Encyclopedia of Contemporary French Culture

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CONTEMPORARY FRENCH CULTURE

Edited by Alex Hughes and Keith Reader

London and New York

First published 1998 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of contemporary French culture/edited by Alex Hughes and Keith Reader p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. France—Civilization—1945–—Encyclopedias. 2. France—Popular culture—Encyclopedias. I. Hughes, Alex. II. Reader, Keith. DC33.7.E53 1998 97–31879 CIP 944.08’03–dc21

ISBN 0-203-00330-6 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-20475-1 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-13186-3 (Print Edition)

Contents

Editorial team vi List of contributors vii Preface x Introduction xi Acknowledgements xiii Classified contents list xiv

Encyclopedia 1

Index 574

v Editorial team

General editors Nicholas Hewitt Alex Hughes University of Nottingham, UK University of Birmingham, UK Brian Nelson Keith Reader Monash University, Australia University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Ian Pickup Consultant editors University of Birmingham, UK David Bradby Steve Ungar Royal Holloway, University of London, UK University of Iowa, USA Verena Ande rmatt Conley Jan Windebank Miami University, USA University of Sheffield, UK Susan Hayward Michael Worton University of Exeter, UK University College London, UK

vi List of contributors

Elza Adamowicz David Drake Queen Mary and Westfield College London Middlesex University

Dennis Ager David Ellison Aston University University of Miami

Robert Aldrich Elizabeth Ezra University of Sydney University of Stirling

Laurence Bell Patrick ffrench University of Surrey University College London

Jennifer Birkett Jill Forbes University of Birmingham University of Bristol

Michael Bishop Cathy Fowler Dalhousie University Southampton Institute

Craig Blunt Johnnie Gratton University of Birmingham University College Dublin

Sophie Boyron Vérène Grieshaber University of Birmingham University College London

William C.Calin Renate Günther University of Florida University of Sheffield

Kay Chadwick Ron Hallmark University of Liverpool University of Birmingham

Susan Collard Seán Hand University of Sussex Oxford Brookes University

Tom Conley Linda Hantrais Harvard University Loughborough University

Martyn Cornick Peter Hawkins University of Birmingham University of Bristol

Béatrice Damamme-Gilbert Susan Hayward University of Birmingham University of Exeter

Hugh Dauncey Owen Heathcote University of Newcastle upon Tyne University of Bradford

Richard Derderian Nicholas Hewitt University of North Carolina University of Nottingham

Philip Dine Lynn A.Higgins Loughborough University Dartmouth College (USA) vii viii List of contributors

Gill Howie Bill Marshall Liverpool University University of Southampton

Alex Hughes Ann Miller University of Birmingham Leicester University

Simeon Hunter Pam Moores United Kingdom Aston University

Laïla Ibnlfassi † Peter Morris London Guildhall University Aston University

Kate Ince François Nectoux University of Birmingham Kingston University

Brian Jenkins Patrick O’Donovan University of Portsmouth University College Cork

Christopher Johnson George Paizis Keele University University College London

Roger Kain Alan Pedley University of Exeter University of Exeter

Debra Kelly Ian Pickup University of Westminster University of Birmingham

Michael Kelly Gérard Poulet University of Southampton University of Exeter

William Kidd Phil Powrie University of Stirling University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Eleonore Kofman Keith Reader Nottingham Trent University University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Raymond Kuhn † Jo Reed Queen Mary and Westfield College University of Birmingham

David Looseley Mireille Rosello University of Leeds University of Nottingham

Lucy McKeever Gerard Paul Sharpling Sunderland University University of Birmingham

Mark McKinney Michael Sheringham Miami University Royal Holloway, University of London

Jean Mainil Max Silverman University of Nottingham University of Leeds

Margaret Majumdar Annie Sparks University of Glamorgan Royal Holloway, University of London

John Marks Judith Still Loughborough University University of Nottingham List of contributors ix

Walter A.Strauss Khursheed Wadia Case Western Reserve University University of Wolverhampton

Anthony Sutcliffe Peter Wagstaff University of Leicester University of Bath

Valerie Swales Fiona Warne University of Portsmouth University of Birmingham

Joe Szarka Colville Wemyss University of Bath MA, University of St Andrews

Carrie Tarr Steve Wharton Thames Valley University University of Bath

Ursula Tidd Nicola White University of Salford Kingston University

Chris Tinker Carol Wilcox University of Birmingham South Kent College

D.A.Trotter James Williams University of Wales, Aberystwyth University of Kent at Canterbury

Steven Ungar Jan Windebank University of Iowa University of Sheffield

Joëlle Vitiello Michael Worton Macalester College, Saint Paul University College London Preface

In an age when France has consolidated its position as the leading European destination for Englishspeaking holiday-makers, tourists and second-home-owners, retained its prestige as the international capital of gastronomy, wine production, chic and sex appeal, and bred film directors to rival Hollywood and singer-songwriters without equal on the world stage, it has also become an object of profound suspicion for many non-French commentators on the intellectual life. French ideas are produced in a faddish and fashion-conscious climate, we are often told, prominent philosophers and social theorists are treated with absurd veneration and their obscure, portentous, jargon-infested diction threatens to run riot through the human sciences, undermining otherwise secure British and North American bastions of clarity, good sense and methodological rectitude. It could of course be that the prevailing enthusiasm for France as a source of pleasure is closely linked to this distrust of French ideas: while volupté and jouissance belong quite properly in the restaurant, the bedroom or the cinema, they have no place in the library or the lecture theatre. Could it be that French intellectuals enjoy themselves too much and too openly in the eyes of their Anglophone detractors, and that their writings are therefore easily seen by such critics as an attempt to seduce and corrupt our impressionable young? In order to begin answering questions of this kind we clearly need a new kind of reference work— one which talks about wine and psychoanalysis, movie-makers and maîtres-à-penser, Piaf and Piaget. The entire field of contemporary French culture is alive with myths and counter-myths about France and Frenchness. While some of these are produced at home and then exported, others originate abroad—in British tabloid newspapers, say, or on North American campuses— and are then imported into France. So much that is fascinating about contemporary France is transmitted by gossip, hearsay and the insider talk of various professional groups that it has until now been difficult for the would-be demythologizer to lay down a firm factual foundation for his or her enquiry. Things are even more problematic for the newcomer. Basic documents are often surprisingly difficult to find, and divisions between ‘high’ and ‘popular’ culture, or between the hexagon and the wider world of francophonie, have often meant that students and general readers have had to visit far-flung sections of their local reference library in order to begin assembling a comprehensive picture of France today. What Keith Reader, Alex Hughes and their team of contributors have produced in this splendid new Encyclopedia is a huge multi-dimensional snapshot of a culture that has reinvented itself with dizzying rapidity in the last half-century and shows no sign of slowing down. The range of their book is astonishing. With a single movement, the reader is able to travel from the world of screen goddesses (Aimée, Bardot, Deneuve) to the world of jet-setting intellectual demiurges (Baudrillard, Bourdieu, Derrida), from Elle to Eluard, from nuclear power to pornography, from agriculture to athletics, from the structure of Pierre Reverdy’s verse to the labyrinthine and recursive structures of the new European legislation. All those who study modern French and Francophone cultures will be in debt to Hughes and Reader. Dangerous and delectable France has been mapped as never before between the covers of this cornucopian volume.

Malcolm Bowie

x Introduction

Our Encyclopedia of Contemporary French Culture reflects the growing interest in French cultural studies that is a feature of the current academic and intellectual scene. Its existence echoes, in other words, the trend towards a broadening of the syllabus for further and higher education programmes in French, away from the once sacrosanct duo of language and canonical literature, to incorporate such areas as cinema, political and social institutions, gender- based studies and critical theory. More generally, it will be relevant to students of areas such as above who do not necessarily have a particular interest in French culture per se. French cinema remains the dominant Western national industry outside the United States; French political history and institutions, given France’s place since 1789 as the first modern nation-state, exercise a continuing fascination; feminist theory, and critical theory more generally, are frequently nowadays thought of as characteristically French developments. Our text presupposes no knowledge of the French language, nor indeed of France’s history and institutions beyond what might be expected of the educated lay reader of a quality daily paper or news weekly, so that its usefulness will extend well outside the domain of French studies. The Encyclopedia of Contemporary French Culture is intended, above all, to break new ground. Our project, in producing it, has been to create a reference volume which, unlike the standard works of reference that exist within the context of French studies, brings together material relating to French (and francophone) culture defined in its very broadest sense. Areas covered, and connected, by the Encyclopedia’s palette of essay texts include art, cinema, economic issues, education, food and wine, intellectual life, linguistic issues, literature, media, music, performing arts, politics and society, transport, and technology. While the chronological period taken in by the Encyclopedia ranges from the end of World War II in 1945 to the present day, we have sought to weight the contents of many of our overview articles towards the latter. However, some pre–1945 material has been included where developments in contemporary French society would be difficult or impossible to understand without it. The Encyclopedia is composed of pieces of varying lengths, ranging from fairly extensive short essays to thumbnail sketches. Longer entries are ‘facts-fronted’ and have lists of texts for further reading, some of which are accompanied by a short note explaining their content and/ or relevance. Essays and entries are carefully cross–referenced, either in the text or in the see also section at the end of the entry. The purpose of this is to permit the Encyclopedia’s readers to pursue their own ‘paths’ through the texts contained in the volume, teasing out connections that might not perhaps otherwise have been self-evident. In an enterprise of this kind, it is impossible to be all-inclusive. The selection of entries contained in the Encyclopedia reflects this fact, and reflects a number of decisions which we, as editors, in consultation with our editors at Routledge, found ourselves having to make. We decided, for example, that it was important that the Encyclopedia should address francophone culture, as well as the cultural life of mainland France and its overseas départements and territories (DOM-TOMs such as Martinique, Guadeloupe and La Réunion), and that it should avoid doing so in a tokenistic manner. Issues of space meant, however, that we could not engage with the culture(s) of la francophonie—the totality of French-speaking areas—as comprehensively as with that of France itself. We concluded, therefore, regretfully, that only those francophone countries which are geographically close to the Hexagone or which, for a variety of reasons, enjoy close cultural links with France, should be the object of scrutiny in our

xi xii Introduction volume. We also decided that aspects of francophone culture should be the subject of long essay pieces, whose inclusion and detail would obviate the need for a proliferation of shorter entries devoted to a single francophone writer/artist/cultural phenomenon. The inclusion/omis- sion of entries devoted to postwar writing in France also gave us pause for thought. Many excellent guides to modern and contemporary French and francophone literature already exist, most notably the recently reissued Oxford Companion to Literature in French (which also, and significantly, includes for the first time in its existence a number of pieces on cultural studies topics). In view of this fact, we elected to base the ‘literature’ component of the Encyclopedia primarily on essay pieces devoted to different textual genres/forms (for example, autobiography, committed literature, detective fiction, the nouveau roman, poetry, short-story writing, etc.), rather than to offer a comprehensive set of short entries focused on individual writers. This is not to say that we have not included entries of this latter type; their inclusion is, however, a function of the contents of the longer essay pieces in which ‘high’ and ‘popular’ literary forms are discussed. The shorter individual entries relating to literature have, in other words, been the object of systematic selection. An illustration of this is our inclusion of a good many short entries devoted to postwar French drama. Here, our strategy reflects the fact that i) theatre-related matters are the subject of several of the longer entries in our volume, and ii) drama is less comprehensively ‘covered’ in reference works dealing with French literary production than other literary genres. It is our hope that the emphasis which our Encyclopedia places on performing arts in France will encourage research work in this area, of which there would seem currently to be a dearth. Because, as we explained above, our target readership stretches well outside the realm of French studies, we have translated the titles of all books mentioned in the Encyclopedia, except in cases where the title is either self-evident or untranslatable. If an ‘official’ translation exists and is still (as far as we have been able to ascertain) in print, then we have preceded the French title by its English equivalent. We have left the titles of the films in the original French, however, except where a standard translation, recognized in Britain and the US, exists. We have elected not to translate most film titles because different translations of the same title often exist in Britain and America, and our sense is that including our own translation would serve simply to confuse readers. The entries inevitably contain numerous references to institutions of various kinds which it was impossible, for reasons of space, to describe or define. The bemused reader with a reading knowledge of French may find a single-volume reference work, such as the Petit Larousse encyclopédique or the invaluable Quid?, helpful in clarifying these. Please note that places and dates of birth have been included wherever the information was readily available.

Alex Hughes Keith Reader

Acknowledgements

We should like to thank all our contributors for their commitment to this project. We are particularly grateful to those among them who produced entries dealing with the more ‘out-of- the-way’ areas on which expertise was not always widely available. Colville Wemyss, Fiona Cairns and Denise Rea at Routledge have been helpful and long-suffering editors, and provided first-rate counsel and practical assistance. Finally, each of us thanks the other for moral support, constructive criticism and endless patience.

xiii Classified contents list

All of the entries in the Encyclopedia are categorized under the most appropriate subject heading(s) Some entries appear under more than one heading where relevant. Architecture nationalization and privatization

planning system architecture public works architecture under Mitterrand regional economic development Bercy service industry conservation zones Tapie, Bernard Le Corbusier trade Malraux act transport Marais plan unions Montparnasse Tower Pompidou Centre and the Forum des Halles Education and research renovation projects education ministry Cultural institutions/phenomena education, primary

education, secondary: collèges, lycées, etc. Académie Française education, the state and the church arts funding (including regional) educational elitism: the grandes écoles cultural policy student revolt of 1986 cultural topography (Paris) universities iconography Lang, Jack Fashion and design libraries Cardin, Pierre literary prizes Chanel, Coco maisons de la culture Dior, Christian Malraux, André fashion publishing/l’édition Gaultier, Jean-Paul youth culture Lacroix, Christian Economy Rykiel, Sonia

Saint Laurent, Yves agriculture Attali, Jacques Film banks Adjani, Isabelle dirigisme Aimée, Anouk economy Ardant, Fanny employment Autant-Lara, Claude European economic integration Auteuil, Daniel Fourastié, Jean avance sur recettes informal economy Balasko, Josiane management style Bardot, Brigitte manufacturing industry Baye, Nathalie minimum wage Bazin, André multinational companies Béart, Emmanuelle

xiv Classified contents list xv

Backer, Jacques Marceau, Sophie Beineix, Jean-Jacques Melville, Jean-Pierre Bellon, Yannick Metz, Christian Belmondo, Jean-Paul Miéville, Anne-Marie Berri, Claude Miou-Miou Besson, Luc Mnouchkine, Ariane beur cinema Moreau, Jeanne Binoche, Juliette National Cinematographic Centre Birkin, Jane Noiret, Philippe Blanc, Michel Nouvelle Vague Blier, Bertrand Ophuls, Marcel Bohringer, Richard Philipe, Gérard Bonnaire, Sandrine Pialat, Maurice Bresson, Robert Piccoli, Michel Brialy, Jean-Claude Poiré, Jean-Marie Cahiers du cinéma Prévert, Jacques Carax, Léos Rappeneau, Jean-Paul Chabrol, Claude Renoir, Jean cinema Resnais, Alain cinéma de banlieue Rivette, Jacques cinéma de qualité Rohmer, Éric Clément, René Rouch, Jean Clouzot, Henri-Georges Sautet, Claude Collard, Cyril Seberg, Jean Daney, Serge Serreau, Coline Delon, Alain Seyrig, Delphine Demy, Jacques Signoret, Simone Deneuve, Catherine stars Denis, Claire Tati, Jacques Depardieu, Gérard Tavernier, Bertrand Devers, Claire Téchiné, André Dewaere, Patrick Trintignant, Jean-Louis documentaries Truffaut, François Doillon, Jacques Vadim, Roger Eustache, Jean Varda, Agnès francophone cinema: Belgium women directors francophone cinema: North Africa Food and drink francophone cinema: Switzerland Funès, Louis de Bocuse, gay cinema Paul fast food Godard, Jean-Luc gastronomy Huppert, Isabelle Guérard, Michel Karina, Anna Oliver, Raymond Kieslowski, Krzysztof restaurant guides Kurys, Diane Robuchon, Joël Langlois, Henri wine

Léaud, Jean-Pierre History literary adaptation Malle, Louis Algerian war xvi Classified contents list

Annales Levinas, Emmanuel decolonization Lévy, Bernard-Henri Dien Biên Phu linguistic/discourse theory liberation and épuration Lyotard, Jean-François literary censorship Marxism and Marxian thought May 1968 Maspero, François

Mauriac, Claude Intellectual life May 1968 Althusser, Louis Montrelay, Michèle anthropology and ethnology Morin, Edgar Aron, Raymond new philosophers Badinter, Élisabeth Paulhan, Jean Badinter, Robert Piaget, Jean Barthes, Roland postmodernism Baudrillard, Jean poststructuralism Beauvoir, Simone de Psych et Po Benveniste, Émile psychoanalysis Blanchot, Maurice Richard, Jean-Pierre Bourdieu, Pierre Ricoeur, Paul Certeau, Michel de Roy, Claude Debray, Régis Sartre, Jean-Paul Deleuze, Gilles Serres, Michel Delphy, Christine situationism Derrida, Jacques structuralism Dumazedier, Joffre Touraine, Alain ethnology and anthropology Virilio, Paul existentialism Language existentialist theatre Fanon, Frantz anglomanie/franglais Farge, Arlette Deixonne law feminist thought language and the French regions Finkielkraut, Alain linguistic regulation Foucault, Michel slang/argot/verlan Furet, François spelling reform Genette, Gérard Toubon law

Girard, René Literature Glucksmann, André Gorz, André Apostrophes Greimas, A.J. Aron, Jean-Paul Guattari, Félix autobiography Hallier, Jean-Edern Azama, Michel Irigaray, Luce Bardèche, Maurice Jakobson, Roman Bataille, Georges Kristeva, Julia Beauvoir, Simone de Lacan, Jacques Beckett, Samuel Le Doeuff, Michèle Begag, Azouz Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel Belghoul, Farida Lefebvre, Henri Ben Jelloun, Tahar Lévi-Strauss, Claude beur comics Classified contents list xvii beur writing Hocquenghem, Guy Bonnefoy, Yves Hussards Braudel, Fernand Hyvrard, Jeanne Butor, Michel Jabès, Edmond Camus, Albert Jouhandeau, Marcel Camus, Renaud Jouve, Pierre-Jean Cardinal, Marie Kofman, Sarah Césaire, Aimé Leclerc, Annie Char, René Leduc, Violette Charef, Mehdi Leiris, Michel Chawaf, Chantal Lindon, Jérôme Cixous, Hélène literary censorship Clément, Catherine literary journals Collard, Cyril literary prizes comic strips/cartoonists Michaux, Henri committed literature Modiano, Patrick Daeninckx, Didier Morand, Paul Deguy, Michel Navarre, Yves detective fiction North African literature Dib, Mohammed nouveau roman Doubrovsky, Serge OuLiPo Du Bouchet, André Perec, Georges Dupin, Jacques Perrein, Michèle Duras, Marguerite Perse, Saint-John Duvert, Tony poetry écriture féminine Ponge, Francis Éluard, Paul Prévert, Jacques Ernaux, Annie Queneau, Raymond erotic writing Redonnet, Marie Etcherelli, Claire regional writing: Breton Fernandez, Dominique regional writing: Occitan Forrester, Viviane Reverdy, Pierre francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Belgium Reyes, Alina francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Ricardou, Jean DOM-TOMs Robbe-Grillet, Alain francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Indian Rochefort, Christiane Ocean romantic novels francophone writing (fiction, poetry): North Sagan, Françoise Africa Sallenave, Danièle francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Sarraute, Nathalie Switzerland Sarrazin, Albertine Garaudy, Roger Sebbar, Leïla gay writing science fiction Genet, Jean short-story writing Giroud, Françoise Simenon, Georges Gracq, Julien Simon, Claude Groult, Benoîte Sollers, Philippe Guérin, Daniel Supervielle, Jules Guibert, Hervé Tel Quel group xviii Classified contents list

Temps modernes, Les InfoMatin Tournier, Michel left-wing press Vian, Boris lesbian press Wittig, Monique Libération women’s/lesbian writing Livre de poche Yacine, Kateb M6 Yourcenar, Marguerite Marie-Claire

Minuit Media Minute advertising Monde, Le ARTE national press in France Aurore, L’ Nouvel Observateur, Le Bébête-Show Ockrent, Christine beur radio ORTF (Office de Radio-Télévision Française) cable and satellite television Paris-Match Canal Plus Parisien, Le Canard enchaine, Le Point, Le Charlie Hebdo Poivre d’Arvor, Patrick Cinq, La Politis comic strips/cartoonists publishing/l’édition Croix, La radio (private/free) Elkabbach, Jean-Pierre radio (state-owned) Elle regional press in France Equipe, L’ Rouge Europe 1 RTL Evenement du jeudi, L’ Seuil Express, L’ soap feminist press street papers Figaro, Le television Flammarion television/spectacle guides France 2 TF1 France 3 TV5 France Culture video imports France Musique Vogue France-Dimanche women’s magazines

France-Inter Music France-Soir francophone radio: DOM-TOMs Amont, Marcel francophone radio: Europe Aufray, Hugues francophone television: DOM-TOMs Aznavour, Charles francophone television: Europe Baker, Josephine Gallimard Barbara game shows Barclay, Eddie gay press Barrière, Alain Guignols de l’info, Les Béart, Guy Hersant, Robert Bécaud. Gilbert Heure de vérité, L’ Berger, Michel Humanité, L’ beur music Ici-Paris Boulez, Pierre Classified contents list xix

Brassens, Georges Nougaro, Claude Brel, Jacques Patachou Cabrel, Francis Piaf, Édith café-concert pop video Carte de séjour rap Chevalier, Maurice regional music Compagnons de la chanson, Les Reinhardt, Django concert music Renaud Delanoë, Pierre Rita Mitsouko, Les Douai, Jacques rock and pop Duteil, Yves Salvador, Henri Eurovision Song Contest Sanson, Véronique Ferrat, Jean Sardou, Michel Ferré, Léo Sheila folk music song/chanson François, Claude Souchon, Alain francophone popular music: DOM-TOMs Trenet, Charles francophone popular music: Europe Vartan, Sylvie francophone popular music: North Africa Vian, Boris Frères Jacques, Les Xenakis, Iannis

Gainsbourg, Serge Performing arts Gall, France Gipsy Kings Acquart, André Goldmann, Jean-Jacques Actes Sud Grappelli, Stéphane Adamov, Arthur Gréco, Juliette Anouilh, Jean Hallyday, Johnny Arrabal, Fernando Hardy, Françoise Artaud, Antonin Indochine Atlan, Liliane Jarre, Jean-Michel Attoun, Lucien jazz Audiberti, Jacques Jonasz, Michel Avignon and summer arts festivals Kaas, Patricia Barrault, Jean-Louis Kacel, Karim Barsacq, André Khaled, Cheb Bataille, Nicolas Lavilliers, Bernard Beckett, Samuel Le Forestier, Maxime Bellon, Lolleh Mano negra Benmussa, Simone MC Solaar Besnehard, Daniel Messiaen, Olivier Besset, Jean-Marie Mistinguett Billetdoux, François Mitchell, Eddy Blin, Roger Montand, Yves Bonal, Denise Mouloudji, Marcel Bondy, Luc Moustaki, Georges Bouquet, Michel music festivals Bourdet, Gildas music industry Brook, Peter music venues café theatre Négresses vertes, Les Carrière, Jean-Claude xx Classified contents list

Casarès, Maria Lavelli, Jorge Caubère, Philippe Lecoq, Jacques Césaire, Aimé Lemahieu, Daniel Chalem, Denise Manet, Éduardo Chartreux, Bernard Marceau, Félicien Chéreau, Patrice Marceau, Marcel choreographers Maréchal, Marcel circus Mauclair, Jacques collective creation Michel, Georges Coluche mime Comédie-Française Minyana, Philippe Copi Mnouchkine, Ariane Cormann, Enzo Namiand, Arlette Cousin, Gabriel Nichet, Jacques Cousse, Raymond Novarina, Valère Cuny, Alain Obaldia, René d’ da Silva, Éric Orlan dance Peduzzi, Richard dance troupes Penchenat, Jean-Claude Dasté, Jean Périer, François Decroux, Étienne Planchon, Roger Demarcy, Richard Renaud, Madeleine Desarthe, Gérard Rétoré, Guy Deschamps, Jérôme Reza, Yasmina Deutsch, Michel Rezvani, Serge director’s theatre Salacrou, Armand Dort, Bernard Sarrazin, Maurice Doutreligne, Louise Savary, Jérôme Dubillard, Roland Serrault, Michel Durif, Eugène Tardieu, Jean existentialist theatre Terzieff, Laurent François, Guy-Claude theatre francophone performing arts: Belgium Théâtre du Quotidien francophone performing arts: Indian Ocean Théâtre du Soleil francophone performing arts: North Africa Theatre of Cruelty francophone performing arts: Switzerland Theatre of the Absurd Fresson, Bernard theatres, national Garcia, Victor theatres, private Gatti, Armand Vauthier, Jean Grand Magic Circus, Le Vilar, Jean Grumberg, Jean-Claude Vinaver, Michel Hirsch, Robert Vincent, Jean-Pierre Ionesco, Eugène Vitez, Antoine Jourdheuil, Jean Wenzel, Jean-Paul Kalisky, René Yacine, Kateb

Kokkos, Yannis Politics Koltès, Bernard-Marie Kraemer, Jacques Auriol, Vincent Lassalle, Jacques Balladur, Édouard Classified contents list xxi

Barre, Raymond Soustelle, Jacques Bérégovoy, Pierre Tapie, Bernard Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Thorez, Maurice Chirac, Jacques Veil, Simone civil rights Vichy Cohn-Bendit, Daniel women and politics constitution of the Fifth Republic Religion Cresson, Édith Crozier, Michel Catholicism and Protestantism Debray, Régis Islam in France defence and security Judaism

Delors, Jacques Society European Union Fabius, Laurent abortion/contraception foreign policy AIDS Gaulle, Charles de alcohol, cigarettes, drugs Geismar, Alain armed forces Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry BCBG (bon chic bon genre) green politics beur cinema Humanité, L’ beur comics Jospin, Lionel beur radio Juppé, Alain beur writing Le Pen, Jean-Marie beurs left-wing press child care Léotard, François cinéma de banlieue Madelin, Alain civil rights Marcellin, Raymond class Marchais, Georges Delphy, Christine Marxism and Marxian thought demographic developments Mauroy, Pierre Désir, Harlem, and SOS Racisme Mendès France, Pierre electronic revolution Mitterrand, François family Mollet, Guy feminism (movements/groups) nationalism feminist thought nationalization and privatization gay activism parties and movements gay cinema parties and movements in francophone green issues countries: DOM-TOMs health Pasqua, Charles housing Pompidou, Georges immigration regionalism Institute of the Arab World revolutionary groups Lalonde, Brice Rocard, Michel language and the French regions Roudy, Yvette legal system Rouge lesbian activism Sartre, Jean-Paul marriage/cohabitation Séguin, Philippe Medecins Sans Frontières Servan-Schreiber, Jean-Jacques minimum wage (SMIC) situationism nuclear power xxii Classified contents list pornography Bazaine, Jean prostitution Bloc, André racism/anti-semitism Braque, Georges restaurants du coeur Bryen, Camille slang/argot/verlan Buffet, Bernard social policy Buren, Daniel social security Cartier-Bresson, Henri street papers Chagall, Marc suburbs Christo Waechter, Antoine Doisneau, Robert women and employment Dubuffet, Jean women and social policy Duchamp, Marcel

Dufy, Raoul Sport and leisure Fini, Léonore athletics Giacometti, Alberto cycling Klein, Yves football Lartigue, Jacques horse racing Léger, Fernand motor sport Lipchitz, Jacques pétanque Maeght Foundation rugby Man Ray sport Manessier, Alfred sport and education Mathieu, Georges sports funding Matisse, Henri tennis painting theme parks photography Tour de France Picasso, Pablo water sports Poliakoff, Serge winter sports Ronis, Willy Rouault, Georges Visual arts Saint-Phalle, Niki de

Arp, Jean sculpture art brut Soulages, Pierre art criticism Staël, Nicolas de art galleries/museums Supports/Surfaces art informel Tinguely, Jean Atlan, Jean-Michel Utrillo, Maurice Balthus Vasarély, Victor Wols A

abortion/contraception Mouvement pour la Libération de l’Avortement et la Contraception or MLAC In 1945, French women had little control over (the Association for the Liberation of Abor- their fertility and their reproductive processes. tion and Contraception), the Groupe Informa- Laws passed in the early 1920s had prohib- tion Santé (Health Information Group) and ited not only abortion, but also the dissemina- Choisir (Choice). These activities, whose aim tion of information concerning contraception was to generate reform of the 1920s laws, took and the distribution of contraceptive material. off in the 1950s, with support from the par- During World War II, the Vichy regime firmly liamentary Left and Centre Left, from elements established motherhood as women’s lot, of the left-wing and the women’s press, and equating abortion with treason against the from numerous women’s associations. They state and guillotining an abortionist, Marie- derived further impetus with the emergence, Louise Giraud. In the decades following the in the late 1960s and early 1970s, of the war, a series of campaigns against the pro- Mouvement de la Libération des Femmes (the natalist climate which prevailed in France MLF, or French Feminist Movement). In 1971, eventually afforded French women the kind for example, the MLF demonstrated in favour of sociosexual rights in force in other Euro- of the liberalization of abortion. A manifesto pean countries. Change was, however, slow in signed by 343 women in the public eye, and coming. published by Le Nouvel Observateur on 5 In the late twentieth century, French women April, declared that they had had illegal abor- have full and free access to a range of contra- tions and called for free access to abortion and ceptive methods, and can obtain an abortion contraception. In 1972, French feminists, in- (an IVG, or interruption volontaire de cluding lawyer Gisèle Halimi, used the grossesse) within the first ten weeks of their Bobigny procès—the trial of four women ac- pregnancy. Abortion is reimbursable by social cused of procuring a backstreet abortion—to security and, in the wake of AIDS and grow- draw public attention to the consequences of ing public concern about unwanted pregnan- the repressive status quo. In 1973, feminist cies, pro-contraceptive publicity is no longer women joined with doctors and unionists to subject to restriction. That this is the case is form MLAC. due to campaigning activities mounted in the Key laws marking French women’s gradual postwar period by diverse groups and move- acquisition of control over their bodies in- ments, such as the Mouvement pour le Plan- clude: ning Familial (the French Family Planning As- sociation, initially formed by Evelyne Sullerot • the loi Neuwirth (19 December 1967), a and Marie-Andrée Weill-Hallé), the law which was proposed by the Gaullist 1 2 Académie Française

député Lucien Neuwirth and which set in Académie Française train a liberalization of contraception completed by a further law of 4 December The Académie Française, founded by Richelieu 1974; in 1635, is one of the five academies that make • the loi Veil (17 January 1975), which legal- up the Institut de France which is housed in a ized abortion; and splendid building on the Quai Conti in Paris. • the loi Roudy (31 December 1982), which The Académie’s role was to promote the im- legislated to authorize state reimbursement provement of the French language, primarily of IVG. through the establishing of standard vocabulary through a dictionary, of which eight edi- The existence of these laws reflects the extent tions have so far appeared. The forty members, to which reform of legislation about women’s known as immortels, elect replacements when sexual rights had elicited widespread popular a death occurs, but the election must be ap- support in France by the mid-1960s. This is proved by the head of state. Any writer may not to say that such support was (or subse- apply, and the Academy has always included quently became) total. Numerous anti-abor- distinguished authors: however, the list of great tion groups exist in France (e.g. SOS Tout- writers not belonging to the Academy is lengthy. Petits and Laissez-les Vivre), and commando- The first woman to be elected was Marguerite style attacks on abortion clinics (by groups Yourcenar in 1980, and occasionally foreign such as Trève de Dieu), have proliferated in writers of French are included. On formal oc- the 1990s. casions academicians wear an embroidered uni- ALEX HUGHES form with cocked hat and carry a sword. An important function of the Academy is to award See also: demographic developments; femi- eighty prestigious literary prizes as well as 200 nism (movements/groups) charitable grants, funded by the numerous be- quests made to the Academy over the centuries. Further reading JO REED See also: linguistic regulation; women’s/les- Duchen, C. (1986) Feminism in France from bian writing May ’68 to Mitterrand, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (a history of post-1968 French feminism, which foregrounds the key role the pro-abortion/contraception Acquart, André struggle played in feminist campaigns of the period). b. 1922, Vincennes ——(1994) Women’s Rights and Women’s Lives in France 1944–1968, London and Artist and stage designer New York: Routledge (an invaluable account of French’s women’s history in the One of the pioneers of stage design as an inte- postwar period, which illuminates their re- gral part of theatre productions, working most lationship with issues of motherhood, fer- notably in the 1950s and 1960s with direc- tility and control over their bodies). tors Blin, Vilar, Terzieff, Miquel and Rétoré Mossuz-Lavau, J. (1991) Les Lois de l’amour: on texts as varied as Shakespeare, Brecht and les politiques de la sexualité en France, Genet, Acquart’s designs are typified by ab- Paris: Payot (an excellent overview of the straction and an experimental approach. evolution of legislation relating to sexual- ANNIE SPARKS ity and gender in postwar France). See also: theatre advertising 3

Further reading Dior, Christian

Déjeux, J. (1977) Mohammed Dib, écrivain b. 1905, Granville; Algérien, Quebec: Naaman (full-length d. 1957, Montecatini, Italy study of Dib and his work in French).

