Journal of Research in Forestry, Wildlife & Environment Vol. 8(2):74-87 http://www.ajol.info/index.php/jrfwe 74 jfewr ©2016 - jfewr Publications E-mail:[email protected] ISBN: 2141 – 1778 Joseph, 2016 INVESTIGATION OF ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA
Joseph, J.
Department of Biological Sciences, Adamawa State University, Mubi, Adamawa State, Nigeria Author’s phone No: 08134001827; e-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT This study was conducted to investigate the activity budgets of olive baboon (Papio anubis) at Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP). A habituated baboon troop referred to as the Gamgam / Gashaka troop was studied for a period of twelve (12) months. At the beginning of the study, there were 16 individuals in the troop comprising 4 adult females, 1 adult male, 1 sub-adult male, 3 juvenile females, 4 juvenile males and 3 infants. Time fixed-point focal sampling method was adopted to determine activity budgets. Results obtained indicated that the baboons spent 34.14% of their time feeding, 35.83% resting, 9.08% grooming, 4.47% handling infants, 11.19% travelling and 0.28% playing. Generally, activity budgets did not differ significantly ( p ) across months. Olive baboon food habit showed that food items mostly eaten were fruits, comprising 43.98% of feeding time, while 22.41% and 7.47% were spent feeding on grasses and seeds respectively. It is recommended that GGNP management should intensify effort to check anthropogenic activities such as poaching, cattle grazing and bush burning for efficient conservation of baboon populations.
Keywords: Activity, baboon, budgets, food, habituated, investigation.
INTRODUCTION cultural value in many cultures (Cowlishaw
The primate is one of the highest order of and Dunbar, 2000). Primates exhibits a mammals which includes humans (man), wide range of social organization. They do apes, monkeys and prosimians. Primates not live as isolated individuals (Isbel and have a diverse range of values. Young, 2002). Baboon (genus Papio) are
Ecologically, they play role in pollination Old World monkeys of the family and seed dispersal (Maynard, 1995). They Cercopithecidae widely distributed across can also generate significant revenues Africa and into the Arabian Peninsula through tourism and have significant (Zinner et al., 2009).
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA
ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA 75
Climatic factors can constrain the primate species living in habitats where the
activity budgets of an animal (Dunbar et climate can vary dramatically during the
al., 2009). Seasonal differences in activity day or across seasons. The time necessary
budgets across months have been reported to search for and access food is affected by
in many primate species (Sato, 2012; seasonal changes in diet diversity among
Majolo et al., 2013). Time spent moving or Barbary macaques and Papio species
foraging have been found to significantly (Menard, 2002). How free-living baboon
differ across months in baboons, indicating groups spend time is an approximate
that the time necessary to search for and representation of the way in which they
access food was affected by seasonal relate to their social and ecological
changes in diet diversity (Menard, 2002; environment (Dunbar, 1998).
Campos and Fedigan, 2009; Sato, 2012). One of the most obvious features of
Although time itself can be a limiting baboon society is the agonistic interactions
resource, other important subtle and that regularly occur between individuals
complex effects of quantity and (Kappeler and Watts, 2012). Different
distribution of food may underlie the fairly primate species may compete for the same
uniform changes in activity budgets that food resources in given primate
have been recorded. Aggression normally community. Primates are known to form
interferes with the baboons’ activities (such temporary associations with members of
as feeding), and may also affect the other species (Peres, 1993b). A
baboons’ activity patterns (Majolo et al., polyspecific association is an association
2013). between two or more groups of social
Responses to climatic conditions are animals of different species. Such
expected to be particularly pronounced in
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
76
Joseph, J. 76
associations are widespread among the predator cannot easily concentrate on
sympatric non-human primates (Holenweg one target due to confusion effect (Adanu,
et al., 1996). Polyspecific association may 2002). Similarly, larger groups tend to hunt
be a chance encounter and thus simply a down a prey more easily than a solitary
product of two species sharing a range animal because individuals in a group
(Waser, 1984) or they may be a result of combine their efforts. Also when
two species being attracted to the same insectivorous primates are in a group, they
place at the same time by a common have chances of flushing out more insects
resource (Doncaster, 1990). A genuine due to the group’s activities (Dunbar,
polyspecific association is caused by 1988).
