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51 • \ CHAPTER TWO WINE GRAPE GROWING AND WINEMAKING IN NASHIK DISTRICT

2.1 Viticulture in Nashik District Historically grapevine was first introduced to Indian agriculture way back in 1300 A.D. The rulers from Afghanistan planted a few well-known varieties during the 14th century. However the first plantation of the country was started in Maharashtra near Aurangabad with popular seeded varieties like Gulabi and Anab - e - Shahi. Subsequently the import of reputed seedless varieties like Thompson seedless, Kishmish, and Beauty seedless initiated the commercial production of grapes in India (Bhosale, 2001). Shikhamany (2005) studied the main areas of grape cultivation in India like Nasik, Sangli, Solapur, Satara, Pune, Ahmednagar, Latur and Osmanabad districts in Maharashtra, Bijapur, Bagalkot, Belgaum, Gulbarga, Bangalore and Kolar districts in Karnataka, Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy, Mahbubnagar and Medak districts in Telangana, Anantapur, and Chittoor districts in Andhra Pradesh and Theni, Coimbatore and Madurai districts in Tamil Nadu. Few pockets of grape production also exist in Bhatinda, Ferozpur, Gurdaspur and Ludhiana districts in Punjab, Hissar and Jind districts in Haryana, Meerut in Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and parts of Himachal Pradesh (Table 2.1).

2.1.1 Agro-climatic Zones of India Shikhamany (2005) identified the three distinct agro-climatic zones in India which support commercial grape cultivation namely sub-tropical, hot tropical and mild tropical climatic regions. • The sub-tropical region lying between 28° N and 32° N latitudes includes Punjab, Haryana, western part of Uttar Pradesh and Delhi. Vines experience dormancy due to severe northern winters; single pruning and a single harvest is the general farming practice in this region. Perlette and Thompson Seedless grape cultivars are mostly dominant in this zone. • The hot tropical region includes the peninsular states of Maharashtra, northern parts of Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh lying between 15° N and 20° N latitudes. Warmer climes of peninsular India hinder vine dormancy and double pruning and a single harvest is the common practice. This region

39 stands as the chief viticulture region of the country accounting for 70% of the area under grapes in India. Viticulture in this region is affected by soil and water salinity and enduring drought conditions. Popular varieties of this zone are Thompson Seedless and its clones (Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka), Anab-e- Shahi, Sharad Seedless and Flame Seedless. • The mild tropical region is found betweenlO0 N and 15° N latitudes covering Bangalore and pockets of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Bangalore Blue, Anab - e - Shahi, Gulabi, and Bhokri dominate the viticultural landscape with two crops being harvested in a year. Table 2. 1 Chief grape growing states of India Agro-climatic States Concentrated Pockets zone Nasik. Sangli, Solapur, Satara, Pune, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra Hot Tropical Latur, Osmanabad Bijapur, Bagalkot, Belgaum, Gulbarga Hot Tropical Karnataka Bangalore, Kolar Mild Tropical

Tamil Nadu Theni, Coimbatore, Madurai Mild Tropical

Andhra Anantapur Hot Tropical Pradesh Chittoor Mild Tropical

Telangana Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy, Mahbubnagar, Medak Hot Tropical

Delhi Sub Tropical Haryana Hissar, Jind Sub Tropical

Punjab Bhatinda, Ferozpur, Gurdaspur, Ludhiana /ktrtTTro^feak

Source: Modified from Shikhamany, 2005

2.1.2 Key Statistics According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the world has 71,04,512 ha of land under grape cultivation with an annual production of 6,71,16,225 tons of grapes. More than 80% of the world produce is used for winemaking while the rest is utilized for table purposes, raisins and grape juice. Approximately 15,62,378 ha of the world is under wine grape cultivation which yields 4,76,52,541 tons of wine grapes. In India, the area under grape cultivation is estimated to be 1,11,000 ha with a total production of 1.23 million tons and productivity of 11.1 tons/ha. Approximately 5,000 ha of land in the country are dedicated to wine grape cultivation which yields

40 around 50,000 tons of wine grapes (Fig 2.1) (Adsule et. al, 2013). In 2011-2012, total grapes exported from India was 1,08,580 tons amounting to Rs 602.88 crores, of which nearly 80% was exported from Maharashtra (APEDA, 2012). It may be noted that Indian viticulture suffered severe grape losses in the period 2009-10 due to heavy unseasonal rainfall. Consequently, grape production and its productivity suffered adversely as dipicted in Fig 2.2.

^ • Total Area Under \\ ine • Grape Production (ha)

• • Total Area Under Table V ^F and Raisin Grape ^^ Production (ha)

Source: National Horticulture Board, Gol, 2010 Fig 2.1 Area under grape cultivation - India (2010)

41 Source: National Horticulture Board, Gol, 2010 Fig 2.2 Production and productivity of grapes in India, 2001 - 2010 At present grape has emerged as a commercially important fruit crop of India with productivity as high as 11.1 tons/hectare (Shikhamany, 2005). The bulk of the grapes are table varieties consumed as a fresh fruit. Grapes are also being processed into value added products like canned grapes, raisins, juice and wine. However when compared to world utilization of grapes, India shows greater percentages in terms of table grape production and raisin making. It may be pointed out that more than 80% of the world produce is used for winemaking whereas in India a mere 4% is used for processing into wine (Fig 2.3).

42 'Wine & Juice

u a-. i Raisin a

i Table Grapes —

Grape Utilisation Grape Utilisation (World) (India)

Source: Adsule et al, 2013 Fig 2.3 Grape utilization - World and India Maharashtra is leading among the states in terms of area, production and export of grapes followed by Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Maharashtra has 92,000 ha under grape cultivation spreading over the districts of Nashik, Sangli, Solapur, Pune, Ahmednagar, Latur, Osmanabad and Satara. The annual production of grapes is around 7,74,000 tons. According to Adsule et. al, (2013), 65% of the total grapes produced in Maharashtra is used for table purposes while the rest is processed for value added products like raisins, grape juice, syrup, jam, jelly and wine. At present wine grape cultivation area in the state is around 3500 - 4000 acres with Nashik District in the forefront where the acreage is significant due to the local demand for wine grapes from its several wineries.

