Ocular Dominance Columns
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The Therapeutic Effects of Rho-ROCK Inhibitors on CNS Disorders
REVIEW The therapeutic effects of Rho-ROCK inhibitors on CNS disorders Takekazu Kubo1 Abstract: Rho-kinase (ROCK) is a serine/threonine kinase and one of the major downstream Atsushi Yamaguchi1 effectors of the small GTPase Rho. The Rho-ROCK pathway is involved in many aspects of Nobuyoshi Iwata2 neuronal functions including neurite outgrowth and retraction. The Rho-ROCK pathway becomes Toshihide Yamashita1,3 an attractive target for the development of drugs for treating central nervous system (CNS) dis- orders, since it has been recently revealed that this pathway is closely related to the pathogenesis 1Department of Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba of several CNS disorders such as spinal cord injuries, stroke, and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, the adult CNS, injured axons regenerate poorly due to the presence of myelin-associated axonal 2 Chiba 260-8670, Japan; Information growth inhibitors such as myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG), Nogo, oligodendrocyte- Institute for Medical Research Ltd.; 3Department of Molecular myelin glycoprotein (OMgp), and the recently identifi ed repulsive guidance molecule (RGM). Neuroscience, Graduate School The effects of these inhibitors are reversed by blockade of the Rho-ROCK pathway in vitro, of Medicine, Osaka University 2-2 and the inhibition of this pathway promotes axonal regeneration and functional recovery in the Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan injured CNS in vivo. In addition, the therapeutic effects of the Rho-ROCK inhibitors have been demonstrated in animal models of stroke. In this review, we summarize the involvement of the Rho-ROCK pathway in CNS disorders such as spinal cord injuries, stroke, and AD and also discuss the potential of Rho-ROCK inhibitors in the treatment of human CNS disorders. -
Torsten Wiesel (1924– ) [1]
Published on The Embryo Project Encyclopedia (https://embryo.asu.edu) Torsten Wiesel (1924– ) [1] By: Lienhard, Dina A. Keywords: vision [2] Torsten Nils Wiesel studied visual information processing and development in the US during the twentieth century. He performed multiple experiments on cats in which he sewed one of their eyes shut and monitored the response of the cat’s visual system after opening the sutured eye. For his work on visual processing, Wiesel received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine [3] in 1981 along with David Hubel and Roger Sperry. Wiesel determined the critical period during which the visual system of a mammal [4] develops and studied how impairment at that stage of development can cause permanent damage to the neural pathways of the eye, allowing later researchers and surgeons to study the treatment of congenital vision disorders. Wiesel was born on 3 June 1924 in Uppsala, Sweden, to Anna-Lisa Bentzer Wiesel and Fritz Wiesel as their fifth and youngest child. Wiesel’s mother stayed at home and raised their children. His father was the head of and chief psychiatrist at a mental institution, Beckomberga Hospital in Stockholm, Sweden, where the family lived. Wiesel described himself as lazy and playful during his childhood. He went to Whitlockska Samskolan, a coeducational private school in Stockholm, Sweden. At that time, Wiesel was interested in sports and became the president of his high school’s athletic association, which he described as his only achievement from his younger years. In 1941, at the age of seventeen, Wiesel enrolled at Karolinska Institutet (Royal Caroline Institute) in Solna, Sweden, where he pursued a medical degree and later pursued his own research. -
Self-Organized Cortical Map Formation by Guiding Connections
SELF-ORGANIZED CORTICAL MAP FORMATION BY GUIDING CONNECTIONS Stanley Y. M. Lam1, Bertram E. Shi1and Kwabena A. Boahen2 1Dept. of EEE, HKUST, {eelym,eebert}@ust.hk and 2Dept. of Bioengineering, UPenn, [email protected] ABSTRACT demonstrate that the system can start with random initial connec- tions and gradually evolve the connections over time to replicate We describe an algorithm for self-organizing connections from a the topography of the source array in the target array. source array to a target array of neurons that is inspired by neural This paper has three goals. First, it demonstrates that this growth cone guidance. Each source neuron projects a Gaussian approach can lead to retinotopic maps that also exhibit