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Synthetic Strategies in Chemistry SYNTHETIC STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY NATIONAL CENTRE FOR CATALYSIS RESEARCH INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, MADRAS April 2008 PREFACE Synthesis has a central role in the development of Science especially in Chemistry. The strategies adopted in synthesis of molecules and materials have undergone considerable changes in recent times and it was felt that it may be necessary to assess and assimilate information on this topic in a single place. Though, no originality is claimed to the contents on this topic, the very fact that the available information on this topic is available in one place itself is considered to be a major step forward. To the best of our knowledge, such an attempt has not yet been made or available in literature, though various comprehensive assessment of various methods have been made and reported in literature. The contents of this ebook have been generated from the lectures delivered to the summer programme for the Children’s Club during April 14 to April 30, 2008 at the National Centre for Catalysis Research (NCCR). The members of the research community of NCCR are responsible for the compilation of information on each of the topics presented in this ebook. We have felt the need for a comprehensive compilation on this topic for various reasons and we do hope the scientific community will also feel the same way. It is possible that coverage may not be comprehensive. However, it is our first attempt to tread into an unknown territory in Science and make a compilation. In this sense this can be considered as our humble first attempt. The chapters have been contributed by individuals and hence the language and style may not be uniform though we tried very little to make it uniform. We are grateful to Mr. Narayanaswamy, Secretary, Children’s Club, Mylapore, Chennai 600 004 for his continuous faith in us and also for providing us opportunity year after year to conduct such programmes. The members of NCCR consider this as a privilege and wish to record their grateful thanks to him. They also acknowledge the support provided by the administration of IIT, Madras to conduct such programmes. We do hope this ebook will receive the attention it deserves. We shall be grateful for any useful feedback on this exercise, so that we will be able to implement them in our future endeavours. Chennai 600 036 April 18, 2008 B.Viswanathan i Content S. No. Title of the Chapter Page No. 1 Introduction to Synthetic Strategies in Chemistry 1.1-1.7 2 Synthetic Methods based on Activating the Reactant 2.1-2.24 3 Methods based on Activating the Reacting Substance 3.1-3.28 4 Synthesis of Materials based on Solubility Principle 4.1-4.21 5 Sol-gel Techniques 5.1-5.18 6 Template based Synthesis 6.1-6.18 7 Micro-emulsion Techniques 7.1-7.15 8 Synthesis by Solid State Decomposition 8.1-8.11 9 Newer Synthetic Strategies for Nano materials 9.1-9.23 10 The Role of Synthesis in Materials Technology 10.1-10.34 11 Electrochemical Synthesis 11.1-11.10 12 Newer Reactions and Procedures: Catalytic and Non catalytic 12.1-12.24 13 Synthesis Strategies – from Laboratory to Industry 13.1-13.8 14 Synthesis of Chemicals from CO 2 14.1-14.14 15 Carbohydrates to Chemicals 15.1-15.21 16 Some Conceptual Developments in Synthesis in Chemistry 16.1-16.52 17 Computational Basics Underlying the Synthetic Strategies 17.1-17.23 ii Chapter - 1 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHETIC STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Prof. B. Viswanathan INTRODUCTION One of things that make chemistry unique among the sciences is the synthesis. Chemists make things, new pharmaceuticals, food additives, materials, agricultural chemicals, coatings, adhesives, and all sorts of useful new molecules. The chemists prepare them from simpler more readily available starting materials. There are two aspects to organic synthesis first the development of a synthetic strategy or plan of action and the second the actual implementation of that plan in a chemical laboratory. Synthesis of molecules and materials are important aspect of the development of science. In the past, synthesis is based on some of the Name reactions in organic and Inorganic chemistry. The attempts to synthesis new molecules and materials have always depended on the experience and extrapolation of the existing knowledge to new situations and new synthesis of molecules. However in the last two decades, the synthesis has become a well established science going beyond the recollection and adoption of the existing procedures. The normal procedures so far adopted for the synthesis of materials are (i) precipitation based on solubility principle ( based on thermodynamic quantities) (ii) Bond formation and bond breaking usually brought about by reagents, participating species and leaving entities (these are often kinetically controlled); processes depending on the strength of binding already existing or being formed. (iii) simple solid state reactions often controlled by diffusion (iv) ligating or binding species These procedures have been satisfying the normal