2.1.3 General Cropping Pattern in Nashik District The Maharashtra Agricultural Competitiveness Project (MACP), undertaken by the State's Department of Agriculture with the assistance of World Bank identified five primary crops of the Nashik District namely onion, grapes, tomato, maize and bajra. Maize is the most widely grown crop of the district accounting for 18.2% of the gross cropped area followed by bajra (16.7%), onion (14.1%), paddy (7.3%), soybean (6%), grape (5.6%), cotton (4.9%), wheat (3.5%), groundnut (3.2%), pomegranate (2.1%) and tomato (0.8%). In addition, several other crops are also grown in the

43 district giving rise to a cropping pattern consisting of a mix of cereals, millets, cotton and horticultural crops (MACP, 2014). Among the principal cereal crops maize has registered a steady increase in cultivation over the years while Kharif bajra farming has declined in the last five years by nearly 20% due to a recent shift in the general consumption pattern weighing towards wheat. The major pulses cultivated in the district include red gram, green gram and black gram which are Kharif crops while Bengal gram is grown as a Rabi crop. The district is also a significant producer of oilseeds particularly soybean and groundnut. In addition, cotton is an important cash crop of Nashik District which promises high market returns. The district is particularly known for its fruits and vegetables like onions, tomato, grapes and pomegranate. Among the horticultural crops grapes and pomegranate are very popular. This has also led to specific agribusiness opportunity for the farmers in terms of developing grape export unit and pomegranate grading, sorting, packing and collective marketing unit in the district (MACP, 2014). Grape is a major cash crop extensively grown in Dindori (Khedgaon, Koshimbe, Bhanwad and Kasbewani), Niphad (Kasbe Sukhane, Vinchur, Lasalgaon. Saikheda and Ramachi Pimplas) and around Nashik with the main collection centers at Lasalgaon, Vinchur, Pimplegaon Basawant, Dindori - Vani, Nashik - Devlali. Trimbak and Sinnar - Nandur Singote. Post harvest management of fruits is gaining importance particularly for grapes where farmers are sorting, cleaning and grading the produce prior to marketing as it fetches higher prices. Few grape growers have proper space to sort in structured storage houses and therefore grape sorting is mostly done in the field sites before vehicle loading for delivery. Evening harvest is generally chosen to maintain berry freshness. Efficient logistic facilities are used for stock delivery to local traders or bigger neighbouring markets (MACP, 2014 and Field Survey. 2012). The MACP (2014) report also highlighted that the district has over a hundred cold storage facilities which are also utilized by the grape farmers for around 1.5-2 months for extending the season. Refrigerated vans are only used by the grape exporters for stock transport. Most grape growers prefer direct sale to the traders for a higher price to Agricultural Produce Marketing Committees (APMC). In several cases, the fanners have direct access to the large merchants and exporters in major urban markets like Mumbai and Pune. In this context, it may be pointed out that post harvest management of wine grapes is relatively simpler than table grapes as the former goes

44 to the winery for processing into wine while the latter needs to directly arrive in the market in fresh, crisp and spotless condition (Banerjee, 2012).

2.1.4 Growth of the Nashik Grape Cluster Grape is one of the most important commercial fruit crop in Maharashtra with Nashik District as the main grape growing region. Viticulture is a highly lucrative farming activity in the valley which has played a vital role in strengthening its rural economy. The geographical spread of the vineyards is found in the talukas of Nashik, Dindori, Niphad and Igatpuri. According to Bhosale (2001), this zone is a naturally developed cluster owing to its favourable agro-climatic conditions and ready availability of the necessary farm inputs. Abundant water supply from the rivers, dams and the flowing canals of the valley had initially encouraged the farmers to raise crops of sugarcane. Being highly water consuming and soil nutrient depleting crop in nature, the sugarcane fields were replaced by grape vineyards. Several vineyards were sown with high yielding seedless varieties of grapes that fetched premium price in national and international markets. The Grape Growers Association and 'Mahagrapes', an organisation formed by the farmers primarily focus on the export of grapes produced in the district. A host of factors like the district's cool climate, well drained soils, drip irrigation, cheap agricultural labour both skilled and unskilled, adoption of scientific farming practices such as use of root stocks, availability of institutional credit, excellent infrastructure both in terms of good connectivity and easy accessibility, bright market opportunities, farmer friendly State Government policies all have led to the success of grape cultivation and its rise as the most important grape cluster of the country (Bhosale 2001 and Shikhamany, 2005). When the social dynamics of this cluster was studied by Bhosale (2001) it was found that viticulture was undertaken mostly by the progressive and well-to-do farmers while the peasants and landless labourers worked on daily wages. The establishment of the vineyard required considerable capital outlay and vineyard maintainence costs were also substantial which made this enterprise the domain of the wealthy farmers.

2.1.5 Viniculture or Wine Grape Farming in Nashik District Viniculture or wine grape cultivation in Nashik District may be recognized as a thrust sector as the valley enjoys certain inherent agroclimatic conditions that render it highly suitable for wine grape cultivation. As Sood (2012) mentioned that the high summer temperatures followed by heavy monsoonal showers from April to September

