth inspection, end and pick counting, etc., since it offers a ready means for preparing enlarged contact prints of the specimen. Illustrations are presented. C.

Preventol G D : Determination in Textiles. D. A. Shiraeff. A m er. D yes R e p t., 1945, 34, 15-16. A method for the determination of Preventol GD (2 : 2'-dihydroxy-5:5'-dichlorodiphenylmethane), which is used as a mildew- proofing agent, depends on the production of an intense yellow colour with a dilute solution of sodium hypochlorite in caustic soda. Details are given of procedures for the determination of Preventol GD lr, solution and on textile materials when (1) samples of untreated and treated material are available and (2) when only the treated material is available. The treated material is boiled with the hypochlorite reagent and the colour of the resulting solution is compared with standards. This method is applicable to materials dyed with vat and mineral dyes. C. A 2 Ó2 5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects

Waterproofed Fabrics: Testing. C. J. Jones. Indian Textile ]., 1944, 55, 165-167. Some criticisms are offered of the drop, hydraulic pressure and cone tests of waterproofness and the Bundesmann test is approved and briefly described. C. Cellulose and Protein Fabrics: Effect of Impregnation with Synthetic Resins. D. H. Powers. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1945, 37, 188-193. Cotton sheeting was padded through aqueous solutions of unpolymerised reaction products of urea, phenol or melamine with formaldehyde and polymerisation was effected by drying at 300° F. A table is given showing the effects of equal concentrations of the resins on the tensile strength, abrasion resistance, and shrinkage on washing. Tables are also given showing the effects of different concentrations of methylol- urea and methylol-melamine resins on the tensile strength and moisture absorp­ tion of cotton sheeting, spun rayon fabric and wool flannel, and of methylol- melamine resin on the shrinkage of various cotton, rayon, wool and mixture fabrics. Impregnating with water-soluble methylol-melamine had little effect on the strength of cotton but gave a steadily increasing effect with spun rayon. A marked increase in the strength of wool was noted even with low concentra­ tions of resin. Impregnation with melamine resins reduced the dyeing rates of cotton and rayon. Considerable reductions in shrinkage on washing and reductions in moisture absorption resulted from impregnation with the resins. Electron micrographs of wool, cotton, and rayon, before and after resin treat­ ment, are reproduced and discussed. Differences between the effect of coating or surface resins and resin or resin formers that penetrate the fibre are noted. C. Cloths: Testing for Tensile Strength. Staff of the Testing Department, Shirley Institute, B.C.I.R.A. J. Textile Inst., 1945, 36, Si-14. C. Textile Materials: Porosity and Permeability. M. A. Siemiński and G. H . H o tte . Rayon Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 608-610; 1945, 26, 22-24, 70-71, 115-116. (1) Permeability and total and effective " porosity” are defined and methods for determining porosity are briefly but critically reviewed. Perme­ ability is a quantity that varies with the pressure of the fluid in question. Total porosity is the ratio of the volume of air or void to the total volume enclosed by the outermost boundaries of the materials, and effective porosity refers to that of the void space which is available for fluid flow. (2) A similar review is made of tests for permeability. The name “ perm ” is suggested for the volume of gas in c.c. which flows per second through one sq. cm. of material under a pressure difference of one dyne per sq. cm. C. Weft Defects in Cloths: Causes and Inspection. H. E. Wenrich. R a yo n Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 625-626; 1945, 26, 33-34, 85-86. (1) H in ts are given on the causes, inspection and cure of defects due to broken picks and chafed and uneven weft, and defects in rough weaves. (2) The detection and classification of “ broken pick ” defects are illustrated by a series of examples. (3) The use of a “ detectograph ” for checking the causes of broken picks is described. This appliance is merely a printed list of loom factors (e.g. " rough shuttles,” “ damaged bobbins,” “ picking harsh,” etc.) with a series of crosses inserted under the column headings " left selvedge,” “ left centre,” “ centre,” “ right centre ” and “ right selvedge ” if a broken pick occurring in these regions of the cloth is known to be associated with the particular loom factor. C. Statistics: Textile Applications. P. Larose. Canadian Text. 1945, 62. No. 1, 39, 42-44. A survey of the advantages of statistical methods for the quality control of textile products. Statistical methods may be used to deter­ mine quality variation, trace bad work to its source, give warning of new sources of variation, and compare different methods of test. W.

(D)— O t h e r M a t e r i a l s Moulded Fibre-Resin Preformed Materials: Strength. R. H. Mosher and J. B. Griffin. Modern Plastics, 1945, 22, No. 6, 147-152. Tests have been made on moulded fibre-resin preformed materials produced from various commercial fibres and resins, using both impregnation and beater-dispersion methods of resin incorporation. The strength properties of materials containing 45 per cent, phenolic resin applied by the impregnation method showed a decided dependence on fibre length. Impact strength is highest with the strongest and least degraded fibres, i.e. kraft and sulphite. The tensile strengths of moulded kraft pulp-phenolic resin “ preforms ” are 100 per cent, better than those 7—Laundering and Dry-Cleaning obtained with hiigh-impact cellulose-filled moulding powders and 33 per cent, better than general-purpose moulding materials. The flexural strengths are about 60 per cent, higher and impact strengths 20 to 35 times better than those of general-purpose moulding powders. Strength properties of kraft fibre-phenolic resin materials show small variation with change in resin type, though impact strength and water absorption increase with increasing mole­ cular size of the resin. When the resin is applied by beater dispersion the tensile strength is 50 p>er cent, higher and the flexural strength 20-50 p>er cent, higher than those obtained with impregnated preforms, whilst the edgewise compressive strength is 25 per cent, less, the impact strength about 25 per cent, higher, and the water absorption 2^-3 times that of the impregnated stock. Data for various fibre preformed materials impregnated with an 80-20 melamine-phenolic resin mixture show flexural strengths about 80 p>er cent, and tensile and compressive strengths about 50 to 70 p>er cent, of those obtained with phenolic resins at the same resin content and with similar fibre bases. Impact strengths are about the same as those of the moulded phenolic impreg­ nated preforms. When a lignin-enriched filler is preformed and moulded, the properties obtained are in the range of standard moulding powders and well below those obtained with any of the phenolic-fibre combinations except ground wood and waste paper. Addition of 20 per cent, of phenolic resin to the pre­ formed lignin-enriched filler by impregnation does not produce any distinct changes in tensile or impact strengths, but reduces the flexural strength and increases the edgewise compressive strength by about 20 per cent. When the impxregnation is made with a low-molecular-weight resin in water the water absorption of the product is considerably reduced. C.

P a t e n t Rope Stress Measuring Device. British Ropes Ltd. and H. Hitchen. B.P. 567,944, of 16/7/1943:9/3/1945. In a device for determining tensile stresses in haulage and other ropes comprising two pulleys (A) spaced apart and rotatable about axes in a fixed relation with the. ends of a bar having secured to it at a position intermediate between its ends the bearings of a further pulley or roller in such manner that variation in the tension of a rope passing over the pulleys or rollers will vary the bending movement to which the bar is sub­ jected, means are provided for constraining the rope to pass under or over all of the three pulleys. For constraining the rope into contact with the two pulleys (A), additional pulleys rotatable about axes in fixed relationship with the ends of the bar are provided, one positioned with respect to one of the (A) pulleys so that the rope is constrained against, for instance, its lower portion, and a similar arrangement is provided in association with the other of the (A) pulleys. C. 7—LAUNDERING AND DRY CLEANING

(A)—C l e a n i n g Spun Rayon Fabrics: Laundering. K. Pfleiderer and W. Wertel. T extil- berichte, 1944, 25, 90-92 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, B II, 14). Staple fibre is damaged during laundering mainly by mechanical action, and not by the chemical action of wash liquors on the fibre. Chemical reagents affect threads equally, but the relative damage to the threads produced by mechanical action depends on the method of interlacing. The susceptibility of spun rayon cloths to damage during laundering can be reduced by applying suitable finishing treatments, e.g. shrinking. Guiding principles for good laundering are given. C. Oil Stains in Textiles: Prevention and Removal. G. Ullmann. In d ia n Textile J ., 1945, 55, 233-239. A general account of the problem of stains due to luhricating oil in textiles, with several references to published information. Additions to mineral oils to facilitate their removal in scouring are mentioned, and hints are given on the cleansing of stained materials. A suitable stain- remover is compounded of white castor oil soap 10J, chloroform J and ammonia solution (26° Bś) 3 parts. C. 'Hard- and Sea-water Detergents: Efficiency. J. C. Harris. Rayon Textile M onthly, 1945, 26, 77-80, 142-144. Washing tests under controlled conditions are reported on Santomerse 1, 3 and 55 (sodium dodecylbenzenesulphonates), Santomerse D, Di, D55 and D85 (sodium decylbenzenesulphonates), a tallow- A264 7—Laundering and Dry-Cleaning (P a ten ts)

coconut oil soap, and a tallow soap, with tetra sodium pyrophosphate, tri­ sodium phosphate, soda, and sodium acid pyrophosphate as " builders,” in artificially prepared “ hard ” and “ sea ” waters. The results are plotted as " per cent, soil removal ” against hardness, per cent, detergent, per cent, composition where mixtures of Santomerse and other agents were used, and per cent. “ builder.” The conclusions are given in a long summary. Best results were given by combinations of Santomerse i, o-2 per cent., or Santo­ merse 3, 0-08 per cent., with a “ builder,” 0-2 per cent. C. Home Laundry Processes: Influence of Temperature, Time and Other Con­ ditions. P. B. Potter. Virginia Sta. Bui., 361, 1944, 31 pp. (through E x p . S ta . R ec., 1945, 92, 314). Laundry tests were carried out with squares of Indian Head treated with a standard soil solution made up of lamp­ black, mineral oil, and carbon tetrachloride. After being washed and ironed, the shade of grey to which the samples had been reduced in washing was determined by means of a simple photometer in a dark room. It was found that essential factors for good results included a good supply of hot water, preferably soft water, proper use of a good soap, correct time period for wash­ ing, limited loading of the machine, and adequate rinsing. Of the tempera­ tures tested (from ioo° to 170° F., by 10° intervals), 160° gave the best clean­ ing results, but 140° was nearly as good and was more economical to maintain. It is pointed out that home water-heating equipment may not always provide sufficient water at this temperature for the whole washing and that house­ wives may prefer some lower temperature, probably no° to 120°, which can be endured in contact with the hands. Suds break down after 20-25 min. and allow the dirt to go back into the fabric; 15 minutes or less is suggested as a satisfactory period. Washing too many clothes at a time thwarted the move­ ment of clothes through the water. Better progress was made by slightly underloading the machine. Washing machines of different types and makes showed some differences in efficiency, and considerable differences in durability and ease of operation. A particularly desirable type was the underwater gyrator type. The soaps tested were kinds in general use for home launder­ ing. They showed a wide range of prices. Sal soda and other special water softeners were cheaper means than soaps for water softening. Rinsing was best effected by passing the clothes through two or three different waters at a temperature nearly as high as that of the original water—particularly for the first rinse. Wringing of the clothes each time they passed from one water to the next had an appreciable cleaning effect. After laundering cotton sheets 100 times, or over a 2-year period, the strength had declined by about 40 per cent. This deterioration appeared to be due to the general wear and tear of laundering and not to any fault in the process. Sheets laundered in three commercial laundries showed a somewhat lower decline in strength than sheets laundered under home conditions. C. P a t e n t s . Blue-fluorescent A gen ts: Application in White Soaps. Lever Brothers & Unilever Ltd. and P. W, Tainsh. B.P.567,716 of 20/5/1943:28/2/1945. The whiteness of non-transparent soaps is improved by incorporating with the soap a small proportion of a substance which when dissolved produces a blue fluorescence. Compounds of the coumarin group, particularly methylumbeUi- ferone, are suitable for this purpose. Even better results are obtained by the use of a blue-fluorescent substance in combination with a blueing agent such as indigo or a blue alizarin dye. The method is applicable to soaps in any form, to filled soaps containing sodium carbonate, silicate, phosphate or other soap adjuncts, and to non-soapy detergents, e.g. sulphonated or sulphated high molecular fatty compounds. C. Electrically Heated Sad-Irons. F. B. Dehn. (Communicated by Chicago Flexible Shaft Company). B.P.567,034 of 3/3/1942:25/1/1945. The patent describes a thermostatically controlled sad-iron which is especially designed to give good temperature regulation and freedom from temperature overshoot. The control element is a bimetallic strip which is clamped rigidly to the sole of the iron at one end and is restrained at the other end. The strip is in two parts of quite different shape so that there is automatic compensation for differ-' ences in temperature along the control strip. The temperature setting is operated from the forward part of the plastic handle and a spring increases or decreases the pressure on the contacts. The force which must be exerted by 8—Building and Engineering the control element is thereby varied. Two irons are specifically described; one having a snap-action and the other a slow-action thermostat. It is claimed that an iron of conventional design, size and shape is capable of delivering heat into dampened material at the rate of 1500 watts, with the sole surface maintained at a temperature of 350° F. and in the hands of a fast operator. La. 8—BUILDING AND ENGINEERING