other prop- pattern of connections to the target layer. Learning modifies the erties associated with the primary visual cortex, such as ocular pattern center location. The small number of parameters required dominance and orientation selectivity. Second, it establishes the to specify connectivity has enabled this algorithm's implementa- stability of this map formation process. Finally, it relates this tion in a neuromorphic silicon system. We demonstrate that this approach to previously proposed algorithms for map formation. algorithm can lead to topographic feature maps similar to those observed in the visual cortex, and characterize its operation as Section 2 of this paper introduces the learning algorithm. Section function maximization, which connects this approach with other 3 shows via simulation that this algorithm can lead to ocular dom- models of cortical map formation. inance and orientation maps similar to those observed in cortex. Section 4 analyzes the dynamics of learning, and shows that it evolves in such a way as to maximize an energy function. -
Pioneer Growth Cone Morphologies Reveal Proximal Increases in Substrate Affinity Within Leg Segments of Grasshopper Embryos
The Journal of Neuroscience February 1986, 6(2): 364-379 Pioneer Growth Cone Morphologies Reveal Proximal Increases in Substrate Affinity Within Leg Segments of Grasshopper Embryos Michael Gaudy* and David Bentley-f *Biophysics Group and tDepartment of Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720 We have compared the morphologies of approximately 5000 limb segment boundaries (Bentley and Caudy, 1983b) and antibody-labeled afferent pioneer growth cones fixed at various guidepost cells. The dominant mechanism appears to be the stages of growth along their characteristic path over the epithe- guidepost cells, a set of nonadjacent, axonless cell bodies of lium in the legs of grasshopper embryos, and have used growth immature neurons (Bentley and Caudy, 1983a, b; Bentley and cone morphology as an indicator of differences in the affinity of Keshishian, 1982a, b; Ho and Goodman, 1982; Keshishian and the epithelial substrate for pioneer growth cones in viva. Growth Bentley, 1983a-c; Taghert et al., 1982). Ablation of the most cone morphologies differ markedly between different locations proximal guidepost cell pair has been shown to result in lack of in limb buds, and also in the same location in limbs at different normal growth (Bentley and Caudy, 1983a, b). stages of differentiation. Growth cones characteristically extend Additional mechanisms apparently guide the Ti 1 growth cones branches and lamellae circumferentially along segment bound- proximally before they contact any of the above cues (Bentley aries, and filopodia and lamellae are retained (or extended) and Caudy, 1983b). One possible external cue is an adhesion longer there. Where they contact a relatively well-differentiated gradient on the epithelial substrate over which the pioneer growth segment boundary, the growth cones also abruptly reorient cir- cones navigate (Bentley and Caudy, 1983b; Berlot and Good- cumferentially. -
Universal Transition from Unstructured to Structured Neural Maps
Universal transition from unstructured to structured PNAS PLUS neural maps Marvin Weiganda,b,1, Fabio Sartoria,b,c, and Hermann Cuntza,b,d,1 aErnst Strüngmann Institute for Neuroscience in Cooperation with Max Planck Society, Frankfurt/Main D-60528, Germany; bFrankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, Frankfurt/Main D-60438, Germany; cMax Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt/Main D-60438, Germany; and dFaculty of Biological Sciences, Goethe University, Frankfurt/Main D-60438, Germany Edited by Terrence J. Sejnowski, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, and approved April 5, 2017 (received for review September 28, 2016) Neurons sharing similar features are often selectively connected contradictory to experimental observations (24, 25). Structured with a higher probability and should be located in close vicinity to maps in the visual cortex have been described in primates, carni- save wiring. Selective connectivity has, therefore, been proposed vores, and ungulates but are reported to be absent in rodents, to be the cause for spatial organization in cortical maps. In- which instead exhibit unstructured, seemingly random arrange- terestingly, orientation preference (OP) maps in the visual cortex ments commonly referred to as salt-and-pepper configurations are found in carnivores, ungulates, and primates but are not found (26–28). Phase transitions between an unstructured and a struc- in rodents, indicating fundamental differences in selective connec- tured map have been described in a variety of models as a function tivity that seem unexpected for closely related species. Here, we of various model parameters (12, 13). Still, the biological correlate investigate this finding by using multidimensional scaling to of the phase transition and therefore, the reason for the existence of predict the locations of neurons based on minimizing wiring costs structured and unstructured neural maps in closely related species for any given connectivity. -