45 subject the grapes to a "fall/spring" cycle that mature in the cooler winter months to harvest during February and March. Nashik District is situated at 600 m above mean sea level experiencing dry weather and cool nights during the growing season. Such climatic conditions are highly suitable for wine grape farming. Moreover India is the only country in the northern hemisphere that has winter harvest that makes wine production unique here (Oldne and Agri Exchange, 2013). In Maharashtra winter temperatures do not drop low enough to initiate winter dormancy. Instead the grape vines produce the fruit set that are hand harvested for winemaking. The proliferation of wineries in Nashik District in the last decade gave a major boost to its grape processing and winemaking industry. This phase also saw a shift from table grape farming to wine grape growing in the Nashik District as several grape cultivators replaced their vineyards of table grapes with wine varieties. The rising demand for wine grapes coupled with the higher remuneration in growing wine cultivars had induced such a switch over to wine grape farming. During the survey it was found that the table varieties yielded 9-11 tons/acre and fetched the farmer around Rs 15 - 20/kg while the wine varieties yielded 5 - 6 tons/acre that sold for Rs 25 - 30/kg. The cost of cultivation of table grape is estimated to be Rs 90,000 per acre which falls to Rs 70,000 per acre for wine varieties. The grower can harvest about 5 tons of wine grapes per acre that earns him Rs 2.5 - 3 lakhs per acre of land. Cheng et al, (2010) noted that replacing the table grapes with wine grape varieties would help the grape growers to gain a low volume high value produce. The wine varieties of grapes also required less water for cultivation and the post harvest handling is relatively easy. Nashik District has bright opportunities for the production of seedless table grapes for the fresh market. But the post harvest management, storage and marketing of table grapes are much more complex than for wine varieties (Bordelon, 2009). These factors coupled with the rising demand for wine grapes by the wineries in Nashik District induced the grape growers to farm wine varieties during that phase. As a result, there was an increase in wine grape area and quantum of wine grape production in the Nashik valley. Wine grape cultivation is highly capital intensive that requires huge initial outlay on the supporting structure and high recurring costs on its maintenance. The farmers were encouraged by the supportive Government policies like providing loans and subsidies to establish vineyards, install drip irrigation as well as through technology upgradation and effective networking.

46 However the industry situation soon became dismal with a glut of wine grapes. Sood (2012) pointed out that huge unsold wine stocks following the Mumbai terror attacks and economic downturn of 2009 led wineries procure fewer grapes for fresh crushing therefore lowering the demand for wine grapes. As demand for wine varieties slowed during the period between 2009 and 2010 wine grape cultivation declined in Nashik by 58.33% whereby 6000 acres in the past dedicated to wine grapes have dwindled to a mere 2500 acres. The widely cultivated wine grape varieties during 2007-2008 were completely uprooted in 2012 by several farmers who shifted back to table varieties or other alternate crops as priced dropped (Sood. 2012 and TOI, 2014). At present the market is recovering from the wine grape glut and slowly generating demand for quality grapes. Sood (2012) further noted that the industry is encouraging grape farmers to work actively with wineries in the hope to recover the situation. Most wineries in the Nashik District process an estimated 15% of estate grown grapes while the rest is procured from local grape growers. Jacob (2008) mentioned that the high price of land coupled with State government rules regarding ceiling on land restrict the vineyard sizes to 10 hectares. Therefore wineries are left with limited scope to own enough land for making wine from all estate grown grapes. Most wineries source bulk of the wine grapes from contract farmers who own small holding vineyards, typically measuring 1 - 2.5 hectares. The wineries usually enter into production contract with the grape growers with assured 10 years buy back guarantee. The wineries conduct regular quality checks to ensure standardisation and uniformity in the quality of wine grapes procured from multiple vineyards. The wineries also appoint supervisors to visit the vineyards for inspection and monitoring. In addition they provide the farmers with technical assistance on agronomic practices such as fertilizer management and crop protection.

2.1.6 Wine Producing Areas in Nashik District In an attempt to identify the wine producing areas in Nashik District the location of the various wineries were determined in relation to the wine grape vineyards in the study area (Fig 2.4 a and Fig 2.4 b). The spread of the wineries is observed to be along the prime viniculture belt that passes through Vinchur, Lasalgaon, Ozar, Nandgaon, Adgaon, Chandori and Chikadi. The vineyards mostly occupy the sunnier southern and southwestern slopes. The distributional pattern of the

47 wineries in the study region shows a distinct concentration in Niphad and Dindori talukas with an arm extending towards Gangapur in Nashik taluka and a few pockets of Sanjegoan in Igatpuri taluka.

"^ Ml "J l?'|-

• Winery 1700- son Vineyards I MX> - ?nn I.U'vuttun in Mvli'1% 15W - MKI •i I4OO-J00 50 km •I MO mint 300 - 400 A ~ ^ •; - MOO • 300 2Z1ID -4 \S *:uuv. SRIA1 IH M. SKI I i m:l r <.•!•.. SIII.I-, Fig. 2.4 a- Distribution of the wineries with respect to grape growing belt of the study area

48 133tr t TJ Il?: i p.

^-^4 r—^ 1 "^ e

j~ M

j^K>—;* r •

• VVllK.:!'.' _ Sou In-.:- Vineyards •• . Slupi' Vs|Kir I Southwest mi m •• W .-.! •i North I Northwest 50 km 1 Northeast •• \ur.h A 1 .lNl •i 74 [S\

Source -.n VI III M. Mtl'li an:! - ck. Sinn-, Fig. 2.4 b Distribution of grape growing and winemaking regions of the study area with respect to slope aspect The wineries in Vinchur lie within the Godavari Wine Park under Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation. Important wine park wineries include Vinsura Winery and Flamingo Winery (Fig 2.5). Ozar has well known labels like Renaissance Winery, Vintage Winery and Mercury Winery.

49 Source: Wine Park Survey, 2012 Fig 2.5 Flamingo Winery, Vinchur Wine Park, Niphad Taluka

In Dindori taluka the wineries radiate from the outskirts of the main town towards Palkhed upto the base of Nehra-Ori hills. Several smaller wineries are found around Wakhed upto Nashik town. These wineries are in close proximity to the vineyards in Palkhed, Vani and Pimpalgaon Baswant. Dindori houses that main winemaking plant of Sula Winery set amidst its 300 acre estate vineyards near Karanjwan dam. N D Wines, the main supplier to Sula Winery is also located nearby. Another large scale unit Chateau d'Ori Winery is situated near Palkhed canal though the winery was found to be in rather non operational condition during field survey and remains incomplete in construction till date. Winery sources confirmed that Chateau d'Ori Winery is in dire financial constraints. In Nashik taluka the largest winery of India namely Sula is located along with York Winery and Soma Winery in Gangapur area adjoining the dam. These wineries lie near the wine grape growing areas of Pimplegaon, Girnare and Trimbak. These wineries were found to be proactive in promotion of wine tourism in the region. The two Igatpuri wineries namely Grover Zampa Winery and Vallonne Vineyards are situated in Sanjegaon near Mukhne dam (Fig 2.6). A visit to Grover Zampa Winery revealed the overwhelming influence of its Karnataka based parent company on it. The other winery Vallonne Vineyards was found to be a boutique unit with limited production of fine quality wines.