Fashion designer

Diên Biên Phu Born into a wealthy Norman family, Dior wanted to study architecture, opened an art The battle of Diên Biên Phu in early 1954 ef- gallery, and mingled with avant-garde artists fectively marked the end of French colonial such as Picasso and Matisse. After the 1929 interests in Indochina. After regaining nomi- economic crash ruined his family, he learned nal jurisdiction over its prewar possessions in to sketch, and in 1938 he designed Robert southeast Asia following the Allied defeat of Pinguet’s collection. With the help of investor Japan in 1945, France was immediately faced Marcel Boussac, Dior opened his own fashion with the prospect of being unable to imple- house in 1947. His ‘Corolle’ silhouette revo- ment it. The Vietnamese nationalists under lutionized the fashion industry. In 1954, he Ho Chi Minh had gained control of northern created his ‘II’ line with loose tunics. After his Indochina and, after attempts at a negotiated death, the Dior company added a ready-to- settlement had failed, over seven years of war wear Miss Dior boutique (1967) and a men’s ensued which were draining both financially line (1970). and psychologically for the French forces and JOËLLE VITIELLO government, in spite of military assistance from the United States. On 13 March 1954, See also: fashion Viet Minh forces began a siege of French mili- 158 director’s theatre director’s theatre war directors, are certainly more influenced by Copeau and the Cartel, as well as by Brecht. Meanwhile, Ariane Mnouchkine at the Théâtre This term is used to describe director-domi- du Soleil and Patrice Chéreau could be said to nated theatre, a phenomenon particularly fall more into the Brechtian and Artaudian prominent in France in the postwar period. schools of direction. Thus it is difficult to de- During the twentieth century, the role of the scribe today’s directors as descendants of any director in French theatre has achieved ex- single tradition: it would be more accurate to tremely high status. Although during the last say that postwar directors have drawn on all of century and even at the beginning of this one, them in varying proportions, while experiment- the theatre director, or in those days the ‘pro- ing with the boundaries of theatre and impos- ducer’, was considered to be little more than ing their own creative style. While directors an orchestrator of actors and scenes, the situa- continue to be extremely influential in French tion today is very different, with directors theatre, it is difficult to class them into any kind wielding considerable creative input as well as of school or movement: each has his/her own financial power, especially in the public thea- strong, and individual, voice. tre. The role of director today has been influ- Director’s theatre in France reached its peak enced by several traditions. Prewar theatre in in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1950s, the France saw the rise of Copeau and the Cartel great decentralization movement had meant directors (including Dullin, Jouvet, Pitoëff and that Centres Dramatiques Nationaux had be- Dasté), who believed in the importance of the gun to be established around the country. Each director as an interpreter of the author’s text, was run by a director, usually the theatre’s ar- helping the actors to develop their role as part tistic director, who became administratively of the production. Copeau and others wielded responsible too, thus wielding considerable additional influence thanks to the theatre power over how money was spent and on schools they ran. The second influence to af- which productions. By the 1960s and 1970s, fect the role of the director in France is that of directors had gained such power that they were the more avant-garde, revolutionary approach in almost total charge of most of France’s thea- which began with Artaud and his Theatre of tres. Artistically, they were in a position to Cruelty. In his wake, theatre came to rely less choose how to spend subsidies: often this on text and more on a complex web of sign meant working on texts upon which they could systems based on the visual and the active as impose their own creative stamp and tread new much as the aural. French theatre and its di- ground, which frequently led to non-theatri- rectors began to experiment with non-text- cal texts being used. Vitez, for example, is based theatre, and the boundaries to which famed for his adaptations of non-dramatic theatre could be pushed. As a result, text was texts such as Aragon’s Les Cloches de Bâle no longer the only source of theatrical crea- (staged as Catherine). It was not uncommon, tion: the directors became central to the co- for example, for directors to cut, alter or reor- ordination of experimentation with stage, ganize the author’s text to suit their own crea- movement and visual imagery, and added their tive purpose, or to choose a repertoire which own artistic input. The arrival of Brecht on deliberately reflected their own creative inter- the French theatre scene after the war was also ests. Even in the 1990s, the tradition persists an important influence. Planchon was espe- that one refers to ‘Planchon’s’ rather than to cially noted for his interest in experimenting ‘Molière’s’ Tartuffe, crediting directors with the with Brechtian theatre. major creative input in much the same way as While directors such as Brook and Barrault they are treated in the cinema. could be said to be influenced by both the The 1970s also saw the emergence of the Copeauesque and Artaudian traditions, collective creation movement, in which the Planchon and Vilar, two of the best-known post- playwright was rendered entirely redundant, documentaries 159 as theatre companies began devising their own a critique of the capitalist system or a socio- creations from research and improvisation. In economic ideology which rejects the market. this case, the director theoretically held no Rather, dirigiste policies are based on the no- more power than any other member of the tion that the state is in a better position than company; in practice, it would be fair to say, market forces to secure the long-term health directors such as Mnouchkine still had con- of the French capitalist economy, particularly siderable input into productions. The 1980s, in terms of investment. however, saw the return to text as a source of JAN WINDEBANK theatre, with directors such as Planchon, Vitez, Mnouchkine and Chéreau continuing to domi- See also: economy; nationalization and priva- nate the theatrical scene until the end of the tization decade (and beyond in the case of Mnouchkine and Chéreau). Directors continue to wield con- Further reading siderable power financially in public theatre and creatively, although the re-emerging importance of text-led theatre has led to renewed Fenton, F. (1992) L’État et le capitalisme au recognition of partnership with authors (for XXe siècle, Paris: PUF (a concise account example, Mnouchkine and Cixous, Chéreau of the rise and relative decline of French and Koltès, or Minyana and Cantarella). While dirigisme). the director today continues to occupy an im- Kuisel, R. (1981) Capitalism and the State in portant position in the theatre world, the rela- Modern France, Cambridge: Cambridge tionship between director and author is shift- University Press (a discussion of the tradi- ing back towards a creative partnership, in tional relationship between state and mar- which the text retains its own voice. ket in France) ANNIE SPARKS See also: theatres, national documentaries

Further reading The documentary tradition in France has had a chequered career. The first documentaries Bradby, D. and Williams, D. (1988) Directors’ date back to 1895 and the Lumière brothers’ Theatre, London: Macmillan (see Chapters travelogues and scenes from daily life. During 1, 3, 4 and 6 especially). the silent period, many film-makers came into Whitton, D. (1987) Stage Directors in Mod- feature films via the training ground of docu- ern France, Manchester: Manchester Uni- mentaries; however, the soaring cost of pro- versity Press (essential reading). duction during the 1930s, with the advent of sound technology and the impact of the De- pression, brought this training process to a virtual halt until the late 1940s. Arguably the dirigisme heydays of the French documentary are the 1950s and 1960s, even though important con- The concept of dirigisme denotes the type of tributions to its development were still being state intervention in economic life which de- made during the 1970s and 1980s. The 1970s veloped in France in the postwar period and in particular must be singled out because the which dominated French economic thinking documentary shifted from occupying a puta- until the 1980s. Dirigiste policies have been tively objective position to adopting an investi- carried out by Left and Right alike. This is gative and often strongly politicized one. Pres- because dirigisme does not necessarily imply ently the impact of the French documentary 160 Doillon, Jacques tradition is most strongly felt, on an interna- Left around the politics of representation tional level, in African nations and, on a more (whose history, what is truth, who is the speak- parochial level, in regional film collectives es- ing voice, and so on) and also the effects of tablished post-1980 in a governmental effort the democratization of the camera (low-cost at decentralization. video and lightweight cameras) meant that In terms of the documentary’s history in the different voices were being heard and differ- sound era, the revival of the genre after its ent issues put up on screen: women’s voices, slump in the 1930s was due to the effects of the those of blacks and beurs, questions of repro- Occupation (1940–4). Audiences, disgruntled ductive rights, racism and integration. Con- at the abolition of the double-feature pro- temporary history was no longer the safe my- gramme, obliged the (then) organizing body for thology of heroes. Now, the complexities of the film industry, the Comité d’Organisation the Occupation and its effects on the French des Industries Cinématographiques (COIC), to population were given a full airing: for exam- find a way of providing value for money. COIC ple, Marcel Ophuls’s The Sorrow and the Pity identified the documentary as one inexpensive (Le Chagrin et la pitié) of 1971. This docu- source of entertainment and directed state fund- mentary tradition is the one that has fed into ing to finance documentaries and shorts that the regional documentary cinema of France. were ostensibly non-propagandistic. This in- SUSAN HAYWARD vestment provided a system of apprenticeship for the next generation of film-makers (e.g. See also: beur cinema; cinema; women directors Jacques Cousteau, Jacques Becker, Jean Rouch). It also instigated a training tradition Further reading that culminated (in the late 1950s) on the one hand in the feature cinema known as the CinémAction (1995) 76, special issue on the Nouvelle Vague (New Wave), and on the other French documentary (a review of its his- in the documentary cinema known first as tory and major trends). cinéma direct and later as cinéma vérité. Both types of cinema were famous for their location shooting, hand-held camera work, grainy, realist filming, and—where the documentary is Doillon, Jacques concerned—on-site sound recording. Cinéma vérité was the first identifiable docu- b. 1944, Paris mentary movement in French cinema and one that sought to obtain the closest possible rela- Director tionship to objective realism. It was, then, the first movement to address questions of repre- A film-maker distinctive in his rigorous use of sentation even though, earlier, individual film- close-ups and framing, often suggesting in- makers had also investigated the role and ideo- tense social and emotional isolation. Like logical function of documentary and its rela- André Téchiné he may be looked upon as ‘a tionship to history (e.g. the fairly isolated ex- poet of the alternative family’ (to quote Jill amples of Vigo and Renoir in the 1930s, Resnais Forbes)—a judgement borne out by La Pirate in the 1940s and early 1950s). Cinéma vérité of 1984, an agonized bisexual love triangle, was strongly influenced by the visual codes of and La Vie de famille of the following year, live TV and the principles of ethnography recounting the fraught journey to Spain of a (thanks mostly to Rouch’s work), and it is this man and his daughter, in which understand- movement that has been quite widespread in ing comes about only when the two address its influence on African documentary traditions. each other through video recordings. Post-May 1968, the radicalizing effect on the documentary of the various debates on the KEITH READER Doubrovsky, Serge 161

See also: Birkin, Jane; cinema Singer, real name Gaston Tranchant

Often perceived as the standard-bearer of tra- Doisneau, Robert ditional and contemporary French folk-songs, Jacques Douai projects an image in the trou- b. 1912, Gentilly; badour tradition, promoting in particular the poetic dimension of popular song. Along with d. 1994, Paris his wife, Thérèse Palau (the leader of a dance group known as La Frairie), he toured France, Photographer Canada and America in order to reach an increasingly wide public, particularly in the Most famous for Le Baiser de l’Hôtel de Ville 1960s and 1970s. (The Kiss) which came to symbolize the eternal romantic allure of Paris, Doisneau was one IAN PICKUP of the great photographers of Paris’s chang- See also: song/chanson ing urban landscape, his true passion and genius being for the recording of everyday life in the suburbs (banlieue). Working in the tradition of Baudelaire’s ‘Artist of modern life’, he Doubrovsky, Serge charted the progressive destruction by government planning policies of the soul of the south- b. 1928, Paris ern Paris suburbs. MICHAEL WORTON Intellectual, literary critic and writer

See also: photography The author of studies on Corneille, Proust, literary theory and autobiography, Doubrovsky is himself a prolific autobiographer. He pre- Dort, Bernard fers, however, to label his self-narratives— which include Fils (Son/Strands), Un Amour de soi (Self-Love) and Le Livre brisé (The Bro- b. 1929, Metz; ken Book)—autofictions. This is because his d. 1994, Paris stated intention is to produce texts which, although they relate authentic episodes from Theatre critic their author’s life, display literary qualities and formal/stylistic characteristics owing more to Best known for his part in France’s discovery the novel genre than that of autobiography of Brecht, as well as for his editorial work on ‘proper’. In 1989, Doubrovsky won the Prix the well-known theatre journals, Théâtre Médicis for Le Livre brisé. populaire and Travail théâtral, Dort is the author of Lecture de Brecht (Reading Brecht), ALEX HUGHES published in 1972. See also: autobiography; literary prizes ANNIE SPARKS See also: theatre Further reading

Doubrovsky, S., Lecarme, J. and Lejeune, P. Douai, Jacques (eds) (1993) Autofictions et cie, Paris: Cahiers RITM (collection of essays on b. 1920, Douai autofiction). 162 Doutreligne, Louise

Doutreligne, Louise Dubillard, Roland b. 1948, Roubaix b. 1923, Paris

Playwright Actor and playwright

The writer of prizewinning texts for theatre, A 1950s radio actor, author of radio plays, radio and film during the 1980s and 1990s, and adaptor of numerous anglophone works, Doutreligne’s theatre works include Femme à his theatre plays include Où boivent les vaches la porte cochère (Woman at the Carriage En- (Where the Cows Drink), adapted from an trance) and Les Jardins de France (France’s earlier radio piece, Naïves Hirondelles (Naive Gardens). Swallows) and La Maison d’os (House of Bones). ANNIE SPARKS ANNIE SPARKS See also: theatre See also: theatre

Du Bouchet, André Further reading b. 1924 Wilkinson, R. (1989) Le Théâtre de Roland Dubillard: essai d’analyse sémiotique, Poet, translator and critic Berne: Peter Lang (critical analysis).

He spent his early years in the United States (Amherst College, Harvard University). In Dubuffet, Jean France he worked on the review L’Éphémère and translated Shakespeare, Hölderlin, G.M. Hopkins, Pasternak and Paul Celan. There are b. 1901, Le Havre; also essays on painting and poetry and a study d. 1985, Paris of the work of Giacometti. The poetry is sparse and tightly constructed, avoiding ab- Artist stractions and making considerable use of ty- pographical spacing, mindful of the blank ar- Jean-Philippe-Arthur Dubuffet was a full-time eas of the page, the ultimate model being painter from 1942, and in 1949 he published Mallarmé’s A Throw of the Dice (Un Coup the essay ‘Art Brut Preferred to the Civilized de des). It is as if Du Bouchet were making a Arts’. He acquired a collection of art brut of clean slate of things. The major collections are children, the insane or the untrained and na- Dans la chaleur vacante (In the Vacant Heat) ive, unadulterated by culture, and founded the from 1961, Ou le soleil (Or the Sun) in 1968, Compagnie de l’Art Brut (1948–51) with Laisses (Leashes) and L’Incohérence from André Breton. Highly influenced by the Surre- 1975 and 1979, Rapides (1980) and Axiales alists, he attempted to capture the essence of (1992). freedom of expression, but was accused of imitating outsider’s art. Crude, scatological WALTER A.STRAUSS images, roughly worked and scratched in thick See also: poetry paint, of the female body, cows, the surface of the earth (for example, Blood and Fire, Body of Women from 1950), were seen as powerful figurative images of matter, texture and Dupin, Jacques 163 colour. From 1967 he worked in polystyrene, French upper classes at the races, regattas and as in Cabinet lologique. on the French Riviera. He was influenced by Matisse and the Fauves, which led to his use VALERIE SWALES of simplified forms and bright palette. He also See also: painting; sculpture designed ceramics, textiles (including dresses with Paul Poiret), tapestries and illustrated books. Dufy created a large decorative composition, the Electricity Fairy (La Fée Duchamp, Marcel électricitée), for the 1937 International Exhi- bition. b. 1887, Blainville; d.1968, Neuilly-sur-Seine DEBRA KELLY

Artist See also: painting

The brother of the painter Jacques Villon and the sculptor Raymond Duchamp-Villon, and Dumazedier, Joffre a member of the Parisian avant-garde and the Surrealist movement, Duchamp was also a champion chess player and was ranked sixth b. 1915 in the 1925 French chess championships. His iconoclastic work rejected painting and he Sociologist worked with found objects (objets trouvés) and visual puns to redefine artistic modes of An intellectual and advocate of democratic production. In 1916 he first produced his popular culture. He helped to found the or- ‘Readymades’, such as the urinal Fountain ganization Peuple et Culture (People and Cul- (Fontaine), and from 1915 to 1923 worked ture) at the Liberation. His best-known book, on one of his most famous compositions, The Towards a Society of Leisure? (Vers une civili- Bride Stripped Bare by her Bachelors, Even sation du loisir?) of 1962, earnestly promotes (La Mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, the value of popular culture in the develop- même), also known as the Large Glass. He ment of the person, while attacking commer- often worked in America, especially during cial culture for its escapism. For Dumazedier, World War II, and took American nationality ‘leisure…should be the occasion when high in 1955. He is considered to have influenced social and personal ideals are pursued and re- conceptual art, especially in the United States. inforced’ (Rigby 1991). DEBRA KELLY KEITH READER See also: painting; sculpture Further reading

Rigby, B. (1991) Popular Culture in Modern Dufy, Raoul France, London and New York: Routledge. b. 1877, Le Havre: d. 1953, Forcalquier, Basses Alpes Dupin, Jacques Artist b. 1927, Privas, Ardèche Dufy is principally known for his decorative style, often portraying the leisured life of the Poet and critic 164 Duras, Marguerite

Jacques Dupin is associated with the review to redefine the very nature of the female artist L’Éphémère (like Du Bouchet). He has been and intellectual in France. in close and regular contact with painters and Duras’s childhood in French Indochina left painting and has written books on Miró and her with an ineradicable sense of injustice: her Giacometti. He moves along poetic paths simi- father died when she was 4 years old and her lar to Yves Bonnefoy: unaffected by Surreal- mother—who always favoured her elder ism and classically oriented, with strong af- brother—was sold unworkable land by cor- finities to Mallarmé, tending also toward rupt French officials. Ironically, Duras’s first hermeticism in his poetry. There is also a no- text, L’Empire français (The French Empire), table impact of Char’s poetry on Dupin. His a collaboration with Philippe Roques published collections are Gravir (Climbing) from 1963 under her maiden name and the fruit of two and L’Embrasure (1969)—the poems are years spent at the Colonial Office in Paris from highly concentrated and concise, frequently 1937 to 1939, extols the virtues of French co- difficult to access, yet characterized by great lonial expansion. Her first, fairly conventional verbal richness and strong energy, often in the novels appeared during the war, but she tem- form of anguish. He occupies an important porarily abandoned writing to become a Com- place among the poets who came into promi- munist activist. Upon leaving the Communist nence after World War II and who represent, Party acrimoniously in 1950, she published by and large, a return to a new dispensation The Sea-Wall (Un barrage contre le Pacifique), in the history of French classicism. a harsh, neo-realist tale of growing up in Indochina, clearly autobiographical in inspi- WALTER A.STRAUSS ration. With the minimalist style and blank, See also: poetry seemingly non-expressive prose of The Square (Le Square) and Moderate cantabile, Duras became associated with the nouveau roman, Duras, Marguerite although her themes of female alienation, self- destructive, violent desire and potential madness already set her firmly apart. She achieved b. 1914, Giadinh, Indochina; international fame in 1959 with her screen- d. 1996, Paris play for Alain Resnais’s Hiroshima, mon amour, with its famous refrain, ‘You are kill- Writer, essayist, playwright ing me, you are doing me good’, and produced and director, real name in the mid-1960s her major long novels, The Marguerite Donnadieu Ravishing of Lol V.Stein (Le Ravissement de Lol V Stein) and The Vice-Consul (Le Vice- A prodigious writer and film-maker whose ca- Consul). The first, featuring an unreliable male reer spanned over fifty years, Duras was one of narrator who finds himself ‘ravished’ and pro- the most important, fascinating and influential gressively ‘unmanned’ by the eponymous hero- cultural figures in postwar France. Her unique ine, is written in a fragmentary, abstract and literary style and constant experimentation with non-linear style, and it inspired Jacques Lacan form resulted in a complex oeuvre of remark- to write a famous ‘homage’ (his only article able diversity. Alert to the unconscious work- on a contemporary writer), in which he cel- ings of language and committed to the abso- ebrated Duras as a writer of ‘clinically perfect lutes of love and passion, Duras took her read- madness’. This provoked, in turn, a stream of ers and viewers to the boundaries of the un- psychoanalytic readings of Duras’s work, no- thinkable and unsayable. Although she encoun- tably Marcelle Marini’s attempt to chart the tered much hostility throughout her career, par- territories of silence and unexplained narra- ticularly from the Right, her brutal honesty, tive lacunae (or ‘blanks’) that ‘resonate with’ force of personality and radical vision helped and ‘speak’ the feminine (e.g. the mute beggar Duras, Marguerite 165 woman in Le Vice-Consul). Throughout this any essentialist notion of a female writing of period, Duras also established herself as ‘a the body, but it also established a new, defi- major dramatist, producing adaptations both antly heterosexual and ultimately sadomaso- of her own novels, such as Whole Days in the chistic, aesthetic, or malkeur merveilleux Trees (Des journées entières dans les arbres) (magical misery). The four-part series of shorts and L’Amante anglaise, and of classic works, comprising Césarée, Les Mains négatives, and such as Strindberg’s The Dance of Death. The two versions of Aurélia Steiner (about the culmination of her work in theatre was Savan- Holocaust), where Duras recites haunting po- nah Bay, a play written in 1982 for Madeleine etic texts over stark, quasi-documentary im- Renaud about the apocalyptic impact of sexual ages of Paris and the Seine estuary, represents passion and the vital necessity of bearing wit- the pinnacle of her work in film. In Green Eyes ness. (Les Yeux verts), where she theorizes her cin- Duras was briefly a member of the revolu- ematic practice, Duras fully recognizes the se- tionary action committee of students and writ- ductive power of her voice—low and grav- ers set up at the Sorbonne during the events of elly—when delivered over a limited range of May 1968. Yet, after reaching with L’Amour neutral ‘master-images’. The logical conclu- a kind of limit point, she began to devote her sion to her experiments in minimalism was the energies almost exclusively to film-making. short L’Homme atlantique, the second half of Nathalie Granger (1972), based around a which presents a black screen and her own young girl’s refusal to speak, exemplified the voice interrogating an unnamed male ‘you’. attraction Duras’s marginal status had for es- In 1980, Duras returned to fiction proper tablished stars (here Jeanne Moreau), and it with The Seated Man in the Passage (L’Homme encouraged a temporary and highly ambiva- assis dans le couloir), a slim volume which lent association with feminism evident in her elaborates in graphic detail the violent erotic published interviews in 1974 with Xavière subtext of Le Vice-Consul and heralds the ar- Gauthier, Woman to Woman (Les Parleuses). rival in her literary work of an explicit first- La Femme du Gange and India Song (1974/ person narratoi-voyeuse. L’Été 80 (Summer 1975) rework elements from Duras’s 1960s 1980) was Duras’s first experiment in écriture novels to create a dense network of courante (literally ‘running writing’), her an- intertextual echoes commonly referred to as swer to écriture féminine and an apparent tran- the ‘India Cycle’. Both films are composed of scription of anything personal, social or po- slow, long takes which are often repeated and litical that ‘passes’ during the scene of writing. have no direct relation with the intricately lay- Contingent and potentially all-inclusive, ered, plurivocal soundtrack. The actors such écriture courante was taken by many as proof as Delphine Seyrig are asked simply to ‘fig- of Duras’s stated ethical commitment to ure’—rather than act—their rôles. Son nom alterity. L’Été 80 also introduced Yann Andréa, de Venise dans Calcutta désert, which uses the a gay man half her age with whom she formed same soundtrack as India Song but this time a lasting relationship and who featured in her over frozen images of an abandoned château, films and novels, often as Yann or ‘YA, homo- revealed that Duras’s underlying ambition was sexual’ (most obviously in Yann Andréa not merely to reappropriate her literary Steiner). A new set of thematics had begun to work—which, she claimed, had been betrayed emerge: homosexual/heterosexual relations, in commercial adaptations—but also to de- explicit incestuous desire (explored at length stroy the very foundations of cinema. Le in Agatha), selfhood, collaboration and age- Camion (1979), centred around a dialogue ing. The sparse The Malady of Death (La with Gérard Depardieu about a film that Maladie de la mort), which stages an aggres- ‘could have been made’ of a female hitch-hiker, sive encounter between a female narrator and marked the first occasion that Duras entered another anonymous male ‘you’ (by implica- her own work as Duras. Not only did it refuse tion, also the reader), offered a brilliant 166 Duras, Marguerite deconstruction of sexual difference, fantasy China Lover (L’Amant de la Chine du nord), and transferential desire. The Lover (L’Amant), her narrative reworking of a filmscript of an autobiographical novel of consummate skill L’Amant originally intended for Jean-Jacques and linguistic mastery structured around the Annaud. Her final text, C’est tout (That’s All), photographic image of a young girl’s crossing was almost ignored when it appeared, yet its of the Mekong river, won the Prix Goncourt physical staging of her own death distin- in 1984 and achieved record-breaking sales, guishes it as one of Duras’s most searing and aided by a stunning personal performance on uncompromising works. Apostrophes. From being an obscure, ‘difficult’ JAMES WILLIAMS author for a chosen few, Duras soon became France’s most widely translated living writer. See also: autobiography; cinema; feminist There followed a series of ‘prose poems’ of al- thought; literary prizes; Marxism and most uniform length; each, however, stunningly Marxian thought; psychoanalysis; television; different, as if she was deliberately outplaying women directors; women’s/lesbian writing her new readers’ expectations. While The War: A Memoir (La Douleur), based on her war- Further reading time experiences in Paris, caused much controversy, particularly in its depiction of the torture of a French collaborator, it neverthe- Andréa, Y. (1983) MD, Paris: Éditions de less consolidated her public links with François Minuit (a moving and compelling account Mitterrand, with whom she had served in the of the background to Duras’s writing of La Resistance. Blue Eyes, Black Hair (Les Yeux Maladie de la mort, including her hospitali- bleus cheveux noirs) was a brave study of an zation during treatment for detoxification). impossible love between a gay man and a Cohen, S.D. (1993) Women and Discourse in straight woman, which avoided the new con- the Fiction of Marguerite Duras: Love, Leg- ventions of Duras’s self-ironizing textuality by ends, Language, London: Macmillan (a lacking, for instance, a first-person female nar- finely argued feminist reading of Duras’s rator or scene of self-naming. Emily L., a ‘pure’ work). novel and a tour de force examination of hu- Hill, L. (1993) Marguerite Duras: Apocalyp- man fears and emotions, developed further tic Desires, London: Routledge (an excel- Duras’s erotic, intertextual relations with what lent introduction to the complexities of she termed her ‘Great Men’ (e.g. Proust, Henry Duras’s work). James, Robert Musil). Kristeva, J. (1987) ‘The Pain of Sorrow in the During the mid- to late 1980s, Duras, now Modern World: The Works of Marguerite a virtual icon of the Mitterrand Left, worked Duras’, PMLA 102, 2 (the most powerful intensively in the media, particularly journal- argument yet made that Duras’s literary ism (her ‘Outside’), and she pronounced pub- work is one of irremediable pain sympto- licly on subjects ranging from politics and matic of the postwar period). drugs to football. Her reputation began to suf- Lacan, J. (1987) ‘Homage to Marguerite fer through overexposure, however, and she Duras’, trans. Peter Connor, in Duras on was widely attacked for her article in Duras, San Francisco: City Lights Books. Libération entitled ‘Sublime, forcément sub- Marini, M. (1977) Territoires du féminin: avec lime Christine V.’, where she heroized Marguerite Duras, Paris: Éditions de Christine Villemin as the entirely justifiable Minuit (a pioneering psychoanalytical murderer of her son although the case was still reading of Duras’s longer novels). sub judice. In 1988 Duras suffered a nearly Vircondelet, A. (1996) Marguerite Duras: fatal coma and underwent a tracheotomy, yet vérités et légendes, Paris: Éditions du Chêne she still continued to write, publishing Sum- (most up-to-date and detailed biography of mer Rain (La Pluie d’été) and The North Duras, lavishly illustrated). Duvert, Tony 167

Williams, J.S. (1997) The Erotics of Passage: Little Wooden Bridge), followed by others Pleasure, Politics, and Form in the Later such as Tarentelle (Tarantella), Prendre un Work of Marguerite Duras, Liverpool: Liv- enfant par la main (To Take a Child by the erpool University Press (a study of all aspects Hand) and La Langue de chez nous (The Lan- of Duras’s work post-1977, including her guage of Our Country), which won the poetry cinematic practice of montage, her engage- prize of the Academic Française. An interest- ment with gay writing and culture, and her ing lyricist whose songs sometimes verge on collaborative project with Andréa). the oversentimental. IAN PICKUP Durif, Eugène See also: song/chanson b. 1950, Lyon Poet and playwright Duvert, Tony

Durif is the author of arts and literary reviews, b. 1945, Villeneuve-le-Roi adaptations, poems and plays. His Conversa- tion sur la montagne (Conversation on the Writer Mountainside) and Le Petit Bois (The Little Wood), put on at the Théâtre National Duvert has been described as perverse and as Populaire in 1991, both feature the long mono- a writer of evil. While his largely autobio- logues that characterize his work. His works graphical work centres on the questions of ju- are regularly performed by the Théâtre Ouvert. venile sexuality and sexual transgression, no- ANNIE SPARKS tably paedophilia, he presents his marginal world as a world of innocence. However, this See also: theatre moral category is a provocatively ambiguous one in his work: in his 1976 Journal d’un innocent (Diary of an Innocent), the ‘innocent’ Duteil, Yves with whom he has sex is a mentally retarded adolescent. In his essays, he repeatedly in- veighs against ‘heterocracy’, which he defines b. 1949, Paris as a social system in which heterosexuality is posited—and imposed—as a universal. Singer-songwriter MICHAEL WORTON A popular singer-songwriter, who had his first See also: autobiography; gay writing hit in 1974 with le Petit Pont de bois (The

economy sponsibility of the state to plan economic development and to assist industrialists. It was The French economy was radically transformed at this time that institutions such as the Com- after World War II. Economic stagnation in the missariat Général du Plan were set up. The 1930s, caused in part by the conservative atti- 1950s and 1960s were therefore set to become tudes of businessmen and bankers, had resulted the heyday of French state intervention in and in France lagging behind its nearest neighbours protection of the economy, or dirigisme. In- in 1945 in terms of its degree of industrializa- deed, the years 1945 to 1974 are known as tion and modernization. A large proportion of the Trente Glorieuses because economic the population still worked in agriculture (us- growth rates were so spectacular during this ing very outdated farming methods), and small period and social and economic change so businesses, which were equally unproductive, dramatic. Equally, increases in real wages were proliferated. The traditional image of France significant and the living standard of the popu- was thus of a rural France profonde (depths of lation rose accordingly. After the 1950s, in- France) dominated by artisans, small shopkeep- dustrialization and urbanization gathered ers and the peasantry. The economic history of momentum and consumption patterns altered. France in the latter half of the twentieth cen- The consumer society was born. However, the tury is thus, on the one hand, a tale of how extent to which state intervention brought state intervention helped to turn the economy about this situation is a debatable issue: some around to make the country one of the top five argue that similar levels of economic growth industrial nations of the world, but on the other would have occurred even without so much hand, the story of how the state was to become state intervention because France’s economic the scapegoat for the country’s economic ills as success was based on technological progress the ideology of economic liberalism took hold and a favourable international environment in in France. which raw materials were cheap and competi- After World War II, France’s first priority tion was not as yet coming from the newly was to develop its backward economy by industrializing countries of the Pacific Rim. modernizing agriculture in order to liberate All good things come to an end, however, the agricultural workforce for labour in the and this spectacular success also came to a fal- factories which themselves were to be made tering halt. The first signs that all was not well more productive and more efficient. This task came in May 1968. The strikes and demon- was not left up to the market, however, which strations which took place during that month, had come to be despised after the Great De- especially among the younger generation, were pression. Instead, a consensus existed in the an expression of the fact that French social country around the idea that it was the re- structures had not kept pace with economic 168 economy 169 change. Nevertheless, the social discontent France and force it to be cost-competitive with manifested in 1968 was soon to be overshad- its nearest neighbours and rivals. Thus, it was owed by the economic troubles which were to in the late 1970s that France had its first (al- hit the country in 1974, when the first oil cri- beit limited) taste of economic liberalism. sis heralded a profound and irreversible change However, the second oil shock hit in 1979 in the international economic climate. The and the ensuing recession disrupted Barre’s immediate effect of the oil crisis was to send plans. Unemployment rose steadily, reaching French energy prices soaring because of the over 1.5 million by the presidential elections dependence of the country on imported energy in 1981 which the Socialist François sources. However, in the longer term, the oil Mitterrand won. In office, the Socialists, aided crisis led to an increase in the price of raw by the Communists, set about introducing a materials as developing countries and radical Socialist alternative to Barre’s strategy, excolonies, particularly those with rich reserves swimming against the tide of liberalism which of raw materials, saw that they could exert was sweeping across America and Britain. The economic power over their former masters. Socialists were elected on a programme based This rise in the price of raw materials coin- on la rupture avec le capitalisme; that is, a cided with countries in new areas of the world, complete break with the capitalist system. To such as southeast Asia, beginning to industri- this end, they introduced a sweeping round of alize and challenge countries such as France in nationalizations of the banking sector and the traditional industrial sectors: heavy industry, largest industrial groups. The Socialists be- shipbuilding and textiles, for instance. lieved that Barre was wrong to let whole sec- It was in the wake of the first oil crisis that tions of French industry disappear and that it the role of the state in assisting and subsidiz- was necessary to make France industrially self- ing the French economy began to be called into sufficient again. They also spent vast amounts question. The 1974 oil crisis caused recession, of money on job creation. For a year, their but the high cost of energy caused inflation plan worked, in the sense that French unem- and hence the entirely new phenomenon of ployment stabilized while in competitor coun- ‘stagflation’. Raymond Barre, who became tries the rate was increasing dramatically. prime minister in 1976, was one of the first to None the less, as the recession continued, the suggest that state intervention might actually Socialists found themselves in an untenable po- harm the French economy. He declared that sition since the cost of their policies far out- one of France’s principal economic problems stripped the state’s ability to pay. Particularly was that industry had been too heavily subsi- because of constraints imposed by Europe, the dized and protected by the state and, like a Socialists were forced to abandon their original spoilt child, it had become lazy and uncom- policies. Mitterrand turned his back on la rup- petitive. Therefore, he proposed that state aid ture avec le capitalisme and instead began to for industry should be limited to those ‘sun- work towards putting France at the centre of a rise’ companies which would constitute more integrated European Community. Thus, France’s future, and ‘lame duck’ industries by 1984 the country was back on the road to- should go to the wall. Equally, Barre was of wards economic liberalism and the reduction the opinion that lax monetary policy in the of state intervention. Between 1984 and 1986, past had made French industry complacent. If the Socialists reduced public spending and, al- costs in France rose too much and made French though not going so far as to privatize any of goods internationally uncompetitive, then the the nationalized industries, public sector com- currency would be devalued in order to make panies were instructed to behave as if they were them competitive again. Barre, along with in the private sector. Privatizations had to wait Giscard d’Estaing, was one of the authors of until Jacques Chirac took over as prime minis- the European Monetary System, designed to ter in 1986. Influenced by the policies of Reagan impose a degree of monetary discipline on in the United States and Thatcher in Britain, 170 écriture féminine