curiosity of the chemists for new molecules. However today, Chemistry is the study of molecules, materials of functionalities and hence they have to be synthesized, built, and architectured and designed 1.2 Introduction to Synthetic Strategies in Chemistry Today the molecules and materials are for many applications.. Every sector of life requires molecules/materials with functionalities, stability, as well as durability under adverse conditions. Molecules of highly active functionalities with stability, durability and appropriate stress- strain relationship (global properties of dissolution, digestion, attachment to species and others) are the demands of today. Most often the materials required have to be in the meta stable state but should be stable enough to be useful in devices. The exploitable properties must be able to be controlled by Size, shape, orientation and morphology. Over the last thirty years, synthetic chemists have developed an assortment of routes to obtain optically pure compounds. Many strategies include the use of pure starting materials with chiral centres. In addition, the utilization of chiral auxiliary groups have been implemented to achieve an increase in stereo-selectivity and to simplify the purification process. Lastly, asymmetric catalysis using enzymes or inorganic catalysts has also been used to afford the desired stereochemistry. At this stage the important questions to be faced are: 1. In the case of organic chemistry how can one build the desired carbon skeleton? 2. How does one introduce the necessary functional groups? 3. How does one control the regio- and stereochemistry of reactions? These questions can be expanded to any extent depending on the need for molecules and materials. The chemical synthesis of complex organic molecules is integral to many advances that enhance the quality of life, such as novel disease treatments, agrochemicals with improved properties and advanced materials for high performance technology and biotechnology. The methods for synthesizing complex organic molecules have traditionally pieced molecules together in a linear manner, gradually building complexity into the molecule. This can be a very time consuming process, and synthetic routes to molecules can end up being incredibly long, requiring extensive resources and manpower. Since 2000 pioneering approaches to synthesis that combines two-directional synthesis and tandem reactions. Linear symmetrical trifunctional compounds are synthesized through use of two-directional synthesis and a range of tandem reactions are then applied to generate a range of diverse structures from these simple substrates. Two- Synthetic Strategies in Chemistry 1.3 directional synthesis, when used in combination with tandem reactions, can lead to significantly faster strategies for the synthesis of complex molecules. The recognition of the strong dimensionality-dependent physical-chemical properties of inorganic matter at the nanoscale has stimulated efforts toward the fabrication of nanostructured materials in a systematic and controlled manner. Surfactant-assisted chemical approaches have now advanced to the point of allowing facile access to a variety of finely size- and shape-tailored semiconductor, oxide and metal nanocrystals (NCs) by balancing thermodynamic parameters and kinetically-limited growth processes in liquid media. While refinement of this synthetic ability is far from being exhausted, further efforts are currently made to provide nanocrystals with higher structural complexity as means to increase their functionality. By controlling crystal miscibility, interfacial strain, and facet-selective reactivity at the nanoscale, hybrid nanocrystals are currently being engineered, which consist of two or more chemically different domains assembled together in a single particle through a permanent inorganic junctions. POROUS MATERIALS This is one class of materials which has seen a tremendous advancement in the synthetic strategies. Porous solids have high scientific and technological interest. They are able to interact with atoms, ions and molecules at surfaces and throughout the bulk of material. Distribution of sizes, shapes and volumes of the void spaces in porous materials are directly related to their ability to perform desired function in particular application. High SA/volume ratio provides a strong driving force to speed up thermodynamic processes that minimize free energy In high surface area materials the active sites are more isolated. Materials with uniform pores can separate molecules on basis of size. They are also employed as adsorbents, catalyst supports, and electrode materials. The porous solids can be classified according to the range of pore sizes available in them. A simple classification is shown in Scheme 1.1. 1.4 Introduction to Synthetic Strategies in Chemistry Porous materials Microporous mesoporous macroporous eg: ZSM -5,AlPO MCM-48,SBA-15,CMK-n photonic crystals P.D < 2 nm 2-50 nm > 50 nm SA: 300-500 m 2g-1 1000-3000 m 2g-1 10-500 m 2g-1 Scheme 1.1 A simple classification of porous substances. The porous architecture is normally built in various ways.
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