Ca -Dependent Regulation of Rho Gtpases Triggers Turning of Nerve Growth Cones
2338 • The Journal of Neuroscience, March 2, 2005 • 25(9):2338–2347 Development/Plasticity/Repair Ca2ϩ-Dependent Regulation of Rho GTPases Triggers Turning of Nerve Growth Cones Ming Jin,1,2* Chen-bing Guan,1,2* Yun-ai Jiang,1,2* Gang Chen,1,2 Chun-tao Zhao,1,2 Kai Cui,1,2 Yuan-quan Song,1 Chien-ping Wu,1 Mu-ming Poo,1,3 and Xiao-bing Yuan1 1Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes of Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and 2Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China, and 3Division of Neurobiology, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720- 3200 Cytoplasmic Ca 2ϩ elevation and changes in Rho GTPase activity are both known to mediate axon guidance by extracellular factors, but the causal relationship between these two events has been unclear. Here we show that direct elevation of cytoplasmic Ca 2ϩ by extracel- lular application of a low concentration of ryanodine, which activated Ca 2ϩ release from intracellular stores, upregulated Cdc42/Rac, but downregulated RhoA, in cultured cerebellar granule cells and human embryonic kidney 293T cells. Chemoattractive turning of the growth cone triggered by a gradient of ryanodine was blocked by overexpression of mutant forms of Cdc42 but not of RhoA in Xenopus spinal cord neurons. Furthermore, Ca 2ϩ-induced GTPase activity correlated with activation of protein kinase C and required a basal activity of Ca 2ϩ/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II. Thus, Rho GTPases may mediate axon guidance by linking upstream Ca 2ϩ signals triggered by guidance factors to downstream cytoskeletal rearrangements. -
Identification of Functional Marker Proteins in the Mammalian Growth Cone
Identification of functional marker proteins in the mammalian growth cone Motohiro Nozumia,b, Tetsuya Toganoa,c, Kazuko Takahashi-Nikia, Jia Lua,c, Atsuko Hondaa,b, Masato Taokad,e, Takashi Shinkawad,e, Hisashi Kogaf,g, Kosei Takeuchia,b, Toshiaki Isobed,e, and Michihiro Igarashia,b,1 Divisions of aMolecular Cell Biology and cOphthalmology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, and bTransdisciplinary Research Program, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahi-machi, Chuo-ku, Niigata, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; dDepartment of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan; eCore Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Sanbancho 5, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0075, Japan; and fChiba Industry Advancement Center and gCollaboration of Regional Entities for the Advancement of Technological Excellence Program, Kazusa DNA Research Institute, 2-6-7 Kazusa-Kamatari, Kisarazu, Chiba 292-0818, Japan Edited by Lynn T. Landmesser, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, and approved August 24, 2009 (received for review April 18, 2009) Identification of proteins in the mammalian growth cone has the mammalian growth cone functions, in particular interactions or potential to advance our understanding of this critical regulator of relationships among signaling pathways, at least in part because of neuronal growth and formation of neural circuit; however, to date, an insufficient understanding of what key molecules are important only one growth cone marker protein, GAP-43, has been reported. for function (1, 2). Here, we successfully used a proteomic approach to identify 945 Indeed, even what proteins might be present, i.e., molecular proteins present in developing rat forebrain growth cones, including markers of the growth cone, is a relatively unexplored territory, highly abundant, membrane-associated and actin-associated pro- particularly as compared with our understanding of synaptic mo- teins. -
Multiple Periods of Functional Ocular Dominance Plasticity in Mouse Visual Cortex
