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Psychoanalyst’s Values and

Romano Biancoli

Paper presented at the XI International Forum of the IFPS to commemorate the 100th birthday of Erich Fromm which took place in May 2000 in New York. First published in: International Forum of , Oslo (Scandinavian University Press) Vol. 11 (No. 1, March 2002), pp. 10-17. Reprint in: Fromm Forum (English edition), Tübingen (Selbstverlag), No. 6 (2002), pp. 9-14.

Copyright © 2002 and 2009 by Taylor and Francis. - Copyright © 2011 by the Estate of Romano Biancoli, Via Antonio Codronchi, 110, I-48100 Ravenna

tionalizations which conceal underlying uncon- „I pray God that he may rid me of God“ scious beliefs. ()

Radical : Introduction Real Values and Illusory Values

Countertransference, though only since the late Values and theories are very closely related. 40’s, is one of the most tormented concepts in Values require that theories be developed co- the history of psychoanalysis because it directly herently, and theories take on values in their concerns the analyst’s ability to analyze. The lit- premises, sometimes only in implicit ways. Radi- erature on the subject demonstrates that coun- cal humanism’s value orientation is to see the tertransference is defined differently by different root of everything in man. It sets out from the authors since in this field, perhaps more than in presupposition that nature exists as a others, „analysts of different persuasions use the characteristic of the human species, common to same words to convey widely different mean- all human , who not only have a similar ings“ (1:281). But analysts’ values and philoso- anatomy and physiology but also the same psy- phical and scientific convictions carry even more chic structure. This makes the human race a weight than differences in language with regard unity and explains the comprehensibility of even to countertransference concepts and the analytic the most distant cultures, their art, their myths, relationship. My main assumption is that the their dramas (2:55). It is a theoretic vision which technique adopted by psychoanalysts derives finds its clinical application mainly in the „cen- from their values and the general theory of hu- ter-to-center“ correlation between analyst and man beings to which, consciously or uncon- patient (3,4): the analyst can understand the pa- sciously, they subscribe. tient to the extent that he himself experiences My standpoint comes from Erich Fromm’s what the patient experiences, in accordance conception of radical humanism and its conse- with Terence’s maxim: Nihil humani a me quences on the plane of analytic technique. alienum puto (Nothing human is alien to me) Humanistic and non-humanistic values, real val- (5:52). Every individual, as a member of the ues and illusory values, are interwoven in the human race, is potentially capable of experienc- analytic work, above all in its unconscious as- ing every human experience. pects. So the analyst must be aware not only of Many humanistic principles are fundamental the clinical consequences of his conscious beliefs to the constitutions of western nations and are but also of the possible operation therein of ra-

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furthermore put forward by the most important the functioning requirements of society and its and widespread religions. Schoolteachers teach economy. They act in a diffuse manner and human values to children and adolescents. But press powerfully on the mind without the per- the fact is that in our societies different values son aware of them. prevail, based on money, power and success, Psychoanalysis may bring to light even the which are at the base of the economic function- subtlest infiltrations of non-humanistic values ing. „Social character“ orientations (6) are influ- into the mind, and this is part of the analyst’s enced by these powerful non- humanistic situa- formative training. But even in a well analyzed tions which tend to become the actual values, mind we may say that there is sadistic-moral, while the great principles either remain il- sadistic-anal and narcissistic content linked to lusory values (7:325-29) or are even openly power, money and success which is very difficult disparaged. These two series of values, humanis- to eradicate. We are dealing with content that tic and non humanistic, are in themselves con- enters actively into countertransference. scious, but the rationalizations which make illu- sory values pass for real values are unconscious, as are the consequences of these mechanisms in The „Idologic“ View of the individual psyche. and Countertransference The most widespread character orientation in western society today is the „marketing“ one. The idol concept comes from the fact that hu- To understand its essence we may refer to man beings transfer their faculties and strengths Marx’s distinction between the „use value“ and to external figures, real or imaginary. We are „“ of goods. The former is given dealing with human constructions, material or by the concrete utility of the item, the latter by mental, to which individuals unconsciously at- its price. The „personality market“ turns people tribute parts of themselves and then subjugate into goods in the sense that it splits off their ex- themselves to their own projections. The idol change value (image, professional skill, ability to functions as an alienated and illusory manifesta- adapt) from their use value which is given by tion of human powers. non-commercial qualities: tenderness, of Fromm puts the question of whether trans- justice, love of , love of freedom, capacity ference is only a repetition of infantile experi- to love, willingness to share what they have ences or also of „mobilization of the ‘idolatric etc., qualities which the labor market either ig- passion’” (8:45). He points out (8) that his ideas nores or does not welcome. One loses the ex- should be understood as an extension of perience of one’s own identity. „I am as you de- Freud’s, without polemical intent. Faced with sire me“. The emptiness inside is functional to the difficulties along the road towards individua- rapid and offhand role changes (6:46-7). The tion, the human being may feel himself pushed „separation from reason and heart is almost in a regressive direction by the yearning for an complete“. Furthermore, the growing develop- omnipotent figure he can trust and subject him- ment of technologies, especially in the computer self to. The transference phenomenon reveals field, encourages an unconscious and idolatric the type of survival strategy a person adopts „cybernetic religion“. „Cybernetic man“ thinks and the type of idol he turns to. Analyzing the but does not feel. Intellect is increasingly dissoci- transference of that person is like observing his ated from feelings and . People believe relationship with the world through a micro- they are feeling whereas they are in fact thinking scope (9). In Fromm there is a value judgment about a feeling, they believe they are moved on the transference phenomenon inasmuch as whereas they are in fact thinking of an . he considers (8) the need for idols pathological. The ability to feel becomes an illusory value, Kohut expresses quite a different opinion, ac- while the modern gods of detachment and cal- cording to which the need for relationships with culation are real values. „selfobjects“ may be healthy (10). In the „marketing“ character orientation, The analytical index of Fromm’s complete splitting mechanisms operate which are due to works, edited by R. Funk, contains no reference