attraction on the side of one or both species Most primates spend much more
that may, for example, provide each other time eating one type of food than any other
with services that minimize predation risk (Goldstein, 1984). Most primates spend
or increase food availability (Waser, 1984). from 40% to 80% of annual feeding time
One significant reason for polyspecific on one of six types of food: insects, gums,
association is protection against predators saps, fruit, seed, leaves and ground herbs
(Noe, 1997). When animals are in a group, (Goldstein, 1984). Insectivores eat
the predator can normally be more easily primarily insects; gumnivores, gums and in
sighted from a distance because there are some cases saps; frugivores, fruits;
many eyes and ears. There is also the gramnivores, seeds; and foliovores, leaves.
dilution effect, that is the individual All primates include both fruits and leaves
chances of being victimized is decreased in in their diet (Strier, 1992). Some frugivores
favour of other members of the group. In spend a substantial amount of time looking
addition, when there are multiple targets, for and eating insects.
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA 77
Baboons (Papio species) are widely the troop. The mating order among the
regarded as dietary generalists, consuming males depends partially on their social
a wide range of food items in varying ranking, and fights between males are not
proportions. Baboon diets are dominated unusual (Wikipedia, 2010). A female
by fruits, leaves and subterranean items, initiates mating by presenting her swollen
with flowers and animal matter constituting rump to the male. The dominant males
a much smaller proportion of the diet (Hill often engage in what is known as a false-
and Dunbar, 2002). A study conducted by mount, in which they mount the submissive
Caley et al. (2010) on the dietary males. It is a sign of dominance, and
behaviours of olive baboons in Kibale happens very commonly to younger males
National Park, Uganda have revealed that in the troop (Wikipedia, 2010).
the baboons consumed 10 plant parts from MATERIALS AND METHODS 32 plant species. Observed foods The Study Area comprised fruits (46%); stems (33%); This study was carried out in tubers (7%); leaves (7%) seeds (4%); Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP), insects (1%); mushrooms (1%) and bark, located between 6o551 – 8o 051N and gums and soil (1%). Olive baboons in 11o111 -12o131 E in the North-Eastern Gilgal, Kenya, fed or foraged Nigeria. GGNP was established in 1991 approximately 25% of the time if they had and represents Nigeria’s largest national access to garbage and planted crops and park covering about 6600 km2 (Dunn, almost 50% of the time without such 1998). From the edge of the Mambilla access. plateau in Taraba State, GGNP stretches Baboon mating behaviour varies northwards along the international border greatly depending on the social structure of
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
Joseph, J.
78
with Cameroon and on into Adamawa State there were 16 individuals in the troop
(Oates et al., 2004). The vegetation is a comprising 4 adult females, 1 adult male, 1
mosaic of Southern Guinea savannah- sub-adult male, 3 juvenile females, 4
woodland, open (montane) grassland, juvenile males and 3 infants.
lowland forest, swamps and montane forest Study Design
(Warren, 2003) and is home to a highly Behavioural data were collected for
diverse number of small and large twelve (12) months on twenty days per
mammals, including nine primate species. month. The time fixed-point focal sampling
Over 100 species of mammals, at least 480 method as described by Paul and Patrick
species of birds, 35 species of fish and 300 (1990) was adopted for collection of data.