(A)—C onstruction a n d M a i n t e n a n c e o f B u i l d i n g s a n d P l a n t Glass Blocks: Application in Mill Construction. Sumner Rider. C otton (U.S.), 1944, 108, No. 12, 93-94. The writer stresses the advantages of using glass blocks instead of window frames in mill construction. In many mills it is the plan to use up to eye level a type of block that diffuses the light without glare and ąbove eye level a type that directs the light deep into the room and gradually to the ceiling. Illustrations are given. C. Textile Mills: Painting. S. W. Quisenberry. Cotton (U.S.), 1944, 108, No. 9, 97-99, no; No. 10, 100-103; No. n , 97-99. A comprehensive plan is given for using selected colours in the creation of a working environment that is conducive to the highest efficiency and safety of the operative. (1) The departments under review are all those, in turn, from the opening room to bleaching and finishing rooms, the machine shop, offices, and rest rooms, and colour schemes for machines, floors, stairs and corridors are also given. (2) A “ Safety Colour Code ” is explained. The colours are " alert orange ” for machine contacts and electrical hazards; " high visibility yellow ” for marking kerbs, edges, low beams and the like; “ fire protection red " precaution blue ” for starting devices, condemned and out-of-action equipment; and white, black or gray, for traffic lines, storage bins, etc. Problems of painting presented by abnormal conditions are discussed. They include oil seepage on floors, lime in walls, mildew, acid and alkali fumes, high temperatures, rust and corrosion. (3) The painting of windows, machinery and equipment, mill exteriors and the homes of the workers in a mill village of the Southern States are reviewed. C. "Mill Washrooms and Amenities: Equipment. Recruitment and Training Department, The Cotton Board. Textile Weekly, 1945, 35, 766-770. A notice of an exhibition offering suggestions for the equipment of workers’ washrooms, first-aid and rest-rooms, cloakrooms and lockers, seating and overalls. C. Plastics: Properties and Chemical Engineering Applications, T. S. Carswell and R. V. Haslanger. Trans. Amer. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 1943, 39, 755-767 (through Mark & Proskauer's Resins, Rubbers, Plastics Abstr., 1944, A: 816). Tensile strength / weight ratios and tensile modulus/weight ratios for various types of plastics and common stress-carrying metals are tabulated. The thermo­ setting plastics exhibit outstanding resistance to all types of organic solvents. Phenolics are resistant to all acids except the strong oxidising agents. Resist­ ance to alkalis is poor. Urea and melamine resins, which are more resistant to alkalis than phenolics, exhibit poor resistance to acids. Cellulosic fillers are subject to attack by acids as well as by. alkalis. Polystyrenes and polyvinyl chloride acetate are highly resistant to acids and alkalis. The resistance to organic solvents of both polymers is, however, limited. Polyvinyl chloride is highly resistant to acids and to most alkalis, but has only poor to fair resist­ ance to some alkalis, e.g. ammonium hydroxide. Cellulose plastics exhibit •comparatively poor resistance to chemical attack. Phenolic resins are used for tanks, pipes, valves, pumps, bearings, pulleys, etc., and thermoplastics are used as tubing, fittings and coatings. C. Structural Steelwork: Protective Painting. J. C. Hudson. /. Oil (S* Col. Chemists’ Assoc., 1945, 28, 27-37. An account is given of methods of protect­ ing structural iron and steel-work by means of paint. The choice of paint and painting procedures are discussed. The importance of correct surface treat­ ment is emphasized, methods of descaling are compared, and it is shown that maximum durability is achieved by painting over a surface that has been com­ pletely freed from mill-scale and rust, though painting over a complete film of mill-sćale may give good durability in some cases. The results of experimental work are discussed and tables are given showing the estimated lives of paints ■on iron or steel specimens at different places, the effect of different surface A 2 Ó6 8— Building and Engineering treatments on the life of paint applied to wrought iron, the effect of inhibitive primers on the life of paint, and compositions of corrosion-inhibiting priming paints for iron and steel. C. Plastic Bearings. E. H. G. Sargeant. Power &• Works Engineer, 1945, 40, 101-5. The properties of plastic materials suitable for bearings are considered and the installation and lubrication of such bearings are discussed. Finally the uses and limitations of plastic bearings are summarized. La. Factory Engineer, III. W. T. Wardale. Power & Works Engineer, 1945, 40, 109-12. This series of articles surveys many points in connection with the responsibilities and duties of a factory engineer. This article considers the installation of machinery, boiler foundations and layout, piping, blow-downs, main ranges, drains and traps. La.

(C)— S t e a m R a i s i n g a n d P o w e r S u p p l y Electrode Boilers: Advantages. Bastian & Allen Ltd. Textile Manufac­ turer, 1945, 71, 131. The advantages of electrode boilers are briefly reviewed and particulars are given of boilers suitable for a hosiery press or a tape frame. C. Lubrication of Steam Engines. E. V. Paterson. Steam Engineer, 1945, 14, 209-211, 247-50. The importance of correct lubrication of steam engines is emphasized and a brief historical review is given. Cylinder oil is required to reduce the friction between moving parts, to prevent the steam leaking past the piston and to lubricate the valves. Six items are listed as affecting lubrica­ tion and these are discussed in turn. Steam quality is important as a trace of waler would destroy a film of straight mineral oil. Compounded oils are used to minimize the danger from this source and compounding is briefly discussed. As far as possible the steam quality should be controlled in the boiler-house. The size of a cylinder determines the quantity of oil required and affects the method of application. Old horizontal engines with heavy pistons require a highly viscous oil, but such an oil would be unsuitable for a high speed engine. Vertical engines have problems connected with the mixing of cylinder and crank-case oil. Engine loading affects the moisture content of the steam and, therefore, the lubrication. Rings suitable for oilless running are illustrated and briefly described and finally the removal of oil from engine exhaust is con­ sidered. La. Power from Process Steam. C. S. Darling. Steam Engineer, 1945, 14, 232-5. This article examines the comparative costs for a factory before and after instal­ ling generating plant. The factory included laundry plant (washing and ironing) and shirt making machinery. La.

(D)— P o w e r T ransmission Cotton M ill: Electrification. S. Birchall. Textile Weekly, 1945, 35, 738-742, 784-788, 830-834. A report of an address and conference of Mill Managers and Engineers on various types of electric driving, their advantages, installation and maintenance. C. Lubricated Surfaces: Roughness and Sliding Friction. J. J. Bikerman. Rev. Modern Physics, 1944, 16, 53-68. A review of published work on surface roughness and the various methods of measurement and of work on sliding friction considered under the headings Coulomb's theory of the mechanism of friction, interface layers and their elimination, adhesion theory of friction, resistance to sliding and sliding friction, monomolecular layer of lubricant, thicker lubricating films, and journal bearings. A list of 126 references is given. C.

(E)—T r a n s p o r t Maverick Mills Conveyor System. E. I. Leeds. Cotton (U.S.), 1945, 109, No. 2, 99-101. A brief, illustrated description is given of transport devices in the Maverick Mills, Boston, including a mono-rail conveyor for yarn and bobbins in the spinning room and a mono-rail hoist conveyor for yarn beams. C. Mill Conveyors: Application. H. Miedendorp. Rayon Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 635-636. The importance of a smooth flow of products through the mill is stressed and illustrations are given of the following conveyors: (1) a 8—Building and Engineering chain “ escalator ” for taking hand-trucks loaded with laps up a ramp; (2) and (3) overhead chain conveyors for cloth, and (4) an endless belt inspection table for hosiery bundles. C.

(F)— L i g h t i n g Factories: Lighting. H. C. Weston. Brit. J. Ind. Med., 1944, 1, N o. 3, 180-196 (through Bull. Hygiene, 1945, 20, 23-24). The relation between bright­ ness and illumination is discussed and an account is given of the meaning and method of determining daylight factors. Factors affecting the amount of light required are discussed, including the brightness of the visual objects, the bright­ ness difference or colour difference, or both, necessary for an object to be distinguished from its background, the physical dimensions of the work object and the distance of the object from the eyes. It is pointed out that the analysis of visual tasks for the purpose of setting standards of vision and lighting is necessary in the interests of industrial efficiency as well as of the well-being of the worker. To bring about a noticeable improvement in the brightness of two rooms, one of which has a low and the other a high illumina­ tion, the same proportional increase in illumination must be made. The addition of the same number of foot-candles to the illumination in each room will not achieve that result. Similarly successive equal proportional increments of illumination are necessary to produce equal arithmetic increments of visual acuity. Considerable changes of illumination are needed to bring about small changes of acuity, so that if the size of detail that has to be seen can be varied a given enlargement is much more effective in easing the visual task than is a similar proportional increase of its illumination. Brightness contrast is defined in physical terms by the two objective brightnesses involved and the ratio of the two brightnesses, not their difference, determines the degree of contrast. Subjectively, the degree of contrast depends partly on the difference as well as the ratio of the brightness stimuli involved. Within certain limitations, inferiority of contrast can be compensated for by adjusting illumination, but large changes in illumination are required to effect as much improvement in visual performance as is brought about by small improvements in contrast. The results of studies of the relation between illumination and industrial per­ formance are illustrated. Performance varies with the logarithm of the illumination. There is evidence that the speed of muscular movements is increased in the presence of good illumination. Factory Lighting Regulations require at least 6 foot-candles over the working area. For fine visual tasks much more light is required. People vary in their illumination requirements. Proper distribution of light, with the avoidance of glare and dense shadows, is important. Walls and other surfaces should be light in colour. C.