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to „countertransference“. This is a significant fact ence is seen in the classic manner of the first ana- with an implicit value judgment. If by counter- lysts (16,17) as an intrusion into analysis of non- transference we mean the analyst’s transference analyzed residues of the psychoanalyst’s own to the person being analyzed, we may believe pathology. There was a strong reaction against that for Fromm this too is due to „idolatric pas- this conception of countertransference and in sions“ (11). At the long clinical seminar held in favor of its creative and therapeutic use in analy- Mexico City in 1968, Fromm in fact affirmed sis, starting with Paula Heimann’s (18) famous that countertransference is a „counterattitude“. I 1950 article „On Countertransference“ in which link this at once with the phrase „blind spot“ however the proposals for clinical use of coun- used by Freud (12:329). tertransference set out from her much broader concept. „... every unresolved repression in the phy- My interpretation of Fromm proposes, on sician constitutes what W. Stekel has well the theoretical plane, breaking down the ana- named a ‘blind spot’ in his capacity for ana- lyst’s global reaction into two components lytic perception“. But a few lines earlier which in fact, in experience, tend to overlap and Freud says: „... he (the analyst) must bend interweave: the countertransferential distortions his own unconscious like a receptive organ component and that of empathic listening and towards the emerging unconscious of the objective vision. This sets very tough problems. patient, be as the receiver of the telephone We need to give a precise meaning and a theo- to the disc“ (12:328). retical basis to the claim of objectivity. Also tak- ing into account the distinction between „exact- And one year later he expressed this idea again: ness“ and „truth“ put forward by Horkheimer (19:38), the former referable to natural science „It is not without good reason... that I have and the latter pertaining to inquiry into the hu- maintained that every man possesses in his man being, whatever definition of objectivity is unconscious an instrument by which he can supplied, it lends itself to being accused of its interpret the expressions of the unconscious opposite, that is, of ideology, of distortion, of of another“ (13:125). partiality, depending on the point of view as- sumed. It is an objection that cannot be eluded Fromm does not deal with countertransference, on the logical plane. This notwithstanding, it but he shows himself to be continuously inter- seems to me necessary to declare a choice of ested in the global communication between ana- values and to draw both the theoretical and lyst and the person being analyzed, in which the practical consequences in the best way. Others analyst puts himself forward as a human being have the right to say that this choice is ideologi- specially trained in „the art of listening“ (14). cal. Besides, I believe that epistemological peace Fromm places the greatest emphasis on the on themes like these is not possible, and perhaps value of the analytic dialogue: „Now I listen to not even to be wished for. The choice of value you, and while I’m listening, I have responses which in my opinion may claim to put itself which are the responses of a trained instrument forward as human objectivity is that of human- (...) I’ll tell you what I hear (...) Then you tell ism. This is the choice made by Fromm who me how you feel about my interpretation“. traces an ideal line through history which (15:35) (my italics). touches various „masters“ of humanity, from Isaiah to Socrates, from Meister Eckhart to Although Fromm is not explicit on this point (1), Spinoza, from Goethe to Albert Schweitzer. It I believe that in his conception of analytic listen- may be objected that these „masters“ did not ing we can see a development of the Freudian say the same things. Certainly they did not say phrases „receptive organ“ and „instrument“, re- exactly the same things, but each spoke with his ferring to the analyst’s unconscious. The concept own voice of interest in the human being, of the of countertransference in Fromm appears very concerning the human condition. Human narrow. In such a strict sense countertransfer- truths are alive, they palpitate and, though re-