ARTICLES Multiple periods of functional ocular dominance plasticity in mouse visual cortex Yoshiaki Tagawa1,2,3, Patrick O Kanold1,3, Marta Majdan1 & Carla J Shatz1 The precise period when experience shapes neural circuits in the mouse visual system is unknown. We used Arc induction to monitor the functional pattern of ipsilateral eye representation in cortex during normal development and after visual deprivation. After monocular deprivation during the critical period, Arc induction reflects ocular dominance (OD) shifts within the binocular zone. Arc induction also reports faithfully expected OD shifts in cat. Shifts towards the open eye and weakening of the deprived eye were seen in layer 4 after the critical period ends and also before it begins. These shifts include an unexpected spatial expansion of Arc induction into the monocular zone. However, this plasticity is not present in adult layer 6. Thus, functionally assessed OD can be altered in cortex by ocular imbalances substantially earlier and far later than expected. http://www.nature.com/natureneuroscience Sensory experience can modify structural and functional connectiv- been studied extensively. Here, a functional technique based on in situ ity in cortex1,2. Many previous studies of highly binocular animals hybridization for the immediate early gene Arc16 is used to investigate have led to the current consensus that visual experience is required for pathways representing the ipsilateral eye in developing and adult mouse maintenance of precise connections in the developing visual cortex and visual cortex and after visual deprivation. We find multiple periods of that competition-based mechanisms underlie ocular dominance (OD) susceptibility to visual deprivation in mouse visual cortex. -
Control of Growth Cone Polarity, Microtubule Accumulation, and Protrusion by UNC-6/Netrin and Its Receptors in Caenorhabditis Elegans
| INVESTIGATION Control of Growth Cone Polarity, Microtubule Accumulation, and Protrusion by UNC-6/Netrin and Its Receptors in Caenorhabditis elegans Mahekta R. Gujar, Lakshmi Sundararajan, Aubrie Stricker, and Erik A. Lundquist1 Program in Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66046 ORCID IDs: 0000-0002-4922-2312 (A.S.); 0000-0001-6819-4815 (E.A.L.) ABSTRACT UNC-6/Netrin has a conserved role in dorsal-ventral axon guidance, but the cellular events in the growth cone regulated by UNC-6/Netrin signaling during outgrowth are incompletely understood. Previous studies showed that, in growth cones migrating away from UNC-6/Netrin, the receptor UNC-5 regulates growth cone polarity, as observed by polarized F-actin, and limits the extent of growth cone protrusion. It is unclear how UNC-5 inhibits protrusion, and how UNC-40 acts in concert with UNC-5 to regulate polarity and protrusion. New results reported here indicate that UNC-5 normally restricts microtubule (MT) + end accumulation in the growth cone. Tubulin mutant analysis and colchicine treatment suggest that stable MTs are necessary for robust growth cone protrusion. Thus, UNC-5 might inhibit protrusion in part by restricting growth cone MT accumulation. Previous studies showed that the UNC-73/Trio Rac GEF and UNC-33/CRMP act downstream of UNC-5 in protrusion. Here, we show that UNC-33/CRMP regulates both growth cone dorsal asymmetric F-actin accumulation and MT accumulation, whereas UNC-73/Trio Rac GEF activity only affects F-actin accumulation. This suggests an MT-independent mechanism used by UNC-5 to inhibit protrusion, possibly by regulating lamellipodial and filopodial actin. -
Genes Necessary for C. Elegans Cell and Growth Cone Migrations
Development 124, 1831-1843 (1997) 1831 Printed in Great Britain © The Company of Biologists Limited 1997 DEV9531 Genes necessary for C. elegans cell and growth cone migrations Wayne C. Forrester* and Gian Garriga Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA *Author for correspondence (e-mail: [email protected]) SUMMARY The migrations of cells and growth cones contribute to cell interactions between the CAN and HSN, a neuron that form and pattern during metazoan development. To study migrates anteriorly to a position adjacent to the CAN, the mechanisms that regulate cell motility, we have control the final destination of the HSN cell body. Third, C. screened for C. elegans mutants defective in the posteriorly elegans larval development requires the CANs. In the directed migrations of the canal-associated neurons absence of CAN function, larvae arrest development, with (CANs). Here we describe 14 genes necessary for CAN cell