(G)— H e a t i n g , V e n t i l a t i o n a n d H umidification Air Contaminants: Control. (1) P. Drinker. (2) T. Hatch. (3) W. P. Y an t. U.S. Department of Labor. Division of Labor. Standards, Spec. Bull. No. 14, 28 pp. (through Bull. Hygiene, 1945, 20, 24-25). (1) A tab le is given stating the " safe limits ” of air contamination by 44 injurious gases and fumes and it is pointed out that, apart from such limits, air cleanliness pays in better work, less spoilage and less wear and tear on machinery. (2) Directions are given concerning the size and shape of exhaust hoods, the air velocity in different circumstances, the exhaust piping, and the fans needed to produce the air flow. The air from a local exhaust system must be passed through an air-cleaning apparatus before being discharged into the atmosphere; dust may be precipitated in a cyclone separator or other device; gas and fumes may be discharged into a high chimney. The introduction of clean air may be required to dilute contaminated air to a safe level; this is effected by general ventilation with air inlets and outlets of suitable size and position. (3) For protection of workers against temporary or emergency exposures, gas masks of the type provided for modern armies, with canisters through which the air is drawn, and chemical cartridge respirators may be used. Workers may also be pro­ tected by supplied-air respirators in which a clean fresh air supply is sent through a hose line to a facepiece or helmet within which the man breathes. The use and maintenance of respirators of all kinds is fully discussed. C. Psychrometrie Data: Mathematical Relations. C. C. M inter. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 1944, 25, 57-59 (through Sci. Abstr., 1944, 47 A, 255. The con­ stant in Maxwell’s hygrometric equation is evaluated by using the experi­ A2 6 8 8—Building and Engineering mental data of the humidity tables. By substituting the vapour pressure of water as a function of temperature in the equation, relations are derived for the relative humidity, the dew point and the humidity at freezing temperatures. C. Dust: Origin and Elimination in the Textile Industry. A. Kufferath. Zellwolle, Kunstseide, Seide, 1943, 48, 154-162 (through Chem. Zentr., 1943, ii, 1567 an d Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 624s). The origin of deleterious dusts occurring in the textile industry is described with particular consideration of their influence on health and machines. Modern methods of dust elimination and prevention are discussed. C. Heating and Ventilating Large Buildings. O. F ab er. Mech. World, 1945. 117, 496-7, 507. An abstract of a paper read before the Institute of Fuel con­ siders heat emitters, ventilation and the combination of the two. The supply of heat is considered in detail, comparative costs for different fuels being tabulated as cost per therm (approx.) and a table is also given showing the amount of coal consumed nationally to produce one therm at boiler outlet with different fuels. Combined heating and power generation is briefly considered. L a. (H)— W ater Purification Water Cooling Systems: Control. L. B. Miller. Cotton (U.S.), 1944, 108, No. ir, 108-110. A broad review is given of the problems of scale formation, scum-forming algse, and slime-forming protozoa in cooling systems. Sodium pentachlorophenate is recommended instead of copper sulphate for suppressing the growth of such organisms. C.