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maining the same, are expressed in as many dif- outside. The knowledge of another person re- ferent modulations as there are individuals in a quires being inside of him, to be him“ (3:332). state of being and becoming. There is a human- As for insight, Fromm (3:349) gives a pre- istic corridor in history, a corridor thousands of cious, precise definition: „It is a characteristic of years long in which the human faculty of objec- all true insight in psychoanalysis that it cannot tivity and love of truth in dialogue have been be formulated in thought“. Fromm also ex- practiced. This idea of objectivity is conceived presses analogous positions when he takes the and experienced as a human function in opera- example of the taste of Rhine wine (24) which tion, an interior faculty in action, far more cannot be understood from a description in thinking thought than thought thought. words but only by drinking it. Brought into the analytic relationship the wine metaphor suggests an idea of insight as a pre-discursive event in Aspects of Communication which the intellect does not play a leading role. in the Analytic Relationship These convictions in the clinical field are coher- ent with the theory of social „filters“ which se- Towards the end of his life Freud wrote of the lect the psychic content coming into conscious- analytic relationship in very lofty terms: ness. In Fromm’s opinion (3,2) a great deal of individual and collective human experience re- „... we must not forget that the relationship mains unconscious because it is held back by so- between analyst and patient is based on a cially imposed filters. A determining filtering love of truth, that is, on the acknowledge- function is carried out by language, as well as by ment of reality, and that it precludes any logic and by the selection of non- taboo mental kind of sham or deception“ (20:351-52). content to be admitted to . A vo- cabulary may not include words for certain ex- Fromm too was old when he observed: periences yet have a rich range for others. „The essential factor in psychoanalytic ther- It is also worthwhile recalling some of apy is ... (the) enlivening quality of the Groddeck’s reflections on language. He states therapist. No amount of psychoanalytic in- that the deepest internal life is mute and that terpretation will have an effect if the thera- verbal language lies when trying to express it peutic atmosphere is heavy, unalive and because it is impossible to render the incessant boring“ (21:296). movement of lived experiences in all their changing modalities. Verbal language on the one It seems to me that the two propositions above hand seems indispensable to human communica- already posit the terms of Hirsch’s 1987 (22) re- tion, but on the other hand it „gags“ thought. statement which indicates two fundamental When we want to communicate deep, fine and therapeutic factors: insight and the experience of delicate content we must employ gesture, physi- a new type of human relationship between ana- cal and eye contact and non-verbal, musical lyst and patient. In the classic vision the former sound (25). Groddeck believes, with Fromm, factor prevails, while Fromm insists that the lat- that psychic content precedes the word. This ter be recognized as not only important but conviction has consequences on the plane of even indispensable to the very subsistence of the analytic technique, among which a reappraisal former. It is my opinion that in this way Fromm of the role of interpretation and an exploitation anticipates the problem of „When interpretation of empathic components in the idea of a global fails“ (23). The analyst must know how to cre- dialogue between analyst and patient. ate an intense and vital climate in the session, Fromm (9) states that in the session the ana- and the patient must feel that the analyst feels lysand must be seen in the totality of his state of (9). being at that moment. The totality includes the Reflecting on Sullivan’s conception of the body, and in the „here and now“ relationship analyst as „participant observer“, Fromm goes the analyst and the analysand are there with on to affirm: (...) to ‘participate’ is still to be their bodies. We learn from Groddeck that the