Chirac set about a major programme of JAN WINDEBANK privatizations. He proclaimed the virtues of a See also: employment; European Union; na- less interventionist but more efficiently run state, tionalization and privatization and his programme stressed the need to dena- tionalize the banks, privatize nationalized companies, deregulate prices, create more flexibil- Further reading ity among the workforce and limit public expenditure so as to be able to reduce taxation Flockton, C. and Kofman, E. (1989) France, and provide more incentive for entrepreneurs. London: Paul Chapman (an account of By 1988, the French had experienced both French economic and social development a radical left-wing and a radical right-wing from a geographical perspective). government within the space of seven years. Holmes, G. and Fawcett, C. (1983) The Con- Nevertheless, it appeared to the general public temporary French Economy, Basingstoke: that neither experiment had had the desired Macmillan (an overview of French eco- effect—namely, to reduce unemployment and nomic development from 1945 to the early increase standards of living. In the presiden- 1980s; includes text in French). tial elections of that year, Mitterrand put him- Jeanneney, J.-M. (1989) L’Économie française self forward as the candidate of compromise, depuis 1967, Paris: Éditions du Seuil (a dis- promising neither to renationalize recently pri- cussion of the forces influencing French eco- vatized industries, nor to pursue further nomic development since the late 1960s). privatizations. This won him the election. Szarka, J. (1992) Business in France: An In- However, the Socialist government of 1988 to troduction to the Economic and Social Con- 1993 was never popular with the electorate, text, London: Pitman (an overview of the even though from 1989 to 1991 the French French business environment of the late economy grew well and unemployment fell 1980s ). before going into the recession sparked off by the Gulf war. Ironically, this was because the Socialist government applied strict monetary policies to the country, keeping wages down écriture féminine and avoiding a credit boom in order check inflation. This was proof indeed that the Social- The term écriture féminine describes a mode of ists had learned the lessons of liberalism. How- writing which is deemed to overcome women’s ever, it also meant that the electorate did not alienation from/in the order of language, and benefit from the fruits of economic growth to to give voice to repressed feminine difference. the extent which they might have done. The concept came to the fore in the 1970s. It is apparent, therefore, that by the end of Since the 1970s, a number of French femi- the century France had transformed its economy, nists have denounced the gender bias they per- not only in terms of modernization, but also in ceive to exist within language, and have argued terms of the role that the state plays in the work- that the patriarchal, male-centred nature of the ings of the economy. This is no longer a question linguistic realm militates against symbolic self- of ideology, since right-wing and left-wing par- definition by and for women. Elements of their ties alike propose strikingly similar policies, all argumentation recall the complex psychoana- of which advocate an acceptance of the rules of lytic writings of Jacques Lacan. Lacan suggests the capitalist market and a limitation of the pow- that women, by virtue of their different, uncon- ers of the state. The concern on both sides of the scious relation to the phallus, enjoy a problem- political divide, however, is that France might be atic and alienated relationship with the order in the grip of a process of deindustrialization and of language, also described more broadly as the might slip eventually into the second rank of in- Symbolic Order. French feminist theorists such dustrial nations. écriture féminine 171 as Luce Irigaray (a psychoanalyst, linguistician and ensure that meaning remains single and and philosopher) and Hélène Cixous (an aca- stable, may be symbolically equated with demic and creative writer), both of whom ad- ‘monolithic’, masculine sexuality rather than dress the issue of women’s relation to language with women’s libidinal organization—which and discourse, are certainly indebted to she theorizes as plural and multiple. She ar- Lacanian theory. However, unlike Lacan, nei- gues that rational, philosophical discourse re- ther woman believes the exclusion of the femi- lies on a goal-oriented syntactical model (sub- nine by and in the linguistic domain to be irre- ject-verb-object) which is alien to women, be- mediable. Both have produced texts in which cause ‘female sexuality is not unifiable, it can- they indicate that there may in fact be linguistic not be subsumed under the concept of sub- and writing practices which allow its articula- ject—which brings into question all the syn- tion—see Irigaray’s This Sex Which is Not One tactical norms’ (Irigaray 1977b). Cixous (Ce sexe qui n’en est pas un) of 1977, and analyses philosophical discourse and the sec- Cixous’s The Newly Born Woman (La Jeune ondary discourses it has engendered—includ- Née) from 1975. Consequently, both women ing literary discourse—in a comparable way. have been associated with the related notions She considers these signifying systems to be of écriture féminine and parler femme, although governed by an either/or logic and by a sys- neither uses these terms extensively in her own tem of hierarchized binary oppositions (activ- theoretical writings. ity/passivity, black/white, nature/culture, etc.), Before the precise nature of ‘feminine’ lin- which can be traced back always to the un- guistic practices can be explored, it is useful equal couple man/woman and to the inequali- to establish why Irigaray and Cixous were ties of the patriarchal value system. This argu- ready to claim in the 1970s that women are ment is advanced in an early section of her excluded and banished by the patriarchal lin- highly influential 1975 essay, La Jeune Née. guistic order. Irigaray’s broad-ranging discus- According to Irigaray, the ‘reinscription’ of sions of linguistic issues address language in the repressed feminine within the masculine its everyday, communicative mode, as well as Symbolic, linguistic order necessitates a radical more particularized forms of language and linguistic project, a travail du langage. On the discourse. One of her more accessible argu- one hand, women must mount an assault on ments (Irigaray 1987) is that all of those lan- the representations of femininity which mascu- guage systems which, like French, involve line discourse offers them. This assault must take grammatical genderization are somehow in- the form of an ironic ‘rewriting’ of such repre- trinsically ‘sexist’. This is because the feminine sentations. The parodic, ‘mimetic’ strategy she gender is consistently associated within them envisions will, she argues, reveal (potentially) a with nouns connoting inferiority/‘otherness’, ‘feminine’ operation within language (Irigaray while nouns connoting superiority are 1977a). Furthermore, women must evolve a new gendered masculine. Moreover (in French, at kind of writing practice aimed at disrupting the least), seemingly ‘neutral’ expressions—il ‘phallicity’ of (rational) discourse. The disrup- pleut, for instance—in fact privilege the mas- tion Irigaray recommends rests upon a modifi- culine. In her more speculative, abstract writ- cation of structural and stylistic discursive fea- ings, Irigaray denounces the phallic/masculine tures. If ‘male’ language is characterized by a bias present specifically within the language linear, logical syntactical organization, then, says of rational, philosophical thought (which she Irigaray, a feminine linguistic mode, a langage views as occupying a key place within West- autre, must be one whose style and structure ern culture). She considers this form of lan- allows fixed significations to be subverted. The guage to be underpinned by certain, central language she has in mind would ‘undo the ‘male’ principles; principles such as linearity unique meaning of words, of nouns, which still and non-contradiction. She suggests that these regulates all discourse’ and ‘would have noth- principles, because they exclude ambivalence ing to do with the syntax we have used for 172 écriture féminine centuries’ (Irigaray 1977b). Its plurality and voice (specifically the voice of the archaic multivalence, since they stand in a metaphori- Mother); and cal relation to the non-unified form of wom- • its function as a space of decensorization, en’s genital anatomy and to the decentred, mul- in and via which woman can access her tiple nature of female pleasure, may be consid- (forbidden) sexuality and unconscious. ered to be ‘vulvomorphic’, i.e. to bear the ‘mark’ of the female body. It is important to note that In summary, both Irigaray and Cixous privi- Irigaray’s vision of ‘vulvomorphic’ discourse is lege forms of language characterized by ambi- not based on the concept of a linguistic mode guity, polyvalence and poetic quality. Both that would ‘speak’ the female body directly. Such women relate these ‘feminine’ linguistic and discourse, for Irigaray, is not in any way pre- discursive forms, however symbolically, to the destined by anatomy. It constitutes, rather, ‘a sexuality and anatomy of the female subject. symbolic interpretation of that anatomy’ (Gal- This latter connection is not without its prob- lop 1983). lems. As a result of it, both theorists have been In her explorations of language, Cixous accused of biologistic essentialism; that is, of concurs that the creation of explosive modes endeavouring (dangerously) to ghettoize of discourse represents the means by which the women within their bodies and within their feminine can be (re)born into/from within the (biological) ‘natures’. Materialist, socialist phallocentric Symbolic Order. She argues in feminists—those belonging to the Questions parts of La Jeune Née that the type of language féministes group, for example—were particu- she envisions—a language whose refusal to larly keen in the 1970s to level accusations of repress feminine difference marks it out as ‘bi- this type. The discussions of language and dis- sexual’—need not necessarily be the province course produced by Irigaray and Cixous may of women alone. Male writers such as Jean also be considered to be elitist and overly ab- Genet, she claims, are capable of producing stract. This is in part because they are the prod- texts in which the feminine is decipherable. uct of an intellectual training and context However, in other sections of her study she which is alien to many readers. Further, they seems to reverse her position and to move into seem in their evocations of ‘womanspeak’ to ‘essentialist’ mode. She implies that women are take no account of (racial, cultural, social) dif- in fact far more likely to produce the kind of ferences between women, and of the way in discourse in question. This is because, unlike which these differences can or might affect lin- men, they are psychically more open to bisexu- guistic practice. Finally, and most pertinently ality. She suggests, moreover—far more em- perhaps, Cixous’s and Irigaray’s notions of phatically than Irigaray may be taken to do— what, in formal, stylistic and syntactical terms, that a direct link can and does exist between constitutes ‘the feminine’ may be viewed as the female body and libido and the pluralistic wholly arbitrary. None the less, their writings écriture which she recommends (Cixous 1975). on language have proved highly influential. Cixous’s vision of feminine language/writing These writings have been exploited not least is summarized comprehensively in her essay by contemporary feminist literary critics—es- The Laugh of the Medusa’. In spite of her claim pecially Anglo-American critics—eager to scru- that it is impossible to define a feminine mode tinize women’s creative productions for evi- of writing, because such writing eludes the dis- dence of sexual/textual ‘difference’. cursive and conceptual limits of the patriar- French women authors who, rightly or chal system, she outlines in this essay certain wrongly, have been associated by critics with of its key characteristics. These are: the practice of écriture féminine include Chantal Chawaf, Marguerite Duras, Jeanne • its poetic quality; Hyvrard, Marie Redonnet and Monique • its open-ended heterogeneity; Wittig. In the writings of these authors, issues • its connection with orality and with the such as feminine sexuality and desire and the écriture féminine 173 female body play a key role. All of them, de Courtivron, I. and Marks, E. (eds) (1981) moreover, have developed unusual, formally New French Feminisms, Brighton: Harvester innovative, textual and narrative strategies. In Press (a selection of a variety of French femi- the work of Chawaf—see, for instance, Le nist texts, translated into English; an invalu- Soleil et la terre (Sun and Earth) from 1977— able introduction to French feminism). we find a sustained focus on the link between Gallop, J. (1983) ‘Quand nos lèvres s’écrivent: bodily experience and language, and a struc- Irigaray’s Body Politic’, Romanic Review turing of sentences which privileges the fluid, 74. Reprinted 1988 Thinking through the the convoluted and the mellifluous over the Body, New York: Columbia University rational, the ordered, the univocal. In the writ- Press (an interesting account of the role of ings of Marguerite Duras—notably Moderate the body in Irigarayan thought, which as- Cantabile (1958) and 1964’s Le Ravissement sumes a certain theoretical sophistication de Lol V Stein (The Ravishing of Lol V Stein)— on the part of the reader). ‘blanks’, ‘silences’ and the non-dit (the unsaid) Irigaray, L. (1977a) Ce Sexe qui n’en est pas disrupt narrative coherence and flow, creating un, Paris: Éditions de Minuit. Translated an elliptical, illogical narrating mode. Monique C. Porter with C.Burke (1985) This Sex Wittig’s avowed textual project is to create a Which is Not One, Ithaca: Cornell Univer- ‘political’, anti-patriarchal language, rather sity Press. than a gender-specific ‘women’s writing’. How- ——(1977b) ‘Women’s Exile’ (interview with ever, her Les Guérillères (1969) and The Les- Couze Venn), Ideology and Consciousness 1. bian Body (Le Corps lesbien) from 1973 have ——(1987) Le Sexe linguistique, special issue been taken (by virtue of their accounts of new of Langage 85. relations between women and between the Jones, A.R. (1986) ‘Writing the Body: To- sexes, and their startlingly experimental nature) wards an Understanding of écriture to represent key examples of écriture féminine. féminine’, in E. Showalter (ed.) The New If French women writers of the 1970s and Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Lit- early 1980s engaged upon avant-garde textual erature and Theory, London: Virago (an practices which echoed and exemplified the excellent introduction to theories of femi- notion of a poetics of the feminine, in more nine writing). recent times, French écrivaines appear to be Mitchell, J. and Rose, J. (eds) (1982) Feminine effecting a return to more conventional, real- Sexuality: Jacques Lacan and the École ist narrative modes. Freudienne, Basingstoke and London: Macmillan (translation of Lacan’s essays on ALEX HUGHES feminine sexuality, prefaced by two illumi- See also: Kristeva, Julia; feminism; feminist press; nating introductory essays glossing Freud- feminist thought; women’s/lesbian writing ian and Lacanian psychoanalytic theory). Moi, T. (1985) Sexual/Textual Politics, Lon- don: Methuen (a sophisticated but accessi- Further reading ble comparative account of Anglo-Saxon and French feminist theory). Cixous, H. (in collaboration with C.Clément) Schiach, M. (1991) Hélène Cixous: A Politics (1975) La Jeune Née, Paris: Union of Writing, London: Routledge (essential Générale d’Éditions. Translated B.Wing reading for students of Cixous’s work). (1986) The Newly Born Woman, Manches- Sellars, S. (1991) Writing and Sexual Differ- ter: Manchester University Press. ence, Basingstoke and London: Macmillan ——(1976) ‘The Laugh of the Medusa’, Signs (a broad-ranging introduction to post-1968 1–4. Translated in I.de Courtivron and E. French women’s writing and its preoccu- Marks (eds) (1981) New French pations, set in the conceptual context of Feminisms, Brighton: Harvester Press. French feminist theory and its influences). 174 education ministry education ministry tion of national policy, encouraging innovation, and dealing with staff counselling, promotion, development and training. The central and regional services of the edu- In the early 1980s, decentralization poli- cation ministry form the backbone of the pub- cies resulted in duties traditionally discharged lic education service. They devise policy, and by the ministry being devolved upon local gov- then supervise and monitor all operations ernment. The regions acquired responsibility within this heavily centralized system. The for future planning, building and maintenance ministry is also a major force within French of the lycées (senior high schools), while the economic life, as one out of every eighteen départements were given similar powers with members of the working population is em- regard to the collèges (junior high schools). In ployed by it (three out of four of whom are each case, however, the ministry remained re- teachers). All full-time teachers in state insti- sponsible for the allocation of teaching posts tutions in France are civil servants. and for staff remuneration. In addition, it con- Established in its present headquarters in tinues to exercise control of higher education the rue de Grenelle in 1860 as the Ministère through the pluri-annual contracts it signs de l’Instruction Publique, the ministry has with universities, together with scrutiny of been reorganized many times since, and its their senior staff appointments, and through precise function has been redefined. It became the sanctioning of the diplomas awarded by the Ministère de l’Éducation and acquired its the grandes écoles. proud ‘National’ epithet in 1932. The government appointed in May 1995 added responsi- RON HALLMARK bility for the transition from classroom to See also: educational elitism: the grandes workplace, in its full title of Ministère de écoles; education, secondary: collèges, lycées, l’Éducation Nationale, de l’Enseignement etc. Supérieur, de la Recherche, et de l’Insertion Professionnelle. In this case, the minister himself is flanked by three secretaries of state: one Further reading for schools, one for higher education and one for research. Rue de Grenelle (as it is gener- Auduc, J.-L. and Bayard-Pierlot, J. (1995) Le ally known), assisted by its national advisory Système éducatif français, 4th edition, bodies, is responsible for national policy with Créteil: Centre Regional de Documentation regard to curriculum design, school organiza- Pédagogique (a succinct, but comprehen- tion, examinations and awards, and educa- sive account of the system; a revised edi- tional development, and also for the recruit- tion is published every year). ment, appointment, promotion and remunera- Durand-Prinborgne, C. (1994) L’Éducation tion of teaching and other staff in state schools nationale, une culture, un service, un and universities. In addition, a network of de- système , 2nd edition, Paris: Nathan (a well- centralized subsidiary departments oversees informed discussion of the presiding phi- the application of national policy at local level. losophy, and of the organization in context). In each of the twenty-eight académies (educational subdivisions) of France and her overseas départements, the minister is represented by the recteur and his staff, and by the two education, primary regional inspectorates, which together have local administrative responsibility for: super- Schooling in France is compulsory from 6 to vising national examinations and awards, as- 16 years of age. Elementary schools teach chil- sessing the performance of schools and stand- dren aged from 6 to 11. However, primary ards of teaching, monitoring the implementa- education in France cannot be discussed education, primary 175 without consideration of the wholesale nurs- these aims is laid down centrally by the educa- ery provision, which, though optional, in- tion ministry. In terms of the circular of March volved some 80 per cent of 2- to 5-year-olds 1995, which defines the second period as the in 1995 (35 per cent of 2-year-olds, and over cycle des apprentissages fondamentaux (period 99 per cent of those 3 and over). Nursery for learning the basics), the following weekly classes are formally programmed into the hourage is prescribed: nine hours of French, 5 planning of the initial educational process. hours of mathematics, 4 hours devoted to ‘ex- Schooling from 2 to 11 is organized into ploration of the world’ and civics, 6 hours of three successive periods (cycles), in principle PE, sport and art, and 2 hours of directed work by age groups. The first period consists of the (conceived as an opportunity for the teacher nursery classes for the petits (the infants, aged to help pupils develop independent work hab- 2 to 4), the moyens (intermediates, aged 4 to its). The ‘directed work’ is to take place in half- 5) and the grands (the seniors, aged 5 to 6). hour sessions at the end of each full school The second period encompasses the first three day. The curriculum for the third period, the years of elementary school, defined as the cycle des approfondissements (period of more cours préparatoire (CP), the preparatory year, advanced learning) is similar, but adds an ad- for 6- to 7-year-olds, and the cours élémentaire ditional half-hour of mathematics instead of 1ère et 2ème années (CE 1 and 2—elementary half an hour of PE, sport or art. With effect years one and two, for 7- to 8- and 8- to 9- from 1995, modern foreign languages were year-olds, respectively). The last two years of introduced into the elementary school curricu- elementary school, called the cours moyen, lum: one hour of French per week in CE 2 and 1ère et 2ème années (CM 1 and 2—intermedi- one and a half-hours maximum in CM 1 and ate years one and two, for 9- to 10- and 10- to 2 were to be sacrificed to this end. Begun on a 11-year-olds), constitute the third period. The voluntary basis for the first year, this teaching boundaries between periods are not, however, is designed to be extended to all schools as rigid. There is an overlap between the top class training and resources permit. of nursery education (section grande) and the The balance and design of the school week first year of the elementary school (cours (26 hours, spread typically over 9 half-days) préparatoire), to ensure continuity and facili- and of the school year remain a matter of de- tate integration; and, to take account of dif- bate. The subject was raised again by the re- ferent rates of development and individual port of the Fauroux Committee on education learning capacities, it is possible to complete in June 1996. In 1992, when the teaching week each cycle in two or three years. was reduced from 27 hours, the same annual No set syllabus is laid down for nursery total of classroom time (972 hours) was main- education, but its aims are said to be ‘to help tained by adding extra days to the academic the child to develop and become active; to ar- year. In 1995–6, three experiments with dif- rive at an awareness of the outside world, and ferent weekly patterns of primary education to relate to and communicate with others’. were being conducted in different areas of the Methods are based upon play—whether or- country. ganized or independent—and a gradual intro- Since the early nineteenth century, primary duction to the three Rs. The second and third education has been the responsibility of the cycles are designed to ‘ensure a grasp of the commune and its local council. In this respect, skills basic to all learning (oral communica- the decentralization legislation of the 1980s tion, reading and arithmetic) as well as the meant little change to the status quo. It is the development of the child’s intellect, sensitivi- duty of the local authorities at that level to ties, physical potential and and manual dex- provide and maintain state schools and sup- terity’. They must also introduce the child to port facilities (such as school canteens), and fine arts and music. also to engage and pay maintenance staff, or The curriculum to be followed in pursuit of such auxiliary classroom staff as may be 176 education, secondary: collèges, lycées, etc. required to help with the younger children Further reading (Agents Spécialisés des Écoles Maternelles or ASEM). For its part, the state, via the educa- Auduc, J.-L. and Bayard-Pierlot, J. (1995) Le tion ministry, appoints and pays the teaching Système éducatif français, 4th edition, staff. The latter are no longer trained in the Créteil: Centre Regional de Documentation Écoles Normales that were set up, on the ba- Pédagogique (an official account of the sys- sis of one per département, by the Guizot law tem, incorporating the most recent changes; (1833), and fulfilled this function until the late a revised edition is published each year). 1980s. As from 1990, teachers in state schools Vasconcellos, M. (1993) Le Système éducatif, are mainly the products of the Instituts Paris: Éditions La Découverte (a more sys- Universitaires de Formation des Maîtres. Re- tematic critique with historical perspective). cruitment to these is selective, and candidates must have obtained the licence or equivalent before entry. In the course of their studies there, during which they may be paid, intend- education, secondary: collèges, ing teachers prepare for and sit the competi- lycées, etc. tive examination for the Certificat d’Aptitude au Professorat des Écoles, as well as spending periods on observation and teaching practice After completing primary education, pupils at- in schools. tend a junior high school (collège) from the age Declining numbers of pupils in elementary of 11 to 15 or so, and then choose to pursue schools from the 1960s to the 1990s, together further study in a senior high school (lycée), or with population loss in country areas, have to enter the world of work via, for instance, an had both good effects and bad. On the one apprenticeship training centre (centre de forma- hand there has been a reduction in average tion de l’apprentissage). For their own part, class sizes in state elementary schools from 30 lycées are of two kinds: general and technologi- in 1960 to 22 in 1995; on the other, it has cal, which offer a three-year course leading to meant the threat of school closures, and the the general and technological baccalauréats; and creation of inter-commune groups in rural ar- professional which, in addition to preparing eas to protect and run a local school. pupils for the professional baccalauréat, pro- To complete the picture, mention should be vide courses leading to a range of more practi- made of the distinctive provision made since cal, work-orientated qualifications. the 1980s to cater for groups with special Until 1995, the four years of junior high learning difficulties, whether the handicapped, school study (known as classes 6, 5, 4 and 3 taught in small groups in the classes de respectively) were divided into two periods perfectionnement attached to some elementary (cycles): classes 6 and 5 formed the observa- schools, or the non-francophone children of tion period (cycle d’observation), while classes recent immigrants, for whom were devised the 4 and 3 were known as the period of career beginners’ classes—classes d’initiation and study choice (cycle d’orientation). In all (CLIN)—within the context of the special cen- four years, pupils followed a curriculum de- tres set up to this end (Centres d’Études pour termined nationally, consisting of French, la Formation et l’Information sur la mathematics, a first modern language, history Scolarisation des Enfants de Migrants or and geography, civics, life and earth sciences, CEFISEM). technology, music, and physical education. Physical sciences and a second foreign lan- RON HALLMARK guage were added in classes 4 and 3, together See also: education, the state and the church; with a choice of options from Latin, Greek, education, secondary extra technology or extra modern language teaching. education, secondary: collèges, lycées, etc. 177

However, the 1990s are witnessing a major tion over a further two years (première and reform of the collèges. A pilot scheme to this terminale) in terms of one of the three general effect was launched in 1994–5 in 368 schools subject categories (literary studies, economics across the country, and all other institutions and social studies, and science) or four defined were to follow suit in 1995–6. On this basis technological areas (industrial science and tech- the progressive renewal of the four-year cycle nology, laboratory science and technology, will be complete in 1998–9. medical sciences, tertiary-sector science and The aims are to make the curriculum more technology). The curriculum remains broadly flexible and more responsive to individual based throughout, however: even in terminale, needs, and to provide appropriate extra teach- a specialist in mechanical engineering (within ing support for pupils in difficulty, thereby the general area of industrial science and tech- keeping pupils in the mainstream of the sys- nology) must cope with maths, history/geog- tem as long as possible. To this end, the two raphy, a foreign language, philosophy, and cycles are transformed into three: class 6 be- physical education, in addition to his or her comes the observation period, with special ar- chosen specialism. rangements for remedial teaching for pupils The lycée professionnel (formerly, lycée in difficulty, and a focus on the consolidation d’enseignement professionnel and, before that, of basic skills and knowledge; classes 5 and 4 collège d’enseignement technique) is open are henceforth the period of more developed mainly to students from class 3 of the collèges learning (cycle d’approfondissement), where who wish, or have been advised or directed, a more flexible timetable will enable greater to seek practical qualifications which will give individual choice; and class 3 becomes the direct entry to the job market. To this end, period of career and study guidance (cycle two-year sandwich courses lead to the d’orientation), where resources will be put into Certificat d’Aptitude Professionnelle (CAP) or a major counselling and information effort. the Brevet d’Études Professionnelles (BEP). The redefinition of the cycles involves a delay After this point, however, it is possible to go in the timing of crucial decisions on a pupil’s on to attempt a baccalauréat professionnel, progress (proceed, repeat the year, choice of whose twenty-nine specialisms lead directly to study/career path, such as via the ‘general’ the world of work; or, indeed, by taking a stream in the lycée, or the less highly rated year’s reconversion course, to take a techno- technological stream, or professional studies). logical baccalauréat. It should also be pointed A diploma (the brevet des collèges) marks out that some students take advantage of their the successful completion of junior high school professional baccalauréat to follow courses in studies. It is awarded on the basis of marks higher education, particularly in advanced gained in classes 4 and 3, together with writ- technical departments (sections de techniciens ten examinations in French, maths and his- supérieurs—see below). tory/geography. Student numbers in the lycées have in- Pupils able and willing to continue their creased dramatically over the last forty years studies in a general and technological high of the twentieth century, from 800,000 in school (lycée général et technologique) do so 1960 to more than 2.3 million in 1995. This with the aim of achieving the broad-based di- expansion looks set to continue, in view of ploma awarded at the end of three years of the national objective of bringing 80 per cent further study, the baccalauréat. This aims to of the age group to baccalauréat level by the provide a good general education, as well as year 2000 (in 1995, almost 63 per cent of the to enable successful candidates to embark upon age group achieved the diploma). Hence ef- higher education. An initial year (known as forts have been made to adapt what was origi- seconde) based upon common core subjects, nally a general, cultural diet for the elite to the to which are added options chosen by the stu- needs of much wider audience. In 1969, the dent, is the prelude to increasing specializa- baccalauréat technique (renamed 178 education, the state and the church technologique in 1986) was created, and the Enseignements et les Professions (ONISEP) baccalauréat professionnel was introduced the (subtitled ‘how to help your child succeed’, same year. The reform of the lycée curricu- it is a practical guide for parents to the work- lum, launched in 1992 and completed in 1995, ings of the system). should be viewed in the same perspective. The Vasconcellos, M. (1993) Le Système éducatif, trend is now for lycées to become polyvalents, Paris: Éditions La Découverte (gives a good that is to say to to develop all three strands perspective on how the system developed within the same institution, so as to facilitate into its current form). interchange and mitigate the relative disfavour which which the non-generalist strands (especially the ‘professional’ strand) are viewed. education, the state and the Mention should also be made of two branches of higher education to which some church lycées are host: the sections de techniciens supérieurs (STS) and the classes préparatoires The French constitution guarantees equal ac- aux grandes écoles (CPGE). The former process to educational opportunity for all citizens. vide two-year courses leading to an advanced Public education is free and secular, and its pro- technical diploma in a range of options, some- vision is an obligation upon the state. Yet, in times linked to the needs of local industry, and the 1990s, almost 1 in 5 children is taught in a designed to produce qualified supervisors and private—that is to say, for the most part (92 middle managers. The latter prepare candi- per cent) Catholic—school. Nowadays, despite dates for the competitive examinations upon traditional antagonism between the public and which recruitment to the elitist preserve of the private sectors, the vast majority of private in- grandes écoles is based. stitutions enjoy a contractual relationship with Since the 1989 Education Act, all schools the state, which gives them access to state fund- are required to produce an institutional plan ing. Given transfers at crucial moments of fail- showing how the sum total of their activities— ure, educational progression or choice of stream, curricular and extracurricular—combine to it has been estimated that as many as 1 in 3 make up the school’s distinctive contribution pupils may, during their school careers, take to achieving the aims and objectives laid down advantage of the ‘freedom of choice’ represented nationally. Such a plan, if sufficiently impres- by the private sector (l’école libre). sive, may ensure additional funding. Until the Revolution, virtually all education was under the control of the church. The abo- RON HALLMARK lition of this monopoly in 1789 heralded more See also: educational elitism: the grandes than a century of strife, as the state strove to écoles; universities take control of education in the face of stern opposition from the church, which considered teaching as one of its basic missions. Succes- Further reading sive governments laboured to build up the capital and manpower resources, building and Auduc, J.-L. and Bayard-Pierlot, J. (1995) Le opening schools, and setting up training col- Système éducatif français, 4th edition, leges for lay teachers (écoles normales) where Créteil: Centre Regional de Documentation anticlericalism was rife. While the church’s Pédagogique (an up-to-date guide to the sys- authority was on the whole consolidated un- tem; a revised edition is produced every year). der the Restoration and the First and Second Ministère de [‘Education Nationale, de Empire, state control was eventually estab- l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche lished under the Third Republic, in a series of (1996) De la 6e au BAC, Paris: Les Dossiers measures associated in particular with Jules de l’Office National de l’Information sur les Ferry, minister from 1879 to 1883. In 1881–2, education, the state and the church 179 primary education was made compulsory, and by the Comité National d’Action Laïque free state schooling was introduced. In 1886, (CNAL), restated their opposition to the per- it was ruled that state education was to be petuation of the ‘dual’ provision fostered by dispensed exclusively by lay teachers, and re- the current system of contracts; the defenders ligious education was replaced in the curricu- of ‘freedom of choice’, with the Comité Na- lum by ‘moral and civic education’. Hence, tional de l’Enseignement Catholique (CNEC) the framework for a basic free, secular, com- to the forefront, opposed any suggestion of pulsory state system was in place well before integration or assimilation with the state sys- the formal separation of church and state in tem. After mass demonstrations by both 1905 and the closure of the religious schools camps, the proposed legislation was with- run by teaching Orders. drawn as it was proving so socially divisive. Catholic education did not disappear, how- Yet traditional Catholic religious positions ever: two acts of parliament, the Guizot law are not alone in posing a challenge to secular- (1833, for primary education) and the famous ism in today’s multicultural society. In 1989, Falloux law of 1850 (for secondary education), when three girls were suspended from school had recognized the right of any authorized in Creil for wearing the traditional Muslim person or body to open and run a school, and headscarf (chador) during lessons—on the hence endorsed the ‘freedom’ of families to grounds that this represented a breach of the choose the form of education for their chil- obligatory secular stance (laïcité), to which all dren. These provisions remain in force today. state educational establishments are bound by Current relationships between the state and law—there ensued counter-claims of racial and private education are regulated by acts of the cultural discrimination. In an attempt to pre- Fifth Republic (the Debré law of 1959 and the serve tradition, in such a way as to rebut such Guermeur law of 1977) which offered private claims, and also to cater for the right to free- institutions a choice between independence dom of conscience which the Conseil d’État, outside the state system (where their income when consulted, was anxious to affirm, would be derived from fees), complete integra- François Bayrou, the government minister, tion or association by contract. The last of these eventually issued a circular distinguishing be- has been the choice of the overwhelming ma- tween ‘discreet’ signs of religious allegiance jority of such institutions. Under the two forms (which are to be tolerated) and ‘ostentatious of contract that exist, the state assumes respon- symbols’ which, amounting to proselytism, are sibility for the payment of staff salaries and potentially divisive and are therefore banned. teaching materials, and the competent local Schools were instructed to incorporate a clause authorities (under decentralization) are re- to this effect in their house regulations, though quired to make a contribution to overheads ultimately it was left to heads of schools to and running costs. In return, the state retains police this regulation and pronounce in indi- control over staff appointments, curriculum vidual cases. and the creation of new establishments, as RON HALLMARK places at private schools are counted in terms of the planning of resources. Contracting in- See also: Catholicism and Protestantism; edu- stitutions must guarantee equal opportunity of cation, primary; education, secondary: access for all, irrespective of race or religion. collèges, lycées, etc.; immigration; Islam; rac- Antagonism remains deep-seated, however, ism/-anti-semitism and intermittently resurfaces. In 1982–4, attempts by the Socialist government to imple- Further reading ment President Mitterrand’s election promise to make education ‘a unified, secular public service’ saw battle again joined along tradi- Durand-Prinborgne, C. (1994) L’Éducation tional lines. The proponents of secularism, led nationale: une culture, un service, un système, 180 educational elitism: the grandes écoles

2nd edition, Paris: Nathan (this contains hand, perhaps the most famous of all, the École good, succinct sections on the private sector Nationale d’Administration (ENA), with its in context, and the current state of issues). awesome reputation for turning out, not only Gilsou-Bézier, F. (1989) Connaissance du top civil servants, but also senior diplomats, système éducatif français, Paris: Éditions politicians and presidents of the Republic, was Castella (an especially useful source for the established as recently as 1945. legislative framework of the system). Some establishments are privately financed, Langouet, G. and Léger, A. (1991) Public ou others are publicly funded by Ministries of privé? Trajectories et réussites, Paris: State (Defence, Agriculture, Transport, etc.), Éditions Publidix—Éditions de l’Espace while yet others come under public commer- Européen (an up-to-date study of trends cial bodies such as the Chambers of Com- and social contexts). merce. Some charge fees, some are free, some Parias, L.-H., Rémond, R., Rouche, M., even confer salaried status upon their entrants, Lebrun, F., Venard, M., Quéniart, J., usually subject to an undertaking to enter state Mayeur, F. and Prost, A. (1981/2) Histoire employment upon graduation: as général de l’enseignement et de l‘éducation fonctionnaires-stagiaires, entrants to the four en France, published under the direction of Écoles Normales Supérieures receive about L.-H.Parias, preface by R.Rémond, 4 vols, 8,000 francs per month. Lengths of courses Paris: Nouvelle Librairie de France (a well- vary (though three years would be the norm), documented general history; volume 3 as does the timing of recruitment. traces the nineteenth-century struggle). However, various features are shared by Le Monde (1984) ‘L’École privée: les vrais most of these institutions. Although they have enjeux’, Le Monde, 3 March (an excellent expanded over the last twenty years, they re- review of the issues and of the state of play main, unlike the universities, small and exclu- at the time of the attempt at major reform). sive, with rarely many more than a thousand or so students. Given the increasing demand for such prestigious studies, and the lure of educational elitism: the grandes job prospects upon graduation, they can afford to be highly selective on entry. In most écoles cases, this selection is based upon competitive examinations requiring special preparation, A very distinctive aspect of the French higher typically in the Classes Préparatoires aux education system, the grandes écoles are a Grandes Écoles (CPGE), which form part of range of small, highly selective, mainly inde- the post-baccalauréat provision in the big pendent institutions which exist in parallel to lycées and to which entry is itself selective. The the universities and form the privileged train- CPGE represent two years of intensive, highly ing ground of top politicians, civil servants, competitive and stressful study of one of three and chief executives in modern-day France. main branches of learning—humanities, eco- It is difficult to generalize about the grandes nomics or science—without any guarantee of écoles because they are both so numerous (well success. Students often have to—or choose over 150) and so diverse in legal status, spe- to—repeat a year, and by no means all obtain cialist fields, regimes and modes of finance. places in the end; but the jobs to which suc- Their dominant role in the late twentieth cen- cessful candidates may aspire at the end of tury does not mean that they are modern foun- study in a grande école—senior, highly paid, dations. Many of the most prestigious among executive posts in the civil service or the pri- them date from the nineteenth (or even eight- vate sector—are such that increasing numbers eenth) century: the École des Ponts et Chaussées of applicants come forward each year. was founded in 1747, and others go back to As well as being small and selective, the the Revolution or the Empire. On the other grandes écoles are also professionally orientated. electronic revolution 181