(I)—W a s t e D is p o s a l Acid Waste Waters: Neutralisation on a Limestone Bed. H. W. Gehm. Sewage Works J., 1944, 16, 104 (through Water Pollution Res. Summ. Current L it., 1944, 17, 92-94). Difficulties experienced in the use of limestone beds for neutralising acid waste waters are discussed and details are given of experiments with waste water from the manufacture of nitrocellulose and other acid waters and with a filter in which the waste waters were made to flow upward. The effects of the type and size of the stones, the depth of the filter medium, and the rate of flow and acidity of the waste water were studied. The following conclusions are drawn from the results. Waste waters containing sulphuric acid must be diluted sufficiently to prevent deposition of calcium sulphate and the limit of acidity due to sulphuric acid is 5,000 p.p.m. The optimum size of stone in the filter depends to some extent on the rate of application of the waste water. In practice the rate of application should be between 20 and 80 gal. per sq. ft. per min.; the filter bed should be 2 to 4 ft. deep, and when in operation should expand throughout its entire depth. The filter could be designed so that the p H value of the effluent was automatically recorded and so that additional limestone was added when the p H value had decreased to a given figure. The high rates of application which are possible with an upward-flow filter render a large installation unnecessary. A bed, 3 ft. deep and 3 sq. ft. in area, could treat daily 100,000 gal. of waste water from the manufacture of nitrocellulose, with a mineral acidity equivalent to 12,000 p.p.m. calcium carbonate, if the waste water were diluted with 1-2 times its volume of water. Five tons of limestone would be consumed daily. The filter could be similar in design to a rapid sand filter, but it should be of acid- resistant material and should have a larger freeboard between the surface of the bed and the troughs carrying the effluent. Equations are given expressing the relation between rate of application, depth of bed, acidity of waste water, and average size of the stone for stones with average sizes of 3 and 1 -5 mm. C. Acid Waste Waters: Neutralisation with Lime. W. Rudolfs and W. Rudolfs, Jr. Public Works, N.Y., 1944, 75, N o. 2, 24 (through Water Pollu­ tion Res. Summ. Current Lit., 1944, 17, 94). Laboratory studies were made on the neutralisation of acids in waste waters containing chiefly hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Several commercial brands of lime tested showed little difference in neutralising power. When the hydrochloric and sulphuric acids were completely neutralised the p H value of the waste water was 4-2; the remaining acidity was due to carbonic acid which would be removed by aeration and chemical reaction if the waste water was discharged to a stream. When such a waste water is discharged to a sewage works, neutralisation should be g—Pure Science A269 complete. The periods of contact required to raise the p H value to 4-2 using lime, limestone, calcined dolomite and soda ash were 20, 45, 15 and 5 min. respectively. The periods required to increase the p H value from 4-2 to 7-0 were about the same for all reagents tested. The amounts required to neutralise each percentage of acid in 1,000 gal. of waste water, together with the costs, are shown in a table. Calcined dolomite was the cheapest reagent. The amount of sludge formed depended on the type of reagent used, the degree of dilution of the waste water, and the extent of neutralisation. The volume of sludge was greatest with lime and least with calcined dolomite. W ith increas­ ing dilution of the waste water the volume of sludge decreased because some of the calcium sulphate formed dissolved. At higher dilutions most of the sludge remained in supersaturated solution for some time and was eventually precipitated as very fine particles. At lower dilutipns calcium sulphate was precipitated immediately as large particles which were very difficult to redissolve. The dilution required to bring the sludge into solution varied with the type of reagent used. Settleable sludge was not formed until the p H value reached 4-8 to 5-0. The formation of foam is undesirable when the neutralised waste water is to be discharged to a stream. Some foam formed when lime­ stone was added to high concentrations of the waste water. A considerable amount of foam was formed when mixtures of soda ash and calcined dolomite were used. The foam was easily dispersed by agitation. C. 9—PURE SCIENCE Cuprammonium Cellulose Solutions: Viscosity; Influence of Velocity Gradient. W. J. Lyons. /. Chem. Phys., 1945, 13, 43-52. The numerous equations which have hitherto been employed to relate the viscosity of solu­ tions of high polymers to the concentration of the solute have neglected the influence which velocity gradient (rate of shear) has upon the observed vis­ cosity of non-Newtonian liquids. Consequently the intrinsic viscosity, cal­ culated on the basis of these equations from data obtained on a solution in the anomalous region, has a different value for each velocity gradient prevailing during measurement. A modification of the Baker-Philippoff equation has been developed empirically that has the advantage of yielding a uniform value for the intrinsic viscosity of a given solution regardless of changes in velocity gradient. The new equation, t]r= ( i + c / A)8 4- (A,-— 8 / A)c, agrees well with data on cuprammonium solutions of cellulose in concentrations below 0-5 g. per 100 ml. The parameter A, interpreted as a function of velocity gradient, increases with gradient, whilst ft,-, which is shown to be the intrinsic viscosity has a constant value characteristic of the solute. It appears that the second constant appearing in other recent equations in addition to the intrinsic viscosity may be interpreted as a velocity gradient adjustment term. The algebraic series into which the various recent equations can be expanded to express tjr are strikingly similar to each other and to a proposed equation based on the Eyring reaction-rate theory. C. Nitrocellulose Lacquers: Concentration and Viscosity. W. Koch, H. C. Phillips and R. Wint. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1945, 37, 82-86. In an investigation of the possibility of increasing the non-volatile content of nitrocellulose lac­ quers while maintaining the desired viscosity for spraying, viscosity / concen­ tration data were obtained on lacquers prepared with different types of nitro­ cellulose, different solvents and different ratios of resin to nitrocellulose. Hardness and water resistance data were also obtained. The data show that the non-volatile content can be increased without affecting performance by using less viscous nitrocelluloses, more active solvents, or larger proportions of non-oxidising alkyd resins, or by applying the lacquers at an elevated tempera­ ture up to 70° C. It is considered safe to use nitrocellulose as low in viscosity as 30-35 centipoises, in a ratio of 1 :2 nitrocellulose to non-oxidising alkyd resin with a high-solvency type solvent to obtain a non-volatile content of about 29-5%, or, at temperatures as high as 70° C., a non-volatile content of about 36-5% in clear compositions. Pigmentation will produce further increases in non-volatile content. C. Colour Harmony. (1) A. Pope. (2) P. Moon and Domina E. Spencer. J. Optical Soc. America, 1944, 34, 759-765, 765. (1) A critical discussion of papers by Moon and Spencer, particularly of the use of contrast as an element of A270 9—Pure■ Science order and the ideas of hue interval, ambiguity, area and scalar moment ex­ pressed in them. (2) A reply to the above. C. Microscope: Illumination. W. T. Dempster. /. Optical Soc. America, 1944, 34' fr95~710- The development of illuminating devices for microscopes is reviewed and standard methods of illumination are discussed. The illumina­ tion requirements of the microscope are outlined. The shapes of the beams emerging from the condenser for different adjustments of the condenser and field stops are studied. Adjustments for controlled illumination (lighting by a cone of rays the proportions of which are regulated by a stop at the illuminant and by the iris diaphragm of the condenser) are outlined. These adjustments automatically insure that the actual illumination corresponds with the effective beam required and extraneous glare-producing light is in large part eliminated. Causes of glare, including tube glare, glare from lens mountings, lenticular glare, slide glare and eye glare, are discussed and methods of reducing glare are indicated. Conditions for the two extremes—illumination for high resolution and illumination for maximum contrast—are studied. The microscopist should ordinarily vary his illumination as he works to obtain the advantages of each ty p e. C. Microscopy: Visual Factors in —. W. T. Dempster. /. Optical Soc. A m eria, 1944, 34, 711-717. The problem of vision through a microscope is dis­ cussed and the literature relative to visual acuity is reviewed. Conditions for high visual acuity and visual comfort are outlined. Practical applications are discussed. C. Air Flow Analysis Schlieren and Shadowgraph Equipment: Operation. N. F. Barnes and S. L. Bellinger. Gen. Elec. Rev., 1944, 47, No. 12, 27-36. The theory of the schlieren method of studying air flow is explained and types of light sources and knife edges are critically discussed. Various lens and mirror systems of different sensitivities are shown diagrammatically, their advantages and disadvantages are pointed out, and the aberrations involved are discussed. A photograph of actual schlieren equipment is presented, its essential parts are described, and the method of operation is discussed. The shadowgraph method and equipment are also described. Schlieren photographs and shadow­ graphs of a jet, showing sound waves being reflected, are presented. C. Electronic Recording Flowmeter. B. C. Crittenden, Jr. and R. E. Shipley. Rev. Sci. Instruments, 1944, 15, 343-346. An instrument for measuring and automatically recording small steady liquid flows or the mean value of small pulsating liquid flows is described. The detecting unit employs a rotameter, or variable area meter, consisting of a vertical tube having a tapered bore in which a metal “ float ” is supported by the stream. Damping of the “ float ” is obtained by means of an attached plunger having a cross-sectional area slightly less than that of a chamber which communicates with the measuring tube. The position of the “ float,” which varies almost linearly with flow, is determined electromagnetically with the aid of an electronic circuit and is optically recorded on moving sensitized paper. Interchangeable detecting units allow a wide range of flows to be measured. A detecting unit covering the range of iml./min. to 200 ml./min. is described in detail. C. Porous Materials: Magnetic Properties and Moisture Content. C. C ourty. C. r. Acad. Sci., 1942, 215, 18-20 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1944, A I, 273). The variation of susceptibility of porcelain and activated charcoal in passing gradually from an atmosphere of dry air to one saturated with water vapour, and then when completely immersed in water, has been investi­ gated. The additive rule applies to porcelain and water. With coconut char­ coal in bulk the rule does not apply, but when the substance is powdered it holds well. Non-activated charcoal is diamagnetic, but after activation with water or carbon dioxide it is paramagnetic. It is shown that the physical con­ stants of air adsorbed by charcoal are different from those of free air, and that there is a difference between the nature of the porosity of porcelain and that of charcoal. C. Porous Materials; Thermal Transpiration in —. D. V. Gogate and V. N. Upadhyaya. Phil. Mag., 1944, [vii], 35, 760-764. From a consideration of thermal transpiration for a classical perfect gas, Kennard has reached the con­ clusion that an insoluble or independent reversible process never changes the entropy of the Universe, but that this is not true for a reversible process which 9—Pure Science A 27I cannot, even in principle, be separated from an irreversible process. In the present paper the study is extended to a degenerate gas. Two chambers A and B at temperatures Tx and T2 respectively (T ^T ,,) containing a degenerate gas, degenerate in the sense of Fermi-Dirac statistics, are considered. The cham­ bers communicate through a small orifice O and equilibrium conditions per­ taining to thermal transpiration exist. The chambers are also connected through an expansion engine which allows the gas to be brought from B to A in a "reversible way. A gram of gas is removed from A at temperature Tj, its temperature is lowered to T2 and its pressure to p 2, and this gas is then restored to B at temperature T2, after which it will flow automatically back through O into A. The total entropy change arising from this “ reversible process ” is calculated and it is shown that this is an example of a reversible process which makes invalid the general theorem, viz.:—“ A reversible process never changes the entropy of the Universe ” if the restriction imposed by Kennard is ignored. C. Rubbery Substances: Superposed Elastic and Viscous Behaviour. A . V. Tobolsky and R. D. Andrews. /. Chem. Phys., 1945, 13, 3-27. A ctual su b ­ stances exhibit a very complicated -behaviour under mechanical stresses which cannot be described by classical elasticity theory nor by the classical theory of the hydrodynamics of viscous fluids. A general molecular theory describing the behaviour of matter under stress is discussed and related to previous investigations and to experimental observations. Particular attention is devoted to rubbery substances for which the classical theories are inadequate. Experimental results on relaxation and creep of rubbers are interpreted in terms of modern structural concepts. These substances exhibit three regions of stress-temperature-time dependence. At intermediate temperatures there exists a region of relative stability in which the statistical-thermodynamic theory of rubber elasticity is valid. At elevated temperatures relaxation and creep are caused by chemical changes involving the rupture and formation of primary valence bonds. • These chemical changes which are responsible for the ageing of rubber can be isolated and studied by appropriate experimental techniques. At low temperatures relaxation and creep are caused by the slipping of secondary interchain bonds which are breaking and reforming in times comparable to experimental times of measurement. Theories are advanced to explain the observed stress-temperature-time behaviour of rubbers over the entire temperature range studied. C. Stretched Linear Polymers: Structure. M. L- Huggins. /. Chem. Phys., 1945, 13, 37-42. Published X-ray data for crystalline selenium and tellurium and for stretched sulphur (amorphous), polyethylene, polyisobutylene, poly­ vinyl alcohol, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidine chloride, polyoxymethylene, polyoxyethylene, polyethylene disulphide, polyethylene tetrasulphide, and polyphosphonitrile chloride are compared. In most cases the experimental identity distance in the direction of the chain axes and the expected inter­ atomic distances and inter-bond angles are in agreement with the assumption that the chain atoms form a regular spiral, unidirectional in each chain and of uniform pitch. Apparent exceptions are briefly discussed. The X-ray data for polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl alcohol indicate a planar zigzag structure which can be considered as a special case of a unifęrm spiral. C. Age and Hair Form. H. C. Seibert and M. Steggerda. /. H ered ity, 1944, 35, 345-347. Data are given on change with age in the size and shape of the head of pure-blooded Maya Indians. W. Clothes Moths: Occurrence in India. M. Singh. Indian Fmg., 1944, 5, 26-28. A description of the clothes moths commonly occurring in India (Tinea pellionella L inneus, Tineola bisselliella H um m el, Trichophaga abrupt ella Wollaston and Borkhausenia speudospretella Stainton) and of methods for their control. W. Cotton Cell Nucleus: Twinning. R. A. Silow and S. G. Stephens. /. Hereditary, 1944, 35, 76-78 (through Plant Breed. Abstr., 1945, 15, 61). T w in­ ning in Sea Island cottons is usually of the diploid-hapl«id type, the haploid Component probably arising from the parthenogenetic development of an unfertilized second embryo-sac. Diploid-diploid Sea Island twins are rare and it is likely that one of the components is formed by chromosome doubling of A 272 9—Pure Science an antecedent haploid embryo. Twins are much less frequent in Asiatic cottons and are usually of the diploid-diploid type. In this case, normal fertilization of two embryo-sacs is the probable cause. C. Dextrinogen-amylase: Action on Starch. K. Myrback and P. J. Palmcrantz. Arkiv. Kemi, Min., Geol., 1944, 18 A, No. 6, 10 pp. (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1944, A III, 56). Partial adsorption of dextrinogen-amylase on bentonite, animal charcoal, aluminium oxide, kaolin, or silica (Permutit is almost non-adsorbent) does not influence its behaviour towards starch. The enzyme therefore appears to be homogeneous. The branched structure of the starch molecule is the probable cause of the retardation observed after rupture of approximately 16 per cent, of the glycosidic linkings. C. Silkworm Polyhedral Virus: Effect on Yeast. K. Yamafuji, K. So, and K. Soo. Biochem. Z., 1941-42, 311, 203-208 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, A III, 59). The virus from the blood of diseased Bombyx mori acquires catalase activity on alkaline hydrolysis. It inhibits the catalase activity of yeast in neutral suspension without affecting the respiration. When the yeast is in alkaline suspension, the virus accelerates respiration and, progressively, catalase activity. C. Fluoride Insecticides: Analysis. C. G. Donovan. /. Assoc. Offic. Agric. C hem ists, 1944, 27, 549-554- Details are given of five procedures for the deter­ mination of fluorine by the lead chlorofluoride method which are recommended, respectively, for (1) samples difficult to decompose such as cryolite, and others that contain aluminium or appreciable quantities of silicious material, (2) water-soluble fluorides in the presence of up to 50 per cent, organic matter such as flour, pyrethrum, tobacco powder, and derris or cube powders, which are readily decomposed without addition of powdered silica and are free from or contain only small quantities of aluminium or silicious compounds, (3) water-soluble samples in absence of organic matter and appreciable quantities of sulphates or aluminium salts, (4) sodium and magnesium silicofluorides in absence of aluminium and boron, with or without organic matter, (5) samples containing large quantities of organic matter or appreciable quantities of sul­ phates. Some typical results, including results obtained in collaborative tests, are presented. C. Aminoazoxylene: Determination. O. L. Evenson. /. Assoc. Offic. Agric. C hem ists, 1944, 27, 572-573. A method for the determination of amino­ azoxylene in D & C Red No. 18 (Oil Red OS), i-xylylazoxylylazo-2-naphthol, includes a separation of aminoazoxylene from a light petroleum (b.p. 30-65° C.) solution of the dye by extraction with an acidic water-alcohol mixture followed by removal of the intermediate from this mixture by steam distillation. Typical data, indicating 90 per cent, recoveries, are given. C. Horn Waste: Use in the Plastics Industry. S. S. Bhatnagar, A. jogarao and L. C. Verman. /. Sci. Ind. Research (India), 1944, 2, 166-171. The utilization of horns, hoofs and similar wastes is discussed and an account is given of investi­ gations of the possibility of using such products in the plastics industry. A urea-formaldehyde-horn product with 15-20 g. of urea for every 100 g. of horn powder could be used for making flat articles of simple shapes. With a ratio of 1:1, the material could be used to produce electrical switch parts, bottle caps, cups, etc., which were strong, hard, tough, glossy and water-resistant. The characteristics of the moulding powders and moulded samples are tabu­ lated; some were plasticised with salicylic acid and glycerin. Significant defects of these products were lack of flow, high water absorption, and a tendency to warp with time. Various attempts to improve their properties are described. Heating horn and hoof waste in an autoclave under controlled conditions results in the formation of insoluble and soluble degradation pro­ ducts. The former can be used as fertilizers. From the soluble portion acids and salts precipitate material suitable for use for plastics and the unpre­ cipitated products, after further processing, can be used for the preparation of air-foam solution for fire-extinguishing purposes. The precipitated material can be employed as a modifier for phenolic and cresylic acid resins and as an accelerator and modifier for certain natural resins. Promising results have been obtained by mixing the precipitated material with formaldehyde, the product showing satisfactory flow properties and low water absorption. Pro­ g-—Pine Science A273 perties of SHP-71 moulding powders and moulded products are tabulated and discussed. C. Native and Heat-denaturated Proteins: Reactivity. K. H. Gustavson. Biochem. Z., 1941-42, 311, 347-373 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, A II, 32). Current theories of the heat-denaturation of globular and fibrous proteins are discussed. Data are given for the solubility and swelling of delimed calf skin during pretreatment with o- i n .-hydrochloric acid, o- i n .-hydrochloric acid + 5 per cent, of sodium chloride, o- i n . -caustic soda, o- i n . -caustic soda + 5 per cent, of sodium sulphate, 3M.-acetic acid, 2M.-calcium chloride, and 4M.- urea and, after returning the samples to the isoelectric condition, for the uptake of chromium sesquioxide from aqueous basic chromium chloride, chromium sulphate and S0 3" —C r20 3, of hydrochloric acid from o- i n . -hydro­ chloric acid, of a synthetic tannosulphonic acid, and of tannic acid from a mimosa tanning preparation. Hide powder, denatured by treatment in water at 85° for 10 min., is compared with the native preparation. Tannin bound by the peptide and basic groups from various tannin preparations is deter­ mined; the uptake by denatured is greater than that by native hide powder. The uptakes of chromium sesquioxide and hydrochloric acid by wool and elastin are also generally increased on denaturation (10 min. and 5 hours in water at ioo°, respectively); silk fibroin shows no increase after 10 min. in water at ioo°. The uptake of chromium sesquioxide and tannin of native blood-fibrin, however, is diminished by denaturation, as is that of chromium sesquioxide by macerated muscle fibre. With increasing SO," concentration, the uptake of chromium sesquioxide by collagen increases, but to a greater extent with denatured collagen; "similar results are obtained in chromic chloride- sodium chloride systems. Comparative data for collagens of different origin are given. Untreated native collagen is not readily hydrolysed by trypsin, but pretreatment with, e.g. aqueous calcium chloride or, more especially, denaturation increases considerably the rate of digestion. The uptake of chromium sesquioxide and tannins by serum-albumin and ovalbumin decreases on denaturation; that of casein is unchanged. The above results are dis­ cussed with reference to the changes in complex-forming activity of keratin, collagen, and other proteins that occur with structural modifications (e.g. a-/3 keratin transformation, liberation of ionisable. groups) associated with denaturation. C. Proteins: Precipitation by Acetone. B. Jirg en so n s. Biochem. Z., 1941-42, 311, 332-340 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, A ll, 31). The pro­ portion of acetone required for precipitation of ovalbumin decreases with increase of temperature (15-45°), whilst that required for precipitation of gelatin increases (10-50°). Changes in p H (4■ 5-7 • 7) h ave only a slig h t effect on the proportion required to precipitate amino acids (glycine, leucine, aspartic and glutamic acid, camosine), the readiness with which they are precipitated not being proportional to the log. of the concentration of amino acid. Small changes in pH alter, sometimes very greatly, the precipitability of proteins (ovalbumin, gelatin, edestin) and their degradation products having molecular weight 1000-8000 (e.g. lysalbinic acid). A linear relationship usually exists between the log. of the concentration of these substances and the readiness with which they are precipitated. The precipitation method of determining the molecular weight of degradation products of protein is applicable only w here th e pH at the time of precipitation does not differ by more than o • 4-0 • 8 p H unit from the isoelectric point of the protein. ’ C. Proteins: Reaction with Aromatic Isocyanates. H. Fraenkel-Conrat, Mitzi Cooper and H. S. Olcott. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1945, 67, 314-319. When proteins were treated with aromatic isocyanates under anhydrous conditions and in the presence of pyridine, reaction occurred with: (1) the basic groups, including amino, guanidyl, and imidazole; (2) the acid groups, including car­ boxyl, thiol and phenolic; and (3) the primary amide, and probably part of the aliphatic hydroxyl groups. Under the same conditions the peptide groups of chain molecules did not react appreciably. The method described by Plimmer for quantitative liberation of the primary amide, amino and guanidyl nitrogen by the action of nitrous acid in mineral acid was applied successfully to proteins. This reaction made possible estimations of the extent of interaction of amide groups with phenyl isocyanate. The products of the A 274 9—Pure Science anhydrous reaction of phenyl isocyanate with alanine and with glycine and alanine anhydrides are described. C. Carnauba Wax Alcohols: Isolation. S. D. Koonce and J. B. Brown. Oil and Soap, 1944, 21, 231-234 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, B II, 24). Fractional crystallisation alone does not suffice to separate the individual alcohols, but fractional distillation of the free alcohols at 0 5 mm. effectively isolates the individual higher homologues; slight decomposition occurs and the fractions must be recrystallised. In this way, C28, C30 and C32 alcohols (the C,2 being more abundant than the C,„ homologue) were isolated in a state of not less than 95 per cent, purity. The nature of the individual alcohols was checked by conversion into derivatives, viz., acetates and corresponding fatty acids and esters. Small amounts of higher homologues and other substances of an unknown nature (probably not w-aliphatic alcohols) are also present in the unsaponifiables of carnauba wax. C. Organic Compounds: Pseudo-eutectic Syncrystallisation and Banding of Fibres. A. Kofler. Ber. deut. chem. Ges., 1943, 76, [B], 391-399 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, A I, 22). The concentration and tempera­ ture limits for the formation of pseudo-eutectics in the solidification of super­ cooled binary melts have been delineated for the following 12 systems: naph­ thalene and /8-naphthol (I), w-dinitrobenzene and fluorene (II), I and cinnamic acid, azobenzene (III) and a-naphthol, II and 2 :6-dinitrotoluene, III and 2:4- dinitrophenol (IV), II and /5-dinitrobenzene (V), IV and anthracene, V and a-naphthylamine, III and />-nitrophenol, o-nitrophenol and o-pihenylenediamine, and III and picric acid. Since the two compounds must crystallise at equal rates for this type of solidification, practically every binary melt of organic compounds should exhibit it at certain compositions. The results as a whole support the view that the formation of blnded fibres in a substance can be induced by the presence of a second substance. C. Sodium Laurate-Sodium Chloride-Water System: Kettle-wax Phase. J. W . McBain, R. C. Thorburn and C. G. McGee. Oil and Soap, 1944, 21, 227-230 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, B.II, 24). The existence of the newly-discovered soap phase “ kettle wax ” in this system has been confirmed and its equilibria and the lower boundaries of its existence on the phase diagram have been established by analytical and visual methods. The T t values were determined by observing the temperature of the appearance of a separate phase when isotropic solutions in sealed tubes were slowly cooled (an electrically heated “ oven ” constructed from Pyrex tubing was used). The boundaries of the isotropic solution at 90° were determined from pairs of tubes h av in g T{ points near the 90° isotherm, and the remaining boundaries found from the tie-lines were obtained by analysing the separate phases existing in the tubes at 90°. (After reaching equilibrium, the tubes were centrifuged at 90° for 15 min. to segregate the phases, then chilled in acetone-solid carbon dioxide, opened, and the solidified phases sampled and analysed). Kettle wax (which is quite distinct from “ waxy,” “ sub-waxy,” or “ super-waxy ” phases of anhydrous soap) exists in the system at temperatures above 75° and prob­ ably up to 215°, and occupies a dominant island position in the middle of the phase diagram between 60 and 70 per cent, soap and 3 and 7 per cent, sodium chloride. It is shown that the “ equilibria ” obtained on graining sodium laurate solutions are not, as previously assumed, between curd and lye, but usually between kettle wax and lye. At 90°, no curd is produced, but only kettle wax and lye are formed by salting-out sodium laurate, even when lye is saturated with sodium chloride. This sets a limit, therefore, to the amount of soap which can possibly be grained out in technical practice. The high sodium chloride content of the grained soaps in the full scale soap-boiling experiments of McBain and others is now explained as due to the presence of the (then unknown) kettle wax phase. C. Megapermselective Protamine Collodion Membranes: Preparation and Pro­ perties. C. W. Carr, H. P. Gregor and K. Sollner. /. Gen. Physiol., 1945, 28, 179-185. Porous collodion membranes cast on the outside of rotating tubes are treated for 48 hours with a solution of 2 per cent, protamine sulphate buffered at p H 11. After being washed thoroughly the membranes are dried in air for several hours, soaked in water for several hours, and removed from the tubes. Further drying in air but without support shrinks the membranes 9—Pure Science A275 slightly. The resulting membranes are designated " permselective ” or “ mega- permselective ” protamine collodion membranes. They are impermeable to cations but very permeable to univalent anions. These membranes regularly give characteristic concentration potentials of — 52 to — 53 mv. and (in o - i m . KC1) resistance of 0-5 to 15 ohms per membrane of 50 cm.2 area. This resist­ ance is several orders of magnitude smaller than that of the conventional dye and alkaloid-impregnated positive membranes. The megapermselective pro­ tamine collodion membranes can be kept either dry or in water for prolonged periods without detectable deterioration. They are quite smooth, have a regular shape, and stand considerable handling without breakage. C. High-polymer Solutions: Statistical Thermodynamics. T. Alfrey and P. D oty. ]. Chem. Phys., 1945, 13, 77-83. Previous theoretical treatments of the thermodynamics of high-polymer solutions have assumed that the entropy of mixing is independent of the magnitude of the heat of mixing. The present treatment considers energy interactions on the molecular scale and includes these in the configurational partition function. This leads to the derivation of expressions for the heat of mixing and the entropy of mixing which reflect the effect of solvent-solute interaction. One result of particular interest is an explicit expression for the temperature dependence of osmotic pressure. C. Plasticisers and Polymers: Interaction. Elizabeth M. Frith. Trans. Faraday Soc., 1945, 41, 90-101. The general problem of plasticiser compatibility is discussed and it is suggested that a comparative measure of the compatibility can be obtained from experiments that measure polymer / plasticiser inter­ actions (w). Experiments are described that measure the viscosity of dilute polymer solutions in suitable mixed solvents containing the plasticiser in ques­ tion. The slope of the curve connecting r/ap/c w ith c is related to the equilibrium extent of swelling of the polymer in the pure plasticiser and in general is a good comparative measure of the plasticiser compatibility. The effect of tem­ perature and composition of the mixed solvent is also discussed. The experi­ ments are considered in the light of a previous theory of the effect of solvent on the ijsp/c ratio; the results do not support the suggested view that the slope of th e rjsv/c — c curve is a simple linear function of w / k T . C. Polymers: Molecular W eights; Calculation from Sedimentation Velocity and Diffusion Data. I. Jullander. Th. Svedberg Anniv. Vol., 1944, 166-181 (through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, A I, 17). B y assum ing a logarithm ic form for the distribution function for the sedimentation constant s of a poly­ mer, similar to that used by Gralen, and a relation between the diffusion con­ s ta n t D and s of the form D = p j s(b~'), w here p an d b are constants, it is shown that molecular weights derived from sedimentation and diffusion data by application of Svedberg’s formula lie between the number- and weight-mean molecular weights. C. Starch Pastes: Viscosity; Effect of Electrolytes. A. Boutaric and Madeleine C hapeaux. C. r. Acad. Sci., 1942, 214, 949-950 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 236s). The viscosity of starch pastes proved to be analogous to those obtained for other colloidal suspensions, such as bentonite, agar-agar, gum arabie, colloidal sulphur and arsenic. Upon increasing the concentration of the electrolyte, the viscosity at first decreases, passes through a minimum, and thereafter increases. The concentration for which the minimum viscosity is observed and the value of this minimum are determined by the valency of the cation for electrolytes of the same anion. , C. Dyes: Absorption Spectra in Colloidal Solutions. S. E. Sheppard and A. L. Geddes. J. Chem. Phys., 1945, 13, 63-65. Many dyes give in aqueous solution an absorption spectrum differing considerably from that in organic solvents. The absorption spectrum of Pinacyanol in aqueous gelatin solutions differs from that in pure water and approaches that in organic solvents. Similar effects are observed in solutions of the colloidal detergent cetyl pyridinium chloride. They are attributed to a bilateral character of the lamellar micelles of the colloids, the elementary lamellae being polar and hydrophile on one side and non-polar and organophile on the reverse side. The possibility is indicated of diagnosing such amphipathic characteristics by comparative spectrophotometric measure­ ments with suitable dyes. C. Hansa Yellow: Spectrophotometric Analysis. G. R. Clark and S. H. New- burger. ]. Assoc. Offic. Agric. Chemists, 1944, 27, 576-581. Spectrophoto- 9—Pure Science metric data for chloroform solutions of purified Hansa yellow ( = Ext. D & C Yellow No. 5) are presented. Beer’s law is applicable; the absorption peak is at 413 m/t, and the extinction ratio E