50 Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.6 Grover Zampa Winery and its estate vineyards in Igatpuri Taluka

2.2 Viticulture Aspects Influencing Wine Production It is often said that wine production begins at the vineyards. Indeed so, as the key factor that influences the character of wine is the quality of the wine grapes grown in the vineyards. Wine grapes influence the flavour, alcohol content, acidity and colour of the resulting wine. Broadly speaking, the quality of wine depends upon a host of factors like wine grape cultivar used, the 'terroir', vineyard management practices as well as the methods of fermentation, processing and aging at the wineries (Bordelon, 2009 and Adsule et.al, 2013).

2.2.1 Selection of Wine Grape Cultivars Little wine can be produced from all grape species but commercial wine production is specifically carried out by the processing of wine cultivars (Vitis Vinifera) (Jacob and Soman, 2006). According to Karibasappa (2012), wine grapes differ from table grapes in many aspects. Wine grapes are the seeded varieties with small berries that are juicy and infused with strong aroma compounds. Dominant red wine cultivars are Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Malbec, Zinfandel and Tempranillo while the popular whites include Sauvignon Blanc, Chenin Blanc, Viognier, Chardonnay and Riesling. Table grapes have fresh, large, pulpy and crisp berries which are often spotless due to the application of growth regulators. The table grape clusters show strong berry adherence and are intended for fresh markets. Thompson seedless is by far the most important cultivar of table grapes worldwide. Other major cultivars of table varieties include the mutants of Thompson Seedless like

51 Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka and Manik Chaman, Anab-e-Shahi, Dilkhush. Sharad Seedless, Perlette, Gulabi and Bhokri. Bordelon (2009) mentioned that wine cultivar selection depends upon two primary considerations cultivar adaptation and market demand. The grape cultivars planted must be productive in the local environmental conditions. Marketability of the cultivars is necessary for targeting production towards profits and is influenced by industry needs. Another concern for cultivar selection is correctly matching the chosen grape varieties with its growing site. Other factors include suitable cultivars that would yield grape berries with ample sugar and acid content, aroma, colour and flavour.

2.2.2 Concept of 'terrior' The concept of 'terrior' is of great significance in viniculture. Natural environmental factors like climate and soil have a profound influence in making wine from a particular region unique, referred to as 'terroir (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). In other words it is the distinctive taste and flavor passed on to the wine by the natural environment in which it originated. Climatic parameters like temperature and rainfall are important considerations in viniculture. Karibasappa et.al, (2011) suggested that grapevines thrive in warm sunny days (28 - 32°C) and dry cool nights (15 - 18°C) under tropical zones. Diurnal variation in temperature is an essential prerequisite for yielding quality grape clusters. Degree days are available from September to March which should accumulate very slowly. Nashik has 2200 - 2750 degree days which makes it suitable for cultivating wine grapes. High temperatures result in moisture stress and low quality berries. Abrupt drop in temperatures coupled with wet weather conditions hamper grape ripening leading to yield losses. Rain showers from June to October helps in augmenting subsoil moisture. An annual rainfall of about 55 - 65 cm distributed between June and October aids in the production of good quality fruit sets. Moisture deficiency during flowering and early berry formation period to veraison is detrimental for the grape berries. However slight moisture deficiency during the period from veraison to ripening results in quality berry formation. Based on the survey results, it may be said that the microclimatic conditions in the study area also play a vital role on the quality of grapes. Correia (2012) noted that the quality of wine grapes tend to vary within as well as between vineyards due to

52 microclimate experienced. Landscape characteristics like elevation and slope aspect are crucial for vineyard site, design and layout. Such landscape characteristics have a profound influence on the prevailing weather conditions giving rise to unique microclimates. Temperature is the most important climatic parameter affecting viniculture. Correia (2012) also studied the optimal temperature range for grape vine growth and photosynthesis to be 23 - 25°C as higher temperatures consume sugar for plant respiration leaving progressively less for the grapes. Maintaining the optimal temperature balance is critical for achieving sugar surplus in the grapes. The surplus grape sugar contributes to flavouring and colouring at the time of berry ripening and development. The mean berry ripening temperature is 20°C which is ideal for producing the correct proportions of flavour notes, colour pigments and aroma compounds. The relatively warmer climes tend to produce wine grapes low in acid levels. However the cool nocturnal temperatures of Nashik valley help to raise the acid levels as lower night time temperatures retard the metabolic changes and the conversion of acids to grape sugar (Correia, 2012 and Narula, 2012).

Grape vines need sufficient soil moisture for flowering and berry setting (Correia, 2012). Post bud differentiation till veraison the vines tend to withstand moisture stress experienced in Nashik District (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). In fact high soil moisture levels during berry ripening lead to berry splitting and cluster decay. A ripening period which is mostly free of rain showers is ideal for good vine yields. Heavy rainfall is harmful for the vines particularly during bud setting. Water logging and related problems associated with heavy rains from June to September are avoided by the Nashik District grape growers as they establish their vineyards mostly along hill slopes (Fig 2.7). Vineyard site selection along slopes not only facilitates the swift drainage of rain water but also benefits from cooler microclimates. Eastern slopes along the highlands of Nashik District provide favourable vineyard orientation through mild morning sun exposure, adequate drainage, shelter from strong winds and cooler climes. However upper slope segments are avoided by the wine grape growers due to high wind speeds, thin soils and difficulties in carrying out vineyard operations. The grape farmers prefer vineyard sites near lakes and dams to take advantage of the cooling effect of the winds blowing from the water bodies (Correia. 2012; Aggarwal, 2012; Adsule et.al, 2013).