Their statutes are often defined, not in terms sition, their tendency to teach conformist atti- of the disciplines they teach, but of the end tudes, and their capacity for internal self-per- product: the École Polytechnique, for exam- petuation, the grandes écoles have come un- ple, is committed to ‘give its students a gender increasing criticism in the 1980s and eral and scientific education which will equip 1990s. There is no doubt about their influ- them for highly qualified positions of respon- ence in French society, however, or the stran- sibility in the scientific, technical or economic glehold they have on senior posts in both the sectors in state civil or military departments public and private sectors. A survey in 1993 and the public services, and more generally in revealed that, in the 200 leading French com- the activities of the Nation as a whole’. Active panies, 73 per cent of the top executives were professionals and industrialists assist in the products of the grandes écoles; almost 50 per design of syllabuses and in their updating, and cent of them were diplomates of either ENA are often involved in the teaching. Practical or the École Polytechnique. placements form an essential part of the cur- RON HALLMARK riculum in many cases. The value of an individual school’s diploma, for which, in addi- See also: education, secondary: collèges, tion, each graduand is ranked in order within lycées, etc. the year’s cohort, is assessed partly in terms of the jobs and salaries commanded by its gradu- Further reading ates. A fierce sense of loyalty is engendered within the student bodies, which, after graduation, continue to pursue activities on behalf Fauconnier, P. (1992) ‘Le Vent de la révolte: of the institution through networks of alumni. les grandes écoles dans le colimateur’, Le Amid all the diversity indicated above, it is Nouvel Observateur, 21 May 1992. possible to identify certain significant group- Gaillard, J.-M. (1987) Tu seras président, mon ings. The four Écoles Normales Supérieures, fils. Anatomie des Grandes Écoles et mal- which admit some 3,000 students in all, train formations des élites, Paris: Éditions top-level researchers, teachers and more gen- Ramsay (critique of the training provided, erally administrators in a range of basic disci- and of its inadequacy to meet the challenges plines (including literature and the arts, the of the year 2000). sciences and technology). The engineering Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de schools (École Nationale Supérieure des l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recher- Mines, des Ponts et Chaussées, des che (1996) Après le BAC: réussir ses études. Télécommunications, etc.) provide senior Le Guide des études supérieures 1996, managers and technical experts for the public Paris: Les Dossiers ONISEP (up-to-date re- services and for industry. The title ‘engineer’ view of the options and procedures). is prestigious and highly sought-after in France, and the right to confer this title is strictly regulated. L’École des Hautes Études Commerciales (HEC) and the various Écoles electronic revolution Supérieures de Commerce train business executives, accountants, financial consultants, The electronic revolution affects many areas etc. Finally, a clutch of establishments prepare of French life. According to President Chirac, their students specifically (though not exclu- its most important realization, the informa- sively) for careers in government administration revolution, will be the third such major tion: the ENA (referred to above) and the nine upheaval for mankind, following the agricul- Instituts d’Études Politiques. tural and the industrial revolutions. The With their unabashed elitist approach, the Minitel telephone-based information system, upper-middle-class bias of their social compo- started early, is popular and widespread; 182 electronic revolution computer-based learning has been massively been given to schools, and widespread train- supported in education; in entertainment, tel- ing offered to teachers. As in most countries, evision, video, games and CDs have become however, the incredible speed of change has normal features of everyday life; the informa- reduced the value of early large-scale initiation society—bringing together information, tives, and computers have not yet become ei- entertainment and the exchange of opinion ther required or integral parts of the learning and channelled through new information process. In entertainment, television, video highways—is being prepared through specific and games have become normal features of government (and to a lesser extent commer- everyday life. Cable and satellite television cial) action. Perhaps more so than in other have provoked the creation of new French TV countries, ‘language engineering’ has played a channels, although much that is on offer is in significant part: the specific problems and role English. CD-Roms, both for educational and of French language have been at the forefront entertainment purposes, and both audio and of official concern, although French is invent- audiovisual, have followed earlier forms of ing neologisms to cope. electronic diffusion. Laser shows have trans- The French Teletel network, Minitel, was formed Paris for official celebrations as well formed in 1980 as a response to Prestel, but as for concerts. Arcade games and consoles followed an original approach widening pro- are enormously popular with the young, and vision from business to the general public. sales of multimedia PCs are booming. France Télécom provided minicomputers free Government and other public authorities, to telephone subscribers, and incidentally gave rather than private industry, have led the way, massive support to the French computer in- developing information highways—cable, sat- dustry. Individuals and commercial enterprises ellite transmission and the Internet. The French were encouraged to set up their own servers, public has become used to many outward signs and are paid for whatever service they make of electronic technology—constantly changing available with money collected on their behalf municipal notice-boards in every town’s pe- through phone bills. The approach had enor- destrian area, driverless trains on light passen- mous success, with 6.5 million interactive ter- ger railways, destination boards on buses. Be- minals by 1995, and 25,000 on-line services hind these outward signs, industrial and par- ranging from newspapers to bulletin boards, ticularly transport technology is heavily de- from sober bank transactions and the book- pendent on computerization and such interna- ing of tickets for trains or concerts to tional developments as the Global Positioning messageries roses, enabling usually erotic pic- System. But the French tradition of high pro- tures and messages to be anonymously accessed tectionist barriers and centralized methods of and exchanged—with no public outcry. Giv- control has offended European competition ing access to everybody and familiarizing us- laws, and more significantly may find it diffi- ers with computer screens, Minitel popularized cult to withstand the anarchic explosion of the the electronic revolution and brought home Internet or the commercial pressures from non- how useful and indeed interesting and enter- French manufacturers. taining technology could be. Even by 1985, Perhaps more so than in other countries, some 42 per cent of Minitel time was devoted ‘language engineering’ has been a significant to games and messages, while during 1994 the element in the electronic revolution. The stakes French made 1,913 million calls, used the sys- are high: President Chirac is on record in De- tem for 110 million hours and spent 6.6 bil- cember 1995 as saying, ‘if, in the new media, lion francs. However, the system has remained our language, our programmes, our inventions almost exclusively French, and hopes of France are not significantly present our future gen- leading the world were not realized. erations will be both economically and cultur- Computer-based learning has been mas- ally marginalized’. Language engineering is the sively supported in education: computers have concern of the language industries, concerned Elle 183 with the creation and manipulation of (mono- Cambridge University Press, (a useful gloss lingual and multilingual) text, documents of of the relationship between language and the any size from memos to encyclopedias, mix- electronic revolution in France). tures of text and images. These industries have many profitable outlets: simple word process- ing, office management, automatic translation, full-text information held in data banks, and Elkabbach, Jean-Pierre a whole range of software for finding it. Most of these applications, and particularly the b. 1937, Oran, Algeria databases, use American English, and indeed the enormous economic and commercial Broadcaster power of American industry and media across the world impose the use of this lingua franca; He is an eminence grise of French television, consequently much effort in France has been where he became director of news at Antenne deployed on language planning. As far as pos- 2 in 1977. It was during an interview with him sible, government organizations like the in the run-up to the 1978 legislative elections Délégation Générale à la Langue Française that Georges Marchais lost his cool and en- must discover French terms to replace Ameri- deared himself to much of the audience by in- can ones and enforce their use; American must structing him to ‘Shut up, Elkabbach!’ (‘Taisez- be translated to French in every aspect of com- vous, Elkabbach!’—later to be the title of munication media; and as far as possible Elkabbach’s autobiography). Eased out under French software and hardware should be sup- the Socialists, he has since 1992 been director ported. There have been some successes: the of the channels France 2 and France 3. ubiquitous suffix -ique (informatique, KEITH READER bureautique, robotique) is fruitful in neologisms; words like logiciel (software), convivial See also: television (user-friendly), baladeur (walkman) have become common usage. But the inventiveness of people has another outlet: writing on screens, Elle as in Minitel, has created a whole new shorthand and spelling, with k replacing qu, c replacing c’est, and words telescoped: oqp Women’s magazine stands for occupé (busy). Elle has been one of the most innovative of DENNIS AGER French women’s weekly magazines since 1945. It was founded in 1945, by the Défense de la See also: economy; linguistic regulation; mu- France group, upon the initiative of its first sic industry; pop video editor, Hélène Gordon-Lazareff, who had returned from the USA to an effervescent France Further reading which was keen to consume, communicate and be entertained. Gordon-Lazareff saw it as her mission to establish an haul de gamme (luxury) Ager, D.E. (1996) Language Policy in Britain women’s magazine to respond to these three and France: The Processes of Policy, Lon- desires. Hence, from the start, Elle represented don: Cassell (examines the processes used an original women’s magazine in terms of in France for language planning, together the luxury quality of paper, use of with the policy itself). quadrochromatic colour, state-of-the-art print- Noreiko, S.F. (1993) ‘New words for new tech- ing techniques, the use of well-known photog- nologies’, in Sanders, C. (ed.) French Today: raphers to produce sophisticated images and Language in Its Social Context, Cambridge: 184 Éluard, Paul the frank, humorous tone with which all sub- KHURSHEED WADIA jects deemed female were discussed. In the See also: feminism (movements/groups); wom- 1950s, Elle saw itself as the ‘bible’ for women en’s magazines who aspired to be in the forefront of social, cultural and political change: the typical Elle reader was young, middle-class and Paris- Further reading based. By 1960, Elle’s annual circulation figure stood at over 650,000. As a self-proclaimed progressive magazine, Bonvoisin, S-M and Maignien, M. (1986) La after May 1968 Elle adopted the less radical, presse féminine, Paris: PUF (a useful intro- feminist ideas surrounding women’s sexuality duction to the women’s periodical press). and personal liberation and began campaign- Presse et Statistiques (1994), Paris: SJTI (sta- ing in favour of an extension of women’s rights: tistical information relating to the press). for abortion/contraception; for extended ma- Wadia, K. (1991) ‘Women’s Magazines: Com- ternity rights and facilities for public child care; ing to Terms with Feminism Post-May for the employment rights of part-time work- 1968’, French Cultural Studies 2, 6 (an ex- ers, etc. Not only did Elle’s campaigning take amination of the influence of second wave place within its pages but also through organ- feminism upon the ideology and discourse ized events of which the show-piece was the of femininity as encountered in women’s États Généraux de la Femme, held at Versailles magazines ). in November 1970. This congress brought together politicians, academics, trade unionists, doctors, civil servants and employers to dis- Éluard, Paul cuss a number of themes chosen as a result of a nationwide survey, organized by the maga- b. 1895, St-Denis, Paris; zine, to establish women’s foremost concerns. d. 1952, Charenton-le-Pont The aim of the congress was to present those in power with a detailed picture of the aspirations of French women. Undoubtedly, though, Poet, real name Eugène Grindel it constituted an effective means of marketing the magazine beyond its established Parisian He has the distinction of being the foremost readership and the magazine achieved high poet of the Surrealist movement and the most sales between 1970 and 1974. celebrated of the Resistance poets. In keeping By 1975, gloomy economic forecasts and with the objectives of Surrealism, his poetry competition from the specialist periodical press abounds in images, and yet the effect of the and other media led to plummeting sales and poetry is virtually ‘classical’ because of hence the adoption of another marketing for- Éluard’s gift for elegant control and sensuous- mula—that of the unisex magazine, which in- ness. Almost all of the poetry celebrates the cluded news stories, political and economic fascination of Woman and the erotic power analyses, serious cultural features and reviews. she exercises over men. One often has the im- This approach failed, however, and the maga- pression that Éluard is continuing the grand zine’s takeover by the Filipacchi group marked tradition of troubadour poetry. In the years of a return, at the beginning of the 1980s, to the the Resistance, the subject matter of the po- tried and tested formula of femininity. In the ems widens to include the themes of fraternity 1980s and 1990s, Elle survived in a fiercely and liberty. The enormous quantity of poetry competitive market, not due to success in France written over a period of thirty-five years is but because of its foreign editions which now collected in the Pléiade edition of his Poésies number twenty-five. It no longer bears the hall- complètes (1968). Éluard was a close friend mark of originality and innovation it once did. of Picasso and knew most of the Cubist and employment 185

Surrealist painters well; they often illustrated sion, new categories of workers, in particular his works. women and migrants, were called upon to make up the shortfall of indigenous male WALTER A.STRAUSS workers for the expanding French economy. See also: poetry However, when the world recession hit France in 1974 and unemployment began its inexorable rise, these new categories of workers did not simply return whence they had come, be employment that another country or the ‘kitchen sink’. The active population of France had undergone a In the postwar period, France has undergone radical and irreversible transformation. a major transformation both in the composi- The only problem concerning employment tion of its workforce and in the nature of the in the 1950s and 1960s had been labour short- employment which the economy offers the age. All this changed dramatically after 1974, population. From an economy in which the when unemployment became an integral, if majority of workers were men, working full- unwelcome part of French life. From an aver- time in stable jobs, often in industry or agri- age of 200,000–300,000 during the years of culture, France has moved to a position in economic growth, by 1976 the number of un- which women are as likely as men to be em- employed had reached the 1 million mark, by ployed in the labour market, the service sector 1981 it had reached 1.5 million, until by the provides two-thirds of all jobs and the notion 1990s the figure was stuck at over 3 million. of a stable job for life is becoming a thing of During the first years of recession after 1974, the past. it was thought by the government that a re- In the first years after World War II, a sig- turn to growth would immediately reduce the nificant proportion of the French working unemployment figures to acceptable levels. population were still engaged in agriculture. However, as the 1970s and 1980s wore on, it Indeed, France remained a much more agri- became clear that two factors inhibited sig- cultural country than its main economic com- nificant reductions in unemployment, even petitors. However, the rapid industrialization when economic growth returned. The first was which the country experienced in the 1950s the phenomenon of ‘jobless growth’. If the rate drew large numbers of individuals away from of economic growth is strong, but neverthe- their farming activities and into the towns and less remains below the level of productivity factories. This pool of indigenous, cheap un- increases in the economy, significant numbers skilled labour was a major boost to French of jobs will not be created and therefore such industrial output and prosperity in this period. growth will be ‘jobless’. Second, even if eco- That said, indigenous labour was not suffi- nomic growth does create jobs, these do not cient to respond to the massive labour require- necessarily keep pace with the increase in the ments of the country at that time and the number of those seeking jobs. French economy relied heavily on migrant Indeed, there is a certain amount of debate workers. Alongside this industrialization of concerning the solutions to the unemploy- the French economy, an equally important ment question in France. Right-wing politi- change was taking place which itself de- cians and commentators often argue that manded new workers. This was the French labour costs are too high and that tertiarization of the economy, meaning the these costs result from the minimum wage rapid expansion of service-sector jobs in (SMIC) and the cost to employers of social se- shops, offices, schools, hospitals and the like. curity contributions. This acts as a disincen- Many of the new jobs created in the service tive for companies to take on workers. Most sector in the 1960s and 1970s were taken by politicians, however, pin their hopes for a re- women. Therefore, during the years of expan- duction in unemployment on France becoming 186 Équipe, L’ more successful and competitive in the world. concise account of the way in which work In the meantime, successive governments have is structured in contemporary France). set up schemes to encourage employers to hire Grangeas, G. and Le Pagé, J.-M. (1992) Les the unemployed, particularly young people, Politiques de l’emploi, Paris: PUF (a neat by relieving them of the social security contri- description of state policy towards employ- butions which they pay on behalf of their em- ment and unemployment in France). ployees. Although unemployment in and of itself is a serious social problem, the uneven- ness of its distribution throughout the French population worsens matters. Geographically Équipe, L’ speaking, traditional industrial regions such as the north and the east of the country are L’Équipe, France’s best-known and oldest most badly affected. In social terms, women, sports newspaper (it celebrated its fiftieth birth- immigrants, the unskilled, the young and the day in February 1996), is published daily ex- over-50s are all disproportionately affected by cept Sunday and has a weekly magazine which unemployment. is also devoted exclusively to sport. With a For those who manage to remain in a job, readership often in excess of half a million, the experience of work has changed dramati- L’Équipe, which uses the most advanced tech- cally since the 1970s. Whereas in the years of nology available, is noted for the range of expansion jobs were permanent, and often for sports that it covers and for its esoteric style, life, the economic crisis led to the development often relying heavily on specialized vocabulary, of ‘flexibility’ in the labour market with a wide literary allusions, pun and wordplay. range of differing conditions for labour being IAN PICKUP on offer. Although a core of employees with secure long-term jobs stills exists in France, See also: national press in France; sport an increasing proportion of the population find themselves working on short-term contracts and/or as part-time employees. For some, such jobs are merely a temporary expe- Ernaux, Annie dient, but for others, their entire work life consists in going from one insecure job, or b. 1940, Lillebonne ‘petit boulot’, to another. Furthermore, the average person’s working life is becoming Writer shorter as young people stay on in education for longer periods of time and individuals con- Ernaux’s literary corpus, initiated by the 1974 tinue to retire earlier. This generational con- novel Cleaned Out (Les Armoires vides), fo- centration in the distribution of work, how- cuses particularly on the theme of social class. ever, coupled with an increasingly aged popu- The only daughter of working-class parents, a lation, means that an ever-dwindling active number of the autobiographical fictions she population is keeping a growing army of the published in the 1980s—Positions (La Place), inactive, whether young or old. Une Femme (A Woman) and La Femme gelée (The Frozen Woman)—address the gulf be- JAN WINDEBANK tween the ‘classe dominée’ into which Ernaux See also: economy; immigration; social security was born and the ‘classe dominante’ to which university education permitted her to accede, and the consequences of the kind of social Further reading metamorphosis Ernaux herself underwent. While she is by no means a militant feminist, Bouvier, P. (1991) Le Travail, Paris: PUF (a gender-role formation and (female) sexuality erotic writing 187 also feature as key themes in Ernaux’s writ- Her essay makes the further point that if liter- ing, dominating Ce qu’ils disent ou rien (What ary erotica managed to survive in postwar They Say or Nothing), published in 1977, and France, this was because it was defended by 1991’s more recent Passion simple (Simple the country’s intelligentsia. This fact is evi- Passion). One of France’s leading contempo- denced by the enthusiasm for the works of Sade rary women writers, Ernaux’s latest work in- displayed in the writings of authors such as cludes Journal du dehors (A Diary of the Out- Beauvoir, Georges Bataille, Blanchot and side) and La Honte (Shame). Lacan. Indicative also of intellectual support for erotico-literary freedom is the way in which ALEX HUGHES public and literary figures voiced their opposi- See also: autobiography; women’s/lesbian tion, in 1945 and 1973, to the prosecutions of writing the Denoël publishing house (Henry Miller’s French publishers) and of Régine Deforges, whose maison d’édition L’Or du Temps specialized in erotica. erotic writing Deforges is not the only specialist publisher whose name springs to mind in the context of In the decades following the war, authors of literary erotica. Éditeurs in this field include erotica had to contend with a prolongation of Éric Losfeld, a Surrealist who published erotic the moral order imposed by Vichy, and with a works clandestinely (‘sous le manteau’) and climate of repression which made publication officially; Claude Tchou, whose Cercle du problematic. From the mid-1970s onward, the Livre Précieux series included erotic ‘classics’ situation became less restrictive, and in the late and new texts; and Jean-Jacques Pauvert, twentieth century French erotic literature ap- whose efforts to bring out new editions of the pears to be flourishing. Any review of post- works of Sade encountered legal obstacles in war erotico-literary production in France needs the 1950s. Yet other publishers specializing in to focus upon those texts which, if they occa- the erotico-literary domain are Christian sionally or even regularly employ the motifs Bourgois, La Jeune Parque, Spengler, and of commercial pornography, nevertheless tran- Zulma. As Brécourt-Villars indicates, after scend the limitations of a crudely pornographic 1964 mainstream maisons d’édition such as model (see Frappier-Mazur 1988). Addition- Gallimard also began to publish erotic fiction ally, such a review must take account, not only (Brécourt-Villars 1985). of the sociohistorical landmarks punctuating For review purposes, we can divide post- the evolution of the erotico-literary genre and war erotic writing into two key subsections— the publishers associated with that genre, but male-and female-authored erotic discourse— also of the diverse ‘categories’ of erotica it has and subdivide these bodies of writing into a engendered. further series of categories. According to Anne- In the introduction to her very useful an- Marie Dardigna’s study Les Châteaux d’Éros, thology, Écrire d’amour, Claudine Brécourt- a good many postwar, male-authored, hetero- Villars isolates laws passed in 1930, 1939, sexually oriented erotic texts—the creations of 1949, 1958 and 1967 as generative of the con- writers such as Leiris, Klossowski and trols to which the publication of erotica was Mandiargues—associate the erotic with the subjected in France for the first thirty years of mystical and the metaphysical, and/or privi- the postwar period (Brécourt-Villars 1985). She lege quasi-religious motifs such as transgres- cites also, as significant moments in the evolu- sion and profanation (Dardigna 1980). The tion of the erotico-literary field, 1964 (a year fusion of the erotic and the metaphysical/spir- which witnessed a ‘new erotic offensive’) and itual is likewise a central theme in Bataille’s 1970 (the year in which an ‘unprecedented influential 1957 essay Eroticism (L’Erotisme), wave of erotica’ burst upon the literary scene). as it is in his own prewar erotic tales. The first 188 erotic writing modern writers to connect sexual liberation to against the backdrop of social and gender rela- an affirmation du Mal, suggests Dardigna, tions (see Frappier-Mazur 1988), and/or attest were the Surrealists. While most of the erotico- to a feminist awareness initiated by the publi- literary works emerging from the Surrealist cation of Beauvoir’s The Second Sex and rein- movement predated 1945, postwar texts asso- forced by post-May 1968, neo-feminist ciated with it include André Pieyre de reconsiderations of questions of sexuality, lan- Mandiargues’s tales of sadism Le Musée Noir guage and representation. Often exercises in (The Black Museum), published in 1946 and textual innovation, they interrogate, implicitly Leiris’s Aurora, which appeared in the same or explicitly, sexual power relations, erotic year. In these works, and in later erotic texts norms and the modalities of their representa- such as Klossowski’s Roberte ce soir (Roberte tion. Among this group of texts may be included This Evening) and Robbe-Grillet’s La Maison the accounts of lesbian love offered by Violette de rendez-vous, the female body (argues Leduc and by the more radical Hélène Cixous Dardigna) regularly becomes the key locus of and Monique Wittig; Duras’s The Seated Man ritualized profanation and obliteration. in the Passage (L’Homme assis dans le couloir); Clearly, the same is not true of texts in which as well as Christiane Rochefort’s Warrior’s Rest male homosexuality is the focus. In the imme- (Le Repos du guerrier) and the highly ironic, diate postwar period, the gay writers whose male-narrated Quand tu vas chez les femmes work focused most explicitly on masculine (Excursions into Womankind). Other contem- homoeroticism were Genet and Jouhandeau: porary women authors associated with the neither offers wholly empowering visions of erotico-literary domain are: Vanessa Duriès, gay male love/sexuality. Genet’s accounts of whose allegedly autobiographical account of S/ homoerotic transgression were long viewed as M love, The Ties That Bind (Le Lien), was pub- radical texts, but in recent times critics have lished shortly before her death in 1993; Alina addressed the way in which their images of Reyes, best known, perhaps, for the erotic nov- homosexual abjection mesh with heterosexual els The Butcher (Le Boucher) and Behind Closed prejudice (see Rifkin 1995; Robinson 1995). Doors (Derrière la porte); and Benoîte Groult. In and after the late 1960s, texts by authors ALEX HUGHES such as Renaud Camus, Yves Navarre, Tony Duvert and Hervé Guibert offered construc- See also: feminism (movements/groups); gay tions of gay sexuality which departed from the writing; literary censorship; publishing/ model contained in the writings of Genet. l’édition; women’s/lesbian writing Within the generic field of postwar women’s erotic discourse, various subcategories exist. On Further reading the one hand, there are those texts which reveal scant evidence of a ‘politicization’ of women’s erotic experience. Such works generally refrain Alexandrian (1995) Histoire de la littérature from questioning gender norms/relations, and érotique, Paris: Payot (a wide-ranging, per- tend to employ the motifs of male-authored sonal discussion of erotic writing in erotica/pornography (see Hughes and Ince France). 1995). This body of writing is exemplified by Brécourt-Villars, C. (1985) Écrire d’amour, Pauline Réage’s Story of O (a pseudonymous Paris: Ramsay (an anthology of French work which appeared in 1954 and whose fe- women’s erotic writing, with a useful in- male authorship remains in doubt) and the troductory essay). Emmanuelle series, launched in 1960. On the Dardigna, A.-M. (1980) Les Châteaux d’Éros, other hand, the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s wit- Paris: Maspero (an exploration of the nar- nessed the publication of a series of more com- rative, representational and ideological plex female-authored erotico-literary produc- characteristics of modern French male- tions. These works place women’s eroticism authored erotic writing). European economic integration 189

Frappier-Mazur, L. (1988) ‘Marginal Canons: Atack, M. (1990) ‘The Politics of Identity in Rewriting the Erotic’, Yale French Studies 75 Élise ou la vraie vie’, in M.Atack and P. (an interesting analysis of French women’s Powrie (eds) Contemporary French Fiction reinscriptions of sexual/textual models estab- by Women, Manchester: Manchester Univer- lished by the male erotico-literary tradition). sity Press (a lucid account of Etcherelli’s treat- Hughes, A. and Ince, K. (eds) (1995) French ment, in Élise, of identity and self-awareness, Erotic Fiction, Oxford: Berg (a series of es- which stresses the political potential, for femi- says on contemporary French women’s nism, of realist literary practice). erotic writing). Rifkin, A. (1995) ‘From Renaud Camus to the Gay City Guide’, in M.Sheringham (ed.) Europe 1 Parisian Fields, London: Reaktion Books (an essay containing useful insights into gay Radio station male erotic writing). Robinson, C. (1995) Scandal in the Ink, Lon- Created in 1955, this general-interest station don: Cassell (a study of modern gay and (long wave and FM) was one of the big three lesbian writing in France). radios périphériques, tolerated by the French state, but transmitting from the Sarre, just outside the national borders. Its innovative style (news flashes, variety shows and game pro- Etcherelli, Claire grammes involving listeners) has influenced all other stations over the years. Although its au- b. 1934, Bordeaux dience share is waning, it still attracts at least 10 per cent of France’s listeners. In 1986 it set Writer up a subsidiary popular music station, Europe 2 (FM), which attracts over 5 per cent of the Etcherelli’s best-known novel, Élise or the Real national audience. Its studios are at 26 bis, rue Life (Élise ou la vraie vie) was published in François ler, 75008 Paris. 1967 and won the Prix Femina. In realist ALAN PEDLEY mode, it tells of the relationship between its heroine and an Algerian, Arezki, which forms See also: francophone radio: Europe; radio in the factory where both characters work and (private/free) develops against the backdrop of the Algerian war. Key themes/experiences charted in the text are class identity/oppression, sexism, rac- European economic integration ism and the growth of political awareness. In the 1970s, Etcherelli published two other nov- France is at the core of the European economic els—A propos de Clémence (About Clémence) integration project. This process finds its ori- and Un Arbre voyageur (The Travelling gins in a political strategy aimed at avoiding Tree)—which focus on postwar French soci- conflicts in Europe, and it has gained impetus ety, and also edited a volume of anti-racist from the 1986 Single European Act and the poems. 1992 Maastricht Treaty. The liberal ideology ALEX HUGHES and economic strategies which have underpinned recent developments in the European See also: literary prizes; racism/anti-semitism; Union are seen as having heavy social costs, women’s/lesbian writing however, and enthusiasm for integration has cooled significantly. Further reading The European economic integration project 190 European Union has always been overtly political—the French unique, is widely held responsible for France’s ‘fathers’ of Europe, such as Monnet and social ills, especially its very high unemploy- Schuman, who initiated the first steps through ment and the weakening of social cohesion (the the European Coal and Steel Community treaty fracture sociale), as well as for putting a ques- in 1951, sought to avoid the economic isolation mark over the future of French ‘Public tion of defeated Germany and a repeat of the Services’ and its welfare system. Despite this errors of the Versailles Treaty after World War deep unease and outright rejection by a sig- I. The signing of the Rome Treaty was followed nificant part of the population, governments by the coming to power of de Gaulle in 1958, have persevered in their policies, so that France and the French attitude to European integra- can be alongside Germany in the first wave of tion became quite complex, with France countries to adopt the single European cur- staunchly promoting national independence rency, the Euro, in 1999. within a ‘Europe of States’, but continuing to FRANÇOIS NECTOUX advocate economic integration for the benefit of French economic interests. Traditions of See also: Delors, Jacques protectionism started to be dismantled with the abolition of internal EC duties in 1968, but Further reading the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) ran into difficulties with de Gaulle’s refusal to agree to agricultural policies not acceptable to French Dyker, D.A. (ed.) (1992) The National Econo- farmers. During the 1970s, European economic mies of Europe, 2 vols, London: Longman (vol- integration made relatively little progress ex- ume 1 includes a general analysis of economic cept via the emergence of new tools of politi- integration; volume 2 contains a chapter on cal co-operation, such as the European Coun- the role of the French economy in Europe). cil and the creation in 1979 of the Exchange Lipietz, A. (1991) ‘Governing the Economy in Rate Mechanism. With de Gaulle out of power, the Face of International Challenge’, in: J.F. France also accepted the UK’s membership. Hollifield and G.Ross (eds) In Search of Public opinion was then highly favourable to New France, London: Routledge (a broad European economic integration. During the survey of the consequences of the opening 1980s, France again found itself at the fore- of the French economy). front of European economic integration efforts. After a brief period of coolness, President Mitterrand firmly backed European integration as the only way to achieve an autonomous European Union economic space, accepting the Single European Act in 1986 (which forced sea changes in France played a founding role in early Euro- French trade and administrative practices) and pean integration and has since aimed to lead supporting the Maastricht Treaty in 1992. the development of European union, usually Europe has benefited the French economy, in partnership with Germany, and arguably to helping to switch and develop export markets her own advantage. Despite general political in industrial sectors and services and helping support for integration, French European to develop French agriculture into the most policy has occasionally provoked some domes- powerful agriculture in Europe. Since the mid- tic division between partisans of supranational 1980s the pursuit of European integration has integration and supporters of a more Gaullist encouraged governments to apply a liberal eco- ‘Europe of Nations’. nomic strategy combining anti-inflation policy, As a signatory of the Treaty of Rome (1957), rigorous budgetary strategy, high interest rates France had already participated in the Council and accelerated deregulation. The relentless of Europe (1949) and the ECSC (1950). Although pursuit of this strategy, dubbed La Pensée lack of French support sabotaged a proposed Eustache, Jean 191

European Defence Community (1954), France bourg, the predominance of French adminis- fostered rapprochement with Germany to pre- trative procedures in the European Commis- vent future conflict, and the Common Market sion and the major role of the French language was easily ratified by parliament, only the Com- in much European bureaucracy. Under the munists voting against en bloc. Under the presi- Chirac presidency, latent Euroscepticism has dency of de Gaulle (1958–69), France adopted a been encouraged by difficulties in shadowing critical attitude towards European integration, the German economy and by disquiet over as- basing her policy on the primacy of national sov- pects of GATT, ERM and Bosnia, although ereignty. The French Plan Fouchet (1962) argued governments have seemed committed to tra- for a ‘Europe of States’ driven by high politics ditional French support for Europe. rather than by economic and technical conver- HUGH DAUNCEY gence and with a ‘European’ rather than ‘Atlanticist’ character. The failure of this vision, See also: European economic integration French withdrawal from NATO (1966) and de Gaulle’s vetoes of British entry (1963, 1967) Further reading slowed integration, but reinforced France’s dominance (with Germany) at the heart of policy. In the 1970s and 1980s, after Pompidou’s Kramer, S.P. (1994) Does France Still Count? The ‘Oui’ to the UK (1973), partnerships between French Role in the New Europe, Westport, Giscard d’Estaing and Schmidt (who reputedly CN: Praeger (a short clear overview, with conversed in English on European matters) some background on evolving issues). and Mitterrand and Kohl furthered the growth of the Community. During 1985–93, the presidency of the Commission was assumed by Jacques Delors (previously French Finance and Eurovision Song Contest Economics minister and, subsequently, a potential presidential candidate), further The much-maligned Eurovision Song Contest, heightening French public awareness of Eu- which in its early days provided some of the rope. In 1992 debate over Maastricht reo- first live, trans-Europe television links, has pened domestic political divisions between seen a number of French successes, including integrationists, and those fearing loss of sov- those of André Claveau, with Delanoë and ereignty (notably the Socialist Jean-Pierre Giraud’s 1958 Dors mon amour (Sleep My Chevènement and the neo-Gaullists Philippe Love), and Isabelle Aubret, first with Vic and Séguin and Charles Pasqua of the RPR). The Valade’s Un premier amour (A First Love) in Treaty was accepted by parliament, supported 1962, and then with La Source (The Spring) by the Left and the Centre-Right UDF, but in 1968, by Djian, Bonnet and Faure. Another with divided neo-Gaullists mainly abstaining. notable French success was that of France Gall This split in the Centre-Right coalition was with Serge Gainsbourg’s Poupée de cire, echoed in the referendum, which accepted poupée de son (Wax Doll, Rag Doll) in 1965. Maastricht by only 1 per cent. IAN PICKUP France has benefited from her status as a founding member of the European Union and See also: song/chanson has used her central role to derive advantage from European policies: French agriculture, iron and steel, aerospace and the regions have Eustache, Jean profited in particular. France has also been conscious of the symbolic and practical benefits to be gained from aspects of European b. 1938, Pessac; union, such as the siting of parliament in Stras- d. 1981, Paris 192 Événement du jeudi, L’