Proteins: Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra. Gladys A. Anslow. /. A pplied P hysics, 1945, 16, 41-49. The origin and character of the bands in the ultra­ violet absorption spectra of typical organic molecules, the effects of substitu­ tions, conjugations and cyclization, and photochemical decompositions produced in simple organic molecules are discussed. The ultra-violet spectra of vitamins and proteins, and observations of the effects of irradiation on the spectra of proteins are reviewed. It is pointed out that ultra-violet spectroscopic evidence favours the cyclol and not the long-chain structure theory for proteins. C. Colorimeters and Colour Standards, Committee on Colorimetry, Optical Society of America. /. Optical Soc. America, 1945, 35, 1-25. An account is given of colorimeters, including colour comparators for chemical analysis, three- colour colorimeters using spectrum components, three-colour colorimeters using filters, rotatory dispersion colorimeters, empirical colorimeters, disk colorimeters using colour standards, and photo-electric colorimeters, and of transparent colour standards, colour standards of reflecting surfaces, the Munsell and Ostwald systems of colour standards, and various colour dictionaries and special colour standards. C. Colour Matchings: Distribution Around a Colour Centre. L. Silberstein and D. L. MacAdam. /. Optical Soc. America, 1945, 35, 32-39- Experimental data concerning the accuracy of visual chromaticity matching (automatically constant luminance) which were previously summarized graphically, are com­ pared with predictions based on the assumption of a normal frequency distri­ bution in two dimensions. The standard deviations and correlation coefficient of the two conventional coordinates vary from point to point in the chroma­ ticity diagram and values computed from the experimental data are presented. The major and minor axes, and the angle of inclination of the major axis of the ellipse representing the standard deviation of matchings in any specified direc­ tion from any central colour, are computed from the parameters of the distri­ bution function, as are the coefficients of the quadratic differential form representing noticeability of chromaticity difference. The conclusions previously published, based on graphical analysis of the data, are confirmed and strengthened by these results, eliminating the former dependence upon personal judgment in construction of ellipses through scattered points. C. Vision: Modified Photochemical Theory. P. Moon and Domina E. Spencer. J. Optical Soc. America., 1945, 35, 43-65. The photochemical theory of vision in its previous forms was unable to describe the recent dark-adaptation results which have been obtained with a large range of adaptation time and helios. The present study was made to see if the H echt equations could not be modified to bring them into agreement with modern experimental research and if they could not be formulated in a more precise manner. Five postulates are stated. The rest of the paper develops the mathematical consequences of these five postulates. Solutions are obtained for the differential equation under a wide variety of conditions and the effects of area and pupil diameter are formulated. In most cases, the predictions of the modified theory are in quantitative agree­ ment with experiment. In other cases, the experimental data are inconsistent and it is hard to determine whether the new theory is sufficiently accurate or not. In still other cases there are as yet no experimental data by which the predictions can be checked. The new mathematical formulation allows the calculation of an almost unbounded variety of results. C. Aluminium Mono-crystal: Twisting to Helicoidal and Fibrous Textures. R. Jacquesson. /. Phys. Radium, 1943, [viii], 4. 2ii-222( through Brit. Chem. Physiol. Abstr., 1945, AI, 16). Monocrystalline aluminium twisted to the point of fracture acquires a helicoidal structure, the metal appearing to behave as a perfectly elastic isotropic solid as regards the displacement of crystalline 9—Pure Science A 2 77 particles. This explains the formation of fibrous texture, along the preferential [ i i c ] axis, arising from alternating torsions. C. Gas Burner Flames: Structure and Stability. G. von Elbe and M. Mentser. j . Chem. Phys., 1945, 13, 89-100. It is shown that, contrary to Mache’s model of the progressive extinction of a flame from the burner rim, a combustion zone cannot vanish within a combustible stream. The depth of penetration of the quenching of the explosive reaction by the burner wall is calculated from values of burning velocity and critical boundary velocity gradient for flash­ back; it is compared with the limiting distance between plane-parallel plates and the limiting tube diameter for flame propagation. The thermal expansion of the gas normal and parallel to the combustion zone is discussed. An experimental analysis and discussion of partial entrance of the combustion zone into the burner tube (tilted flame) and partial attachment to the burner rim are given. New data have been obtained on hydrogen and acetylene flames. For instantaneous flashback, the boundary velocity gradients are independent of the tube diameter, as expected; these gradients are not a satisfactory criterion for flame stability because flashback can be readily induced by tilted flames. The limit of the tilted-flame range is represented by the semi-theo- retical equation g / (1 — ĄSu/g R )ł = const., where g is the boundary-velocity g radient, S u the burning velocity, and R the tube diameter. The boundary- velocity gradients for blow-off are again found constant over the laminar flow range. The compression of acetylene-oxygen streams by the combustion zone has been measured. The burning velocities calculated from these and additional thermodynamic data agree well with those determined from gas flow and cone surface. C. Rubber, Cellulose Fibres and Proteins: Magnetic Anisotropy. E ugenie Cotton-Feytis and E. Faure-Fremiet. C. r. Acad. Sci., 1942, 214, 996-998 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 234“). Specimens of rubber exhibit magnetic anisotropy when subjected to mechanical deformation. With stretched rubber, the anisotropy appears related to the parallel orientation of the molecular chains. This orientation is revealed by X-ray examinations of rubber " racke ” quenched in liquid air. Many organic compounds are naturally highly poly­ merized and possess fibrous structure. The fibre direction in the compounds is the direction preferred as the principal axis of a uniaxial crystal. Magnetic anisotropy has been noted in two groups of organic compounds: (a) cellulose fibres—cotton, hemp, nettle, flax and agave; (b) animal protein—collagen, keratin. Values of the magnetic anisotropy are tabulated. C. Rubbers: Physical Properties at Low Temperature. H. E. Greene and D. L. Loughborough. J. Applied Physics, 1945, 16, 3-7.. Rubbers can be characterized by the temperature at which they beoome brittle and by the width of the transition region. The sharpness of the transition between the elastic and the glassy states is greatest when the testing time is long compared with the molecular relaxtion times. Other physical factors such as sample shape, stress at which the modulus is calculated, and the previous history of the sample affect the absolute nature of the elastic properties measured. A test is described which gives the values of the elastic constants at slow rates of extension, at moderate extensions, on previously flexed samples. For these conditions the superiority of gum stocks at low temperature decreases in the order polybutadiene, natural rubber, Butyl, Neoprene FR. The comparative values of the stocks can be changed by compounding variations. Addition of plasticizer shifts the relative modulus / temperature curve down the tempera­ ture scale without producing a significant 'change in shape. Addition of re­ inforcing materials decreases the sharpness of the transition without changing the position of the curve. C. Rubber: Thermodynamics at. Small Extensions. D. R. Elliott and S. A. Lippmann. /. Applied Physics, 1945, 16, 50-54. On analysing their own data, Meyer and Ferri have concluded that, at small extensions, rubber is an ideal elastomer according to the definition that (dE/8L),p1T= o w here E is th e total internal energy, or intrinsic energy, L is the length of the sample in the direction of stress, P is the hydrostatic pressure of the medium in which the test is performed and T the absolute temperature. Further analysis of Meyer and Ferri’s data does not sustain their conclusion. If, however, (0E/0Z.)i71r= o is taken as a new criterion for an ideal elastomer, V being the volume of the 9—Pure Science sample, Meyer and Ferri’s data do indicate that rubber is ideal, at least for extensions up to 166 per cent. The new criterion implies that the valence angles do not store an appreciable amount of energy when the rubber is stretched. However, both the molecular orientation and the inter-atomic dis­ placements do influence the energy required for extension. C. Rubber-like Materials: Calender Effect. L. B ilm es. Trans. Farady Soc., 1945, 41, 81-87. When raw rubber and many rubber-like materials are calendered an anisotropy is produced. This ‘" calender-effect ” is due to some sort of " freezing in ” of the strains produced during . If a sheet of material exhibiting the effect is warmed it will contract, if free to do so, in the direction of calendering and expand in the other two directions. The per­ centage elongation at break of -the calendered sheet is smaller in the direction of calendering than in a direction perpendicular thereto. If the sheet is held so that it is not free to contract in the direction of calendering, when warmed a tension will be set up in this direction and an external stress will have to be exerted to prevent the contraction of the sheet. Tensile strength is lower in the direction of calendering than in a direction perpendicular thereto. These effects are illustrated by data obtained with calendered plasticised polyvinyl chloride sheet. Deformation in rubber-like materials is discussed, and a theory of the calender effect is proposed in terms of a mechanical model. The theory postulates the association of temperature-dependent yield values with the mechanisms of high elastic deformation and plastic flow. C. Anaerobic Cellulose-digesting Bacterium: Culture Physiology. R. E. Hun- g ate. / . Bacteriology, 1944, 48, 499-513 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 726°). An anaerobic cellulose-digesting bacterium, Clostridium cellobioparus, was isolated from the rumen of cattle. It differs from other bacteria of this group by being easily isolated and growing well in both glucose and cellulose. No tendency toward loss of cellulose-digesting capacity was observed during four years of pure culture. The growth requirements are satisfied by an inorganic medium with the addition of biotin and a carbohydrate. The organ­ ism will decompose a number of sugars. The fermentation products are acetic, formic and lactic acids, alcohol, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Other products amounting to 30 per cent, of the substrate have not been identified. Cellobiose is the chief digestion product of cellulose; no glucose is formed. C. Cellulose: Fermentation. J. Pochon and R. Sarciron. C. r. Acad. Sci., 1943, 216, 219-220 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 725s). Details are given of the cellulose fermented and the acetic and butyric acids, ethyl alcohol and glucose formed in the fermentation of cellulose by a culture of Terminosporus thermo- cellulolyticus under, th e following conditions: (1) anaerobiosis, (2) aeration, (3) with addition of antiseptic at height of fermentation. C. Amylase (a): Determination. Q. L an d is. Cereal Chemistry, 1945, 22, 1-11. Enzyme assay methods are classified according to their main feature or prin­ ciple and as to the author’s opinion of their relative convenience and precision. The concept of an enzyme unit as a micromol of the substance is proposed. The activity of an enzyme is expressed in rate of conversion units, so that the factor relating enzyme units apd activity units has the dimensions of time. A system of nomenclature is proposed, the enzyme unit being designated by the suffix -on or -am. Pending isolation of the pure enzyme, the unit must be defined in terms of its activity under a, precisely specified set of conditions, which may be entirely unlike any used for assay purposes. A sample is said to be standardised when its enzymic content is determined from its activity under these precisely defined conditions. Any assay procedure may then be calibrated by the use of this standard sample. C. Arrowroot Starch: Hydrolysis by Amylases. (1) K . M yrback an d B. Martelius. (2) K. Myrback, B. Ortenblad and W. Thorsell. Biochem. Z., 1944, 316, 414-423, 424-428 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 535s). (1) On hydrolysis with dextrinogen amylase arrowroot starch was fractionated into 22 different portions or rather mixtures of different a-dextrins. No fraction was found with a chain of more than 15 units. The hydrolysis curve shows a definite break, from which it is obvious that chains of less than 6 glucose residues are much more slowly hydrolysed by the enzyme. SacchaHfication as distinct from dextrinification indicates that the saccharogen amylase acts only on normal chains, whereas with branched chains only maltose, but no glucose 9—Pure Science A 279 is formed. (2) When arrowroot starch is hydrolysed by taka-diastase or an animal amylase the resulting a-dextrins give rise not only to maltose and glucose, but also to limit dextrins. Data are presented on the fraction of Emit dextrins obtained with taka-diastase, malt amylase and salivary amylase. C. Barley Starch: Hydrolysis by Amylases. (1) K. Myrbkck, G. Stenlid and G. Nycander. (2) K. Myrbax;k, K. Ahlborg and B. Orbenblad. B iochem .. Z., 1944, 316, 433-443, 444-448 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 536*). (1) The splitting of barley starch by dextrinogen amylase is similar to that of potato, arrowroot or corn starch. Only about 16 per cent, of the glucoside linkages are split quickly with release of a-dextrins. About half of these dextrins have normal structure and consist of 6-8 glucose residues, and are completely saccharified amylase. (2) The limit dextrins obtained from barley starch with the aid of amylases are similar to those obtained from other types of starch. The dextrins with molecular weight over 1,000 contain hexa-, tetra- and tri­ saccharides and isomaltose. Here also the first products of enzymic hydrolysis are the a-dextrins, with a similar occurrence of branching or chain lengths. These similar findings in starches from such a wide variety of plants indicate that the starches are apparently of the same, or very nearly the same, constitution. C. Corn Starch: Splitting by Dextrinogen Amylase. K . M y rb ack a n d B. Ortenblad. Biochem. Z., 1944, 316, 429-432 (through Chem. Abstr., 1945, 39, 436s). Corn starch is split by dextrinogen amylase like potato or arrowroot starch. About 16 per cent, of the glucoside linkages are rapidly hydrolysed (dextrinization), and about half of the dextrins have molecular weights of 1,000-1,200, i.e. they contain maltose combinations, and are almost completely saccharified by saccharogen amylase. The remaining dextrins with higher molecular weights have anomalous structures and are only partly saccharified. C. Absorption Spectrometer: Analytical Applications. M. G. Mellon. In d . Eng. Chem., Anal. Edn., 1945, 17, 81-88. Analytical applications of light absorption spectrometry involve determination of the absorptive capacity of materials for radiant energy in the wave-length range of 400 to 750 m / i. Qualitative uses depend upon the kind of absorption—that is, the nature and contour of the transmittance—wave length curve. Quantitative uses depend upon the intensity of absorption—that is, the height of the characteristic portion of the curve. Types of instruments used and their adjustment and calibration, and the presentation and interpretation of the data are discussed. Qualitative applications, as for the identification of constituents, the study of colorimetric standards, the selection of filters, and the control of variable factors, and quantitative applications in analytical determinations and colour analysis are reviewed. C.