53 Source Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.7 Wine grape vineyards on hill slopes in Igatpuri Taluka

The amount of sunshine reaching the vine canopy particularly the lower reaches of the canopy and its grape clusters is significant. This has a direct bearing on vine yields, quality of grapes and the resulting wine through sufficient light and ventilation. However measures must be taken to protect the well exposed bunches from overheating or heat damage. Ample sunshine during berry ripening is important for augmenting sugar or starch reserves within the grape vine. Hailstorms adversely affect the grape vines and result in severe crop loss. Nashik District often experiences unseasonal rainfall and accompanying hailstorms in early March which bring disaster for high value horticulture crops including grapes (Adsule et.al, 2013; Correia, 2012; TET, 2015). Humidity, typically expressed in terms of relative humidity, is another important climatic factor affecting wine grape quality. High humidity, fog and dew risk the vineyards to fungal diseases as fungal spores thrive on leaf dampness (Correia, 2012). Most wine grape vineyards in Nashik District seek sunny slopes which are less susceptible to humidity problems on account of abundant solar radiation. During the survey it was observed that most vineyards in Igatpuri, Dindori, Niphad and Nashik talukas have vine rows laid perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction to facilitate drying of plant surfaces by wind (Narula, 2012). The winds also assist in air circulation within the canopy, maintain equitable temperature in and around the vine, permit sunshine to reach the internal leaves and berry bunches of the vine canopy. Air circulation becomes crucial in areas of high humidity. Ventilation of

54 the vine canopies by mild winds aids in lowering the humidity levels through the drying action of the winds (Correia, 2012). Grapevines grow well in sandy, chalky or rocky soils (Karibasappa et.al. 2011). Bordelon (2009) suggested that grapevines are capable of adapting to a wide range of soil types when grown under irrigation. However they are best grown in deep medium textured soils like loams and sandy loams which have low salt content. The soils must permit the growth of well-developed root systems. Well drained soils are a prerequisite as root development is limited in ill drained soils. Ideal soil conditions favouring root growth include adequate aeration, loose texture, medium fertility, sufficient depth with excellent internal and surface drainage. Soil drainage is by far the most important soil parameter for successful grape cultivation.

2.2.3 Efficient Cultural Practices The field visits revealed that the following cultural practices are undertaken in the vineyards of the study area as they have a direct bearing on grape quality and the resulting wine: • Vine spacing • Vine training • Double pruning • Canopy management Adsule et.al, (2013) favoured grapevine spacing at 7 - 8 feet between rows and 3-4 feet between the vines. Such spacing ensures the required water and soil nutrient supply to the vines for production of quality fruit sets (Fig 2.8). Vine spacing is mainly determined by the vigour ot the vine. As a general rule, as vine density increases, productivity per vine decreases although yield per acre increases (Baughman et. al, 2000).

55 Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.8 Vine spacing in vineyards in the study area

Vine training involves giving the necessary structural support to make the vines strong, healthy and well-shaped. Training of grapevines is done by employing kniffin, telephone and trellis systems (Baughman et. al, 2000 and Karibasappa et.al, 2011) (Fig 2.9).

Kniffin System Telephone System Trellis System

Source: NRCG Database, 2012 Fig 2.9 Types of vine training systems

The selection of the training technique is determined by the vigour of the cultivar, level of vineyard mechanization and availability of skilled workforce (Adsule et.al, 2013). During the field visits it was observed that the trellis method is mostly chosen for wine grape production in the study area (Fig 2.10).

56 Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.10 Vine training in vineyards in the study area

Pruning involves the removal of the vegetative parts (canes, shoot and leaves) of the vine in order to obtain the desired number of fruiting units. Pruning helps to control the fruiting area on the vine as it controls the number and positions of the buds (Baughman et. al, 2000). It manages the size and form of the vine and helps to balance the vegetative growth with fruiting. This measure is adopted to optimise the production potential of the vine for yielding quality fruit sets. In the sub-tropical region of northern India single pruning is done in December while in peninsular India double pruning is the norm which involves back pruning during April and fore pruning or fruit pruning in October (Adsule et.al, 2013). During the field survey it was a common sight to find women farm labourers engaged in prunning of the vines in the study area (Fig 2.11). Cheng et.al (2010) pointed out that the vines in the sub tropical zone undergo dormancy owing to severe northern winters. In contrast grapevines growing in the hot tropical zone of peninsular India do not experience winter dormancy. Winter dormancy enables the grapevines draw soil nutrients which in turn help in concentration of flavours within the wine grapes. In peninsular states the grapevines instead of undergoing winter dormancy produce a second winter crop. This shortens the natural life of the vines that survive only 23 years as compared to 50 years of vine lifespan in other parts of the world. In an attempt to reduce nutrient loss through a second winter crop the grapevines are trimmed. Although this practice augments the availability of nutrients for the vines thereby enabling them to build up the flavours, the lifetime of the vines still remains lesser than the regular vines that experience winter dormancy.

57 Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.11 Pruning of the vines in the study area

Canopy management practices such as bunch exposure for allowing light and air into the canopy, retention of desired bud load per vine and maintaining shoot density are also critical for producing good quality fruit sets (Adsule et.al, 2013). The field survey revealed that in the months of February and March the wine grapes are finally hand harvested in the evening and trucked to the winery for processing into wine.