Director existentialism

Eustache’s suicide deprived France of one of ‘Existentialism’ is the name given to the philo- its major film-makers. The documentary style sophical, literary and artistic movement cen- of his approach, as with Le Cochon of 1970, tred in postwar Paris. Early signs of the flow- reaches its apotheosis in The Mother and the ering of existentialism that swept French lit- Whore (La Maman et la putain) of 1973. erature, philosophy and art in the wake of the More than three and a half hours of triangu- 1940–4 German Occupation first appeared a lar emotional and sexual agonizing, in the lit- decade earlier, in French translations of, and eral sense of that word, in the flats and bars of commentaries on, writings by the philosophers St-Germain-des-Prés give Bernadette Lafont Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. Be- and above all Jean-Pierre Léaud perhaps their tween 1945 and 1949, a range of writers, art- greatest roles. The film is an endlessly sugges- ists and philosophers, energized by metaphysi- tive epitaph for the ‘generation of May 1968.’ cal questions of identity and the meaning of KEITH READER life, drew on the euphoria of the Liberation and the despair following revelations of the See also: cinema Nazi genocide perpetrated on European Jews and other minorities in order to produce work that can be classed as existentialist. Over the Événement du jeudi, L’ same period, what began as a topic of specialized concern among philosophers evolved into Magazine a wider cultural sensibility and fashion. As if overnight, Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert A weekly news magazine, created by Jean- Camus were cast as proponents of a new in- François Kahn in 1984. Left of centre and tellectual movement and as role models of an iconoclastic, it was the most personalized of existentialist chic characterized by a taste for news magazines, reflecting its founder’s origi- black turtle neck jerseys and smoky subterra- nality and candour. Investigative journalism, nean jazz clubs such as Le Tabou in St- in-depth dossiers, broad cultural coverage, Germain des Prés. Debates over Sartre’s Be- cartoons and sensational headlines (verging on ing and Nothingness (L’Être et le néant) and bad taste) brought success. Initially, editorial Camus’s The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de freedom was secured by limiting dependence Sisyphe) carried over from the lecture hall to on advertising, setting a high cover price, and the café where the writer/jazz trumpeter Boris involving readers and journalists as sharehold- Vian and the cabaret singer/actor Juliette ers. Financial problems arose in the early Gréco ruled. 1990s, and in 1995 the arrival of new direc- In its narrowest sense, existentialism is a tor and majority shareholder Thierry Verret philosophical system whose focuses include saved the paper from bankruptcy, and radical human freedom—defined as our capacity to changes were introduced. Circulation in 1995 reinvent our own meaning, constantly, via fu- fell to below 170,000 copies per week. ture-oriented projects—and the anguish that accompanies our awareness of it. Broader ex- PAM MOORES pressions of postwar existentialism drew not See also: comic strips/cartoonists; national only on key concepts such as being-for-itself, press in France bad faith (that is, the refusal of freedom) and the absurd supplied by the philosophical writings of Sartre and Camus, but also on a mix of literary and philosophical texts concerned with subjective experience from Descartes and existentialism 193

Dostoevsky to Kafka and Malraux. A related subjectivity set into the ground of being. A tradition drew on the writings of Racine, similar heaviness was enhanced by anonymity Kierkegaard and Nietzsche in order to raise in sculptures by Germaine Richier, whose face- similar questions with regard to the silence, less figures seemed paralysed in mid-gesture absence and death of God. Where Sartre was by an oppressive space that closed in on them. steadfastly atheistic, other philosophers such Among writers, thinkers and artists associ- as Gabriel Marcel and Emmanuel Mounier ated with existentialism, differences of philo- asserted a Christian existentialism. sophical and literary origin were soon exacer- Literary expressions of postwar existential- bated by political and ideological divergences. ism ranged well beyond the meditations on the Sartre, in particular, found himself increasingly human condition contained in Sartre’s ‘Roads isolated, as his defence of Soviet Communism to Freedom’ trilogy and Camus’s The Plague under Joseph Stalin set him at odds first with (La Peste). Samuel Beckett’s early fiction in Camus and later with long-time philosophical French—Molloy, Malone Dies (Malone meurt) colleagues Raymond Aron and Maurice and The Unnameable (L’Innommable)—as Merleau-Ponty. Between 1945 and 1960, the well as his theatre, as in Waiting for Godot Sartrean programme of committed writing (lit- (En attendant Godot), and that of Eugène erature engagée), set forth in his monthly re- Ionesco, such as The Bald Primadonna (La view Les Temps modernes, established itself as Cantatrice charuve) and The Chairs (Les a model of social and political activism whose Chaises), often pushed this meditation to the contributors and fellow travellers addressed is- point of laughter, especially when the vision sues of gender, as in Simone de Beauvoir’s The that grounded this laughter was one of mean- Second Sex (Le Deuxième Sexe), sexuality (the inglessness. Among the poets of the period as- plays and novels of Jean Genet) and race, as in sociated to a greater or lesser degree with an Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth (Les existentialist sensibility, Francis Ponge’s 1942 Damnés de la terre). The Nature of Things (Le Parti pris des choses) The same activist concerns among propo- drew on Husserl’s notion of a return to things nents of littérature engagée led them over a in themselves, while René Char evolved from longer duration to denounce France’s colonial a figure of wartime resistance into a devoted occupation of territories in Indochina, sub-Sa- reader of Heidegger. In the tradition of experi- haran Africa and—above all—North Africa. mentation linked to Baudelaire and Rimbaud, Alongside Sartre’s personal role during the Antonin Artaud and Henri Michaux used word 1954–62 period of debate over Algerian self- and image to explore the fluid boundaries of determination, the propensity to take a public identity, space and place through automatism, stand extended among sartriens and sartriennes travel and drugs. from the 1956 Hungarian revolt and Castro’s Artists and sculptors likewise contributed takeover of Cuba to the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, to the new postwar existentialist sensibility. Russia’s 1968 suppression of the Prague Spring Where Jean Fautrier completed ‘Hostages’, a in Czechoslovakia, and mid-1970s feminist series of bas-relief portraits that evoked the movement in France. In retrospect, the equa- sombre violence of the Occupation, Jean tion of personal identity and commitment in a Dubuffet used thick oil paste to depict human public sphere remains a strong legacy of early figures that emerged directly from the elements postwar existentialism among left-wing intel- of their physical environment. The striking re- lectuals such as Marguerite Duras, Michel sults mixed an imagery of caricature with a Foucault and Gilles Deleuze, as well as the new sophisticated use of tone and texture with ties philosophers (nouveaux philosophes) Bernard- to primitivism, art brut and outsider art. The Henri Lévy and André Glucksmann of the late elongated human figures on heavy pedestals 1970s and early 1980s. sculpted by Alberto Giacometti came closest STEVEN UNGAR to conveying the pained sense of existentialist 194 existentialist theatre

See also: Algerian war; cultural topography Theatre of the Absurd which followed exis- (Paris); existentialist theatre; feminism (move- tentialist theatre in the 1950s and 1960s dealt ments/groups); Theatre of the Absurd with similar material; Beckett’s Waiting for Godot (En attendant Godot), for example, is a prime example of the Absurd which features Further reading in existentialist philosophy. However, it is in the absurdist form it epitomizes that it exem- Howells, C. (ed.) (1992) The Cambridge Com- plifies the radical difference in approach be- panion to Sartre, Cambridge: Cambridge tween the Absurdists and their existential University Press (a collection of essays predecessors. Whereas the Theatre of the Ab- which approach Sartrean philosophical surd employed absurdity not only in subject thinking from a range of angles). matter but also in structure and form, many Poster, M. (1975) Existential Marxism in Post- existentialist plays rely on a formal, classical war France, Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni- structure and dialectic. Hence, while many of versity Press (this puts existentialism in its Sartre’s plays, such as In Camera (Huis Clos) historical context). and Dirty Hands (Les Mains Sales), discuss Ungar, S. (1989) ‘1945 (October 15): First Is- the issue of choice in defining oneself, the need sue of Les Temps modernes, Sartre’s Post- for recognition and the need to revolt against war Journal: “Revolution or Revolt?”’, in absurdity, these ideas are formulated in a clas- D.Hollier (ed.) A New History of French sical, structured way more reminiscent of Literature, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- Greek tragedy than of a new genre. This is versity Press (an essay contextualizing the due, partly, to a conscious effort to attempt to postwar emergence of existentialism as a establish a new form of tragedy for the mod- cultural, literary and philosophical move- ern day, combining the ancient ritual of classi- ment, which focuses particularly on the cal drama (inspiration also for prewar pred- roles played by Sartre, Camus and Les ecessors such as Giraudoux) with a new form Temps modernes). of tragedy, based on the necessity of choice Wilson, S. (1993) ‘Paris Post War: In Search discussed from an existentialist viewpoint. of the Absolute’, in Frances Morris (ed.) Both Sartre and Camus sought to show the Paris Post War: Art and Existentialism, tragedy inherent in Absurdity and the neces- 1945–55, London: Tate Gallery (essay on sary tragedy of choice in the life of mankind. art and existentialism). However, whereas Sartre believed in the individual’s responsibility to resist Absurdity for himself or herself, Camus believed that mankind should rebel collectively, and that an in- existentialist theatre dividual response was inadequate (an idea expressed in Caligula). The existentialist theatre, led by the philoso- Existentialist theatre has always been popu- phy’s main exponents, Sartre and Camus, in- lar with educated Parisian middle-class audi- volved a series of plays in the 1950s and 1960s ences, especially at the time the plays were which sought to deal with issues arising from written, many before subsidized state theatre major existentialist themes. The Absurd, the arrived in France, when authors were obliged need to resist or revolt against it, and the iso- to rely on the goodwill of one of the private lation, guilt and need for political responsibil- theatres. Perhaps because they used finely ity engendered by it, are all preoccupations of crafted language and situations to expound Sartre’s and Camus’s theatre works, and also their philosophies and theories, Sartre’s and those of Jean Anouilh, who shares some of Camus’s works, even if they presented some- the themes, if not all of the political opinions, times less than rounded characters and dra- of Sartrean theatre. In terms of theme, the matic techniques, were as successful when first Express, L’ 195 performed as they are today. Certainly during for many leading journalists of the late twen- the Occupation and the years which followed, tieth century: Pierre Viansson-Ponté, Jean their individualist spirit and strength of pur- Daniel, Claude Imbert, Michèle Cotta… pose and ideals appealed to Parisian audi- In 1964 Servan-Schreiber, a great admirer ences. With the advent of state funding, they of all things American, decided to transform also saw themselves established as regular L’Express, adopting the smaller news maga- members of the subsidized theatre’s popular zine format, and a more commercial ap- repertoire, and continue to be performed fre- proach, while toning down political content. quently to this day. Unhappy with the changes, Jean Daniel resigned, and was soon leading rival title, Le ANNIE SPARKS Nouvel Observateur. The new L’Express was See also: theatre; theatres, national; theatres, such a success that it multiplied its sales four- private fold in a decade (from 153,000 copies per week in 1965 to 605,000 in 1974); readers were attracted by the clear synthesis of the Further reading week’s events. In 1970, Servan-Schreiber began actively to pursue a political career. Fear- Bradby, D. (1991) Modern French Drama ing for the paper’s independence, Claude 1940–1990, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Imbert and a number of colleagues (including versity Press (Chapter 3 deals with modern Georges Suffert, Olivier Chevrillon and philosophical theatre). Jacques Duquesne) resigned, and were soon Freeman, E. (1971) The Theatre of Albert launching another rival, Le Point. In 1977 Camus, London: Methuen. Servan-Schreiber sold L’Express to interna- McCall, D. (1969) The Theatre of Jean-Paul tional financier Sir Jimmy Goldsmith, and Sartre, Columbia: Columbia University Press. with Raymond Aron as political director, it moved markedly to the right. Differences of opinion with Goldsmith over presentation of the leading presidential contenders in 1981 led Express, L’ to the departure of Olivier Todd, Jean- François Revel and Albert du Roy. In 1987 Magazine Goldsmith sold to the Compagnie Générale d’Électricité; job losses and a succession of France’s first weekly news magazine, presidents and directors followed. It is a testi- L’Express was created by Jean-Jacques mony to the resilience and intrinsic merits of Servan-Schreiber and Françoise Giroud in the magazine that, despite a turbulent history 1953, initially as a supplement to Les Échos of internal conflict and changing leadership, it (owned by the former’s father). Inspired by has sustained its popularity. Pierre Mendès France , L’Express was a po- From the highly original, left-wing title of litically outspoken, left-wing title, campaign- the 1950s, L’Express has changed to become ing for peace and decolonization during the a conformist, more institutionalized publica- wars in Algeria and Indochina. Influential and tion in the 1990s, with its reputation for inno- avant-garde, it was often at the centre of con- vation shifting from the political to the com- troversy. When Sartre wrote in its columns mercial sphere. Successful marketing strategies about Henri Alleg’s account of torture in Al- have led to an exceptionally high number of geria at the hands of French paratroopers, the readers taking out subscriptions, often in re- authorities seized the whole issue of the maga- sponse to offers of free gifts or discounts (al- zine. Famous writers such as Albert Camus though critics argue that this undermines its and François Mauriac were associated with image). Readers are predominantly male city- L’Express, and it served as a training ground dwellers, in middle or senior management 196 Express, L’ positions, and with above average disposable in 1995, considerably higher than for rival income (an attraction for advertisers). Since news magazines, confirms its continuing suc- 1992, L’Express has collaborated with Le cess. Point, for commercial, technical and adminis- PAM MOORES trative purposes, although both titles retain editorial independence and a distinct identity. See also: Algerian war; national press in Circulation of over 560,000 copies per week France

Fabius, Laurent Flammarion (attempts to take stock of the Socialists’ experience in government). b. 1946, Paris

Politician family

Academically accomplished and urbane, The notion of the family has two intercon- Fabius joined the Parti Socialiste (PS) in 1974. nected meanings. The first, more restricted Viewed as the ambitious ‘spiritual son’ of meaning of ‘family’ is the individuals who Mitterrand and his possible successor, he has come together to form a home and is akin to been a député since 1978 and was Minister the concept of household. The second refers for the Budget in 1981–3 and Minister for In- to the kinship group—that is, those who share dustry and Research in 1983–4. As prime min- the same blood relatives. In the postwar pe- ister in 1984–6, he symbolized Mitterrand’s riod in France, it is the family as described in policy U-turn towards market liberalism, al- the first of these definitions that has under- though he projected a technocratic image. He gone major changes. was president of the National Assembly from During the first twenty years after World 1988 to 1992. He gained the leadership of the War II, a certain convergence of family forms PS in 1992, but was ousted in 1993 following took place in France around a model of early the party’s electoral débâcle. His support for marriage and the married couple subsequently Jospin in the 1995 presidential election was living together with two children independ- somewhat lukewarm. He remains a leading ently from older generations. Prior to that, on Socialist. the one hand, the peasantry and petite bour- LAURENCE BELL geoisie in certain regions had tended to restrict their family size to one child, while on the See also: parties and movements other hand, the large family with four or more children had been common among working- Major works class families in industrial regions. Further- more, in the 1950s and 1960s, divorce rates were low, as were rates of employment for Fabius, L. (1990) C’est en allant à la mer, Paris: mothers of young children. Couples living to- Éditions du Seuil (outlines his vision of gether without being married were also an modern socialism). extraordinary and morally reprehensible phe- ——(1995) Les Blessures de la vérité, Paris: nomenon. However, the mood of the country

197 198 family at the end of the 1960s, and particularly after the birth of their children and only return once May 1968, did much to change notions of the their children were independent—if they re- family in France. Indeed, the ‘nuclear’ family turned at all. From the 1970s onwards, moth- model was portrayed as constraining, particu- ers in France began to work for longer and larly for young adults and for women. longer proportions of their child-rearing years. Thus, from the 1970s onwards, the ‘fam- Indeed, it was discovered in the 1982 census ily’ underwent a number of far-reaching that it was more common for families with transformations. First, the nature of marriage children to have two working parents than to changed. French couples began to marry later, have one. The economic dependence of a often after a period of living together or, in- woman on a man, the remaining economic deed, they started increasingly not to marry at function of the nuclear family in the 1950s and all, opting instead for unions libres. Further- 1960s, was therefore disappearing. more, marriage has become increasingly un- The increase in women’s participation in stable, with divorce rates standing at around the labour market, coupled with later mar- 1 in 3 of all marriages, depending on the re- riage, the prospect of marriage instability and gion of the country. Although for a certain the greater availability of birth control meas- time it was thought that marriage remained a ures, have all contributed to a steep decline in popular institution because of the number of the birth rate in France since World War II. remarriages after divorce, the marriage rate The ‘baby boom’ after the war in France is had gone into decline in France by the 1990s. well-known. Indeed, until the 1970s the aver- As a result of increased divorce rates, two age number of births per French woman was new forms of families thus developed: the sin- over two. That is, it was at a rate which gle- parent family (la famille monoparentale) would not only replace, but rejuvenate, the and the reconstituted family (la famille population. However, from the 1970s on- recomposée), made up of stepbrothers and wards, the French birth rate began to drop sisters and/or half-brothers and -sisters. The below the replacement rate of two children increase in divorce and marriage instability per woman. Indeed, demographic decline is a may be bemoaned by some, but to others it is question which has traditionally preoccupied simply the logical extension of the changes in French governments and a number of incen- the nature of marriage in France which took tives are provided by the state to make the place in the first half of the twentieth century. lives of parents easier and thus encourage At that time, marriage became less an institu- them to have larger families. However, some tion whose primary function was to perpetu- argue that certain of these measures—for ex- ate the family line and transmit property ample, the state making it easier for mothers across the generations, and more an institu- to go out to work—encourage the limiting of tion based entirely on the affection and love family size and are thus counterproductive. existing between two partners. It is clear that None the less, it should be stressed that the former, traditional model of marriage is France remains one of the more fecund coun- more stable than the latter ‘companionship’ tries in the European Union. family model. Although the birth rate has fallen in France, Second, the nuclear family of the immedi- the population continues to grow because of ate postwar period was based on a strict divi- its increased longevity. This more aged popu- sion of labour between husband and wife. For lation, in which one marriage partner (usually many (if not all) couples, the model of ‘man the woman) outlives the other, often lives alone. the breadwinner’ and ‘woman the homemaker’ Kin groups are more dispersed than in the past, did hold true. However, from the 1970s on- which means that elderly relatives are less likely wards, the nature of women’s employment to move in with their children when they are patterns changed. In the 1950s and 1960s, widowed or become infirm. This phenomenon, mothers in France tended to give up work on coupled with later marriage and higher rates Fanon, Frantz 199 of divorce, means that ‘families’ (or, perhaps and France by linking the interplay of self-con- more accurately, ‘households’) containing a sciousness and recognition in Hegel’s Phenom- single person are set to become the dominant enology of Mind and the dynamics of preju- family form in France, particularly in large dice analysed by Sartre in Anti-Semite and Jew towns and cities. However, there is also evi- (Réflexions sur la question juive) in order to dence to suggest that, as grown-up children account for the torment of black women and find it increasingly difficult to find employ- men subjected to racism under the culture of ment, they are staying at home for longer and colonial rule. Long before he advocated mili- longer periods with their parents. tancy and revolution, Fanon denounced racism as part of a more general cultural system JAN WINDEBANK to be resisted and overcome. See also: abortion/contraception; child care; By the time he died in 1961, Fanon had demographic developments; marriage/cohabi- evolved from a supporter of the négritude tation; women and employment; women and movement linked to Aimé Césaire and the social policy journal Présence africaine to a proponent of socialist revolution in Africa whose views on violence were in line with those taken up in Further reading the United States by individuals associated with the Black Power movement. After resign- Hantrais, L. (1982) Contemporary French So- ing his post at Blida-Joinville, Fanon attended ciety, Basingstoke: Macmillan (a discussion the 1956 Congress of Black Writers and Art- of the developments in French society from ists in Paris before moving to Tunis, where he 1945 to the late 1970s; includes texts in wrote for the Algerian National Liberation French). Front newspaper, El Moudjahid. In 1960, he was appointed ambassador of the Provisional Algerian Government to Ghana. The same year, he contracted leukaemia and completed Fanon, Frantz The Wretched of the Earth before dying outside Washington DC, where he had been sent b. 1925, Fort-de-France, Martinique; for medical treatment. d. 1961, Bethesda, USA There were, in David Caute’s apt words, three successive Fanons: the de-alienated man Psychiatrist and writer of Black Skins, White Masks, the Algerian citizen of A Dying Colonialism (L’An Cinq de A psychiatrist and writer turned militant na- la révolution algérienne) of 1959, and the tionalist and socialist revolutionary, Fanon’s committed socialist revolutionary of The The Wretched of the Earth (Les Damnés de la Wretched of the Earth. Among these, the terre) of 1961 earned him international atten- most enduring remains the final Fanon who tion. Converted to the cause of self-determi- came to see the ‘wretched of the earth’ of nation for Algeria through his work as direc- Third World peasantry alluded to in the open- tor of the psychiatric hospital at Blida-Joinville ing line of the Internationale as the class of between 1953 and 1956, his understanding of authentic revolution in Africa. Renewed inter- clinical alienation disclosed the depersonali- est in Fanon’s writings, in evidence since the zation suffered by Algerians under French co- mid-1980s has resituated them with regard to lonial rule. theories of the post-colonial and a revised In Black Skin, White Masks (Peau noire, politics of identity. masques blancs), in 1952, Fanon had already STEVEN UNGAR criticized the human consequences of encounters with racism he had known in Martinique See also: Algerian war; decolonization 200 Farge, Arlette

Further reading It is useful to consider what is understood by la mode in France: first, fashion is the industry and society of la haute couture; second, fash- Bhabha, H. (1994) ‘Interrogating Identity: ion as le prêt a porter is what is worn by people Frantz Fanon and the Postcolonial Preroga- in everyday life; third, fashion is informal tive’ , in The Location of Culture, London leisurewear, or streetwear—clothing worn as a and New York: Routledge (essay by kind of inverted badge of social distinction. Each Fanon’s leading post-colonial exponent). of these reflexes of fashion has produced com- Caute, D. (1970) Frantz Fanon, New York: panion corpuses of clothing in cinema and pho- Viking (essential reading). tography especially, and also in literature. The Gendzier, I. (1973) Frantz Fanon: A Critical place of fashion in French intellectual life is in- Study, New York: Pantheon (a critical study dicated by the way in which it has inspired lit- and biography). erary critics and philosophers such as Roland Barthes and Gilles Lipovetsky: Barthes formulated a semiotic analysis of a corpus of articles Farge, Arlette from the women’s fashion magazines Jardin des modes and Elle, elaborated in 1967 in The Fash- b. 1941, France ion System (Système de la mode), and Lipovetsky has interpreted modern democracy Feminist historian and journalist in the light of fashion and trends. Arguably the first connotation of fashion in Focusing in the main on the eighteenth cen- France is haute couture. Historically, European tury, Farge’s work foregrounds women’s his- and American fashion has been dominated by tory. Her publications include Le Miroir des French style and expertise, and an important femmes (Women’s Mirror), La Vie fragile: vio- component of the contemporary image of La lence, pouvoir et solidarité a Paris au XVIIIe Maison France (France plc) is her production siècle (Fragile Life: Violence, Power and Soli- of luxury clothing, perfume, accessories and darity in Eighteenth-Century Paris) and Dire toiletries. Not for nothing is the fashion, wine et mal dire: l’opinion publique au XVIIIe and spirits conglomerate owning Givenchy siècle (Public Opinion in Eighteenth-Century (Louis-Vuitton-Moët-Hennessey or LVMH) France). She works at the Centre National de now one of France’s largest companies: fashion la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in Paris. houses are controlled by big businesses—YSL is owned by the petrochemicals giant Elf-Sanofi. ALEX HUGHES Surprisingly, given the high profile of the in- See also: feminist thought dustry, fashion houses of couture-création (fab- rication and design) number only twenty or so, of which only Azzedine Alaïa remains independ- fashion ent. The haute couture industry employs some 30,000, and overall (taking account of the production of prêt a porter and accessories) French France’s leading role in the international fash- fashion has an annual turnover of 20 billion ion industry, and the special status of fashion francs. Contemporary French culture has been in French society, make this apparently epi- irrigated by the trickledown glitter of the fash- phenomenal activity of significance in under- ion houses of Balenciaga (founded 1937), standing French culture. Fashion also has an Balmain (1945), Cardin (1950), Chanel (1924), economic importance which belies its ephem- Dior (1947), Givenchy (1951), Lacroix (1987), eral nature, and as political and social correct- Lapidus (1949), Nina Ricci (1932), Patou ness spreads in France the work of some de- (1919), Yves Saint Laurent (1962)—and oth- signers has provoked polemical comment. ers—who, in providing products for the rich, fashion 201 have influenced fashion in society in general. In spread by high readership women’s magazines the 1980s and 1990s, newcomers such as such as Elle (circulation 340,000), and Marie- Gaultier arguably started to blur distinctions Claire (544,000), and well-known mail-order between the fashion of la grande société (high clothing companies such as Les Trois Suisses society) and that of ordinary French citizens. (8 million) and La Redoute (6 million) have Ironically, French haute couture has long been helped ‘decentralize’ the experience of fashion dependent on foreign designers such as from its source in the Place Vendôme in Paris, Gianfranco Ferré at Dior, Karl Lagerfeld and, governed by the Chambre Syndicale de la Cou- most recently, the Britons Galliano (Givenchy, ture Parisienne, to the furthest reaches of pro- then Dior), McQueen (Givenchy) and vincial France (la France profonde). Since the McCartney (Lagerfeld), and since the 1970s a 1980s, Les Trois Suisses has popularized styles Japanese influence has derived from Kenzo and by Rykiel, Gaultier and Alaïa and, in 1996, Issey Miyake. French fashion is linked closely La Redoute celebrated its thirtieth anniversary to the visual arts, continuing the cross-fertiliza- by bringing YSL’s famous women’s dinner tion established by Cartier-Bresson in photog- jacket (le smoking—itself launched in 1966) raphy and, in cinema, by Chanel who provided to a mass market for the first time. As well as costumes for Renoir’s La Règie du jeu, and mail order, an important role in the spread of Cocteau’s postwar La Belle et la bête (Beauty fashion styles and a salient feature of the eve- and the Beast). In 1997, Gaultier’s futuristic ryday experience of buying clothes has been frocks adorned, for example, Besson’s The Fifth the famous grands magasins (department Element (Le Cinquième Élément). Fashion also stores). Stores like Prisunic, Printemps and plays a key role in the world of French publish- Galeries Lafayette have popularized styles and ing, in the form of top-of-the-range women’s designs launched by the fashion houses at ac- magazines such as Jardin des modes (circula- cessible prices. As the antithesis of haute cou- tion 12,000) and Vogue (84,000). Another cru- ture, the famous Tati shops have provided low- cial element of the fashion industry, often for- price clothing for the masses (the best-known gotten, is perfume. The perfume trade employs branch is in the Paris working-class/immigrant some 30,000 in 220 companies, the largest of quarter of of Barbès-Rochechouart), even if in which are linked to major fashion houses such the 1990s they have offered a special range of as Patou, Dior and Givenchy. Despite the con- styles designed by Azzedine Alaïa significantly tinuing celebrity of supermodels and designers, entitled La rue c’est a nous (The street is ours). the haute couture industry is now, however, Another quantitatively important aspect of questioning its future, facing public scepticism everyday fashion is the role played by hyper- about its ethics and role: Balenciaga reputedly markets, such as Leclerc and Mammouth, in lost faith in fashion because ‘there was no-one providing value-for-money apparel for the man left to dress’, and the managing director of YSL and woman in the street. has predicted that haute couture will disappear The extension of ‘Parisian’ style through at the death of Yves Saint Laurent himself. prêt à porter griffé, the influence of haute cou- The rise of prêt à porter clothing, derived ture on the clothes industry in general (la con- from high-society fashion, is one of the ways fection), and social and geographical mobility in which fashion has become progressively and prosperity have attenuated some dispari- democratized in postwar France; this branch ties in clothing worn by the French. Concomi- of the industry employs some 50,000 in 2,000 tant with the modernization of French society companies. Azzedine Alaïa, Balenciaga, it is now rarer to see the little old ladies, toutes Cerruti, Gaultier, Kenzo, Lagerfeld, Rykiel and de noir vêtues (all in black), who symbolized Mugler all produce lines carrying their own the Latin urban-rural divide, now arguably in labels (griffé) for the general public beyond the retreat. Although regional singularities of dress diminishing 3,000 or so clients worldwide for have all but disappeared (save for self-con- haute couture. This aspect of fashion has been scious displays of ‘folklore’ destined for 202 fashion tourists), fashion and style nevertheless remain was considered by some as immoral; more re- reasonable indicators in France of some aspects cently, Colonna’s deconstructed clothes have of social status. Typical examples of socially drawn criticism for evoking the poverty of util- indicative items of clothing range from the fa- ity clothing. More generally, fashion in France mous bleu de travail (workmen’s overalls) to seems to be becoming increasingly politicized, the pearl necklaces, Hermès bags, scarves, both in the sense understood by YSL in 1971 hairbands and American penny-loafers fa- with his ‘Mourning for Vietnam’ collection, but voured by well-to-do young women from the also in the way new sensibilities about inequal- 16e arrondissement or the Neuilly-Auteuil- ity, race and revisionism are undermining de- Passy suburbs of Paris. The initials ‘NAP’ have signers’ freedom of expression by making indi- indeed become an acronym describing a par- viduals aware of the semiotics of clothing. Thus ticular style, associated with a subclass of the Gaultier’s use of nuns, Eskimos and Hasidic category BCBG (ban chic ban genre). BCBG Jews as inspirations for his designs has provoked attire is demonstrated notably in some fields controversy; in 1994, a debate with Lagerfeld of university education, where students in law at the Sorbonne turned sour as students chal- faculties, institutions of political studies and lenged his constant use of status logos and his some grandes écoles use more formal dress influence on culture; in 1995, near the fiftieth codes to differentiate themselves from the ma- anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz, the jority of other students. Comme des Garçons collection of pyjama More than simply categorizing a social stripes shown by shaven-headed models pro- class and its sartorial characteristics, descrip- voked a furore. The popularity of the French- tions of dress-style, such as rocker (Johnny born black Muslim model Adia in the mid- Hallyday), hippie and punk, refer to French 1990s constitutes an exception in the sorority incarnations of American and British music- of mainly white supermodels, which in turn rep- related youth culture and their associated resents an inequality in France’s multiethnic vestimentary clichés. More specifically French, society. However, Gaultier used only black however, is the baba-cool style. Originating in models for his 1997 show, in protest at appar- the questioning of authority and dominant ent xenophobia among many French people, modes of behaviour prevalent in the 1960s, and within the fashion industry. baba-cool fashion is environmentally friendly, The proportion of households’ disposable politically correct and informal, attesting to income spent on clothing is in constant decline the continuing echoes of May 1968 through- (in 1970, 9.6 per cent; 1995, 5.4 per cent), out the 1970s and beyond. In the 1980s and despite the increased financial autonomy of 1990s, street style influenced by American rap adolescents and the consequent rise in specially and hip-hop music has been adopted by youth marketed lines of fashion clothing such as Naf- culture and by French bands such as Nique ta Naf (founded in 1973) and Chevignon (1979). mère (NTM) and their fans. Large numbers of The fashion industry in the 1990s has reflected alienated young French people, often of im- French society’s new desire for a blend of in- migrant origin, express their anomie in their dividualism and conformism after the more choice of music and an aggressively informal radical individualism of the 1980s. The cycli- style of dress (baseball caps, trainers, sports, cal, intertextual nature of fashion (interweav- blousons). The distinctions between formal ing old styles with new modes) engages it in and informal dress have been lessening pro- constant dialogue with the past; French fash- gressively as French society has become less ion is in many ways the product of recurrent rigid since the 1960s. It has been claimed that French preoccupations with eroticism, exoti- one of the major effects of May 1968 was that cism, spectacle, the mixing of genres and some people stopped feeling obliged to present deconstruction. Arguably since Dior’s ‘New themselves at work in a suit and tie. Look’ of 1947 which luxuriously ‘re-feminized’ In 1947, Dior’s exuberant use of material women’s dress after the austerity of the war, feminism (movements/groups) 203 much of French fashion exploits the tension Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press between seduction and the socially correct with (a reading of modern democracy in the light a postmodern playfulness perhaps best encap- of fashion and trends). sulated by Dim’s slogan for colourful clothes: Zeldin, T. (1983) ‘How to be Chic’, in The La vie est trop courte pour s’habiller triste (Life French, London: Collins (a cultural analysis). is too short to wear dull clothes). Despite the industry’s problems, as with so many other aspects of French culture, fashion is seen by the French as a means of exhibiting fast food French genius; the fact that army, traffic war- den and Air France uniforms have all been re- Le fast-food is as rife in France as anywhere designed by major fashion houses illustrates else in the Western world. The meal of choice the emblematic importance of style. More in- for many young French is un Macdo, though stitutionally, the ‘Colbert Committee’, set up indigenous chains such as Love Burger or in 1954 by the perfumer Guerlain with the Flunch provide competition. Latterly, big- aim of communicating French luxury, quality name chefs such as Paul Bocuse or Michel and elegance to the world, now links seventy Guérard have joined the trend with pre-pre- companies drawn from the most famous es- pared meals (frozen or vacuum-packed), tablishments of the fashion, art and leisure in- whose quality is generally deemed to be excel- dustries. The prevalence of such cultural lent. colbertisme (protectionism) was indicated in KEITH READER 1995 when President Chirac was criticized by Lacoste (the famous French designer of polo See also: gastronomy shirts) for publicly wearing a shirt made by his US competitor Ralph Lauren. Moreover, the fact that a president can appear in such attire reveals how far the formal and the in- feminism (movements/groups) formal and the public and private spheres are blurring in France. In France, as elsewhere, ‘feminism’ in fact comprises a diversity of feminisms, of which HUGH DAUNCEY most stand committed to transforming soci- See also: demographic developments; ety through the eradication of sexist domina- economy; educational elitism: the grandes tion and the promotion of sexual equality. écoles French feminism of the ‘second wave’ (a convenient term used to describe the cluster of women’s activities from the 1960s to the Further reading present) emerged at the time of the events of May 1968, although the gradual reform of Barthes, R. (1990) The Fashion System, trans. women’s status from 1944 onwards, together M.Ward and R.Berkeley, Berkeley: Univer- with increasing publications, in the 1950s and sity of California Press (French edition early 1960s, on the position of French women, (1967): Système de la mode, Paris: Seuil) (a had laid the groundwork for an independent semiotic analysis of la mode). women’s movement in the late 1960s. Herpin, N. (1986) ‘L’Habillement, la classe During the events of May 1968, women sociale et la mode’, Économie et statistique participated widely in demonstrations, occu- 188 (May) (a useful reading on fashion and pations and meetings. However, in this up- style as social indicators). heaval, their voices were drowned, their role Lipovetsky, G. (1994) The Empire of Fash- downgraded to one of mere support to male ion: Dressing Modern Democracy, comrades. From the frustration and anger, 204 feminism (movements/groups) experienced by women activists at this time, Féministes Révolutionnaires who engaged in emerged the realization that if women were to the most spectacular actions which grabbed be seen and heard they would have to speak media attention: for instance, disrupting a and act for themselves. Following May 1968, conference on the theme of ‘Woman’ organ- small and large women’s groups formed, ized by the magazine Elle in November 1970, mainly in universities, but also in workplaces and demonstrating against Mother’s Day in and neighbourhoods. However, it was sensa- May 1972. However, the influence of tionalist actions which brought feminists to Féministes Révolutionnaires was relatively the public gaze. In August 1970, some ten short-lived, as the current struggled to sur- women laid a wreath at the Arc de Triomphe, vive, within the MLF, against attacks from in Paris, in remembrance of someone more Psych et Po and against a background of in- unknown than the soldier—his wife. This ‘per- tra-current conflict between lesbian and het- fidious’ action (more than any monument, the erosexual groups. Arc de Triomphe represented a French univer- The ‘class struggle’ current was largely sal male order, glorifying only the heroes of made up of women who were members of Far war) attracted press attention, with France- Left Maoist and Trotskyist groups. One of the Soir’s lead story referring to the women as rep- best known of these groups to emerge in the resentatives of the Mouvement de Liberation mid-1970s was the Trotskyist collective which des Femmes (MLF). published Les Pétroleuses. As far as ‘class The title ‘MLF’ covered numerous groups struggle’ feminists were concerned, capitalism acting in concert over certain issues such as remained the principal enemy and collabora- the legalization of abortion. However, from tion with left-wing groups or parties was nec- the beginning, the MLF accommodated a va- essary even though it was admitted that riety of currents which were not in agreement women also had to struggle against specifi- on fundamental questions of theory (e.g. the cally male power and domination. It was the basis of femininity; whether or not class con- ‘class struggle’ current which provided the stituted a more fundamental and important thrust behind the formation of feminist neigh- category than sex) and practice (co-operation bourhood groups (groupes de quartier) and with parties and groups of the Left; separatist workplace groups (groupes femmes action). The three principal currents within the d’entreprises) which, in turn, founded and sup- MLF were the Féministes Révolutionnaires, ported organizations such as the Mouvement the lutte des classes (class struggle) current and pour la Liberation de l’Avortement et la Con- Psych et Po (Psychanalyse et Politique). traception (MLAC). From 1974, the ‘class Féministes Révolutionnaires came to struggle’ current attempted to redefine the prominence within the MLF towards the end MLF as an organized, hierarchically structured of 1970. Within it were collectives organized force capable of influencing French politics but around publications such as Histoires d’elles failed against resistance from the Féministes or Questions féministes and also lesbian Révolutionnaires. By 1977, many members of groups such as Les Gouines Rouges (Red the ‘class struggle’ current were moving away Dykes) and Les Polymorphes Perverses. Of all from the MLF to form a new Marxist-femi- MLF currents, it was most influenced by post- nist organization, Mouvement Autonome des 1950s North American feminism, believing Femmes. that the total overthrow of patriarchy alone The third main current, Psych et Po, born would signal an end to women’s oppression in 1968 from the marriage between Marxism and that, in order to achieve this, women and psychoanalysis, separated itself from femi- would have to act separately, without men. nists within the MLF, declaring that feminists Some argued further that only a lesbian posi- were a bourgeois avant-garde which sought tion would survive the persistent assault of merely to conserve the dominant capitalist or- patriarchy and capitalism. It was the der but in an inverted form, replacing male feminist press 205 power with female power. Psych et Po argued feminist press that the only way of revolutionizing society and ending the oppression of women was by Written by women for women, newspapers, disrupting the Symbolic Order and subverting magazines, intellectual journals, pamphlets and bourgeois language through which people un- books within the category of ‘feminist press’ derstood and identified with the world in were initially linked with the Women’s Libera- which they lived. Thus, from 1972, Psych et tion Movement (Mouvement de Liberation des Po began to wage an anti-feminist campaign, Femmes or MLF) in the 1970s and early 1980s, through its publishing empire (bookshops and and have since contributed to the creation of a periodicals) and ‘research associations’, in a feminist culture within the spheres of intellec- bid to ‘save’ the MLF. The campaign culmi- tual, social, economic and political life. nated in 1979, with legal action on Psych et A decade of feminist struggle, from 1968, Po’s part, whereby the title MLF was regis- produced an explosion of feminist writing and tered as the group’s commercial trade name. the foundation of numerous publications with From here on, the MLF became synonymous varying aims, content and style. By the end of with Psych et Po and feminists were legally the 1970s, it is estimated that thirty-five titles barred from representing it. (excluding regional, neighbourhood and The conflicts within the MLF considerably workplace publications) were in circulation weakened the movement. By 1981, when a nationally. Their emergence responded to a need new Socialist government established the Min- and desire for theoretical debate, the exchange istry for Women’s Rights, it was not difficult of practical information and analysis of issues for a state-inspired reformist feminism to such as sexual liberation, homosexuality, rape, usurp the space once occupied by an autono- prostitution, violence against women, the rep- mous and dynamic MLF. resentation of women in writing and visual KHURSHEED WADIA forms of communication and of equality in the workplace. These periodicals and newspapers, See also: écriture féminine; feminist thought; of both a general and more specialist orienta- feminist press; Roudy, Yvette tion, nearly always represented a particular political current within the MLF. Further reading The category of general publications included, among many: Le Torchon Brûle, an autonomous publication which aimed to re- De Courtivron, I. and Marks, E. (eds) (1981) flect the views of all MLF groups; Les New French Feminisms, Brighton: Har- Pétroleuses and Les Cahiers du féminisme, vester Press (an anthology of over fifty published by groups within the MLF’s lutte French feminist texts, translated into Eng- des classes current; Histoires d’elles, Questions lish; includes a good introduction and se- féministes and Les Nouvelles Féministes, set lected bibliography). up by groups within the current Féministes Duchen, C. (1986) Feminism in France: From Révolutionnaires; Le Quotidien des femmes May ’68 to Mitterrand, London: Routledge and Des Femmes en mouvement, both pub- & Kegan Paul (to date, the best account, in lished by the group Psych et Po (Psychanalyse English, of second wave feminist thought et Politique). Among the specialist feminist and activism in France). publications were the gay and lesbian review Picq, F. (1993) Libération des femmes: les Masques, the history review Pénélope, the car- années-mouvement, Paris: Éditions du Seuil toon magazine Ah Nana and Sorcières, pub- (an interesting retrospective assessment of lished by Éditions Stock, which dealt with one the French Women’s Liberation Movement specialist feminist theme per issue. As the ma- by one of its well-known activists). jority of feminist newspapers and magazines 206 feminist press relied upon unpaid editorial teams and oper- editors and supporters to question sexist ated on meagre budgets, their publication was thinking and practices within their respective irregular and sales took place at demonstra- parties, eventually leading to the departure of tions, meetings and feminist bookshops. A few, the women concerned from both parties. however, such as Les Cahiers du féminisms The 1970s were also marked by the estab- and Questions féministes managed to attract lishment of about a dozen feminist publishing regular subscribers while Le Quotidien des houses, including Psych et Po’s Des Femmes Femmes and Des Femmes en Mouvement ap- publishing venture, which gave women the op- peared to benefit from the unlimited private portunity to (re)discover and create their own funds of Psych et Po’s main helmswoman, champions in real life and fiction. Campaign- Antoinette Fouque, although both titles evening feminist writers included Annie Leclerc, tually folded due to lack of readers. Gisèle Halimi, Christine Delphy and Monique The precarious finances of the majority of Wittig, while writers such as Marguerite Duras, these publications meant that many only sur- Christiane Rochefort and Nathalie Sarraute vived during a short period. While it was never contributed original styles and substance to the intention or hope that these publications French literature. Furthermore, this period saw should reach a mass readership (in their hey- the publication of the first histories of French day an estimated 150,000 women bought at feminism and the MLF, and introduced the pub- least one title), their influence has not been lic to certain hallmarks of écriture féminine such negligible. First, they provided the mainstream as Hélène Cixous’s The Laugh of the Medusa press, and especially women’s magazines such (Le Rire de la méduse), Julia Kristeva’s About as Elle and Marie-Claire, with bold new Chinese Women (Des Chinoises) and Luce themes and ideas and inspired the launch of F Irigaray’s Speculum of the Other Woman Magazine, in 1978, which was aimed at a large (Speculum de l’autre femme) and This Sex which feminist readership. Second, their provocative Is not One (Ce sexe qui n’en est pas un). tone and the challenge that they presented to From the mid-1980s, feminist publication has trade unionists and women in the mainstream increasingly entered the mainstream as women’s Left led publications such as Antoinette—the studies have become a feature of the higher edu- women’s magazine of the Confédération cation curriculum, as big publishers (e.g. Seuil, Générale du Travail (CGT)—to reconsider Stock and Éditions Syros) have established their women’s issues in a new light. The magazine’s own ‘women’s series’ and as trade unions, pro- editors began to take an oppositional stance fessional and political organizations have gradu- to the trade union’s male leaders, which finally ally attached more importance to women’s sec- led to the dismissal of the entire editorial team tions or committees. However, the relative ac- in 1983, when it refused to withdraw support ceptance of feminist publications within the main- for the Polish trade union, Solidarity, as in- stream has not occurred without the exaction of structed by the CGT’s leadership. Women in a price, which is that the most original and un- the Confédération Française Démocratique du compromising type of publications (Histoires Travail (CFDT) also began to be active around d’elles or Pénélope) have gradually disappeared. feminist issues, and 1977 saw the publication Those which have survived (Cahiers du of Jeannette Laot’s Stratégie pour les femmes. féminisms and Nouvelles Questions féministes) As far as the two main parties of the Left or which have been set up in recent years (Clio: were concerned, a number of Communist histoire, femmes et société and Résonances- women formed a group, in 1978, which pub- Femmes) have done so either because they have lished the feminist magazine Elles voient rouge adopted a more ‘serious’ and less doctrinaire tone and in the Socialist Party, the feminist publi- or because they have achieved and maintained cation Mignonnes allons voir sous la rose was academic respectability. launched after the party’s 1977 Nantes con- KHURSHEED WADIA gress. Both publications were used by their feminist thought 207