species of butterfly are found in the park Data collection was done in the morning
(Foster, 1998). between 06:00 and 12:00 hours and in the
The park harbours extensive afternoon between 12:15 and 18:00 hours
mountainous areas. Altitude ranges from in alternate manner. The method involved
350m to over 2,400m above sea level following a focal animal and observations
(Dunn, 1993a). The rainy season begins in on behavioural parameters were recorded
March or early April and ends in mid at fixed time intervals. Behavioural
November. Rainfall ranges from 1200 mm patterns (activities) viz: feeding, resting,
in the north to 3000 mm in the south of the travelling, grooming, infant handling and
park (Dunn, 1993a). playing were observed and recorded using
The Study Troop/Group fifteen-minute focal sampling interval and
A habituated baboon troop referred included scan sampling. The activity
to as the Gamgam/Gashaka troop was categories were mutually exclusive. If the
studied. At the beginning of the study, baboons were sighted feeding, the category
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA
ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA 79
of food (fruits, leaves, flowers, grasses, and resting respectively, while 17.19% of
seeds, insects/invertebrates, others) were the time was spent travelling/moving. In
recorded. Reproductive behaviours such as addition, 9.08% of the time was spent on
copulation, mounting, mounting but no grooming. Furthermore, 4.47% of the time
thrust were recorded using one-minute was spent on infant handling and 0.28% on
focal sampling technique. playing. The activity with the highest
Data Analysis percentage was resting (35.83%), followed
(i.) The identified behavioural patterns: by feeding (33.14%) while the activity with
feeding, travelling, resting, social the lowest percentage (0.28%) was playing.
(grooming, playing and infant handling) The results of food habit of olive baboons
were analysed using descriptive statistics at the Gashaka Gumti National Park is
(tables, charts and percentages). presented in Figure 2. The results showed
(ii.) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was that 43.98% of the feeding time of the olive
employed to compare the activity budgets baboons was spent feeding on fruits. This
of baboons across months. Duncan indicated that food items mostly eaten
multiple range test was used to compare during the observation periods were fruits.
differences among means at 0.05 (p In addition, 22.41%; 7.47% and 5.60% of
0.05) level of significance. SPSS version feeding time were spent on grasses, seeds
20 statistical software was used for the Joseph,and leavesJ. respectively, while 4.56%, 80
analysis. 9.96% and 6.02% were spent feeding on
RESULTS flowers, some arthropods and others (bark,
The results on activity budgets mushroom, roots and herbs) respectively.
(Figure 1) showed that olive baboons spent Comparative analysis of the activity
33.14% and 35.83% of their time feeding budgets of the baboons across months
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
Joseph, J. 80
(Table 1) showed that the time allocated the time allocated for travelling indicated for feeding did not differ significantly (p no significant difference across months.
0.05) between the months of February, The time allocated for grooming did not
March, May, June, July, November and differ significantly (p 0.05) across
December. Also, no significant difference months. Similarly, no significant difference
(p 0.05) was observed between January (p 0.05) was observed across the months and August. In the case of resting time, in the time allocated for playing and infant
January, February, and March did not handling. differ significantly (p 0.05). Similarly,
35.83
33.14
Percentage 17.19
9.08
4.47
0.28
Feeding Playing Infant Travelling Grooming Resting handling
Figure 1: Percentage Activity Budgets of Olive Baboons (Papio anubis) in the Study Area.