2.3 Operations Within a Winery The key to success in fine winemaking lies in procuring quality grapes from the vineyards. In fact the single most important factor that influences the character of wine is the wine grapes used in making it. The grapes pass on to the wine with its distinct flavour, colour and aroma. It also affects the wine's alcohol content and acidity. However there is the need to balance these elements in correct proportions to produce quality wine. It is here that the role of winemaker assumes prime significance. The winemaker uses his techniques to instill the flavour and aroma in suitable combination to make fine wines. The red wines are characterized by tannin; higher tannin wines are astringent while lower tannin reds are smooth and soft. The acidity in white wines makes them crisp and refreshing but when the whites become too acidic they taste sour (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). In the winery it all depends upon the skills of the winemaker to produce quality wine. Wine therefore is essentially a product of both the vineyard and the winemaker. The winemaking process is apparently simple yet delicate and wineries follow a standard methodology to produce wine. Winemaking process involves four phrases:

58 wine grape cultivation and harvest, fermentation, clarification and aging (Baughman et. al, 2000). According to Jackish (1985), each stage is governed by a distinct process namely cultivation is macrobiological, fermentation is microbiological, clarification is physical and aging is chemical. Each process tends to overlap with one another during winemaking (Fig 2.12 and Fig 2.13).

59 Wine Grape Cultivar

- Farm Labour - Chemical fertilizer - Farm Machinery Land - Compose - Drip Irrigation

- Pesticides Vineyards - Insecticides

Efficient Viticulture Practices:

(1) Vine Spacing (2) Vine Training (3) Vine Pruning (4) Canopy Management

Wine Grape Harvest

Winemaking in Winery

Wine

Cellar Door Distributor Sales

Retailer Consumer

Consumer

Source: Author, 2013 Fig 2.12 Grapevine to wine

60 Source: Author, 2013 Fig 2.13 Red and white winemaking process

2.3.1 Pre - fermentation Processes Wine grapes are harvested from the vineyards either by hand or by employing mechanical harvesters and are sent to the wineries that are mostly located on site. During the field survey it was found that the wine grapes in the study area are hand harvested during February and March in the evening before vehicle delivery to the wineries. Within the winery the harvested grapes are at first sorted for quality. The moldy grapes as well as the leaves are removed and the fresh grape berries are unloaded onto the destemmer - crusher. This machine separates the stems and splits the grape berries to discharge the juice. For the production of red wine the resulting 'grape must' consisting of grape juice along with the skin, pulp and seeds are transferred directly to the fermentation tank. The red wine is fermented with the skins which results in the gradual release of red pigments (anthocyanins) and the tannins that impart the distinguishing red colour to the wine (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). However for the production of white wine the removal of the grape skin prior to fermentation is a prerequisite. For this purpose the 'grape must' from the destemmer - crusher is transferred to the pneumatic press. The pneumatic press extracts the juice from the skins along with the various flavour components that are present in the skin. The extracted juice without the grape skins is transferred to the fermentation tank for the production of white wine. The large scale wineries of the study area have digitally

61 controlled equipment to treat grapes and prepare the 'grape must' for fermentation. These sophisticated machineries include destemmer - crusher and pneumatic press that are mostly designed by European giants like Delia Toffola, Borelli and Velo (Fig 2.14). The smaller wineries lack resources to import such expensive devices and therefore resort to Indian counterparts made by reputed Indian companies like Datacone Wine Machineries and Winetech Engineers (Field Survey, 2012).

Destemmer-crusher Pneumatic press Source: Winery Survey, 2012 Fig 2.14 Winemaking Equipment at Chateau d'Ori Winery, Dindori Taluka

2.3.2 Fermentation The yeast ferment grape sugar present in the slurry of crushed grapes to ethanol (Baughman et. al, 2000). According to Karibasappa et.al, (2011), wine is a product of fermentation of 'grape must' or grape juice by yeast. The naturally occurring wild yeast in the grape skins may ferment the wine or those present in the fermentation tank may enable this decomposition. However, in most cases the winemaker chooses to add a particular wine yeast culture for assisting ethanol fermentation. The two commonly used wine yeast strains are Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces bayanus. This is a crucial step in quality winemaking as the yeast is responsible for developing the positive aromas as well as negative notes. Yeasts under stress situations often produce hydrogen sulphide which gives the odour of rotten eggs. The grape juice harbour several other micro organisms which play their role in influencing the quality in wine. Alongside ethanol fermentation, malolactic fermentation also proceeds whereby the naturally present bacteria alter the malic acid to lactic acid. The lactic

62 acid bacteria in turn draw energy from the acids in wine thereby reducing the total acidity and raising the pH. They often impart the wine with the buttery aromas. At times the winemaker limits the growth of lactic acid bacteria in case the wine is already low in acidity or when the buttery note imparted by the bacteria does not suit the wine. Another kind of bacteria is Acetobactor which alters the ethanol to acetic acid yielding wine vinegar thereby causing spoilage (Baughman et. al. 2000 and Karibasappa et.al, 2011). Karibasappa et.al, (2011) further noted that when the phase of vigourous fermentation ends, the yeast and other suspended solids settle down at the base of the fermentation tank forming the 'lees'. The resulting wine is 'racked' off the 'lees' and collected in clean containers. It may be noted that during the fermentation of red wine the grape skins tend to float on the top surface forming a cap which needs to be immersed down from time to time for carrying out successful fermentation of the entire 'grape must*. After draining the red wine from the fermentation tank the remaining pomace is separately pressed to obtain any residual wine which is later blended in the free run (Baughman et. al, 2000). In contrast white wine does not involve any such procedures post fermentation because it is obtained by the fermentation of grape juice without the fruit skins. For high quality wine production it is very important to allow fermentation to proceed at controlled temperatures particularly for temperature - critical fermentation. The aroma compounds in the wine are highly volatile in nature. Higher temperatures induce faster surface evaporation and subsequent loss of the aroma compounds (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). This necessitates the direct cooling of the fermentation tanks either by installing cooling systems or by providing cooling jackets. The duration of fermentation plays a vital role in determining the final flavour, aroma. colour, body, astringency and longevity of the wine. The surveyed wineries use fermentation tanks made of stainless steel with mirror like inner surfaces (Fig 2.15). These wine tanks are housed in dark tank halls and often provided with cooling jackets to enhance the refrigeration efficiency during chilling of wines. These fermentation tanks are indigenous made that are at par with international standards. Yeast is an expensive input for winemaking which the wineries import from France and Australia (Field Survey, 2012). The two widely used brands are 'Red Star' and 'Lalvin' which are obtained in the form of dry active yeast formulations. Wine yeast strains like Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces