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unity of body and psyche is continuously repro- human common denominator, as if it were im- duced by means of symbols through which the possible to refer to a general human „we“, a happenings of the body become psychic and the human species „we“ (30). A valid objection to happenings of the psyche become physical these affirmations, it seems to me, is that every (26,27). I believe that the analyst’s empathy human group recognizes a transcultural human- leads to feeling the patient’s affects when he or ity in the other groups (31): a recognition that is she complains about his/her body and to placing not so much intellectual as experiential. And we attention on the body when the complaint con- may say with Fromm (2:120): „Man is not only cerns moral pain. a member of society, but he is also a member of the human race“. The social-constructivists are very acute in their analyses and their radical Analytic Relationship and Convictions criticism of theories, but I don’t believe they on Human Nature could invalidate a proposition like this one of Fromm’s: I think that in Fromm’s clinical thought there is a implicit distinction between countertransference „Man is not a blank sheet of paper on and the analyst’s humanistic, non-distorting re- which culture can write its text; he is an en- action to what the patient expresses. While this tity charged with energy and structured in second reaction is a property of the analyst’s specific ways, which, while adapting itself, ability and competence in center-to-center relat- reacts in specific and ascertainable ways to edness and therefore, it seems to me, constitutes external conditions“ (6:19). in the most appropriate way Freud’s „receptive organ“ and „instrument“, countertransference Humankind expresses itself through its cultures, represents a limitation on the analyst’s part (9). which differ in their myths, religions, arts, lan- Fromm states that the analyst must offer himself guages and material ways of living, and it also on two planes: on the transference plane of the expresses itself in individuals’ capacity for reac- patient who invests him with his distortions and tion to the enormous pressures that culture ex- needs, and on the plane of the real person ad- erts upon them. This capacity for reaction takes dressing himself to the real person in front of its strength from the fact that each individual is a him (15). Hoffman (28) defined positions of this member not only of his own society but also of type as „conservative critiques“ (of the „blank humankind. The question of the individual’s screen“ concept), while „radical critiques reject twofold belonging, that is, belonging to both the dichotomy between transference as distor- the human race and to a specific culture, is a tion and non- transference as reality based“ question that has been long debated and on (28:393). But here it is actually a question of which neo- enlightenment and neo-romanticism values and a general concept of human nature continue to clash. The former emphasizes the inasmuch as he states (28:394): „The radical universal aspect of the human being while the critic is a relativist“. This gives further confirma- latter insists on his ineradicable roots of culture, tion that concepts of countertransference and religion, ethnic group, traditions, language etc.. the analytic relationship depend on the underly- The enlightened viewpoint, reminding the hu- ing implicit or explicit theory of the human be- man being of his universality, releases him from ing. the confines of particular cultures and closed In the social-constructivist view human na- ethnocentric visions, liberating him as a world ture is not universal but relative, local. Since it is citizen. Being a world citizen corresponds to the not possible to separate human beings from humanist ideal of not repressing and dissociating their culture and history and study them outside in oneself anything that is human, that is to say, the context of their life, nor is it possible to form making the unconscious conscious, experiencing universal laws on human nature (29). So it may one’s own human universality over and above be coherently maintained that historical and cul- one’s own original culture (2). tural relativities can in no way be reducible to a In Fromm’s opinion the unconscious in-

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cludes the totality of human potentialities. The countertransference. Radical humanism may be conscious part of the individual psyche is largely a choice based more on ethical than on cogni- a social datum, it is prevalently an illusion, tive, gnosiological reasons. In any case we are shared and produced collectively. The universal dealing with a vision in which the ethical com- human components, the biological, psychic and ponent is very strong and tends to inspire the spiritual wholeness of man, „rooted in the Cos- analyst’s conduct of life. We must be highly mos“, remain unconscious. In man, unawareness aware that such an approach influences even the represents the plant, the animal, the spirit. In finest and most skilled listening. In spite of the whatever culture, „man ... has all the potentiali- analyst’s intentions, a kind of personal filter of ties; he is the archaic man, the beast of prey, the humanistic weft may be formed within him/her, cannibal, the idolater, and he is the being with constructed of implicit interpretations, prior and the capacity for reason, for love, for justice“ unconscious. The function of a filter is to discard (13:328). The „whole man“, from the most dis- a given content which another type of filter, a tant past to the potential future, remains uncon- non-humanistic one, would collect. That is, a scious, but I think that analysis, at least in princi- sort of distorting idol can somehow be created, ple, can build bridges between experience of the obstinacy of an assumption, precisely where oneself as a member of a given society and ex- we would not think it could arise. This is not an perience of oneself as a part of humankind. invitation to a relativist vision but rather to vigi- lance and to the necessary and continuous dia- lectic effort of maintaining our theories in rela- Humanistic Values tionship with the expressions of the unconscious. and Their Influence on Listening An open theoretic system is needed, aimed more at understanding than interpreting, which I assume here that the analyst’s humanistic val- proceeds by readings that are never definitive, ues are real and not the product of rationaliza- in such a way as to grasp a person’s symbols and tions. Fromm (9) states that the analyst can ex- enigmatic communications and let them speak perience what the patient is experiencing, can without enclosing them in a predefined scheme. place himself in the center of the other and thus But at the same time the patient’s unconscious see, as a functioning whole, the totality of what must not be made absolute, seen as the source the patient lives, the internal movement that of revealed truths. Its products should be com- expresses the external manifestations, in such a pared with the firm points of our theoretic way as „to see a person as the hero of a drama, scheme so that our critical spirit can operate on of a Shakespearean drama, or a Greek drama, or both sides: that of the patient who expresses of a Balzac novel“ (32:26). Given Fromm’s „hu- himself, and that of our overall apparatus of lis- manistic premise“, if the patient is by tempera- tening and understanding. ment and/or character a very different type of Moreover, the affirmation of values is not person than the analyst, the latter can under- immediately reconcilable with the principle that stand the former because everything is within the analyst should not judge the person under him/her, as everything is with in every human analysis. In fact this principle is itself a value and being. represents a dichotomy with regard to the ana- „What I mean is, everything is in us - there lyst putting forward values. I think this is no experience of another human being has irreconcilability may be seen as tension between which is not also an experience which we are two opposing poles which the analyst must try capable of having“ (32:20). Or again: „I find the to correlate within himself/herself. Eichmann in myself. I find everything in myself, I find also the saint in myself, if you please“ (14:101). Non Humanistic Values in Countertransference We should however take other aspects into account which can complicate the analyst’s ap- As examples of non-humanistic values operating proach and obfuscate the „idologic“ view of in countertransference I shall limit myself here to