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA 81
50 44 45 40
35
30 25 22.4
20 Percentage 15 9.95 7.45 10 6 5.6 4.55 5 0 Fruits Leaves Grasses Seeds Flowers Some Arthropods Others Food type Figure 2: Percentage of Food Types Eaten by Olive Baboons (Papio anubis) in the Study Area. Table 1: Comparative Analysis of Activity Budgets Across Months in the Study Area Between January to December, 2013 Parameters (Mean±SEM) Month Feeding Resting Travelling Infant Grooming Playing handling January 5.43±0.88b 7.07±0.62b 2.50±0.31b 0.29±0.13a 1.50±0.27a 0.00±0.00a February 5.71±0.78a 6.79±0.66b 2.43±0.37b 0.29±0.16a 1.50±0.31a 0.07±0.07a March 5.57±0.91a 6.93±0.78b 2.36±0.36b 0.29±0.16a 1.64±0.33a 0.00±0.00a April 8.17±0.54e 8.67±0.42d 4.83±0.48d 0.00±0.00c 2.00±0.45a 0.00±0.00a May 6.29±1.09a 7.57±1.02e 3.86±1.01e 0.57±0.57a 1.86±0.60a 0.00±0.00a June 6.13±0.82a 5.53±0.64a 3.53±0.41c 1.40±0.46b 1.67±0.37a 0.00±0.00a July 6.07±0.74a 5.67±0.60a 3.33±0.42a 1.47±0.44e 1.73±0.33a 0.00±0.00a August 5.00±1.23b 4.25±0.25g 3.25±1.38a 2.25±0.63d 1.25±0.63a 0.00±0.00a September 3.57±0.87c 9.57±1.13f 1.43±0.43f 1.43±0.81b 1.29±0.52a 0.00±0.00a October 2.25±0.85d 5.75±1.80a 1.75±0.85g 0.25±0.25a 0.50±0.50a 0.00±0.00a November 6.50±0.73a 4.83±0.63a 2.94±0.54a 0.83±0.28a 1.67±0.45a 0.22±0.10a December 6.85±1.20a 6.29±0.99c 3.57±0.75c 0.14±0.14a 1.86±0.60a 0.00±0.00a Means carrying the same superscript along columns are not significantly different at 5% level of significance (p 0.05)
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
Joseph, J. 82
DISCUSSION with Buba (2013) who reported higher
The findings on activity budgets of resting period than feeding period. They olive baboons showed that they spent observed that the Gashaka baboons
33.14% and 35.83% of their time on engaged in crop raiding, and as such had feeding and resting respectively, while access to crops that have high
17.19% was travelling. In addition, 9.08% concentration of proteins and calories but of their time was spent on grooming. low in toxins when compared to the wild
Furthermore, 4.47% of their time was spent foods available in Kwano habitat, hence on infant handling and 0.28% on playing. they were able to obtain enough food that
The activity with the highest percentage of could sustain them for a longer period, thus time was resting (35.83%), followed by making for the extra time spent on resting. feeding (33.14%) while the activity with Previous studies revealed that baboons that the lowest percentage (0.28%) was playing. feed on crops have several behavioural
The proportion of time the baboons spent effects such as decreased foraging time, on feeding and resting was at variance with increased resting time and increased social the findings of Akosim et al. (2005) who time (Warren, 2003; Naughton-Treves et reported 50.00% for feeding and 8.50% for al., 1998). The result of this study is in resting for the Kwano forest baboons. In contrast with that of Akosim et al. (2005), this study, the Kwano baboons spent and in which resting time exceeded feeding relatively higher proportion of time resting time suggesting that there could have been and lesser proportion of the time feeding an improvement in the quality, quantity probably due to the level of availability and and distribution of food resources of distribution of food resources at the site. baboons in Kwano habitat over the years
The result of this study however, agrees due to effective management.
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA 83
The findings on food habit of olive reported that the preferred food of olive baboons indicated that 43.98% of the baboons in Kibale, Uganda was fruit, feeding time of olive baboons was spent on comprising 46% of feeding time. feeding on fruits, 22.41% on grasses, Comparative analysis of activity
7.47% on seeds, 5.60% on leaves, while budgets of the baboons across months
4.56% feeding time was spent on flowers. showed that the time allocated for feeding
Similarly, 9.96% was spent on some did not differ significantly (p 0.05) arthropods and 6.02% on others (bark, between the months of February, March, roots, mushroom and herbs). The food type May, June, July, November and December.