Glass for Chemical and Electrical Apparatus: Composition and Properties. W. E. S. Turner. E ndeavour, 1945, 4, 3-16. Modern developments in glasses for technical purposes are reviewed under the headings: (1) The chemical and thermal endurance of glass (with special reference to '* Vycor ” glass), (2) The mechanical strength of glass, (3) Glasses and metals in combination, and (4) Glass fibre and its industrial uses. Among the many illustrations is a page of coloured pictures of strained glass plates and an element from a radio valve as seen in the Babinet compensator. A table of data gives the composition and physical properties of four glasses for chemical ware and six for electrical apparatus. ' C. Aniline: Determination in Alkylanilines. G. Spencer and J. E. Brimley. / . Soc. Chem. Ind., 1945, 64, 53-55. Piicryl chloride and aniline react to liberate one molecule of hydrochloric acid, which can be determined by titration with caustic soda. Investigations of this method are reported and satisfactory pro: cedures for various amounts of aniline in some of the commoner alkylanilines are described. Some typical results are given. C. Aspartic Acid and Serine: Microbiological Determinaton. J. L. Stokes and Marion Gunness. ]. Biol. Chem., 1945, 157, 651-659. Details are given of an accurate and specific microbiological method for the determination of aspartic acid and serine in purified proteins which is based on the quantitative response A 2 8 o io— Econom ics of Lactobacillus delbruckii to these amino acids as measured by titration of the lactic acid formed. Results obtained for aspartic acid and serine contents of casein, gelatin, silk fibroin, /3-lactoglobulin and egg albumin are compared with results obtained by other methods. The serine content of silk fibroin is given as 14-5 per cent. C. Cereal Products: Moisture Determination with Karl Fischer Reagent. R . H. Fosnot and R. W. Haman. Cereal Chemistry, 1945, 22, 41-49. The use of the Karl Fischer reagent for the determination of moisture in cereals and cereal products is discussed and details of the reagent and its standardization are given. A procedure for moisture determination is described. Data are pre­ sented showing the influence of time of contact of sample with reagent on results obtained for moisture in malt, wheat and corn grits, and the influence of particle size of barley malt on moisture values. It is pointed out that these conditions must be varied according to the material being tested. Data show­ ing the reproducibility of results obtained on barley malt and corn starch are also presented. The results of moisture determinations on miscellaneous cereal products, covering a range of about 1-80 per cent, moisture are compared with results obtained by the oven method and shown to be in good agreement. C. Urea: Colorimetric Determination. R. M. Archibald. J. Biol. Chem., 1945, 157, 507-518. A simple method for the colorimetric determinątion of urea in blood filtrates and urine depends on the production of a red colour when urea is heated in acid with a-isonitrosopropiophenone. Neither ammonia nor pro­ ducts ordinarily encountered in human blood filtrates interfere appreciably with the analysis. When applied to urine, the method gives urea values averaging 2 8 per cent, higher than the concentrations indicated by the urease method. Details of the procedure and typical results are given. The method cannot at present be recommended for the determination of urea when a high degree of accuracy is required. C. Starch A llyl Ether:' Preparation, Properties and Uses. P. L. Nichols, Jr., R. M. Hamilton, L. T. Smith and E. Yanovsky. Ind. Eng. Chem.., 1945, 37, 201-202. A method of preparing the allyl ether of starch by simultaneous hydrolysis and allylation of starch acetate with caustic soda and allyl bromide, and a method of direct allylation of starch with allyl chloride are described. Allyl starch prepared by these methods is a soft, gummy (but not tacky) material containing about two allyl groups per glucose unit. Products of lower or higher allyl content can be obtained, but they are either powdery or extremely sticky. When left in air, the gummy allyl starch becomes coated with a hard insoluble material, this effect being apparently due to oxidation and polymerisation of the partly oxidised compounds. Thin films of ally] starch deposited from solutions on surfaces of wood, glass and metal gradually become insoluble on exposure to air. The process of insolubilization can be catalysed by heat, chemical agents such as paint driers, and infra-red and ultra-violet radiation. Various resins and plastdcizers are compatible with allyl starch. It is suggested that allyl starch could be used as a protective and decorative coating, for coating and impregnating paper and textiles, as a thermosetting adhesive in the production of laminated products, and for the preparation of rigid plastics. C. 10—ECONOMICS British Cotton Industry: Efficiency. (1) T. Maloney. (2) B. B. Joshi. Indian Textile J., 1945, 55, (1) 220-225, 229 > (2) 226-229. ( ’) T he w riter discusses the “ Platt ” Report (Cotton Textile Mission to the U.S.A.) and gives particulars of many British machines that are at least the equivalent of similar American machines. The recommendations of the Report are summarized and the importance of changes in labour organisation and work allocation are emphasized. (2) The " Platt ” Report is read through Indian eyes and Indian mill conditions are discussed in the light of the findings and recommendations. C. British Cotton Industry: Efficiency and Organisation. Textile Recorder, 1945, 62, March, 36-38. Arising out of the Report of the Cotton Textile Mission to the U.S.A. the writer asks (1) Is it desirable to increase to the highest possible level the production per man-hour of the Lancashire operative, and (2) Is it feasible to re-organise the Lancashire industry on such a basis. io — E conom ics A281

