Woods employed by Gran Chaco Indians to make fire drills Pastor Arenas & María Eugenia Suárez Abstract Résumé ARENAS, P. & M. E. SUÁREZ (2007). Woods employed by Gran Chaco ARENAS, P. & M. E. SUÁREZ (2007). Bois employés par les indiens Indians to make fire drills. Candollea 62: 27-40. In English, English and du Gran Chaco pour la confection de forets servant à la production de feu. French abstracts. Candollea 62: 27-40. En anglais, résumés anglais et français. The aim of this research project was to study the materials and Le but de cette étude est de connaître les matériaux et les tech- the techniques used by Gran Chaco Indians to make fire drills, niques utilisés par les peuples autochtones du Grand Chaco as well as their use. Men and women from nine contemporary pour faire des forets servant à la production de feu, ainsi indigenous peoples were interviewed on fire drills, and an que leur utilisation. Des hommes et des femmes issus de neuf extensive bibliographic investigation of historical, ethno- groupes ethniques indigènes contemporains ont été intervie- graphic, and ethnobotanical sources was also conducted on wés relativement à l’utilisation de forets pour produire du feu, that topic. The resulting documentation informs of the plant en complément des recherches bibliographiques étendues sur species and the characteristics of the instruments used, as well des sources historiques, ethnographiques et ethnobotaniques as details on the methods of fire drilling. Twenty-two species ont été menées sur ce sujet. Les informations recueillies were recorded as raw material, including bushes, trees and ont permis de connaître les espèces employées et les caracté- lianas, all of them typical of the Gran Chaco flora. Fire drills ristiques des instruments utilisés, ainsi que les détails des were used by Gran Chaco Indians until the 20th century, but techniques utilisant les forets pour la production de feu. are now obsolete. Vingt-deux espèces ont été reconnues comme étant utilisées, incluant des arbustes, des arbres et des lianes tous caractéris- tiques de la flore du Chaco. La production de feu par forets Key-Words a été utilisée par les indiens du Grand Chaco jusqu’au XXe Argentina – Paraguay – Gran Chaco – Ethno botany – Fire siècle, mais n’a plus cours aujourd’hui. drill – Indian – Woody plant Addresses of the authors: PA: Centro de Estudios Farmacológicos y Botánicos (CEFYBO-CONICET). Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Paraguay 2155, Piso 16, 1121, Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail: [email protected] MES: Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Laboratorio 9, Pabellón 2, Ciudad Univ ersitaria, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail: [email protected] Submitted on July 13, 2006. Accepted on March 12, 2007. ISSN: 0373-2967 Candollea 62(1): 27- 40 (2007) © CONSERVATOIRE ET JARDIN BOTANIQUES DE GENÈVE 2007 28 – Candollea 62, 2007 Introduction Fire is a primary need for humans in their daily life; it is 13-17; LEROI-GOURHAN, 1992: 65-74). MONTANDON (1934: an essential source of heat and light, and for cooking meals. It 261-269) has developped a typology which was particularly is also used for other purposes, such as making tools, hunting, useful for guiding this study, basically because of its simplic- and religious ceremonies. Various scientific disciplines, such ity and depth. He states that there are four aboriginal methods as ecology, anthropology of food and agronomy, deal with this of firemaking: a) friction, b) percussion, c) air compression topic, either because of the importance of fire in daily domes- and d) concentration of the rays of the sun. The documenta- tic life, or because of its significance as a modifying element tion concerning South American Indians excludes the last two of the environment. However, ethnobotany does not give fire and states that the use of any specific method basically the significance it deserves. Although its use directly involves depended on the raw material available in the surrounding envi- important categories of use such as the supply of suitable fire- ronment (NORDENSKIÖLD, 1929: 73; MONTANDON, 1934: 261- wood, fire fans, tinder boxes, controlled burning and cooking, 269; COOPER, 1949: 283; LEROI-GOURHAN, 1992: 66). Gran among others, they are not usually considered in a study of the Chaco Indians in particular would have exclusively resorted subject. This research project outlines and deals with one of to wood because of the lack of stones and metals in the region. those particular topics; it brings together uses and knowledge The instrument that is the subject of this research is commonly on the traditional instruments used by Gran Chaco Indians to known as «fire drill», «hand drill» or «simple hand drill». It make fire. was used throughout South America, except in Tierra del The indigenous groups of the Gran Chaco were hunters, Fuego (NORDENSKIÖLD, 1929: 73; MONTANDON, 1934: 261- gatherers and fishers, who also developed an incipient agri- 269; COOPER, 1949: 283). Friction is