(items) mostly eaten by the baboons during Also, no significant difference (p 0.05) the observation period was fruits, followed was observed between January and August. by grasses. On the other hand, food types However, April, September and October that were least eaten were flowers and differed significantly (p 0.05) in the leaves. This result is in consonance with time allocated for feeding. In the case of the report of Goldstein (1984) who resting time, January, February, and March observed that most primates spent much of did not differ significantly (p 0.05). their time eating one type of food than any Also, June, July, October and November other and that 40% to 80% of their time did not differ significantly (p 0.05). was spent on one of the six types of food: However, there was significant difference insects, gums, saps, fruits, seeds, leaves (p 0.05) between April, May, August, and ground herbs. In this study, fruits were September and October. The time allocated found to be the preferred food type for for travelling indicated no significant baboons. This finding is similar to results difference (p 0.05) between July, obtained by Caley et al. (2010) who
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
Joseph, J. 84
August, and November. Similarly, June 0.05) across months. Similarly, no
and December did not differ significantly significant difference (p 0.05) was
(p 0.05), but there was significant observed across the months in the time
difference (p 0.05) between April, May, allocated for playing.
September, and October. This finding to CONCLUSION
some extent did not concur with the This study have revealed that baboons at
findings of Sato (2012) and Majolo et al Gashaka Gumti National Park spent
(2013) who reported that time spent 33.14% and 35.83% of their time on
moving or foraging significantly differ feeding and resting respectively, while
across months in baboons. This lack of 17.19% was spent on travelling. In
agreement may be attributed to the addition, 9.08% of the time was spent on
relatively little variation in terms of grooming. Similarly, 4.47% and 0.28% of
seasonal changes in diet diversity in the the time were spent on infant handling and
study area. In the case of infant handling, playing respectively. This indicates that the
no significant difference (p 0.05) was highest proportion of time was spent on
observed between January, February, resting, followed by feeding, while the
March, May, October, November and lowest proportion of time was spent on
December. Similarly, there was no playing. Comparative analysis of activity
significant difference in June and budgets of the baboons across months
September. But, there was significant indicated that there was no significant
difference (p 0.05) between April, July, difference in the time allocated for feeding,
and August. The time allocated for resting, playing and infant handling.
grooming did not differ significantly (p
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA 85 6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Maikanti Hassan and Ibrahim Usman for
I express my deep sense of gratitude to the their help in data collection on the field. I
Nigeria National Park Service, Abuja for thank Prof. Volker Sommer who provided
granting me permission to undertake the me with accommodation in the field
field research at Gashaka Gumti National station.
Park. My sincere thanks are due to
REFERENCES scarcity in white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) in Santa Rosa National Adanu, J. (2002). Socio-Ecology of Forest Park, Costa Rica. American Journal of Monkeys at Kwano in Gashaka Gumti Physical Anthropology. 138:101 - 111. National Park Nigeria. M.Tech thesis, Cowlishaw, G. and Dunbar, R. (2000). Federal University of Technology, Yola. Primate Conservation Biology. University Pp. 35. of Chicago
Press, Chicago. Pp. 79 – 84. Akosim, C.,Adanu, J and Amadi, D.C.A.
(2005). Socio-ecology of Forest Monkeys Doncaster, C.P. (1990). Non-parametric at Kwano estimate or interaction from radio-tracking Forest in Gashaka Gumti National data. Park, Nigeria. Journal of Arid Agriculture, Journal of Theoretical Biology 15:1 - 8. 143:427 - 439.