His views are supported by the following data: (1) Average earnings and working hours in the British and American industries, October 1938, and January 1944. The figures show American wages per hour to be more than twice the British wages, though hours worked were fewer. The minimum wage per hour fixed by the American government is higher than the average wage in Lancashire. (2) The consumption of cotton piece-goods in the United States and other countries. The latest data for annual consumption of cotton goods per head are U.S.A. 23-1 lb., 17-3, France 5-0, U.S.S.R. 14-0, India 3-5 and 2-2 lb. A list is given of 18 clothing and other industries in the U.S.A. that consume more than 100,000 bales each of cotton annually. The argument is advanced that the potential home market in the United Kingdom is by no means saturated and the suggestion is made that some concentration of mills on smaller ranges of yarns or cloths, and also some direct linking of spinning concerns with manufacturers is desirable. In this connection, a list is given of the numbers of British manufacturers who make similar cloths; e.g. 217 who make sateens, 213 for poplins, 200 for twills, 165 for , and so forth. C. French Textile Industry: Capacity. R. Thiebault. Textile Manufacturer, 1945, 71, 50, 60. The writer reviews the present state of the French textile industries and gives particulars of the raw fibre required (metric tons per annum), supplies available in the French Empire, spinning mills and their total spindles, and weaving factories and their total looms, for cotton, wool, flax and hemp, jute, sisal, silk, rayon and rayon staple. C. Indian Cotton Industry: Organisation. Indian Textile J., 1945, 55, 230-232. Indian Trade Commissioner, Australia. Indian Textile ]., 1944, 55, 158-159. 10,030,000 spindles and 200,000 looms, consuming 4,800,000 bales of cotton and employing more than 500,000 people. In 1941-42 the mills produced 4,494 million yards of cloth. To maintain this “ flourishing statę ” after the war the writer feels that some measure of rationalisation is necessary but he strongly condemns a proposal to float an All-India organization embracing all the mills in one combine. C. Indian Cotton Textiles: Marketing in Australia and New Zealand, 1942-43. Indian Trade Commissioner, Australia, Indian Textile ]., 1944, 55, 158-159. The market for Indian textiles is discussed, with special reference to complaints about their quality, packing and design. By comparison with British textiles, the Indian imports made a slight advance in value in and duck, but great advances in unbleached and bleached goods, and in dyed, printed or coloured goods. C. Paint and Pigment Inventions: Patenting. W. A. Silvester. /. Oil