63 bayanus are highly specialized cxihibiting traits like tolerance to high levels of alcohol mostly up to 18%, high temperature resistance up to 35°C, low temperature resistance ranging from 5 - 7°C for slow fermentations particularly in white wines, ability to restart stuck fermentation, low foaming capacity (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). Advanced strains of yeast are also imported by large wineries which are suitable for certain varietal wines like Shiraz, Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc that adds aroma and body to them. The complex nature of the wine yeast strains necessitates their import by the wineries as the indigenous options generally do not match up to the imported ones. However, few smaller wineries use yeast from Zytex Biotech Pvt Ltd, Mumbai (Field Survey, 2012).

Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.15 Fermentation tanks at Chateau d'Ori Winery, Dindori Taluka

2.3.3 Clarification Post fermentation the wine appears to be cloudy. Over time the yeast and other suspended solids precipitate out of the wine and settle at the base of the fermentation tank. These settled sediments are known as 'lees'. Wine is "siphoned off these lees" by a process called racking. Wine racking off the lees reduces the cloudiness and produces clear wine. The racked wine is collected and stored in clean casks. Protein precipitation is common when the wine is exposed to standard shelf conditions. Higher temperatures induce such precipitation which makes the wine cloudy. Lower temperatures result in formation of potassium bitartrate crystals. The winemaker applies his techniques to stabilise the wine by adding flocculants like bentonite clay. This wine fining process is followed by subsequent racking to remove the added ingredients which gradually settle at the base (Baughman et. al, 2000 and Karibasappa

64 et.al, 2011). In the study area the large wineries use imported filters for wine fining and insulated wine tanks for cold stabilization. The smaller wineries however employ indigenous filtering units for the purpose of wine clarification. The stabilisation agents and additives are mostly imported from France by the wineries (Field Survey, 2012).

2.3.4 Aging and Bottling of Wines Aging of wine is a very crucial process in winemaking which enhances the quality in wine through slow oxidation (Baughman et. al, 2000). During aging process there is an interplay among the wine's residual sugars, acids and phenolic compounds notably the tannins that actually improves the flavour, aroma, colour and body of the wine over time. Most reds get better with aging as the wine becomes soft, smooth and balanced. According to Karibasappa et.al (2011), oak maturation in cool dark cellars particularly benefits the wines as the typical flavour and aroma compounds of the oak wood are passed on to the wine making them spicy or toasty. Oak aging of premium varietal wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Zinfandel and Chardonnay enables them to reach their peak. Once the wine has been aged, it becomes ready to be bottled where it may keep on slow aging for many more years. Import of oak barrels from European countries requires large capital outlay. As a result it is a common practice among the smaller wineries in the study area to use oak chips for wine aging. It was found during the survey that only the large scale wineries are able to mature their premium wines in oak barrels under climatically controlled cellars. The oak barrels are imported from France that costs around Rs 40 lakhs for 60 barrels (Rs 67,000 per barrel). These large wineries also import the wine bottles, corks and screw caps from France for premium wines. The wine is bottled in the bottling line mostly imported from Italy (Fig 2.16). The smaller wineries however employ indigenous bottling units and use bottles and screw caps made in China, Sri Lanka and India (Field Survey, 2012) (Fig 2.17).

65 Oak barrels Bottling line

Source: Winery Survey, 2012 Fig 2.16 Aging and bottling equipment at Vallonne Winery, Igatpuri Taluka

H !.i)I mKtKf&^p' """J •

Source: Winery Survey, 2012 Fig 2.17 Bottling and Labeling Machines at Vinsura Winery, Niphad Taluka. A. Manual bottling machine, B. Corking machine, C. Manual screw cpping, D. Hand labeling system

66 2.4 Types of Wine Produced by Wineries in Nashik District Wine stands as a celebrated potation and a global symbol of festivity (Truong 2012). Until recently wine was perceived by most Indians as an elitist pursuit, a drink enjoyed by a privileged few. However with the flooding of the domestic market with several home grown wine brands, it is gradually becoming an affordable luxury for many Indians. Common man relates to wine mostly by its colour in terms of red wine and white wine. In fact it is the most common classification of wine. However wine is classified by a number of methods such as by colour, vinification techniques, grape variety, place of origin and name of the winemaker.

2.4.1 Wine Classification Based on Colour - Red, White and Rose Wines Wine is categorized by colour as red wine, white wine and rose or blush wine. Red wine, as the name suggests, is characterized by its red colour shades while white wine has a pale straw or golden yellow colour. Both are the products of fermentation by yeast of grape sugar to ethanol. However red wine is fermented with the grape skins while white wine is produced when grape juice that has already been separated from the grape skins is fermented. In the process of fermenting red wine, pigments and tannins are released from the grape skins which impart the distinctive red colour to the wine (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). Rose or blush wine is produced when the 'grape must' from dark-skinned berries is fermented without the grape skins. The slurry of crushed grapes contains slight pigments which imparts the rose wine with the pink hue.