See also: écriture féminine; feminism (move- of the feminine condition. Economic expansion ments/groups); feminist thought; parties and in the 1960s provided the conditions to turn movements; publishing l’edition the possibilities into reality. More women were taking up new roles as producers as well as consumers in the market economy, just as that Further reading economy and its culture were undergoing the radical political and philosophical critique that Burke, C. (1978) ‘Report from Paris: Wom- shaped the revolutionary events of May 1968. en’s Writing and the Women’s Movement’ Women, experiencing what for many was the , Signs 3, 4:843–55 (useful appraisal of novelty of acting for the first time as independ- feminist writings). ent economic subjects, found themselves in a De Courtivron, I. and Marks, E. (eds) (1981) cultural politics where the agenda had been set New French Feminisms, Brighton: Har- by Marx, Freud and Lacan, and the dominant vester Press (brings together over fifty discourses were those of Barthes, Foucault and French feminist texts, translated into Eng- Derrida. The women’s groups who came to- lish; also has a good introduction and se- gether in the aftermath of the May events to lected bibliography). form the MLF (Mouvement de Liberation des Duchen, C. (1986) Feminism in France: From Femmes) developed within and against those May ’68 to Mitterrand, London: Routledge radical masculine doctrines and the conscious- & Kegan Paul (the best account, in Eng- ness of the theoretical dimension of practice lish, of French second wave feminist which is the distinctive mark of contemporary thought and activism). French feminism. Their activities over the sub- Picq, F. (1993) Libération des femmes: les sequent years, foregrounding and challenging années-mouvement, Paris: Éditions du Seuil masculinist bias in the production of thought, (one of its well-known activists assesses ret- and creating opportunities for women to par- rospectively the French Women’s Libera- ticipate fully in all areas of intellectual activity, tion Movement). have transformed the cultural landscape in France. In the process, they have also made a distinctive contribution to the course of feminism elsewhere in Europe and America. feminist thought For most Anglo-American feminists, who know France chiefly through the bias of hu- A good working definition of feminist thought manities departments, the work of Julia has been provided by the philosopher Michèle Kristeva, Luce Irigaray and Hélène Cixous (of- Le Doeuff: ‘Depuis deux siècles, une féministe ten known only partially and belatedly, est une femme qui ne laisse à personne le soin through translations) are synonymous with de penser a sa place; de penser, tout court, et French feminist thought. The real situation is plus particulièrement de penser ce que c’est la more complex. Feminist thought nowadays condition féminine, ou ce qu’elle devrait être’ operates within a multitude of disciplines: phi- (‘For the last two hundred years, a feminist has losophy, sociology, linguistics, literature, psy- been a woman who lets no one do her thinking choanalysis, history and politics. Within for her: thinking full stop, but more especially, France, perceptions of the importance of dif- thinking about what women’s condition is, or ferent individuals and groups have varied, as what it ought to be’; Le Doeuff 1989). intellectual fashions and emphases change. The number of French women fitting this Outside France, this fashion-effect has been definition rose steadily throughout the first half compounded by the inevitable distortions proof the twentieth century, as educational and duced by the special interests of academic and career opportunities expanded. The right to vote publishing networks. (granted in 1944) transformed the possibilities Postwar feminist thought begins, famously, 208 feminist thought with Simone de Beauvoir. Trained as an aca- tical social action. She founded the radical femi- demic philosopher, she devoted her first ener- nist collective Questions Féministes (1977), gies to developing the themes of existential- and after the split in the collective on the issue ism within the terms set by Jean-Paul Sartre. of radical lesbianism (whose separatist doc- Early Beauvoirian existentialist essays are trines she opposed, including those of her erst- Pyrrhus et Cinéas (1944) and The Ethics of while collaborator Monique Wittig), she co- Ambiguity (Pour une morale de l’ambiguïté) founded Nouvelles Questions Féministes, with of 1947. The ground-breaking The Second Sex continuing editorial support from Beauvoir. A (Le Deuxième Sexe), published in 1949, trans- Marxist, Delphy nevertheless conceives wom- formed the terms of the discussion of the en’s oppression not in terms of class struggle woman question, with its exploration of the but as primarily a struggle against patriarchy, situation of the female subject in Western cul- which is conducted in the first instance within ture, and its challenging presentation of the family, where unpaid female labour is ex- woman as the object constructed by men’s fic- propriated by the (male) head of household. tions and sciences and by the male-determined Delphy’s doctrine of materialist feminism views rituals and conventions of family and social gender as a social construct rather than a natu- life. Beauvoir argued for the need to remake ral category, and she is opposed to psychoana- the heterosexual couple, to produce a better lytical theories which look for definitions of life for both men and women, and for the im- the difference of the female subject in terms portance of women seeking economic inde- which invite biological essentialism. Her 1976 pendence to free themselves from the chains essay ‘Protofeminism and Anti-Feminism’ of domesticity. In her later novels and auto- (‘Proto-Féminisme et antiféminisme’) was a biographical writings, she pursued her analy- refutation of Annie Leclerc’s much-hyped Pa- sis in terms which always situated the personal role de femme (1974), a lyrical celebration of in its wider political context. Her political ac- the ‘natural’ difference of woman which urged tivism in conjunction with Sartre, from the women to abandon attempts to compete on 1950s onwards, also produced political com- masculine terrain and seek instead to valorize mentaries—see, for example, The Long March female discourse (giggles and gossip), the fe- (La Longue Marche), published in 1957, re- male reproductive capacity and the domain of lating her visit to Mao’s China. domesticity. Not until the mid-1960s did Beauvoir char- Julia Kristeva, a former member of the in- acterize herself as feminist; but her distinctive fluential Tel quel collective, whose work builds intellectual style, with its rationalist analysis, on that of Barthes, Bakhtin and Lacan, defines left-wing commitment, engagement with prac- her intellectual project as the exploration of tical moral and political issues and constant the positioning of the subject in language. Her return to personal experience as the ground of work has enriched feminist thinking with the understanding has left a clear mark on suc- fresh dimensions it has brought to considera- ceeding feminist thinkers. The direct influence tion of the relationship between language and of The Second Sex is apparent in, for exam- meaning. In her Revolution in Poetic Lan- ple, Benoîte Groult’s Ainsi soit-elle (1975), a guage (La Revolution du langage poétique) of polemic account of the marginalization of 1974, Kristeva drew together linguistics, phi- women in everyday life. The work of Christine losophy and psychoanalysis for an analysis of Delphy ploughs a distinctive furrow within the the revolutionary subject in post-Mallarmean tradition. An academic sociologist active in the literature. She set out her discussion of lan- feminist movement in the late 1960s and early guage and meaning (and, especially, the sub- 1970s, and one of the founder members of the version of meaning) in gender terms, present- MLF, as well as of the campaign for the legali- ing the production of meaning as involving zation of abortion, Delphy continues in the the interaction of two types of signifying proc- 1990s to produce theory linked closely to prac- ess. The semiotic, pre-linguistic, involves the feminist thought 209 imprinting of the child with social and famil- sess its object. Against these, she places the ial structures mediated through the maternal preoccupation with change, difference, body. The symbolic has to do with sign and inclusiveness, openness and sharing, which she syntax and with linguistic and social laws, and claims as the property of feminine thought. is said to be a paternal function. In its expla- Marine Lover is a major text for reading nations of some of the difficult new concepts Irigaray’s famous association of the feminine it was inventing, Kristeva’s early work used with fluidity (the mobile, all-embracing, crea- some very traditional metaphors based on gen- tive sea) and, again, her opposition to the ra- der (for example, the traditional association tionalist tradition. This time it is Socrates who of women and nature), which her later work is called to the tribunal, along with his mod- has reassessed. But even at that early stage, ern heir. Re-evaluation of modes of thought she developed the metaphors in ways that were carries with it the re-evaluation of personal productive for feminist political positions. See, relationships. This Sex Which Is not One (Ce for example, About Chinese Women (Des sexe qui n’en est pas un) of 1977 collects im- Chinoises), published in 1974; Polylogue, portant essays on feminine sexuality and writ- 1977). The Powers of Horror: An Essay in ing, including a reconsideration of mother/fa- Abjection (Pouvoirs de l’horreur) of 1980 is a ther roles. A fresh version of the bonds between powerful critique of the conventional associa- mother and daughter appears in And One Does tion of woman with nature and its monstrous Not Move Without the Other (Et l’une ne repressions; which has produced, Kristeva ar- bouge pas sans l’autre) of 1979. More empiri- gues, the Western fear of the archaic mother. cal investigations into the different ways men The work of Luce Irigaray is conceived in and women use language figure in, for exam- sustained opposition to the philosophical and ple, Sex and Gender Through Language (Sexes psychoanalytic masters who organize the acad- et genres à travers les langues) published in emy. It challenges the masculinist terms of their 1990, and/e, tu, nous (1990). logic, questions their right to lay down the laws The reputation of Hélène Cixous, founder of debate, and sets up in opposition radically in 1977 of the influential Centre d’Études different feminine sets of images for thought. Féminines, rests principally in her creative writ- Speculum of the Other Woman (Speculum de ing, which itself constitutes an exploration into l’autre femme), published in 1974, addresses key theoretical issues concerned with the na- itself to the question of what constitutes femi- ture of the feminine subject, and the relation to nine difference, which it describes as the burn- writing of feminine desire and the female body ing question of our age. Freud is dismissed for (écriture féminine). Her work is closely associ- having assimilated the formation of the femi- ated with the psychoanalytic theory of the nine subject to a system expressed in terms of group Psych et Po. But her thinking on the re- the phallus, and is attacked for the contradic- lations of body, history and language, and also tions and ill-disguised self-interest of his logic. her distinctive style, is at least as heavily in- Plato is swept up in the condemnation, as one debted to the Irish modernist James Joyce, on of the originating masters of masculine whom she wrote her thesis. The images and thought. Marine Lover of Friedrich Nietzsche structures of her writing embody the search (Amante marine de Friedrich Nietzsche) from theorized by Kristeva and Irigaray for a mode 1980 attacks this other significant pole of con- of writing that models what is characterized as temporary Western philosophy, as yet another the specific nature of feminine desire—see, for emblem of the sameness of masculine thought, example, The Laugh of the Medusa (Le Rire de always reducing feminine Other to its mirror. la Méduse) from 1975, ‘Coming to Writing’ Irigaray attacks specifically Nietzsche’s celebra- and Other Essays (La Venue à l’écriture) from tion of the will to power, his emphasis on re- 1977, and The Newly Born Woman (La Jeune currence, the sharp binary oppositions that his Née) of 1975. The play Portrait de Dora (1976) thought imposes, and its aspirations to pos- turns back against Freud the content and form 210 Fernandez, Dominique of the case study in which he tried to pin down Further reading the ‘hysteric’ Dora in the imprisoning categories of his psychoanalysis. More recent plays Jackson, S. (1996) Christine Delphy, London: go beyond the perspective of women’s repres- SAGE Publications (a richly detailed account sion to explore in the wider perspective more of an important sociological body of work). general questions of identity and freedom in Lechte, J. (1990) Julia Kristeva, London: language and history. Routledge (a rewarding overview of A more traditional approach to academic Kristeva’s work). philosophy appears in the work of Michèle Le Marks, E. and de Courtivron, I. (eds) (1981) Doeuff, who has highlighted the institutional New French Feminisms: An Anthology, barriers to women’s careers in the academic in- Brighton: Harvester Press (the first collec- stitutions. Hipparchia’s Choice (L’Étude et le tion of its kind, offering short extracts with, rouet), from 1989, sets her own work in the tra- by and large, insufficient context for the dition of Mary Wollstonecraft and Simone de new reader to evaluate them; nevertheless, Beauvoir, and defines her own philosophical ap- it retains its value). proach as contestatory, exploratory, analytical Moi, T. (1987) French Feminist Thought: A and rationalist. Like Irigaray’s, but in more con- Reader, Blackwell: Oxford (a compendium ventional and accessible terms, her texts explore of well-presented substantial extracts from statements on women by male philosophers and a broad range of writers, with a useful in- demonstrate their theoretical weaknesses. Le troduction ). Doeuff’s language is also that advocated by ——(1994) Simone de Beauvoir: The Making Catherine Clément, teacher of philosophy and of an Intellectual Woman, Oxford and former professional diplomat, who, in La Jeune Cambridge, MA: Blackwell (readable and Née, played devil’s advocate to Cixous, arguing scholarly; in the Beauvoirean tradition, it that rationalist speech, being more generally com- situates the private subject in the public prehensible, was politically more effective than sphere). hysterical and lyrical discourse. Clément’s study Oliver, K. (1995) Womanizing Nietzsche: Phi- of opera—Opera, or the Undoing of Women losophy’s Relation to the Feminine, New (L’Opéra ou la défaite des femmes) from 1979— York and London: Routledge (includes use- offers a feminist critique of the myths of femi- ful sections on the implications for social nine hysteria carried in the libretti, and an analysis structures of Kristeva’s and Irigaray’s work of the relation of myths and music. on the family triangle). The transformations in academic history Whitford, M. (1991) Luce Irigaray: Philoso- effected by the Annales school helped prepare phy in the Feminine, London and New the ground for a new generation of women York: Routledge (the standard text). historians, of whom the doyenne is Michelle Perrot, general editor of the Histoire des femmes (1990–2). History blends with philosophy in the work of Élisabeth Badinter, Fernandez, Dominique which has brought fresh perspectives to the discussion of motherhood. More recently, b. 1929, Neuilly-sur-Seine Badinter used the historical perspective to contribute to the debate on the ‘crisis’ in mascu- Writer, essayist and critic line identity generated by the rise of feminism. The son of the literary critic and collaborator JENNIFER BIRKETT Ramon Fernandez, Fernandez is a prolific nov- See also: abortion/contraception; autobiography; elist, distinguished Italianist, travel writer, and feminism (movements/groups); Marxism and literary and music critic. He began writing Marxian thought; women’s/lesbian writing psychobiographies of Pavese and Eisenstein Ferré, Léo 211 based on Freudian theories of sublimation (a his Communist sympathies in En groupe, en method he also applied to Mozart and ligue, en procession (In Groups, in League, in Michelangelo). His most interesting novels are Procession). His father’s detention in the Nazi L’Étoile rose (The Pink Star), a magisterial por- concentration camps inspired Nuit et trayal of postwar gay culture in France and Brouillard (Night and Fog). Ferrat’s output is America, published in 1978; Dans la main de often romantic, as in Je vous aime (I Love l’ange (In the Hand of the Angel), winner in You), Potemkine, and environmentally aware; 1982 of the Prix Goncourt, which retraces the for example, in La Montagne (The Mountain). tragic itinerary of Pasolini; and La Gloire du He has paid tribute to Vian, Brassens and paria (The Glory of the Pariah), a 1987 exami- Lorca, as well as Aragon, whose poetry he set nation of the value of human suffering caused to music. by AIDS. While Fernandez believes in the nor- CHRIS TINKER mality of homosexuality, he also claims that AIDS restores to gay men an outlaw status fun- See also: song/chanson damental to artistic creativity. In Le Rapt de Ganymède (The Abduction of Ganymede), an excellent literary and cultural history of gay representation published in 1989, he argues that Ferré, Léo only when homosexuality is an object of con- testation does it become a properly creative sub- b. 1916, Monaco; ject for literature. By turns baroque, sober, sub- d. 1993, Italy tle and fastidious, Fernandez’s style is distinguished by its impressive probity. Singer-songwriter JAMES WILLIAMS Although Ferré is widely regarded as a cor- See also: gay writing; literary prizes nerstone of French chanson, he was anxious to portray himself as a marginalized figure, a banner for left-wing intellectuals and anar- Further reading chists. Marked by an oppressive education at a Catholic boarding school in Italy, Ferré went Robinson, C. (1995) Scandal in the Ink: Male to Paris in 1936 to study political science and and Female Homosexuality in Twentieth- law. At the end of the war he became an an- Century French Literature , London: nouncer and pianist at Radio-Monte-Carlo, Cassell (includes a sensitive discussion of and by 1949 was performing in cabarets. He all aspects of Fernandez’s gay writing) had initial success with Jolie Môme (Pretty Girl), and Merde a Vauban (Down with Vauban), a poem by Pierre Seghers. While Ferré wanted to appeal to, and be Ferrat, Jean understood by, a wide audience, with references to the culture and language of the masses, as in b. 1930, Vaucresson Épique Époque (Epic Era), he also identified himself as part of a more poetic tradition, for Singer-songwriter, example in Étang chimérique (Imaginary Pond). real name Jean Tenenbaum He published a largely autobiographical novel, Benoît misère, and his writing has often been A leading anti-establishment figure in French compared to that of the symbolists and Surre- chanson, particularly during the 1960s, Ferrat alists. Ferré’s musical tastes are equally eclec- earned initial recognition in 1954 with the tic, ranging from the popular tango, Mister populist Ma Môme (My Girl). He expressed Giorgina (dedicated to his accordionist), and 212 Figaro, Le accordion waltz, C’est le printemps (It’s Spring- popular with the disaffected French youth— time), to the more classical influences of Debussy for example, Salut Beatnik! (Hi Beatnik!)). and Ravel. Ferré’s earlier work contains rela- CHRIS TINKER tively simple melodies and harmonies, but during the 1970s he wrote much longer, heavier See also: song/chanson and ambitious pieces, such as Il n’y a plus rien (There is Nothing Left). Major works From early on, Ferré was an anti-conformist who aggressively challenged authority and the system (La Mafia). His targets included the Ferré, L. (1993) La Mauvaise Graine [The Bad Catholic church and the Pope—for example, Seed], Paris: Paris (collected texts, poems Monsieur Tout-Blanc (Mr Whiter-Than- and songs). White). Closely associated with the anarchist movement, he participated in the angry pro- Further reading tests of the May 1968 movement, condemn- ing state injustice, as in Ni Dieu ni maître (Without God or Master) and Thank You Sa- Fléouter, C. (1996) Léo, Paris: Laffont (biog- tan. While he argued against collective action raphy). in principle, he expressed solidarity with the Letellier, C. (1993) Léo Ferré, l’unique et sa protesters by performing a series of low-priced solitude, Paris: Nizet (biographically ori- concerts in 1970 at the Salle de la Mutualité in ented study). Paris. Although Ferré could preach angrily at his audiences, he was also capable of a more serious and tender tone. An animal lover, he was Figaro, Le deeply affected by the death of his pet chim- panzee (Pépée). Such sensitivity may also be Newspaper identified in Ferré’s songs about love—both ephemeral, as in Avec le temps (As Time Leading right-wing quality broadsheet, Le Passes), and enduring, for example in Ça te va Figaro is a morning newspaper and France’s (It Suits You)—although his writing was also oldest national daily. Launched as a weekly often charged with explicit sexual imagery, like by Hippolyte de Villemessant in 1854, it be- in La Lettre (The Letter). The song Amour- came a daily in 1866. Publication was inter- Anarchie (Love-Anarchy) perhaps best defines rupted from November 1942 to August 1944 Ferré, whose criticism of society stemmed as a result of the Occupation, but after the from a fundamental love for humanity. The Liberation Le Figaro flourished, as many image of himself he chose to project was of an right-wing rivals had now disappeared. accursed poet who embraced melancholy and Under Pierre Brisson’s leadership (1936– solitude, wandering the streets of Paris by 64), the newspaper gained a reputation for night (Paris-Spleen). editorial independence despite a succession of Among his innovations, Ferré recorded owners. However, Brisson’s death in 1964 long, self-contained texts; prose poems which provoked a series of crises culminating in the he declaimed rather than sang, such as Les purchase of Le Figaro by Robert Hersant in Amants tristes (The Sad Lovers). He also set 1975, and the subsequent departure of numer- the poetry of Aragon, Baudelaire and ous journalists (including Raymond Aron, Apollinaire to music, introducing them to a who had written for Le Figaro for many wider sudience. years). Staff were unhappy with the new own- Although Ferré was perhaps not as main- er’s political ambitions, editorial interference stream as Brel and Brassens, his music was and ruthless management style. Finkielkraut, Alain 213

Circulation fell, but in the early 1980s con- Roissy in 1988, prompted Hersant to fire servative dissatisfaction with the Socialist group director Philippe Villin in 1994 and, government led to a rise in Le Figaro’s for- following Hersant’s death in April 1996, tunes. New Saturday supplements also questions surround Le Figaro’s future. proved successful: Le Figaro magazine cre- PAM MOORES ated in 1978, Le Figaro Madame in 1980, and TV magazine since 1987. The aim is to See also: national press in France; parties and appeal to the whole family by covering a wide movements range of interests.There are economic and literary supplements, and Figaroscope, a guide to events in the Paris area. The paper contains practical pages, offering advice on tourism, Fini, Léonore sales bargains, and classified advertisements, especially for jobs and property. Readers are b. 1918, Buenos Aires, Argentina; predominantly from the professional middle d. 1996, Paris and upper classes, with above average income. Consequently, Le Figaro is attractive to Artist, theatre designer and illustrator advertisers and, depending on the economic climate, advertising accounts for up to 70 per Brought up in Trieste, Fini received little for- cent of its revenue. Compared to Le Monde, mal art training. Influenced by Italian Man- Le Figaro provides fuller financial and busi- nerism, German Romanticism, and Surreal- ness information, much appreciated by indus- ism, her paintings, executed in meticulous de- trialists, businessmen and investors. It has a tail, suggest enigmatic dreams. Although reputation as tribune of the right-wing intelli- close to the Surrealists she was not a formal gentsia, thanks to supplement Le Figaro member of the group. Her often hallucinatory littéraire and regular contributions from compositions present images of mysterious members of the prestigious Academic rituals in theatrical spaces, female warriors Française such as Jean d’Ormesson and Alain (La Chambre noire), hybrid creatures half-fe- Peyrefitte. male, half-animal (Les Mutantes), and a Politically, Le Figaro is extremely con- number of self-portraits (Le Bout du monde). servative, and was closely associated with the Drawing from the hermetic tradition, she ex- Gaullist Rassemblement pour la République, plored images of petrification (Mémoire having well-known RPR politicians among its géologique) and decomposition and regenera- staff. However, overt bias in favour of Jacques tion (Sphinx Regina). She designed theatre Chirac in the 1988 presidential election, at the sets and costumes, including Bérénice for expense of other right-wing candidates, led to Barrault and The Maids (Les Bonnes) for falling sales, and Le Figaro was forced to Genet. moderate its tone and move towards the Cen- ELZA ADAMOWICZ tre. This was demonstrated in the appointment of Franz-Olivier Giesbert, formerly of Le Nouvel Observateur, as editorial director, and the reduction in prominence of hard-liner Finkielkraut, Alain Max Clos. In 1995, although outsold by Le Parisien, b. 1949, Paris Le Figaro was the leading upmarket daily, with an average circulation of 391,533 cop- Writer and essayist ies. However, financial problems resulting from questionable business decisions, such as Finkielkraut is a writer who, having been the investment in new printing facilities at 214 Flammarion influenced by philosophers such as Michel Further reading Foucault and Emmanuel Levinas, has written a number of trenchant essays whose common Martin, H.-J., Chartier, R. and Vivet, J.-P. (eds) theme is to attack the false premises on which (1986) Histoire de l’édition française, vol. the supposed ‘liberties’ of the modern indi- 4, Le Livre concurrencé 1900–1950, Paris: vidual have been based. After a series of Promodis (essential reading). works on Jewish identity and memory, he Parinet, E. (1992) La Librairie Flammarion achieved notoriety principally for his attack (1875–1914), Paris: IMEC. on modernity in The Undoing of Thought (La Défaite de la pensée). Here he develops his critique of postmodern culture, reflecting a major concern of his (shared with several con- folk music temporary intellectuals) that ‘non-thought’ threatens the continuity of French cultural The word folklore in French, as its derivative identity. folklorique attests, has always had a deroga- MARTYN CORNICK tory connotation. Music scholars would pref- erably refer to musique traditionnelle or musique ethnique. This domain extends to Major works chansons. French folk-song’s heritage is rich and its diversity reflects France’s geographical Finkielkraut, A. (1982) L’Avenir d’une and linguistic variety. If this heritage still négation, Paris: Éditions du Seuil. nourishes the collective mentality through fa- ——(1983) Le Juif imaginaire, Paris: Éditions milial, parochial and educational channels du Seuil. (sea shanties, Christmas carols, drinking ——(1988) The Undoing of Thought [La songs, lullabies, etc. from different regions), Défaite de la pensée], London: Claridge. the creative sources of new folk-songs are ——(1992) Comment peut-on être croate?, more likely to be found at the periphery: Brit- Paris: Gallimard. tany, Basque and Occitan country, Alsace. The folk music revival in the 1960s and 1970s coincided with the creation, under Malraux of the maisons de la culture. After Flammarion the events of May 1968, folk music’s green messages appealed to the generation of Publishing house soixante-huitards (literally ‘sixty-eighters’; young people who followed for a while the Flammarion was founded in 1876 by the pub- ecological and libertarian ideal, away from lisher Ernest Flammarion (1846–1936). consumer society). Their audience was also Among the popular authors it launched were exposed to Bob Dylan, Joan Baez and Leonard Daudet, Zola, Gyp and, later, Henri Troyat Cohen, as well as to the country-and-western and Guy des Cars. It publishes novels, aca- repertoire through Hugues Aufray, who spe- demic works and art books, as well as afford- cialized in adapting them in French. Folk clubs able and popular collections such as ‘J’ai lu’ appeared everywhere. (3,850 titles 1958–94), ‘Père Castor’ (for chil- The folk group of the period was dren) and ‘GF-Flammarion’ (600 titles of Malicorne, formed in 1974 by a whole group French literature). of musicians who mastered traditional instru- MARTYN CORNICK ments (spinet, dulcimer, hurdy-gurdy), while at the same time introducing modern arrange- See also: publishing/l’édition ments. Their best album was Almanack, and foreign policy 215 they triumphed at the Cambridge Folk Festi- football val in July 1975, but the group fell apart, separated in 1981 and attempted a comeback Football has been an extremely popular sport with their last album, Les Cathédrales de in France since the late nineteenth century (Le l’industrie (The Cathedrals of industry), in Havre, the first club, was founded in 1872) 1987. Another well-known group was La but it was only in 1984 that the country, cap- Bamboche from Berry, musically talented and tained by Michel Platini, won its first major full of humour and joie de vivre. Roger Siffer trophy when it hosted the European Nations’ in Alsace rein-, vented with humour the herit- Championship. France also won the Olympic age of his region. title in the same year. Although it has been A special case must be made for Occitan rocked by scandals in the 1990s (allegations and Breton folk-singers. South of the Loire of drug taking among players, of financial ir- valley, folk music became the instrument or regularities and bribes, and the embarrassment the context of a revival of Occitan cultural of seeing the country’s first European Club identity, with Marti, Patric and Joan Pau Champions, Olympique de Marseille, rel- Verdier. In Brittany, Alan Stivell led the rise of egated after match-fixing bribes were shown Celtic folk and pop, followed by Glenmor and to have been offered), French football none Gilles Servat, whose Blanche Hermine (White the less retains its high profile in the media Ermine) became the hymn of minorities ne- and the French Football Federation boasts glected by central government. The Breton something in excess of 1.7 million registered folk-singers survived the doldrums of the players. Paris-St Germain’s victory in the 1996 1980s and early 1990s, in which folk music European Cup Winners’ Cup and the national in France seemed to have declined, drawing team’s showing in Euro 96 did much to repair their strength from their traditional Celtic the damage. The country hosted the World musical heritage mixed with modern idioms. Cup in 1998. Since 1994, there are signs of a revival in folk music in France, and again some regions with IAN PICKUP a strong singular cultural identity are provid- See also: sport ing the talents: Brittany (with Tri Yann and Dan Ar Braz), the Basque country (with Peio Serbielle), Alsace and Corsica. Further reading GÉRARD POULET Mercier, J. (1979), Le football, Paris: PUF (an See also: regional music; regionalism; song/ account of the history, development and chanson organization of football in France).