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the examination of two possible consequences Formulation of the theory of transference in of a still latent unconscious need for sadistic „idological“ terms is a possible critical response power in an analyst who nonetheless professes of psychoanalysis to the current growing idola- humanistic values. tric phenomena that characterize human and Greenberg and Mitchell (33:368) state that political society. Kohut „avoids the covert ‘developmental moral- In a humanistic and „idologic“ vision of ity’ inherent in all other psychodynamic theo- transference, the analyst reacts with emotivity ries“. For Fromm, on the contrary, as reported and expresses his reactions to everything the by Lesser (34:493) „the primary goal of psycho- person in analysis expresses, and not only with analysis was to enable the patient to become in- regard to transference. If the analyst’s reaction dividuated and autonomous, with the courage to the patient’s transference is not countertrans- to transcend irrational, constricting cultural val- ferential, that is to say idolatric, but humanistic, ues“. Now, in itself „developmental morality“ aimed at highlighting the distortion and render- would be a humanistic value, but if the psycho- ing it conscious to the patient with view to ana- analyst aims to achieve it through the analytic lyzing the transference, the analyst carries out work it may happen that the countertransfer- his/her duty, which is that of being the patient ence contains an unconscious moral sadism while remaining himself/herself (9). If on the which can transform the idea of that value into other hand the analyst reacts in countertransfer- the rationalization of a narcissistic wound in- ential terms, also distorting himself/herself, pro- flicted on the patient. jecting his/her own content onto the patient, A second field of action of the analyst’s then the analyst loses his competence and leaves moral sadism may concern problems intrinsic to the field to his „counterattitude“ to analysis. language, the frequent intimate equivocalness of Furthermore, counterattitude to analysis may terms, syntactic structures and rhetorical figures. concern not only the aspect of the analyst’s re- Notwithstanding the difficulties, when one sponse but also that of listening, when it is influ- wants to understand, in the end one often un- enced and even distorted by a stiff, unconscious derstands, but the linguistic problem may be ex- interpretative filter. ploited. Diplomatic language is an example of Given the „humanistic premise“, we cannot conscious exploitation of the problem. It may but posit the distinction between countertrans- come about that sadistic components of coun- ference and the analyst’s humanistic reaction. tertransference lead the analyst to take advan- There are reasons of principle that originate tage, unconsciously but no less ably or subtly as from the human alienation theme which, for a result of this, of the ambiguity of the word Fromm (35), coincides with that of idolatry. It is and also of the voice which utters it. true that the distinction appears clearer on the intellectual plane, as a concept, than as an ex- perience in the „here and now“ of the session, Concluding Remarks since it is not always possible for the analyst to understand the nature of his reaction while he is With his concept of transference Fromm reveals living it. But this is a clinical problem which I his complexity as an intellectual embodying a feel does not demonstrate the lack of basis and singular crossroads of ideas. He introduces into useful function of the distinction between trans- twentieth century culture the lines of force of ference plane and reality plane, between distor- the great „masters“ of humanism and offers tion and objectivity, a distinction which belongs them to psychoanalysis as terrain for compari- to living and relating. In a humanistic vision, son, entreaty and verification. On the one hand human history, like that of a given individual, transference is seen as a response to the conditio appears like an interwoven flow of the two as- humana, susceptible to inquiry by psychoanaly- pects. Even in the darkest periods of history, ob- sis, and on the other, inasmuch as it is alien- jectivity free of idolatry speaks and speaks again, ation, is seen in terms of idolatry (35) which has with different words and concepts, of the same always been refuted by humanistic consciences. themes of respect for life, of love and reason

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