Rayon exports increased in 1944, especially those going to Canada. Total yarn exports for 1944 were over 16,000,000 lb., representing an increase of about 75 per cent, over the 1943 level. C. Textile Fibres: Consumption Trends in the United States. R. B. E vans. Cotton (U.S.), 1945, 109, No. 1, 80-84. Tables and charts are used to show the trends in the consumption of the various fibres in the United States in the period 1892-1943. Of an annual average consumption in 1940-1943 of 7,394 million lb., cotton accounted for 67-7, wool and the like 8-i, rayon 80, silk 0-3, flax 0-3, jute 8-4, hard fibres 7-0 and hemp 0-2, per cent. The average annual consumption per head of population in 1940-43 was 133 9 lb., of which cotton accounted for 37-4 lb. . C. American Trade-mark Rules for Processors and Finishers. V. A. Scher. Rayon Textile Monthly, 1944, 25, 644-645. In 1922 the Bradford Dyers’ Associa­ tion sought to register one of their trade marks at the American Patent Office but were at first refused on the grounds that the B.D.A. Ltd. neither buy nor sell the goods.which they process and finish. Later, the Patent Office accepted the argument that the B.D.A. Ltd. are in the position of a co-manufacturer rather than of a service organisation like a firm of dyers and cleaners, and that a trade-mark would be of benefit to the public in that it would be a guarantee of the quality of the dye and finish. It is observed that the decision has opened the door for processors and finishers to secure such protection, provided that the mark is a collective one, indicating the work of the firm rather than the quality of the actual goods. C. British Rayon and Silk Goods: Output in War-time. Textile Mercury &• A rgus, 1945, 112, 477-481, 485-489. The activity of the British rayon and silk industries is expressed in the following tables: (1) Exports of yarn and all-rayon and rayon mixture fabrics, 1935-1944 (Australia separately); (a) Percentages of total United Kingdom exports of rayon yarn to various countries; (3) Ditto for fabrics; (4) Imports by Australia of rayon fabrics from various countries; (5) and (6) Imports of cotton, wool, linen, rayon and silk yarns and fabrics by Eire. Statements by Messrs. Courtaulds and the Silk and Rayon Users' Associa­ tio n are q uoted. C. Textile Wholesale Prices, January, 1945. Bd. Trade J., 1945, 151, 64. T he Index numbers for January are Cotton 1606, Wool 184-5, Other textiles 138-4, All articles 167-2 (1930=100). C. United Kingdom Exports, 1944. Bd. Trade J., 1945, 151, 57-59- Tables are given showing exports (other than munitions) recorded monthly in each of the last three years, with comparable figures for 1938, value and volume figures for each class of exports for 1942, 1943 and 1944, and the regional distribution of exports for 1938, 1942, 1943 and 1944. For 1944 as a whole, exports were ^25 million more than in 1943 but ^13 million less than in 1942. The volume of exports of textile goods was, as in 1943, 36 per cent, of the pre-war figure. A further reduction in exports of woollen and worsted goods was offset by a sub­ stantial rise in those of rayon piece-goods coupled with a small recovery for cotton goods as a whole. A rise of one-sixth for cotton piece-goods was accom­ panied by a considerable reduction in exports of cotton thread and more finished manufactures. The volume index numbers for 1942, 1943, 1944 are cotton yams and manufactures 40, 31, 33, woollen and worsted yams and manufactures 62, 39, 31, silk and rayon yarns and manufactures 166, no, 130, manufactures of other textile materials 39, 23, 19 (1938=100). C. World Market for Wool Textiles. D. G. Price. W ool R ec., 1945, 67, 449-455. The post-war transition period in the wool trade and the subsequent long-term situation are surveyed, questions discussed being the maintenance of controls and systems of export trading. A policy of freer multilateral trade is advocated. W. Research: Commercial Aspects. W. Garner. W ool R ec., 1945, 67, 191-198. The following aspects of scientific exploration are discussed: —fundamental research (speculative), inventive research (utilisation of fundamental discoveries to the best advantage), development (utilisation of new and old processes in the best way for a particular purpose), efficiency (improvement of existing pro­ cesses), and market research (commercial utilisation of the results of research). Other aspects of research discussed are its organisation, the position of the u —Industrial Welfare, Industrial Psychology and Education A283 research worker, and obstacles to research, with special reference to the resist­ ance of organised labour to new inventions, and the question of mass-produc- tion. The development of substitutes for olive oil in combing is described to illustrate the relative assistance to research afforded by the vertical and horizontal grouping of textile operations. W. The Wool Industry in 1945. I. C. Ross. Pastoral Rev., 1945, 55, 21-22. Since January 1944 measures have been announced which, when the necessary legisla­ tive sanction has been secured, will commit Australia to a large-scale programme of sheep and wool research and publicity. The problem of disposing of surplus wool stocks is one of the long-term future. The processing of a greatly increased volume of wool in Australia is not advisable, as to dictate to wool users in other countries whether they should import tops, yarn or fabric from Australia instead of raw wool, would stimulate their use of synthetic fibres; this is confirmed by the opinion of the American Wool Council. The interests of the growers should cbntinue to be protected by a guaranteed reasonable price. W.

11—INDUSTRIAL WELFARE, INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY, AND EDUCATION Butanone and Acetone: Poisoning and Fire Hazards. Adelaide R. Smith and May R. Mayers. Industr. Bull., 19414, 23, No. 5, 174-176 (through Bull. Hygiene, 1945, 20, 30). Reports are given of two cases of acute intoxication due to exposure to butanone and acetone simultaneously in waterproofing the seam§ of raincoats. Two Vinylite resins were being applied by brushing, one dissolved in acetone and the other in butanone. Two brushings were given with acetone as the solvent and one with butanone as the solvent, allowing two hours to elapse between the brushings. No precautions were taken to remove the fumes. Air tests disclosed concentrations of butanone ranging from 398 to 561 p.p.m. and of acetone from 330 to 495 p.p.m., or an accumulated concentration of both together in the vicinity of 1,000 p.p.m. The first patient complained of gastric distress one morning, collapsed, and was removed to hospital in coma that afternoon. She recovered rapidly and was discharged two days later. The second fainted while at work; the fainting was followed by a convulsion; a few hours later she had recovered and was allowed to go home. No precautions were taken against fire though large numbers of garments were hung up to dry and produced an inflammable mixture in the air. At another plant doing similar work symptoms of low-grade intoxication were detected and also dermatitis from exposure to butanone; several workers developed numbness in the shoulders or legs. The exposure here was to butanone alone, in concentra­ tions ranging from 300 to 600 p.p.m. C. Textile Chemists: Education and Status. (1) S. C. L in d . (2) H . S. T ay lo r. (3) A. F raser, J r. Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1945, 34, 3-7, 7-10, 10-13. (1) T he minimum requirements for the professional training of chemists recommended by the American Chemical Society cover instruction in chemistry, physics and mathematics, English language, including the writing of technical reports, French or German, and a study of the humanities, the whole forming a four- year undergraduate course. The University of Minnesota has developed five- year combination courses in chemistry, chemical engineering or engineering and business administration, leading to two bachelor degrees at the end of the five years. It is suggested that similar five-year combination courses could be arranged between any field of technology and humanistic-social studies. A suggested curriculum for a textile chemistry course is compared with curricula for chemical engineering and chemistry courses. (2) In a discussion of the problem of higher education and research in the textile field, it is pointed out that the best solution appears to lie in a central institute for research in textiles affiliated with an educational institution, with full collaboration between the two. The educational institution would be responsible for the education in the basic disciplines of the subject at the graduate level and would grant higher degrees, whilst the institute for textile research would provide the specialized training pertaining to the textile field and also determine, supervise and pro­ vide the facilities for the research work performed in fulfilment of thesis requirements for the higher degrees. The main objectives of such a research A284 11—Industrial Welfare, Industrial Psychology and Education institute should be (a) the prosecution of research in the general field of the subject, its physics, chemistry, biological and engineering aspects, (b) the discovery and dissemination of research information covering scientific and economic aspects of the industry and (c) the training in the methods of research of specially selected personnel at the graduate-student level. As an example it is shown how the Textile Research Institute could collaborate with Princeton University. (3) Extracts are given from the 1941 and 1944 Surveys of the Economic Status of the Members of the American Chemical Society, showing the distribution of professional chemists employed in textile mill-products industries and monthly salary rates according to years of professional experi­ ence and educational level. Considerable increases in the demand for textile chemists occurred in the period 1926-43. Salary rates for 1941 indicate that the earning capacity of textile chemists ranks high when contrasted with that of other chemists. Differences between different branches of the industry, salaries in relation to years of experience, and the general relationship of chemists’ earnings to those of chemical engineers and other workers, are discussed. C. Institute of Textile Technology, Charlottesville, Virginia: Programme. J. F . Sm ith. Cotton (U.S.), 19(45, I0 9' No. 1, 77-79, in . In a general article on research and the textile industry the writer refers to the Institute of Textile Technology, Charlottesville, Va., as a place for training men in the research methods of chemistry, physics and engineering as applied to textiles. It is chartered to grant advanced degrees. The dual function—education and research—is emphasised. C. Du Pont Research Departments: History and Organization. E. K. Bolton. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1945, 37, 107-115. For about 100 years the Du Pont Com­ pany manufactured only black powder, dynamite, and smokeless powder and early research activities were limited to the explosives field. Since 1904 activities have been extended to include nitrocellulose and other lacquers, coated fabrics, plastics, pigments, dyes, rayon, etc. In 1911 a centralized chemical department was established for all research activities of the company. In 1921, under a plan for complete reorganization, the manufacturing depart­ ments were organized with research divisions responsible only to the general managers of the departments and the central chemical department was devoted to pioneering-applied and fundamental research. The research activities inalude (1) improvement in existing processes and products, (2) development of new products, and (3) fundamental research. Research in chemical and mechanical engineering and industrial toxicology is also carried out. Each of the manufacturing departments has a technical sales service to help the con­ sume!; in the most efficient use of Du Pont products. The research organiza­ tion today comprises 33 research laboratories, with a technical and non­ technical personnel of about 3,500 men and women. Outstanding research achievements include the production of dyes and chemicals, neoprene, moisture- proof sheet cellulose, ammonia and other products of high-pressure synthesis, Duco nitrocellulose lacquers, and nylon. C. Social Surveys: Reliability. J. Goldman. D iscovery, 1945, 6, 53-57. The size of sample to be used in social surveys is discussed. In support of the opinion that a small-sized survey is more likely to supply a reliable picture than a large one, results obtained in a sampling experiment with questionnaires issued to doctors are quoted. The importance of obtaining a fair representation is emphasized and illustrated by examples, and it is suggested that the selec­ tion of the sample should so far as possible be taken out of the hands of the investigator and concentrated at headquarters where a random sample can be more easily laid out. The need for a careful application of external tests to guard against the danger of accepting a sample which is unrepresentative, and for internal checks for detecting interviewer’s bias is pointed out. The use of a large number of investigators chosen from different social strata is recom­ mended. The wording of questions is discussed, and the rare possibilities of direct check on survey results are noted. C.