Further reading foreign policy Coulomb, S. and Varrod, D. (1987) Histoires de chansons 1968–1988, Paris: Balland (an Foreign policy since 1945 has contributed informative survey, with some entertaining much to defining public perceptions of France pages on ‘Le Folk à travers les âges’). and Frenchness in France, as well as to creat- Krümm, P. and Ribouillault, C. (1995) ‘Les ing a distinctive profile for France internation- Musiques traditionelles en France’, in ally. Postwar, French foreign policy has nego- Musiques en France, Paris: ADPF (a brief tiated decolonization and post-imperial diplo- overview, with a very useful bibliography macy, partnership with Germany in develop- on traditional instruments and folk-songs). ing the European Union and (partly thanks to 216 Forrester, Viviane defence and security policy based on nuclear tegration (including veto of British entry be- deterrence) independence vis-à-vis the Cold cause of feared Atlanticism), and by links with War superpowers. Foreign policy is still former colonies. Giscard d’Estaing pursued strongly marked by de Gaulle, whose vision mondialisme (internationalism), expressed in of France in the 1960s initially moulded con- intervention in francophone African countries, temporary French international relations by contributions to North-South debates, action suggesting that France was not herself within favour of disarmament while maintaining out grandeur. strong military capability, and rapprochement Until the 1960s, foreign policy was mainly with Germany in Europe. Under Mitterrand concerned with establishing a relationship and Chirac, France has continued support of with the US, co-operating with Germany in European integration, and in the context of face of the USSR and reconsidering the Em- global interdependence and economic rigour pire (renamed Union française), under pres- has started to reassess its ambitions of total sure of colonial unrest. French pride was ini- independence. Nevertheless, much of French tially hurt by Allied underevaluation of diplomatic rhetoric and public opinion is still France’s part in victory, the rejection of French heavily coloured by France’s grandeur, and by representation at Yalta and Potsdam, the pro- mistrust of the perceived US military, finan- posal to run liberated France through an Al- cial and cultural hegemony, although France lied military government, and by the grudging did participate as a minor allied partner in the inclusion of France in the administration of Gulf War. French foreign policy is still trying Germany. Marshall aid heightened French sen- to build France a home in the post-colonial, sitivity towards the United States, and exacer- post-Cold War international system. bated divisions between the Communists (or- HUGH DAUNCEY dered by Moscow to oppose it) and parties more mistrustful of the USSR. With the estab- See also: European economic integration; par- lishment of NATO (1949) and the ECSC ties and movements (1952), the way was cleared to France’s founding role in the EEC (1957), marking an open- Further reading ing of the protected French economy. Simulta- neously came crisis in colonial Algeria, and the return of de Gaulle. Following humiliat- Cerny, P.G. (1980) The Politics of Grandeur, ing disengagement from Indochina (1954), de Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Gaulle tortuously negotiated Algerian inde- (the definitive treatment of the implications pendence (1962), after an Algerian war costly of Gaullist foreign policy). in financial, political and human terms. French culture was marked by the resettlement of ap- proximately 1 million pieds noirs (European Algerians) and by the trauma suffered in the Forrester, Viviane ‘savage war of peace’ by more than 3 million conscripts, as well as by the political divisions b. 1925, Paris created by decolonization. After losing Algeria, France developed her Literary critic, historian and writer deterrent force and structured foreign and defence policies around indépendence nationale. A creative writer and feminist literary critic Gaullism favoured a multipolar international whose work has focused on Anglo-Saxon system, a Europe of nation-states and a net- women authors, especially Virginia Woolf, work of francophony; these aims were fur- Forrester’s best-known work is La Violence thered through encouraging nationalism (for du calme (The Violence of Calm). Published example, Quebec), by reluctant European in- in 1980, this study offers a radical critique of Foucault, Michel 217 history, as generative of a culture of coercion is either stated or written in the discourse de- and repression. scribing it. Yet, too, it is, since the trick of the painter is to present a pipe, or a lure, that in- ALEX HUGHES habits the ‘pipe’ which is before our eyes. See also: feminist thought; women’s/lesbian Foucault shows that whenever the memory of writing ideograms and pictograms is recalled, as they are with Roussel and Magritte, meaning and institutions that are built on the illusion of conventional communication begin to totter. Foucault, Michel In The Order of Things (Les Mots et les choses), published in 1966, Foucault maps out b. 1926, Poitiers; a history of constitutive differences of the kind d. 1984, Paris begun in his work on art and literature. Its sweeping vision leads the reader from the early Intellectual historian modern realm of linguistic analogy, in which words and the objects to which they referred Michel Foucault stands among the most im- shared a common substance and malleability, portant philosophers and writers in postwar to the regime of representation, in which France. His work explores at least six interre- words ‘stand for’ or are the procurative agents lated areas: art and literature as what describes for things that are no longer there or present. a space outside of cognition and reason; mad- This radical change, begun with the advent of ness as that which defines the way a culture seventeenth-century science (and felt in the gap and its history can be understood; the symp- between, for example, Montaigne of the 1580s tomatic relation of word to things in classical and Descartes of the 1640s), inaugurates the and modern culture; the clinical ‘gaze’ as a modern world. It leads forward to the age of determiner of relations of societal and sexual the psychoanalyst and the ethnologist. difference; sexuality as the very basis for study Foucault designed his study to show how of ideology; the history of penality as the area relations of identity are constitutive of the in which is mapped out the birth of the mod- modern subject. In its companion volume, ern or ‘disciplinary’ state. Madness and Civilization (Folie et déraison), Foucault’s Death and the Labyrinth: The which was his doctoral thesis, and was pub- Work of Raymond Roussel (Raymond Roussel) lished in 1961, Foucault begins in roughly the and ‘This is Not a Pipe’ (‘Ceci n’est pas une same areas and reaches similar conclusions, pipe’) constitute a dictionary and an exemplary except that the approach is cued to relations indicator of his style of analysis. In the former, of difference. How madness is defined, and published in 1963, the novelist is seen as pro- then how it is legislated and managed, be- viding a language of extreme platitude which come the counterpart to his work on same- in fact makes the reader aware of an extraordi- ness. Van Gogh and Artaud become in this nary violence that inhabits the literary cliché. work what the analyst and the anthropologist Roussel makes us aware, says Foucault, of a were in The Order of Things. They crown a ‘lacunary reserve’, like the unconscious, that work that begins with the Erasmian drive to inhabits all language, and that is paradoxically bring madness into civilization, and illustrates neutral or of ‘zero-degree’ inflection in modern how madness becomes implicated with prac- writing. Similarly, 1968’s ‘Ceci n’est pas une tices of incarceration in the Classical Age, pipe’ suggests that the word-image relations in then finds itself reborn and renamed in the Magritte’s paintings attest to an imponderable growth of the human sciences. paradox of identity and difference of language The backdrop of these two studies indicates and visual form. What is indicated in an act of why Foucault’s greatest work, the 1975 Disci- deixis (ceci or ‘this…’) is not, as an image, what pline and Punish (Surveiller et punir), was 218 Fourastié, Jean subtitled a ‘history of modern times’. In this and which, conceivably by virtue of Foucault’s work, the author studies what he calls the his- own homosexuality, are his best-known books. tory of the relation of the body to the soul by TOM CONLEY way of institutions designed to impose pain, suffering, retribution and amendment. The his- See also: anthropology and ethnography; Aron, tory of the prison, like that of alterity, stands Jean-Paul; poststructuralism; psychoanalysis at the basis of political and military institutions. Noteworthy, however, is that Foucault Further reading offers a history of the articulation of space in the prison, military barracks, hospital, asylum and secondary school. He shows that these Dreyfus, H. and Rabinow, P. (1982) Michel architectures tell much through their ‘form of Foucault, Brighton: Harvester Press (con- content’ as much as through what they else- tains an interview with Foucault and is a where try to impose or convey in their lan- lucid treatment of the shift from archaeol- guage. This book was part of a political com- ogy to genealogy in his work). mitment on Foucault’s part to institutional re- Eribon, D. (1989) Michel Foucault 1926–1984, form and, to a more radical degree, liberation revised edition 1991, Paris: Flammarion (a in general. His work did not ever separate its very thoroughly researched biography). inaugural drive—its eros and its politics—from Macey, D. (1993) The Lives of Michel Foucault, its conclusions. Surveiller et punir in fact made London: Hutchinson (a comprehensive over- manifest an ethics that had been less immedi- view of Foucault’s life and work). ately visible in the earlier writings. Foucault’s last works take up many of the same themes encountered in the studies of the years 1962–76. In the four-volume collection Fourastié, Jean of Sayings and Writings (Dits et écrits) published in 1994, the reader encounters Foucault b. 1907, St-Benin-d’Azy, Nièvre; in his most resonant voice. In so far as he had d. 1990 defined his work not only as writing but also as an ongoing political and social practice, the Economist interview, the short news item, the occasional article, the book review and other ephemera Fourastié’s socioeconomic analysis of the become crucial elements in his labours. Dits et modernization of France after 1945 revealed écrits transforms what readers have felt the scale of change that occurred during the Foucault’s work to have been by showing us Fourth Republic and early years of the Fifth. the conditions—the spaces and places, the The title of his 1976 book, Les Trente resistances and the stakes—in which his work, glorieuses, became shorthand for the years be it on sexuality, incarceration, the invention that had transformed France from an archaic, of the self, or the author as a mode of classifi- rural, agricultural society into a modern, tech- cation, was elaborated. Few historians of the nological, industrial nation. In 1945 Fourastié same stripe have ever wedded such inclusive had joined the new Commissariat Général au sense of labour and praxis to their lives. Plan, facilitating the modernization he later Foucault stands as one of the greatest expo- described as an ‘invisible revolution’, and nents and barometers of radical shifts in ap- much of his academic work looked at the so- proaches to understanding and rethinking the ciological implications of economic growth, history of Western culture. This work goes examining inequalities, for instance, in Le much further than the three volumes of The Jardin du voisin (The Neighbour’s Garden) History of Sexuality (Histoire de la sexualité), published in 1980. Fourastié devoted consid- which were published between 1976 and 1984 erable time to teaching, notably at the France Musique 219

Conservatoire national des Arts et Métiers and sector throughout the various broadcasting at Sciences Po (the Paris political science insti- reforms of the 1980s. Its programme output tute), and wrote for Le Figaro. In 1968, he remains subject to detailed public-service regu- was elected to the Academic des Sciences lations and is monitored by a state-appointed Morales et Politiques. regulatory authority, the Conseil Supérieur de l’Audiovisuel (Higher Audiovisual Council). HUGH DAUNCEY RAYMOND KUHN See also: economy See also: television

France 2 France Culture Television channel Radio station

This national television company came into This is one of the state-owned Radio France’s existence in 1975 as a result of the breakup of six national stations available on FM stereo the state broadcasting organization, l’Office in all parts of France (for frequency details, de Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française see Télérama’s Guide de la radio or regional (ORTF). Funded by a mix of licence-fee and newspapers). Since 1963 (when it was cre- advertising revenue, the channel remained part ated), France Culture has been fulfilling its of the public sector throughout the various ambitious mission, which is to disseminate broadcasting reforms of the 1980s. Its pro- culture (especially art, literature, science, his- gramme output remains subject to detailed tory, philosophy, theatre and politics), develop public service-type regulations and is moni- creative projects in the field of radio and to tored by a state-appointed regulatory author- reflect key movements in the world of ideas. ity, the Conseil Supérieur de l’Audiovisuel This nonstop service (programmes are repeats (Higher Audiovisual Council). Originally between 1 a.m. and 7 a.m.) offers news, docu- called Antenne 2, the company was renamed mentaries, debates, drama and music (classi- France 2 in 1992. cal as well as jazz). RAYMOND KUHN ALAN PEDLEY See also: television See also: radio (state-owned)

France 3 France Musique

Television channel Radio station

Known as France Régions 3 (FR3) until 1992, France Musique is one of the state-owned this television company came into existence in Radio France’s six national stations broadcast 1975 as a result of the breakup of the state on FM stereo throughout France (for fre- broadcasting organization, l’Office de Radio- quency details, see Télérama’s Guide de la diffusion-Télévision Française (ORTF). It was radio or regional press). Created in 1963, this originally intended to be a channel for both quality music station broadcasts a large the regions and French cinema. Funded mainly number of live regional, national and interna- from licence-fee revenue plus some advertis- tional concerts and recitals. Music from all ing, the channel remained part of the public periods and cultural origins is often supported 220 France-Dimanche by introductions, explanations and discus- share of the national audience, has been stead- sions, which gives the station both an educa- ily losing listeners to the more specialized pri- tional and a pluralistic flavour. Some recently vate and local stations bursting on the scene created rivals in the private sector (e.g. Radio with the audiovisual deregulation of the 1980s. Classique) have affected listening figures. Current affairs, drama, interviews, phone-ins and music of all kinds feature prominently. ALAN PEDLEY ALAN PEDLEY See also: radio (state-owned); television/spectacle guides See also: radio (state-owned); television/spectacle guides

France-Dimanche France-Soir Newspaper Newspaper A sensational Sunday publication of long The only mass-circulation national daily in standing. Created at the end of World War II, postwar France, France-Soir regularly sold it was apparently intended to cheer up the over a million copies in the 1950s. Created by population. Dramatic headlines and extensive Pierre Lazareff in 1944, it continued the tradi- use of colour photographs entice the reader to tions of prewar Paris-Soir, and sensationalism, share in the secrets of well-known personali- human interest stories and extensive use of ties, their health, financial problems and love photography brought success in the popular life. Appealing to the emotions, France- market. The events of May 1968, together Dimanche provides escapist entertainment for with Lazareff’s death in 1972, marked a turn- a popular audience. It is produced by a lim- ing point: circulation declined steadily there- ited number of journalists using various pseu- after. Robert Hersant bought the paper in donyms; news content and intellectual input 1976, as a second Gaullist title to complement are minimal. Typical readers are elderly, or the more upmarket Le Figaro. Despite a suc- women between 35 and 50 years of age. In cession of new initiatives, however, losses con- the mid-1990s, circulation was stable at tinue to accumulate. around 650,000 copies per week. PAM MOORES PAM MOORES See also: Gaulle, Charles de; national press in See also: national press in France France

France-Inter François, Claude Radio station b. 1939, Ismaïlia, Egypt; Radio France’s general-interest station, broad- d. 1978, Paris cast twenty-four hours a day, on long wave (162 kHz, 1852m), medium wave and FM (see Lyricist and singer local press or Télérama’s Guide de la radio for frequency details). Created in 1947 as Paris- Claude François established himself as one of Inter, it was renamed in 1964. Catering for all the major figures of the French yé-yé (1960s tastes and most ages, this family station, while pop) generation with hit songs such as Si j’avais still commanding more than an 11 per cent un marteau (If I Had a Hammer). ‘Clo-Clo’, as francophone cinema: Belgium 221 he was known, appealed to adolescent audi- The above scenario would seem to suggest ences, often singing imported French versions that France ‘facilitates’ the cinema of of American hits. The incarnation of the glitzy francophone Belgium. However, the relation- showman on stage, Claude François will be ship between the two countries has ranged best remembered in the Anglo-Saxon world from one of colonization (some of the first as the co-author (with Thibault; music by films to be made in Belgium were those by Revaux) of Comme d’habitude, which in Alfred Machin, a Frenchman specifically sent translation became the Sinatra classic My Way. by Pathé to produce films for the Belgian audience) to cultural ‘exchange’ (mainly through IAN PICKUP personnel abandoning the first country to See also: song/chanson work in the second—for example, Jacques Feyder, Raoul J.Lévy and Charles Spaak). While its relationship with France has pro- François, Guy-Claude vided both advantages and disadvantages, Bel- gium’s position within Europe has had a simi- b. 1940, Berck lar impact on its cinema. On the one hand, any sense of a ‘Belgian specificity’ is obscured Stage designer by the country’s role as centre of the new Eu- rope. On the other hand, perhaps also because A designer at the Théâtre du Soleil since the of its geographical position, Belgium has a 1960s, he worked on countless famous pro- long history as an enthusiastic host and spon- ductions, including L’Age d’or in 1975 and sor of world cinema, with its Cinémathèque, Mephisto in 1978. He has also worked in cin- its festivals and film schools all ensuring its ema with James Ivory and Bertrand Tavernier, place on world cinema’s map. and acts as adviser to architects of public Though Belgium is evidently a country which buildings, such as the Pompidou Centre. is far from hostile to cinema, its own national ANNIE SPARKS product has been hard to export, with the few actual successes coming from films which use See also: collective creation; theatre the European auteur or art-cinema models (such as Jaco Van Dormael’s Toto le héros in 1993). Meanwhile, much critical success has been francophone cinema: Belgium gained through small-scale experimental work. There is a strong documentary tradition in If the size of France has played a large part in Dutch/Belgian cinema (illustrated in the work the country’s success in the cinema, it has also of Henri Storck, Robbe de Hert or Frans influenced the cinema of other francophone Buyens) and this feeds into a wider preoccupa- countries. Thus the linguistic border which tion in both linguistic groups with ‘reality’. Thus Belgium shares with France has enabled its the quotidien is observed in microscopic detail francophone community to produce larger- by Boris Lehman and Manu Bonmariage, or scale co-productions that are guaranteed a re- analysed for its intersection with the fictional spectable market share. This involvement of by Chantal Akerman (specifically Jeanne France is significant, since Belgium’s three of- Dielman 23 quai du Commerce 1080 Bruxelles ficial languages (French, Dutch and German) of 1975) or André Delvaux. fragment what is already a very small market. Apart from their use of ‘European’ genres These linguistic divisions make it necessary to (art and auteur cinema), and perhaps because divide ‘Belgian’ cinema into francophone/Bel- of the lack of good scriptwriting, many Bel- gian and Dutch/Belgian, and only a handful gian directors have turned to their pictorial of directors (such as Delvaux and Henri heritage for inspiration. The influence of paint- Storck) have worked in both languages. ing can be seen in the preoccupation of many 222 francophone cinema: North Africa directors with Belgian landscape (Jean-Jacques the one hand and Hollywood on the other. As Andrien, Boris Lehman), the success of ani- a result, many North African film-makers have mation from the 1940s onwards (Belgium be- turned to France (and Europe) for training, ing the home of Tintin, Astérix and the funding, technical support and aid for distri- Smurfs) and, finally, what could be seen as a bution and exhibition. Ironically, therefore, truly Belgian genre—the film sur l’art. The given that metropolitan French audiences gen- latter can be described as a film which takes erally show little interest in Arabic culture, as an artist or work of art as its subject. many as one in two North African film-makers live and work in ‘exile’ in France or Bel- CATHERINE FOWLER gium (particularly since the increase in funda- See also: comic strips/cartoonists; francophone mentalist terrorism in Algeria), and a large performing arts: Belgium; francophone writ- proportion of francophone North African films ing (fiction, poetry): Belgium are (co-)produced in France and address a European art-house and festival audience rather than an indigenous popular audience Further reading in the Maghreb. The first Carthage Pan-African Film Festi- Bolen, F. (1978) Histoire authentique val was held in 1966, and the first features by (anecdotique, folklorique et critique) du North African film-makers were heroic narra- cinema belge, Bruxelles: Éditions Memo & tives of revolt informed by the national libera- Codec (historical overview). tion struggle against French colonialism and Davay, P. (1967) ‘Belgium’, in A.Lovell (ed.) foreign exploitation, the volume of which even- Art of the Cinema in Ten European Coun- tually gave rise to the term ‘couscous Western’. tries, Strasbourg: Council for Cultural Co- A major figure to emerge from this period was operation. Algerian film-maker Mohamed Lakhdar- Jungblutt, G., Leboutte, P. and Païni, D. Hamina, who won the best first film award at (1990) Une encyclopédie des cinémas de Cannes with Le Vent des Aurès (1967) and the Belgique, Paris: Éditions Yellow Now 1975 Palme d’Or for Chronique des années de (comprehensive work of reference ). braise (1974), a moving drama about the war of independence. Like other films of the 1970s, Abdellatif Ben Ammar’s Sejnane began to ad- francophone cinema: North dress more contemporary social issues: the power of the state and the new ruling classes; Africa the condition of the peasants; urban misery; and the condition of women (a topic also addressed National cinemas in the countries of the in films like Assia Djebar’s 1978 Nouba). Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia) were Merzak Allouache’s ground-breaking Omar only able to develop after independence from Gatlato (1976) replaced the conventional hero French colonial rule (Tunisia and Morocco in with the figure of an ordinary Algerian youth, 1956, Algeria in 1962), and their relationship and the success of its down-to-earth realism al- with France and the French cinema industry lowed Algerian cinema to develop in less con- continues to be problematic. Irrespective of formist ways. differences in political systems and conditions A key theme of films of the 1970s was emi- of production, which range from state control gration and the problems faced by immigrant in Algeria to private funding in Morocco, with workers in France, represented in what critics Tunisia occupying an intermediary position, have referred to as a ‘miserabilist’ style. Ali opportunities for film-making in North Africa Ghalem’s two films, Mektoub? (1969) and L’ are limited. North African films are in compe- Autre France (1976), portray a young Algerian tition for audiences with Egyptian cinema on desperately seeking work and the exploitation francophone cinema: North Africa 223 of Algerian workers. Other examples include enced by both economic factors and Western Nacer Ktari’s Les Ambassadeurs (1977), an ideological values. Some sought commercial exploration of the effects of French racism on success by using international stars and set- the community of North Africans living in the tings, like Moroccan film-maker Souhel Ben Goutte d’Or district of Paris, Ali Akika and Barka’s Blood Honeymoon (1979), starring Anne-Marie Autissier’s Voyage en capital Irène Pappas and Laurent Terzieff, and Amok (1977), a comparison between the lives of a (1984), a film about apartheid starring (male) working-class immigrant and a (female) Miriam Makeba. Others sought international middle-class student born in France, and Ahmed recognition through a personal cinema linked Rachedi’s Ali au pays des mirages (1979), a to the quest for identity and/or through self- study of the aspirations and nightmares of an consciously auteurist topics and techniques. immigrant crane-operator. Since the advent of Nouri Bouzid’s L’Homme de cendres (1987) beur cinema in the 1980s, there have been few and Lakdhar-Hamina’s La Dernière Image films by North Africans about immigration in (1986) are specifically rooted in their direc- France apart from Okacha Touita’s intense re- tor’s childhood experiences, while Mahmoud alist dramas, including Les Sacrifiés, (1982), a Ben Mahmoud’s Traversées (1982) and Nacer dramatization of the fate of a young immigrant Khemir’s Les Baliseurs du désert (1986) evoke driven mad by the struggle between the FLN a universal sense of alienation and mystery. and the MNA which tore apart the Algerian In the 1990s, a number of film-makers in- community in Paris during the Algerian war. troduced debates about Islam, and about sexu- Allouache captures the tone of beur cinema in ality and the body, into North African cinema. Un amour a Paris (1988), centring on the Allouache’s Bab El Oued City (1993) and doomed love affair between a Jewish Algerian Malik Lakhdar-Hamina’s Automne—octobre girl and a beur who fancies himself as the first a Alger (1991) offer critiques of the current beur cosmonaut, and returns to analysing con- crisis in Algeria, while in Tunisia Nouri temporary beur and banlieue (suburb) culture Bouzid’s Bezness (1992) addresses the perni- in Salut cousin! (1996). cious effects of sex tourism, and Moufida The film-maker of the 1980s who most suc- Tlatli’s Les Silences du palais (1994) and Ferid cessfully uses humour to problematize and cri- Boughedir’s 1990 Boy of the Terraces tique Algerian mores and cultural identity is (Halfaouine)—both scripted by Bouzid—ex- Mahmoud Zemmouri, now resident in France. plore various interdicts on the body. Halfouine, His first black comedy, Prends dix mille balles which recounts the coming of age of a 12-year- et casse-toi (1980), explores the cultural con- old boy amid very intimate domestic scenes, flicts produced when an immigrant family ac- has been the biggest box office hit in Tunisia cepts the French government’s offer of fund- since the invention of motion pictures. ing to return ‘home’ and discovers that their CARRIE TARR sons cannot adapt to Algerian village life. Les Folles Années du twist (1983) refuses the he- See also: francophone performing arts (North roic narrative of the national liberation strug- Africa); francophone writing (fiction, poetry); gle, focusing instead on the pragmatic survival North Africa; suburbs tactics of two lovable rogues, while De Holly- wood a Tamanrasset (1990) dramatizes the Further reading intrigues of an Algerian community who model their behaviour on their favourite American film and TV stars. Malkmus, L. and Armes, R. (1991) Arab and However, in the 1980s North African film- African Filmmaking, London: Zed Books. makers generally turned away from explicitly ——(1981) ‘Cinémas du Maghreb’, political topics, disillusioned by the intransi- CinémAction 14. gence of the nationalist movements and influ- 224 francophone cinema: Switzerland

——(1982) ‘Cinémas de l’émigration 3’, ily be inscribed in the context of international CinémAction 24. movements. Enjoying a complex relationship ——(1987) ‘Les Cinémas arabes’, with their country of origin, its languages and CinémAction et Grand Maghreb, Paris: its tumultuous history (including the Question Institut du Monde Arabe. Royale and the ‘linguistic wars’ which split the nation in two), Belgian theatre remains in- dividualistic and is often centred around the francophone cinema: problems of language, memory and history. Avant-garde theatre has not thrived in Bel- Switzerland gium, and Belgian drama of French expression as a whole has had to compete with two This small industry is largely known outside popular genres: plays written in dialect reflect- Switzerland by the names of two directors. ing local interests, and popular productions Claude Goretta’s 1976 adaptation of Pascal of French (Georges Feydeau’s) vaudevilles or Lainé’s popular novel The Lacemaker (La Belgian comedies such as Le Manage de Melle Dentellière) helped to make a major star of Beulemans (Miss Beulemans’ Wedding), per- Isabelle Huppert, and his biopic of Rousseau, formed for the first time in 1910. Not surpris- Les Chemins de l’exil (1977), paid oblique trib- ingly, playwrights had to look elsewhere for ute to the greatest of Swiss-born actors by cast- an audience. After World War II, despite the ing Michel Simon’s son François in the main state funding of Belgian theatres, many play- role. Alain Tanner has specialized in dulcet wrights of Belgian origin looked to Paris for post-May 1968 satires such as La Salamandre an audience: Parisian blockbusters of Belgian of 1971, starring Bulle Ogier, and 1973’s Le manufacture include Suzanne Lilar’s Le Retour d’Afrique, which parodies the enthusi- Burlador, Jean Mogin’s 1950 play A chacun astic Third Worldism characteristic of its time. selon sa faim (According to One’s Hunger), KEITH READER and Michel de Ghelderode’s La Ballade du grand macabre (The Macabre Ballad) of 1953. See also: cinema; francophone performing The 1960s saw productions from two ma- arts: Switzerland; francophone writing (fic- jor playwrights: Paul Willems and Jean Sigrid. tion, poetry): Switzerland In Il pleut dans ma maison (It Is Raining in My House), first performed in 1962, Willems reveals a lyrical theatre where the barriers be- francophone performing arts: tween life and death, between reality and dream, are shown to be porous. His 1967 pro- Belgium duction, La Ville à voile (The Sailing City), is also obsessed with the past, but here a much The first major literary figures of Belgian ori- less optimistic view is expressed: language fails gin were closely related to the theatre to conjure up a past and a history, and the (Maeterlinck was awarded the Nobel prize for main character’s dream ‘sailing city’ (i.e. Ant- literature in 1911 and his Pelléas et Mélisande werp) will never emerge from its ashes. Sigrid’s was immortalized by Claude Debussy). Yet, plays, 1959’s Les Cavaliers (The Horseriders), despite its famous origin, twentieth-century Mort d’une souris (Death of a Mouse) in 1968, Belgian theatre of French expression has not and L’Espadon (The Swordfish) from 1976, emerged as a major genre. Belgium has pro- focus on a search for identity, and his 1977 duced major playwrights but no identifiable production L’Auto-Stoppeur (The Hitchhiker) school of drama. The relative non-identity of experiments with a dysfunctional chronology. a Belgian drama of French expression can be On the international scene, the most fa- accounted for in a number of diverse ways. mous and original Belgian playwright is René Major figures avoid categories and cannot eas- Kalisky. The author of plays first performed francophone performing arts: Indian Ocean 225 in the 1970s and 1980s, he translated into an islands is a tradition of storytelling, with recita- experimental form traumatic events of the tion of folk-tales transmitted orally and, more twentieth century (Stalinism, Nazism, Fas- recently, collected and transcribed in local lan- cism). His most acclaimed productions include guages and in French. These, along with rid- Jim le téméraire (Jim the Reckless), Le Pique- dles and proverbial forms such as the sirindanes Nique de Claretta (Claretta’s Picnic), Dave au of Mauritius, often form the basis of public cel- bord de mer (Dave at the Seaside), La Passion ebrations of folklore in all the islands. selon Pier Paolo Pasolini (Passion According Popular music and dance traditions are to Pier Paolo Pasolini) and Falsch. Kalisky’s more differentiated: Mauritius and Reunion theatrical aim is to destabilize conventional share the sega, a Creole song form accompa- ways of representing and reading a dramatic nied by a rolling rhythm—usually in 6/8 plot, as well as to undermine traditional no- tempo—provided by percussion instruments tions of identity by multiplying the possibili- and associated with a sensual form of danc- ties of the text (which he calls le surtexte, ‘the ing. This was repressed as subversive and li- supertext’) and the performance (which be- centious in the years of slavery, but it is now comes le surjeu, superacting; see his Du the dominant local folk music of both islands, surtexte au surjeu). and is often used for tourist promotional purposes. Since the mid-1970s in Reunion, there JEAN MAINIL has been a revival of a related form, the See also: francophone cinema: Belgium; maloya, closer to its African and Malagasy francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Bel- origins, which in its pure form uses a chant- gium; theatre response pattern and purely percussion ac- companiment. A contemporary, very successful example is the troupe of Gramoune Lélé, a Further reading sprightly 65-year-old former sugar refinery worker who has toured the ‘world music’ fes- Frickx, R. and Trousson, R. (eds) (1989) tivals of France and Europe. The style has Lettres françaises de Belgique, vol. 3 Le been taken up by Creole poets such as Danyel Théâtre, Louvain-la-Neuve (a comprehen- Waro, as a vehicle for social and political pro- sive list of plays by Belgian authors, includ- test, and further refined by local groups such ing summaries, history of performances as Ziskakan, militantly autonomist in inspira- and bibliographies). tion, who have added sophisticated electro- Quaghebeur, M. (1990) Lettres belges entre acoustic instrumentation and subtle Creole absence et magie, Bruxelles: Éditions Labor lyrics by literary figures such as Axel Gauvin (a comprehensive analysis of drama, in- and Carpanin Marimoutou. A younger gen- cluding chapters on Willems, Kalisky, Baal, eration, exemplified by the group Baster, has Sigrid and Louvet). incorporated Western influences such as reggae to produce a pop music with a distinctive rhythmic style. francophone performing arts: Madagascar has followed a similar pattern in developing the resources of its folk music Indian Ocean to produce a popular style internationally acceptable in ‘world music’ circles. Rossy and The islands of the Indian Ocean—Madagascar, his group have had an international recording Mauritius, Reunion and the Seychelles—are career since the mid-1980s sponsored by the home to populations of very varied ethnic ori- British singer-songwriter Peter Gabriel; and, gins, and their differing cultural traditions are more recently, Justin Vali, specialist of the dis- reflected in the diversity and richness of the per- tinctively Malagasy bamboo harp, has toured forming arts in the area. Common to all the in Europe, as have the group Salala, inheritors 226 francophone performing arts: North Africa of a Protestant tradition of a cappella close Limoges. Other Réunionnais theatre groups, harmony singing. such as the Théâtre Talipot of St-Pierre, di- The development of dance in the islands is rected by Philippe Pelen, are attempting a dra- similarly diverse. Apart from the troupes of sega matic synthesis of the diverse cultural tradi- dancers from Mauritius and Reunion, both is- tions of the Indian Ocean area in ambitious lands have well-established schools of Indian multimedia productions such as Mâ in 1995. dance, and Reunion also has some locally sub- Cinema, not surprisingly the Cinderella of sidized amateur companies of modern dance the performing arts in such an isolated part of and ballet. Madagascar has had its own national the francophone world, has maintained a pres- folk troupe, Imadefolk, directed from 1975 ence in Reunion: a thriving animation school onwards by Odeamson as a touring theatre at the Village-Titan in the Port area and a tradi- group and continued by his daughters as the tion of local cineclubs, the Fédération Abel Landyrolafotsy troupe. Popular drama in Mala- Gance. This serves to promote the embryonic gasy languages, often sung, has always attracted regional film production, such as the work of a wide audience, as in the hira gasy form. In the pioneering Malagasy film-maker Ignace Solo recent years, the novelist Michèle Rakotoson Randrasana, and his first feature film Ilo tsy has succeeded in staging as-yet-unpublished very, a Malagasy-Algerian co-production, about French-language plays in Antananarivo, such the bloody anti-colonial insurrection of 1947. as Sambancy, which was a prizewinner in the The local television stations, the state-control- Radio France Internationale play competition led RFO and the private companies Canal in 1980; and a new generation of women play- Réunion, TV4 and TV Sud, also produce local wrights is returning to French after the period documentaries, for instance, on the multicultural of ‘Malgachization’, such as Charlotte music festival Kabaréunion in 1995. Rafenomanjato, Suzanne Ravoaja and Josette In general, the multicultural, multilingual Rakotondradany. variety of contemporary performing arts in the Mauritius and Reunion have had thriving Indian Ocean islands can be seen as a vibrant theatres at least since the early years of the example of post-colonial and postmodern crea- nineteenth century, and the theatre in the tivity which, while enjoying the benefits of Mauritian capital Port-Louis has recently been francophone support networks, is developing restored with the help of grants from a hybrid culture which is capable of transcend- francophone sources. Popular drama has none ing the limits of French as a world language. the less relied principally on Creole in recent PETER HAWKINS times, the language accessible to the broadest spectrum of its audience. The most successful See also: francophone popular music: DOM- Mauritian dramatist, Dev Virahsawmy, pub- TOMs; francophone writing (fiction, poetry): lished a series of plays in the 1980s, some of Indian Ocean; theatre them in trilingual versions, using Mauritian Creole, Reunionnais Creole and French. In Reunion, the Théâtre Vollard, under the di- francophone performing arts: rection of Emmanuel Genvrin, has been the most prominent theatre group, with a series North Africa of original historical dramas combining Cre- ole and French, such as Étuves (Steamrooms) Dramatic performance in the three countries in 1988, recreating the Revolutionary period of the Maghreb (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco) is in Reunion, and Creole adaptations of Jarry’s marked by its multiple cultural inheritance: an King Ubu (Ubu roi) in 1979 and Ubu colonial Arabic, Berber and Islamic tradition, to which (1994). The troupe has regularly visited the has been added the culture and language of Théâtre International de Langue Française in France, the colonial power from which inde- Paris and the Festival des Francophonies in pendence was only relatively recently won (by francophone performing arts: North Africa 227