The surveyed wineries produce red wine predominantly from Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz varieties. Zinfandel and Merlot grape varieties are also used to make red wine. Red wines made from Malbec and Tempranillo varieties are the upcoming ones (Fig 2.18). In case of white wine Sauvignon Blanc and Chenin Blanc grape varieties are widely used by the surveyed wineries. Chardonnay, Reisling and Viognier are still the emerging varieties (Fig 2.19). For the production of rose wine the surveyed wineries preferred Zinfandel followed by Cabernet Sauvignon (Fig 2.20). The survey of the wineries also revealed that Malbec, Pinot Noir and Tempranillo were gaining popularity among the reds and Chardonnay, Reisling and Viognier among the whites. It may be pointed out that Pinot Noir is a new entrant in the red wine category. A significant percent of the surveyed wineries saw growth in

67 Pinot Noir grape variety for winemaking for the domestic market in near future (Fig 2.21).

I Cabernet Sauvignon

2W< i Shiraz i Zinfandel

i Merlot

i Malbec

i Tempranillo

Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.18 Dominant varieties used for red wine

I Sauvignon Blanc

iChenin Blanc

Chardonnay

iReisling

• Viognier

Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.19 Dominant varieties used for white wine

i Zinfandel

i Cabernet Sauvignon

Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.20 Dominant Varieties Used for Rose Wine

68 • Malbec

• Pinot Noir

• Reisling

• Viognier

• Chardonnay

• Tempranillo

Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.21 Emerging wine grape varieties among the surveyed wineries

2.4.2 Wine Classification Based on Vinification Methods Different techniques of vinification produce different types of wine such as still wine, sparkling wine and fortified wine; dessert wine and dry wine. Still wine, also called table wine or natural wine, does not have the bubble effervescence. They are widely available in the market commonly having 10-14% alcohol content (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). Sparkling wines like Champagne and Sekt have considerable carbon dioxide levels that cause the effervescence. Sparkling wines undergo double fermentation. The carbon dioxide produced during primary fermentation of the wine escapes into the atmosphere. However the gas gets trapped during secondary fermentation occurring in closed containers, such as the traditional bottle fermentation, that causes the effervescence of carbon dioxide. Fortified wine is produced when wine fermentation is brought to a standstill due to the addition of a distilled spirit generally brandy. Fortified wines tend to be sweeter as the grape sugar is not completely altered to ethanol by the yeast. They are also more alcoholic in nature containing about 20% alcohol by volume and examples include Port, Sherry, Madeira, Marsala and Vermouth. Dessert wine, also called 'pudding wine', is essentially sweet wine enjoyed after the main course. It is produced when wine fermentation is stopped before the yeast converts all the grape sugar into ethanol. Significant levels of residual sugar make the wine sweet. In contrast, dry wine is produced when all the grape sugar is converted by yeast to ethanol (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). Most still wines are fermented until they become dry. In between the dessert wine and dry wine lies the off-dry wine which has slight sweet notes owing to the presence of little residual grape sugar. The survey of wineries in the study area

69 revealed that Zinfandel was the most preferred choice for dessert wines. Chenin Blanc, although to a much lesser extent, was also chosen by some wineries (Fig 2.22). During the survey it was also found that most wineries in the study area are interested in port wine production that uses juice from table grapes like Thompson seedless and are priced below Rs 200. According to media updates, in 2015 the total production of port wine in India rose to 30 lakh litres that accounted for 60% of wine production in the country. In the past few years Nashik District experienced unseasonal rainfall and accompanying hailstorm that damaged large quantities of table grapes and rendered them unfit for the fresh market sale or raisin making. These table grapes were eventually procured by the wineries in Nashik District to make port wine.

• Late Harvest Zinfandel *

• Late Harvest Chenin o Blanc Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.22 Dominant varieties used for dessert wine

2.4.3 Wine Classification Based on Grape Varieties and Blends Varietal wines are mostly correlated with the New World wines. Varietal wine is named after the primary grape variety used in making the wine. A varietal wine contains a minimum of 75 - 85% of the dominant variety which is printed on the wine label (Karibasappa et.al, 2011). In contrast, blended wines like Cabernet - Shiraz have two or more grape varieties in them. Classifying wine by varietal and blends is a common practice in the New World wine regions of United States, Australia, Chile and South Africa. It is a common practice among the surveyed wineries to prepare blends of Cabernet-Shiraz and Cabernet-Merlot as revealed during the winery visits (Fig 2.23).

70 • Cabernet Shiraz o • Cabernet Merlot Source: Field Survey, 2012 Fig 2.23 Popular blended wines produced by the surveyed wineries

The popular varietal wines produced by the wineries in Nashik District are Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Merlot, Sauvignon Blanc and Chenin Blanc. The studies of Karibasappa et.al, (2011) and Adsule et.al, (2013) highlighted important aspects of the various wine grape varieties that are commonly used in indigenous winemaking. Cabernet Sauvignon is a popular red wine grape variety which has a propensity to develop flavours of blackberry, blackcurrant and chocolate. Oak maturation is a common norm with this variety. Shiraz or 'Syrah' is a dark- skinned grape which is processed to produce a soft and rich red wine. It is a fast maturing variety that yields full-bodied wines with concentrated flavours often characterized by aromas ranging from violets to berries, chocolate and black pepper. Merlot is another widely used dark blue coloured wine grape that yields medium- bodied wines with fruity notes of plum, berry and currant. This variety also shows its best with oak aging. Among the whites, Sauvignon Blanc is a green-skinned variety which has its roots in the 'Bordeaux' region of France. It produces a dry and crisp white varietal wine that is consumed young as aging does not have any profound influence on it. Another white variety is the Chenin Blanc from the 'Loire valley' of France which is endowed with high acidity as a result of which it is a popular choice for making sparkling wines and dessert wines. Chardonnay is a green-skinned grape variety from 'Burgundy' region of France which is vinified to produce dry white wine. It is one of the most widely cultivated wine grape varieties across the world owing to its relative ease of cultivation and it reflects the characteristics of its 'terroir' and the traits imparted by the winemaker. During the survey it was found that Chardonnay is a newly emerging variety that is being used by several wineries for winemaking in recent times.

71 2.4.4 Old World and New World Wines The Old World wine regions like France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Austria and Romania give sole priority to the role of 'terroir' in winemaking. Winemaking is perceived as a mark of cultural heritage in these countries (Truong 2012). As such the Old World wines are named after their region or place of origin. Hence we find the famous European wines from 'Bordeaux* and 'Burgundy' to 'Champagne* and "Chianti".

2.4.5 Wines Named After the Winemaker Wine is sometimes named after the winemaker or vintner who skillfully crafted it. Madame Clicquot, nee Ponsardin crafted an early champagne which still bears her name.