excess fluid accumulating in their pseudocoeloms. This migration. Our characterization of the mutants has led to phenotype may reflect a role of the CANs in osmoregula- three conclusions. First, the mutations define three gene tion. classes: genes necessary for cell fate specification, genes necessary for multiple cell migrations and a single gene Key words: cell migration, axonal outgrowth, C. elegans, canal necessary for final positioning of migrating cells. Second, associated neurons INTRODUCTION by regulating actin dynamics, perhaps by regulating the pro- trusion of actin-rich structures at the leading edge of the cell Cell migration and axonal outgrowth play important roles in or growth cone to drive forward movement (reviewed by Hall, shaping form and pattern during development. -
Letourneau, P
This article was originally published in the Encyclopedia of Neuroscience published by Elsevier, and the attached copy is provided by Elsevier for the author's benefit and for the benefit of the author's institution, for non- commercial research and educational use including without limitation use in instruction at your institution, sending it to specific colleagues who you know, and providing a copy to your institution’s administrator. All other uses, reproduction and distribution, including without limitation commercial reprints, selling or licensing copies or access, or posting on open internet sites, your personal or institution’s website or repository, are prohibited. For exceptions, permission may be sought for such use through Elsevier's permissions site at: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissionusematerial Letourneau P (2009) Axonal Pathfinding: Extracellular Matrix Role. In: Squire LR (ed.) Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, volume 1, pp. 1139-1145. Oxford: Academic Press. Author's personal copy Axonal Pathfinding: Extracellular Matrix Role 1139 Axonal Pathfinding: Extracellular Matrix Role P Letourneau , University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, ‘pioneering’ microtubules. These dynamic micro- MN, USA tubules project forward into an actin filament net- work that fills flattened dynamic projections, called ã 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. lamellipodia, and fingerlike filopodia. This extensive filament system is continually remodeled, as actin filaments initiate and polymerize at the front margin Introduction and are then moved back to be fragmented and de- Normal behavior and other neural activities depend polymerized, recycling subunits to the front. Multiple actin-binding proteins regulate this dynamic organi- on the correct wiring of neural circuits during devel- opment. A critical step in forming neural circuits is zation of actin filaments. -
Complete Pattern of Ocular Dominance Columns in Human Primary Visual Cortex
The Journal of Neuroscience, September 26, 2007 • 27(39):10391–10403 • 10391 Behavioral/Systems/Cognitive Complete Pattern of Ocular Dominance Columns in Human Primary Visual Cortex Daniel L. Adams, Lawrence C. Sincich, and Jonathan C. Horton Beckman Vision Center, Program in Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143-0730 The occipital lobes were obtained after death from six adult subjects with monocular visual loss. Flat-mounts were processed for cytochrome oxidase (CO) to reveal metabolic activity in the primary (V1) and secondary (V2) visual cortices. Mean V1 surface area was 2643 mm 2 (range, 1986–3477 mm 2). Ocular dominance columns were present in all cases, having a mean width of 863 m. There were 78–126 column pairs along the V1 perimeter. Human column patterns were highly variable, but in at least one person they resembled a scaled-up version of macaque columns. CO patches in the upper layers were centered on ocular dominance columns in layer 4C, with one exception. In this individual, the columns in a local area resembled those present in the squirrel monkey, and no evidence was found for column/patch alignment. In every subject, the blind spot of the contralateral eye was conspicuous as an oval region without ocular dominancecolumns.Itprovidedapreciselandmarkfordelineatingthecentral15°ofthevisualfield.Ameanof53.1%ofstriatecortexwas devoted to the representation of the central 15°. This fraction was less than the proportion of striate cortex allocated to the representation of the central 15° in the macaque. Within the central 15°, each eye occupied an equal territory. Beyond this eccentricity, the contralateral eye predominated, occupying 63% of the cortex.