the technique applied to culture based on a relatively low number of cultivated plants. the use of hand drills, specifically a kind of friction known Traditional ways of living still exist in those indigenous as «simple rotary friction» (GONZALO, 1998: 248), «friction settlements located far away from urban centres. Data on their by circular percussion» (MONINO, 1987: 586-587; LEROI- ethnography, social organisation and other information about GOURHAN, 1992: 69), or «friction by simple turn» (MONTANDON, their traditional lives have been summarised by several authors 1934: 262). (BALDUS, 1931; MÉTRAUX, 1946; SUSNIK, 1974; CORDEU & The aim of this study is to compile the wooden resources DE LOS RÍOS, 1982; BRAUNSTEIN, 1983; SUSNIK & CHASE- employed and the characteristics of fire drills among the SARDI, 1995; BRAUNSTEIN & MILLER, 1999; ARENAS, 2003). various Amerindian groups of the Gran Chaco. Details about It is quite common to find that in studies concerning the the technique of fire drilling and the instrument’s use in the relations of Gran Chaco societies with nature, a large number region at the present are also emphasised. In a more general of stories and other formal narratives rise during fieldwork that aspect, this paper is part of an extensive ethnobotanical research refer to events that occurred in mythical times. Among the first project, whose main purpose is to document the knowledge, narratives, stories about the origin of fire appear almost at the employment and representations of plants among the indige- same time as those about the origin of humans. Certainly in nous populations in the region. the past Gran Chaco Indians did not make figurative artistic expressions (pictograms, sculptures, painted ceramics, etc.) to represent the discovery of fire. However, oral narratives – def- Materials and methods initely their most outstanding artistic expression – abounded The information and materials on which this study is based in stories that reveal two contrasting worlds: one of dispos- were collected between 1973 and 2005, in the course of sessed humankind lacking firemaking methods, and another ethno botanical research explorations among nine indigenous of humankind already benefitting from the possession of fire. peoples of the Gran Chaco (Fig. 1): Ayoreo, Choroti, Chulupí, This substantial change is greatly valued in all of these narra- Lengua-Maskoy, Maká, Pilagá, Toba, Toba-Pilagá and Wichí, tives, which also stress that fire is a transcendent gift given to which belong to four different linguistic families. During the humans by cultural heroes or divinities. There are many ref- fieldwork, oral testimonies were collected from qualified erences to this topic in the anthropological literature concern- Amerindian interviewees, both male and female. The criterion ing the different indigenous groups (NORDENSKIÖLD, 1912; used for the selection of informants was a person’s reliability MASHNSHNEK, 1972; MASHNSHNEK, 1973; BÓRMIDA, 1974; and depth of knowledge. In general, the best informants were BÓRMIDA & CALIFANO, 1978; ARENAS, 1981; WILBERT & older men and women who were alive at times when their cul- SIMONEAU, 1982; SUSNIK, 1984-1985). ture was subjected to fewer of the changes induced by contact Several authors have tried to devise a typ ology of archaic with contemporary society than today. Each of the nine indige- techniques of firemaking (MONTANDON, 1934: 261-269; nous peoples we worked with has its own language, and in all COOPER, 1949: 283-292; PERLÈS, 1977: 31-41; GARCÍA, 1985: cases this is the language they use for communication in Woods employed by Gran Chaco Indians to make fire drills – 29 Fig. 1. – Geographical location of the indigenous peoples of the Gran Chaco mentioned in this study. 30 – Candollea 62, 2007 their everyday lives. Interviews were carried out using contact – fire drill, flint and steel: materials, morphology and use; languages: Spanish or Guaraní. In cases in which the person different parts of the fire drill; names, materials; number did not speak either of these languages, the assistance of a of holes in the hearth, number of times they can be used; translator was required. Data were recorded on tapes and in idem for the drill-stick; handle and replacement of the field books. active end of the drill-stick; Originally, obtaining information on fire drills was not the – tinder and tinder-boxes: tinder-box (armadillo’s tail, main or specific purpose of our research. In every case, data on horns); materials used as tinder and previous processes this topic were obtained from general ethnobotanical surveys applied; which had the classifying index «Fire» among their specific items – fireguards (of leaves or wings); preparation of wings for (ARENAS, 1995: 167). In each indigenous group, a variable the fireguard (opened by means of ashes or by heat; birds number of people were interviewed, depending on a range of used); fireguards are dealt with in the respective item; circumstances such as time of permanence in situ, degree of – pokers; woods used.