Buba, U.N. (2013) Aspects of the ecology Dunbar, R.I.M. (1988). Primate Social of chimpanzee community at Gashaka System. Cambridge University Press. Pp. Gumti National Park, Nigeria.Unpublished 45 - 48. PhD thesis, Modibbo Adama University of
Technology, Yola. Pp. 123 - 125. Dunbar, R.I.M. (1998). Primate Social
Systems. New York: Cornel University Caley, A.J., Larissa, S. and Jessica, M.R Press. 82 Pp. (2010). Feeding ecology of olive baboons
(Papio Dunbar, R.I.M., Korstjens, A.H. and anubis) in Kibale National Lehmann, J. (2009). Time as an ecological Park,Uganda: preliminary results on diet constraint. and food selection. Biological Reviews. 84:413 - 429. African Journal of Ecology, 23:345
- 354. Dunn, A. (1993a). A manual of census
techniques for surveying large animals in Campos, F.A., and Fedigan, L.M. (2009). tropical Behavioural adaptations to heat stress and forests Gashaka Gumti National water Park. A Report produced for WWF-UK. Pp. 24 - 28
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
Joseph, J. 86
Dunn, A. (1998). Gashaka Gumti National Majolo, B., McFarland, R., Young, C. and Park, a Management Plan for Developing Qarro, M. (2013). The Effect of Climatic the Park Factors on the Activity Budgets of and its Support Zone. WWF- Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). UK/NCF. Pp. 37 - 40. International Journal of Primatology. DOI 10.1007/S10764-013-9678-8. Foster, K. (1998). Censusing chimpanzees Maynard, S.J. (1995). Evolutionary in Gashaka Gumti National Park, Taraba Genetics. Oxford University Press. 78 pp. and Adamawa States, Nigeria: Menard, N. (2002). Ecological plasticity of NCF/WWF-UK and Federal Ministry of Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Agriculture. Evolutionary Anthropology, 11: 95 Unpublished report to WWF-UK - 100. Goldaming, UK. 45 pp. Naughton-Treves, L.; Treves, A.; Chapman, C. and Wrangham, R. (1998). Goldstein, S. (1984). Ecology of rhesus Temporal patterns monkeys, Macaca mulatta, in northern of crop raiding by primates. Pakistan. PhD Linking food availability in croplands and Dissertation, Yale University. Pp. adjacent forest. 49 - 56. Journal of Applied Ecology,35:596 - 606. Hill, R.A. and Dunbar, R.I.M. (2002). Climatic determinants of diet and foraging Noe, R. (1997). The formation of colobus- behaviour in diana monkey associations under predation Baboons. Evolutionary Ecology pressure from chimpanzees. Proc. 16:579 - 593. Roy. Lond. Ser. B. 12:253 - 257.
Holenweg, A.K.; Noe, R. and Scahbel, M. Oates, J.F.; Bergl, R.A. and Linder, J.M. (1996). Waser’s gas model applied to (2004). Africa’s Gulf of Guinea Forests: associations Biodiversity Patterns and between red colobus and Diana Conservation Priorities. (Advances in monkeys in the Thai National Park, Ivory Applied Biodiversity Science Coast. Folia 6),Washington, D.C. Conservation Primatologica 67:125-136. International. Pp. 146 - 153.
Isbell, L.A., and Young, T.P. (2002). Paul, M. and Patrick, B. (1990). Measuring Ecological models of female social Behaviour: an introductory guide. relationships in primates: Cambridge similarities, disparities and some directions University Press. Pp. 126 - 142. for future clarity. Behaviour,139:177 – 202 Peres, C.A. (1993b). Structures of Spatial Organization of an Amazonian forest Kappeler, P.M. and Watts, D.P. (eds,) primate (2012). Long-term Field Studies of community. Journal of Tropical Primates. Springer- Ecology 9:259 – 276. Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. 34 pp.
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.
ACTIVITY BUDGETS OF OLIVE BABOON (PAPIO ANUBIS F.) AT GASHAKA GUMTI NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA 87
Sato, H. (2012). Diurnal resting in brown University of Surrey, London. Pp. lemurs in a dry deciduous forest, 121 - 140. northwestern Madagascar: implications for Waser, P.M. (1984). Chance and mixed seasonal thermoregulation. Primates, 53, species associations. Behavioural Ecology 255 - 263. and Sociobiology. 15:191 - 199. Strier, K.B. (1992). Faces in the forest. The endangered monkeys of Brazil. Oxford Wikipedia, 2010 D:/Baboon.htm. Retrieved University July, 18, 2015. Press. Pp. 16 - 56. Zinner, D., Buba, U.; Nash, S. and Roos, Warren, Y. (2003). Olive Baboons (Papio C. (2009). Phylogeography of baboons. cynocephalus anubis): Behaviour, Ecology Gashaka and Primate Project, Nigeria. Pp. 25 – Human Conflict in Gashaka Gumti 30. National Park, Nigeria. PhD Thesis, Roehampton
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 8, No. 2 JUNE, 2016.