Tunisia and Morocco in 1956, and by Algeria gaged European theatre. Writers, actors and in 1962). The situation generated by this mul- directors who have been key figures in the new tiple inheritance for individuals and for crea- movement worked in Paris with Vitez, tive art is modelled in Assia Djebar’s 1985 Chéreau and Serreau. novel Love, Fantasia (L’Amour, la fantasia), Since independence, negotiation with the in terms which foreground issues relating to bilingual performance tradition has seen two public and private performative expression. distinct phases. In the 1960s, building a na- The Algerian-born cultural subject inherits in- tional drama, both in French and in literary digenous performance traditions related to the Arabic, was a key part of establishing national body, and primarily spectacular: the parades, cultural identities. The International Theatre feasts and festivals of tribal tradition, eques- Directory (1973) testifies to some success in trian displays for men (the fantasia), and, for developing the institutional infrastructure for women, the dance. Oral performance is simi- theatre in the Western mode. In Algeria, where larly gender-divided: ululation for women and, theatre became a nationalized monopoly in for men, the chanting of the Koran and all 1963, the Théâtre National Algérien ran five forms of discursive speech. In Djebar’s text, theatres (in Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Sidi- the acquisition of French produces a transfor- bel-Abbès and Annaba). Five other theatres mation of subject position which in its turn were managed and subsidized by the munici- transforms cultural performance. French intro- pal authorities, and the Petit Théâtre in Algiers duces both female and male speakers into the was given over to the youth of the FLN. Mo- equalizing discourse of bourgeois subjectivity, rocco boasted two theatres, in Casablanca into a post-Revolutionary history both demo- (founded 1922) and Rabat. Tunisia had one cratic and secular, which redraws familiar professional theatre, the Théâtre Municipal de boundaries of action and speech. Djebar her- Tunis, built in 1903, occupied by the Troupe self has largely confined her explorations to Municipal de Tunis, which was founded in the novel; in Maghrebin culture, religious and 1953. In the 1950s, both Tunis and Morocco social obstacles to female expression have been created drama centres. The Directory of Thea- especially potent in the domain of theatre. (In tre, Dance and Folklore Festivals (1979) reg- the 1950s, when the middle-class public first isters a complementary interest in developing came to the theatre, special performances were the festival. This was particularly evident in held for women.) Male Maghrebin writers, Tunis, after the decentralization of drama in however, have found in the multiple resources the mid-1960s, and was encouraged by the of the postwar francophone stage, with its al- Tunisian National Tourist Office. Nineteen liance of spectacle and word, the ideal vehicle annual festivals, throughout the regions, offer to project the tensions and transformations a mixed diet of folklore, theatre, dance and attendant on the birth of their nations. equestrian shows. The International Festival European theatre has been a cultural pres- of Carthage, held in the Roman amphitheatre, ence in the Maghreb from the beginning of was founded in 1964 to introduce the Tuni- the twentieth century: French touring groups sian public to ‘the styles of classic expression were playing in Algeria as early as 1830. In in the West’, but soon made equal space for the 1920s and 1930s, Egyptian theatre troupes national productions. In the second stage, the introduced the French classical repertoire, es- emphasis has been chiefly on the national, fo- pecially the comedies of Molière. These led to cusing on plays in modern literary Arabic, adaptations, and thereafter some original crea- Arabic dialects and Berber. tions in literary Arabic and in the spoken dia- Francophone drama has developed differen- lects. But the effective genesis of Maghrebin tially in the three countries of the Maghreb. Mo- drama was in the 1950s and 1960s, when the rocco has a strong tradition of popular and ritual energies of political liberation met up with the drama, but literary drama is overshadowed by subversions of an avant-garde politically en- the novel. In the 1950s, a few dramatists 228 francophone performing arts: North Africa had work performed in the country ropean influence and francophonie in Tunisia, (Abdelkader Ben Hachmy, Ahmed Belhachmi). was published in France (in French) in 1982. Most recently, however, francophone drama- Most francophone dramatic activity has tists have found their audiences and publish- come from Algeria—the work of writers who ers in France. Abdelkébir Khatibi’s The Veiled operate either in Algeria when conditions per- Prophet (Le Prophète voilé) was performed in mit, or otherwise in France and the rest of 1979. Tahar Ben Jelloun’s La Fiancée de l’eau Europe, playing both to immigrant communi- (Water Bride), staged in April 1984 at the ties and to avant-garde European audiences. Théâtre Populaire de Lorraine, evokes the ten- There is keen ideological debate whether the sions of the village communities left behind activity of Maghrebin writers who made by the migrant workers. France their primary base (Camus, for exam- In Tunisia, Arab tradition is more important ple) can be included in the history of than francophone influence in all areas of lit- Maghrebin culture. In any event, the most sig- erature, despite the country’s relative openness nificant dramatic activity begins in the period to Western culture. The popular plays of Habib 1955–70, stimulated by the call of the Alge- Boularès were usually written and staged in rian Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN) on Arabic, but Le Temps d’El Boraq (The Time of 20 August 1956, for plays, poems and prose Dreams), staged in Tunis in November 1969, in support of the armed struggle. Mustapha was published in French and Arabic versions in Kateb became director of the Troupe du FLN 1979. The members of a Tunisian family in a in 1958, and during the Algerian war toured fishing village, shaken by contemporary social the world with his militant productions. Di- conflicts, articulate their very different aspira- rector of the Théâtre National Algérien (at in- tions and interests (the educated children, with dependence) and joint organizer of the Institut their urban ambitions and socialist values; the National d’Art Dramatique (INAD) from 1964 parents, with their reluctance to abandon their to 1973, he withdrew in 1972 in opposition patriarchal Islamic conservatism, the basis of a to the decentralization of the theatre, and then hard-won and precarious sense of security). An returned as head of the national theatre at the uneasy compromise is reached, at the expense end of the 1980s. INAD reopened in 1986. of the women. Realistic, often comic language Dramatists in the 1950s and 1960s concen- alternates with lyrical dream-voice episodes, trated on topics related to the war: from Henri with voices and persons speaking in isolation Kréa (pseudonym of Cachin), who published or caught back into communion, forced to ex- Le Séisme (Earthquake) in 1958 and Théâtre change discourses by the pressure of history, fig- algérien (Algerian Theatre) in 1962, to Kadour ured in the simple plot. The linguistic anarchy M’Hamsadji’s 1959 La Dévoilée (Woman models the ferment produced by the introduc- Without a Veil), Mouloud Mammeri’s Le tion of Western subject positions, represented Foehn ou la preuve par neuf (The Foehn), as critical and revolutionary, into traditional hi- staged in 1967, and Assia Djebar and Walid erarchies. Fawzi Mellah’s Néron ou les oiseaux Garn’s Rouge l’aube (Red the Dawn), per- de passage (Nero or Birds of Passage) from formed in Arabic and then published in French 1975, and Le Palais du non-retour (The Palace in 1969. of No Return) of 1975, use violent satirical The most important work has been that of melodrama to denounce a decolonization proc- Kateb Yacine, initially in collaboration with ess which has left Western capitalism more the director Jean-Marie Serreau, who helped firmly entrenched in the Third World. The West- introduce Brecht to Parisian theatre in the ern audience written into the text is harangued 1950s. Banned in the 1950s for their criticism from the stage for its collusion in genocide. of French colonial policies, Kateb’s first plays Mohammed Moncef Métoui’s Messieurs…je turned to Greek theatre (Aeschylus) as much vous accuse (Gentlemen… You Stand Accused), as to Brecht for inspiration and techniques to an attack on the effects of absolute power, Eu- harness the national imagination to political francophone performing arts: North Africa 229 issues. The trilogy published as Le Cercle des written in French for the Bicentenary and per- représailles (1959) is an exercise in militant formed at the Avignon Festival of 1989, jux- mythologizing: Le Cadavre encerclé (Corpse taposing the politics of 1789 with the colonial Surrounded), first performed in Carthage and experience of Indochina and New World. Brussels in 1958 and in Paris in 1959; and the Since the early 1970s, Algerian drama has fairy-tale/farce La Poudre d’intelligence (Clev- moved away from the themes of war and in- erness Dust) and Les Ancêtres redoublent de dependence into social satire, gender issues and férocité (Savage Ancestors), both staged in international liberation. With few exceptions, Paris in 1967. In the trilogy, Kateb uses sound plays performed in Algeria have been in Alge- and lighting to spectacular effect, marries a rian Arabic; francophone writers find their lyrical and symbol-laden rhetoric to realist dia- audiences in France. Noureddine Aba, whose logue, and disrupts narrative time with dream plays have been presented on ORTF as well as discontinuities and flashback, in order to rouse in the live theatre, handles psychological and the emotions of the audience. At the same epic modes with equal skill. L’Annonce faite à time, he gives a central place to a chorus and Marco, ou a l’aube et sans couronne (The An- its leader to comment on and analyse the ac- nunciation to Marco, or Uncrowned at Dawn) tion. In these plays, humanity is always col- (1983), set in a village cafe in Algeria in the lectivized and the group is the real focus of summer of 1957 and mixing colloquial French performance. The individual ‘heroes’ (male with snatches of Arabic, shows how divided and female) who carry the action forward are interests and loyalties fuel both sides of the stereotyped in the Brechtian fashion and their conflict. Tell el Zaatar s’est tu a la tombée du activity is always referred to the interests of soir (Silence at Nightfall in Tell el Zaatar), from the group—a familiar feature, after Kateb, of 1981, is a spectacular dramatization of the Maghrebin drama. Kateb returned to Algeria history of the Palestinian tragedy, charting the in 1972 to experiment with political theatre displacement of the inhabitants of Palestine by in popular Arabic, under governmental aus- the Balfour declaration, their exploitation by pices. Mohammed, prends ta valise (Moham- the United States, Britain and the oil sheikhs, med, Pick Up Your Suitcase), first played in and the continuing resistance by individuals, Algerian Arabic (Birkadem 1971), toured in guerrilla groups and terrorists, backed finally France February to June 1972, in migrant by international popular uprisings. A cast of workers’ hostels and maisons de la culture. dozens of episodic characters fills a sequence L’Homme aux sandales de caoutchouc (The of tableaux casting backwards and forwards Man in Rubber Sandals), which sets choruses in time, using film and sound recordings, the of French workers, Chinese, and Black Ameri- full gamut of lighting and explosive sound ef- can revolutionaries around an epic history of fects, music and dance. The action is held to- anti-colonial struggle in Vietnam, was per- gether by a love story, which recounts the performed first in Algiers and then at the Théâtre sistence of personal and national loyalties du Cothurne in Lyon, in 1971. The mayor of down the generations, and by a framing tech- Lyon cut the theatre’s subsidy. La Voix des nique drawn, with a novel twist, from the most femmes (Women’s Voice)—staged in 1972 in traditional mode of Arab performance art. A spoken Arabic, which uses female voices to tale-teller from Algeria himself turns into a celebrate an amalgam of ancestral and social- frame for another narrator, a woman, who tells ist values, was staged in French in Tlemcen, the full story—in this fight for liberation, the also in 1972. From 1977, Kateb’s iconoclasm women take up the word, as they took up the encountered renewed hostility from the Alge- guns. There is the same recognition of wom- rian political and religious authorities. Le en’s changed role, established through the war Bourgeois sans culotte, ou le spectre du Parc of independence, in Mohammed Dib’s black Monceau (The Middle-Class Revolutionary, comedy, performed at the Avignon Festival in or the Ghost of the Parc Monceau) is a satire 1977, Mille houras pour une gueuse (Cheers 230 francophone performing arts: Switzerland for the Skirt). The female voice comes to the contemporaine, Paris: Maisonneuve et foreground, urging on the despairing revolu- Larose (a rich and informative work; needs tionaries, marching alongside them and, in a to be read in conjunction with any reading striking reversal of the traditional nurturing of francophone culture in the Maghreb to maternal role, abandoning individuals to die, obtain some insight into the cultural nego- when necessary, for the sake of the Revolu- tiations involved). tionary cause. New ground has now been broken by the first woman dramatist, Fatima Gallaire, whose work explores the efforts of francophone performing arts: post-Revolutionary women to free themselves from the hierarchies of the patriarchal family, Switzerland mediated by a colluding matriarchy—for example, Princesses, ou ah! vous êtes venus…là The performing arts in French-speaking Swit- où il y a quelques tombes (Princesses, or You’ve zerland began to come into their own in the Come Among the Tombs), staged in New York mid-nineteenth century. The Romands were in 1988 and Paris in 1991, and Les Co-Épouses noted for attempts, in the lineage of Rousseau, (Joint Wives) performed in Paris in 1991). to popularize a theatre in which song and dance were an integral part. In the first part of JENNIFER BIRKETT the twentieth century, many theatrical compa- See also: Avignon and summer arts; nies were created in keeping with this spirit; decolonization; festivals; francophone cinema: René Morax’s Théâtre du Jorat (1908), for North Africa; francophone performing arts instance, was founded in a barn. Plays shown (Indian Ocean); francophone writing (fiction, in such spaces incorporated music, like Le Roi poetry): North Africa David (1921), with a score by Honegger, and exploited popular themes, like Tell (1914), with music by Gustave Doret. Contemporary Further reading traditional theatre has benefited from the international renown of German-speaking Swiss Auclaire-Tamaroff, E. and Auclaire-Tamaroff, authors such as Dürrenmatt and Frisch, espe- B. (1986) Jean-Michel Serreau: découvreur cially through the increase in funding avail- de théâtres, Paris: A l’Arbre Verdoyant (a able. text that includes numerous references to After World War II, new companies were Serreau’s collaboration in the development founded to complement existing municipal of North African drama, especially his theatres. Most notable examples are: La work with Kateb). Compagnie des Faux-Nez (Lausanne, 1948) Corvin, M. (1991) Dictionnaire under Charles Apothéloz; the Théâtre de encyclopédique du théâtre, Paris: Bordas Carouge (1957), which merged in 1972 with (an invaluable and up-to-date reference the Théâtre de l’Atelier (Geneva, mid-1960s); book, with useful detail on the socioeco- the Théâtre de Poche (Geneva, late 1940s), nomic conditions of theatrical performance which became the Nouveau Théâtre de Poche; as well as particular works and writers). and the Théâtre Populaire Romand or TPR Déjeux, J. (1992) La Littérature maghrébine (Neuchâtel in 1959, and now based in La d’expression française, Paris: PUF and Chaux-de-Fonds). French-Swiss theatre is of- (1993) Maghréb. Littératures de langue ten experimental or, at least, untraditional by française, Paris: Arcantère Editions (the in- Parisian standards. Themes tend to be surreal dispensable reference works for a summary or farcical—for example, Henri Dubluë’s but informative overview and discussion of 1962 Le Procès de la Truie (The Trial of the all aspects of Maghrebin writing). Sow), Louis Gaulis’s Capitaine Karagheuz Tomiche, N. (1993) La Littérature arabe (1960)—or are centred on issues of Swiss francophone performing arts: Switzerland 231 identity. Contemporary theatre has developed ing from the open attitude of companies cre- these characteristics in plays by, and adapta- ated by ex-Béjart dancers (Linga, Buissonière, tions of, contemporary writers in other genres Nomades). (Anne Cuneo, Éric Schaer, Amélie Plume, The most spectacular and popular merging Michel Viala). of performance arts occurs every twenty-five Substantial patronage from the Swiss Art years for the Fête des Vignerons in Vevey. The Council (ProHelvetia) led to the creation in last festival of this kind was in 1977 and was 1991 (in conjunction with the Swiss Society written by Henri Dubluë, with a musical score of Authors, or SSA) of the Parloir Romand, from Jean Balissat and costumes by Jean an organization encompassing five companies Monod. The 1977 Fête was directed by (Arsenic, Osses, TPR, St-Gervais and Charles Apothéloz, a doyen of mainstream art Yverdon). New plays can be showcased theatre who also successfully directed other through the Parloir, thereby gaining a degree popular celebrations: La Pierre et l’esprit of international recognition (see, for instance, (1975) (The Stone and the Spirit), La Fête du the work of Claude Delarue and Jean-Daniel blé et du pain (1978) (The Feast of Corn and Coudray). In the 1990s the SSA has also sup- Bread) and Terre nouvelle (1979) (New Land). ported the showing of new plays at the No performance in Switzerland can equal the Théâtre du Grütli in Geneva. The merging of scale of the Fête des Vignerons, originally a different art forms within Swiss theatre helps parade that became partly a stationary show transcend language and socioeconomic barri- in the nineteenth century. It has grown in size ers, and is in keeping with the Swiss spirit of over the years to become, in 1977, a two- popular art. Mime, self-evidently not re- week-long spectacle (coinciding with National stricted to one linguistic area, is very popular: Day) comprising more than 4,000 performers the famed school founded by the mime in an open-air arena (seating 15,800) over- Dimitri is in Italian-speaking Ticino, and the looking Lake Léman. The performers were international fame of the Mummenschanz non-professional (a choice made by transcends more than mere language barriers. Apothéloz, after the snub received by organiz- Physical performance is traditional, as illus- ers of the previous Fête, in 1955, when the trated by the work of Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Corps de Ballet of the Paris Opéra refused to the creator of danse rythmique (now part of participate in the parade), and comprised the romand primary school curriculum). Po- more than 1,000 children. The representation etry, literature, music (from the traditional of the four seasons featured modern and popu- Ranz des vaches to the modernism of lar dance, poetry, music (from orchestra to Honegger and Frank Martin), dance, film, Alpenhorn), and traditional, patriotic romand mime, puppetry (Théâtre des Marionnettes de songs (including the Ranz des vaches) sung Genève) and circus (Knie) all feed into the di- tearfully by the whole audience. Such specta- versity of the Swiss performing arts, and the cles are the apotheosis of the performing arts collaboration of Ramuz and Stravinsky in in Switzerland. 1918 on the Histoire du Soldat (The Soldier’s VÉRÈNE GRIESHABER Tale) is an illustrious early example. Today dance and theatre are closely linked, with the See also: francophone cinema (Switzerland); Béjart school (Rudra-Atelier) in Lausanne francophone performing arts (Belgium); teaching not only dance and kendo, but also francophone writing (poetry, fiction): Switzer- percussion, singing, theatre and music, so as land to produce performers whose understanding of dance as a language is not restricted to cho- Further reading reographic annotations. The Arsenic Thea- tre’s director, Jacques Gardel, collaborated with Linga to produce Alma Mahler, benefit- Louis, N. and Béatrice, P. (eds) (1993) Théâtre 232 francophone popular music: DOM-TOMs

en Suisse: Visions, Société Suisse du Théâtre chine, Energy and Tanya St Val. In (SST). Martinique, one finds Kwak and Taxi-Kreole Mimos (quarterly journal of the Société Suisse (exponents of pure zouk), Max Ramsay and du Théâtre). the group Malavoi, which explore the biguine Schweizer Theaterjahrbuch (an annual publi- and sounds of the 1950s reborn. After years cation). of neglect, some traditional forms of music and events on these islands are back in force; for example, the gwo-ka as well as the lewoz, francophone popular music: where workers on the sugar plantations would sing of their troubled existence and commemo- DOM-TOMs rate their African roots. These vie neg styles (Creole for ‘old Negroes’) bear witness to the Martinique and Guadeloupe, the two Carib- vitality of traditional music and are an anti- bean DOMs (départements d’outre-mer, or dote to the invasion of ragamuffin music im- ‘overseas departments’), share the same cul- ported by exiles from France or Jamaica. tural identity. Although French is the official Further south along the Atlantic coast, language, Creole is the vehicle for artistic ex- French Guiana is a singular country which, from pression. In musical terms their culture is an old penal colony, became a high-technology rooted in West Indian, therefore West African capital without much transition; a disparate heritage. group of immigrants from Brazil, Surinam, In the 1960s and 1970s public entertain- Haiti, Europe came to the new Eldorado. Each ment generally took place in the paillottes, community endeavours to keep its own cultural straw huts often located on the seaside. Local identity. There is an extraordinary musical groups or individual artists would come and patchwork—American tradition, Creole koesco play traditional West Indian rhythms, live of and biguine, jazz sessions and Brazilian-style course. In the 1980s a new musical form crea- carnival—and the organic link between these tively fusing old idioms and contemporary traditions is reggae. Compared to the French forms of swing, rock and funk emerged: the West Indies, there is no singular or original fea- zouk. The seminal exponent group Kassav’ ture such as the zouk, but French and/or Creole exported it to France, to Africa and to the are used by a myriad of artists, who explore a world, and with this new form came coinci- variety of genres from progressive music (Azica), dentally the decline of the paillottes, and the reggae (Marcel Blood, Wailing Roots, Nikko), appearance of nightclubs with heavy acoustic traditional Guianese (Ayne Gabrielle), latino- equipment and play-back facilities (to the jazz (Jorland), latino-african (Gilda Rey), to point where live music entertainment had chanson (Edward Blasse) and bossa nova (José more or less disappeared). In the early 1990s, Ultet). Kali and his group in Martinique were the In the Indian Ocean, the island of Reunion— exception that confirmed the play-back rule. a French territory since 1638, which became a But, apart from the fact that market forces DOM in 1946—offers an even wider form of imposed exile to mainland France on the am- métissage of cultures. As it developed over two bitious local zouk or jazz-biguine groups, centuries, immigrants came: slaves from Africa, things were changing. Besides the official tem- colons from Europe, traders from China, In- ples (Maison des Arts et de la Culture, in dia, Madagascar and the Middle East. The Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, and Le Carbet in specificity of Reunion is born out of this clash Fort-de France, Martinique), bars and clubs of cultures. Compared to his/her West Indian open their doors to their local zouk artists. In cousin, the Réunionnais is more inhibited; he/ Guadeloupe, where it all began, you can hear she has so many cultures to contend with, but Patrick St Eloi and Jean Michel Rotin, as well the common language apart from the official as the most established stars like Zouk Ma- French is the popular Creole (which is used francophone popular music: Europe 233 almost exclusively for the lyrics of any musical cally mixed with French variété, Californian expression). Reunion music is born of tradition pop, rock and jazz, and (inevitably) reggae, to akin to the other Indian Ocean islands (Mauri- form a powerful eclectic sound where ances- tius, Seychelles), a mixture of binary and ter- tral Taupiti celebrations are perpetuated. nary rhythms. The two seminal styles of music GÉRARD POULET on the island are maloya (synthesis of traditional music from Madagascar and East Africa) and See also: francophone performing arts: Indian sega (black African dance and music mixed with Ocean; francophone writing (fiction, poetry): white European rhythms and instruments). Up DOM-TOMs ; francophone writing (fiction, to the 1980s, sega was officially encouraged, poetry): Indian Ocean; parties and movements while maloya became the protest voice of poin francophone countries: DOM-TOMs; song/ litical opposition and, until 1981, was censored. chanson During the Mitterrand era, maloya became the focus of the young generation, and local groups Further reading like the Camaleons, TI Fock and Ziskakan, as well as the more established figures (Danyel Waro and Gramoun Lélé, Jacques Farreyrol and Hidalgo, F. (1993) ‘La Réunion, l’ile à grand Bernadette Ladauge), have syncretized the an- spectacle’, Chorus 4:106–8 (an informative cient art of maloya and modern electric sup- retrospective of forty years of music on the port to create an authentic Reunion sound. This island). musical explosion in terms of production is a Zone Franche (eds) (1995) Sans visa, Paris sign of extraordinary vitality and diversity. (700 pages of rich information on the mu- New Caledonia has seen the rise of Kanak sic of the francophone connection through- cultural identity and has received the financial out the world). support of both the DAC (official French cultural office) and the ADCK (local structure). Too often ignored by the Caldoches (Europe- francophone popular music: ans who represent one-third of the whole population), the musical heritage of this island Europe is now systematically explored and mixed with modern-day techniques. The concept of Belgium and Switzerland are the main sources kaneka (rhythms of the Kanaks) appeared in of popular music in francophone Europe, in 1986 as a variation of a Pacific reggae with terms of both production and distribution. traditional percussion instruments. Almost all Politically and culturally, Belgium’s two local artists sing in French and in one of the main communities—Flemish and French- twenty-eight different Kanak languages: Lifou, speaking—live in dynamic tension rather than Drehu, Laai… This mode of pop music is only in harmony. The French-speaking community beginning to flourish. mainly inhabits Brussels and southern Belgium French Polynesia has 200,000 inhabitants (Wallonie). In popular music terms, Jacques disseminated across 130 small islands over 4 Brel has put Belgium on the map since 1959. million square kilometres, with Tahiti at the His monumental presence overshadowed a centre of cultural and musical enterprise. The rich pattern of young talent, some of it ephem- mixture of races and cultures over the centu- eral, such as Philippe Anciaux, Paul Louka in ries is even more inextricable and reflected in Charleroi, Hustin, Watrin and Piérot. Others the languages used by the most successful art- mentioned below have lasted longer and still ists established in Tahiti: French, Spanish, Ta- participate in the present scene. The survival hitian, Rarotongian, Creole and…English. of la chanson as one of the most popular and The richness of traditional music and instru- authentic expressions of French-speaking Bel- ments (ukelele, Tahitian guitar) is enthusiasti- gian identity encounters many obstacles: the 234 francophone popular music: Europe geographical context is too restricted, there are ergy, are appreciated there as much as at the few venues which offer regular slots to pop, Cirque Royal in Liège. She heads a new gen- variété or rock artists, the record/CD market eration of artists, including Pierre Rapsat, is small, media support weak, and foreign im- Stella, Odieu, Marka and the Frères Mansion pact important. Even the home audience of- who, year after year, attempt to renew style ten expressed attachment to pop artists only and repertoire. In the 1990s, the extraordinary after success in France. In general terms, pro- voices of Zap Mama and Khadja Nin, from duction and distribution of cultural products Zaire and Burundi, impose their private is concentrated in the hands of non-French- worlds and rhythm on the old colonial me- speaking multinationals, and the danger of tropolis, on Montreal and in the USA. uniformity of music culture across the planet The Festival International de la Chanson is all too real: francophone pop music repre- Française in Spa was a fertile forum for new sents under 3 per cent of the world recording talent between 1963 and 1984. Since then, market. Nevertheless, there is a framework to hopefuls must attend festivals in France, Que- support artists of the Communauté Française bec or Switzerland or start at the Botanique in de Belgique (CFB) from Wallonie and Brus- Brussels in the shadow of established artists, sels. Funding exists to support participation as in the festival of September 1993 (‘Le in main festivals in what is usually known as Botanique fait la rentrée chanson’). On the the espace francophone: in France, the airwaves, the Anglo-American steamroller pre- Printemps de Bourges, the Francofolies de La vails: there is no prescribed quota for French Rochelle and the Chaînon-Manquant in songs as in France and Quebec, even though, Tours; elsewhere, the Festival International for a while, Pierre Collard-Bovy had a radio d’Été de Québec, the Francofolies de Montréal show dedicated to Belgian artists. Popular ven- and the Coup de Coeur Francophone, all in ues in Brussels are: the Os à Moelle, the Montreal; in Switzerland, the Paléo Festival Samaritaine and the Soupape and, in Liège, de Noyon. Such participation is vital because Les Forges, Georges Fassotte or Six Corale, of the decline of local events since the heyday where the new generation can be heard— of the 1960s and 1970s. Audrey Englebert, Etienne Dontaine, Légétime While Brel was enjoying success in France, Démence, Pascal Vyvère and Vaya Con Dios. in Brussels some assertive voices were heard, The French-speaking community in Swit- such as Freddy Zegers, Jules Beaucarne and zerland has a long singing tradition and its es- Salvatore Adamo. At the same time, rock and sential voice is undoubtedly Michel Bülher. In roll surged through both linguistic communi- the mould of Brel and Brassens, he is the re- ties—three francophone groups were The bellious troubadour who questions our times Cousins, Wallace Collection and, in the 1970s, and echoes the uneasy hopes of the Suisse Machiavel—together with a general trend to- romande youth. His 1993 album, L’Autre wards social and regional protest songs. Rep- Chemin (The Other Path), shows consistency resentative voices of that period are André in his message over twenty years, even if some Bialek and Claude Semal, who gave perhaps a lyrics are in the more trendy idiom of rap suisse. more accurate image of contemporary Belgian A sign of the times is that Évasion, the com- identity than Brel himself in Plat Pays (1960). pany which had produced Swiss-French sing- More socially aware were Christiane ers since the 1950s, went bankrupt in 1995. Stefanski, Guy Harmel and Ann Gaytan, In an eclectic musical environment, where jazz among others. Young talent of the 1970s has is particularly fertile, a few artists are perpetu- since established itself in the 1980s and 1990s, ating francophone song: for example, Sens such as Philippe Lafontaine, Maurane and Unik (a group of young rappers), Carlos and Pascal Charpentier. Of these, Maurane had his band, Valérie Lou and Sakharyn. They re- success in France, Quebec and Switzerland. main a minority with little airtime on local Her songs, full of humour, tenderness and en- French-speaking radio. However, two annual francophone popular music: North Africa 235 events are used as a forum for artists from the sive contributions from Mediterranean neigh- francophone world in a variety of musical bours have produced a burgeoning and styles: one is exclusively francophone (the conflictual context, favourable to a rich and Francomanias in Bulle, since 1990) and the varied musical texture. Three main languages other the Paléo-Festival at Noyon, which gives commonly used are Arabic, Berber and a substantial slot for French performers and French. The French colonial presence varied repertoire. Switzerland is a microcosm of Eu- in length in its three countries: 44 years in ropean cultural diversity. There is evidence of Morocco, 75 years in Tunisia and 132 years this cross-fertilization in the work of Stephan in Algeria. Since then, throughout North Af- Eicher, a German-speaking Swiss gypsy now rica (though less markedly in Algeria), highly successful on the international scene francophone musical expression has mainly singing in French, English and German. been imported and native talents have remained loyal to their ancestral roots and tra- GÉRALD POULET ditional languages:Arabic and Berber. See also: music festivals In Morocco the African-Andalusian musical tradition is the dominating influence. Evidence of this can be found in the numerous Écoles de Further reading Musique (Oujda, Meknes) or Instituts de Musique (Fez, Tétouan, Tangier), which spe- Chenot, F. (1994) ‘Brel et après’, Chorus 6: cialized in that type of music, originally from 110–18 (on pop music in French-speaking Granada and Córdoba. The language of instruc- parts of Belgium; informative and well il- tion might sometimes be French, as in the Institut lustrated). National de Musique et de Danse in Rabat, but CMCFB (eds) (1995) Dictionnaire de la the musical idiom is not. chanson francophone belge, Brussels (semi- Apart from this central tradition, represented nal work on the history of French-speak- in the 1990s by Bajedoub Mohamed, there are ing songs in Belgium since 1830). many other influences that never really converge Dumortier, G. (ed.) (1993/4) Consonances, in the creation of an authentic Moroccan sound: dissonances (two special numbers of a Berber, Jewish, Middle Eastern, Bambara and termly review published by the Ministry of International variété. Nevertheless, in the 1970s Culture for the French-speaking commu- Nass El Ghowan and Jil Jilala were instrumen- nity; in 1993, Spécial Chanson, and in tal in attempting a characteristic Moroccan style. 1994 Spécial Rock, constitute a series of A younger generation (the Bouchnak brothers, pertinent, critical articles written by local for example) emulated their Algerian neighbours experts). in promoting their own version of raï, and to- Zone Franche (eds) (1995) Sans visa, Paris (in- day the leading artist is Cheb Mimoun El Oudji dispensable guide to music styles of the from Oujda. The Berber tradition is centred in espace francophone and the world, giving Agadir with Ahihi Moulay Ahmed and up-to-date information, addresses of artists, Izenzaren. associations, venues and agencies for rel- Any Moroccan talent that wishes to use evant countries). French as a vehicle of expression tends to end up in France. The best example of this kind is Sapho. Born in Marrakesh in the Jewish com- francophone popular music: munity, she came to France in 1968 and brought with her the memories of the rich North Africa sounds of her childhood. If at first she rejected her background to embrace the values and The Maghreb (Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria) culture of the Western world, using rock and is a land of ancient civilizations where succes- jazz to express her torn experience and her 236 francophone radio: DOM-TOMs sense of revolt, in 1987 she added rhythms youth. Fifteen years later, at the end of the which are close to those of the gnawas, ‘musi- 1970s, a new breed nourished on traditional cian-therapists’ who entrance the crowds in raï but exposed to rock, pop and reggae came Casablanca and Marrakesh using traditional on the scene from the same suburbs of Oran. drums, Bambara-style. Idolized in Japan, she This was a social phenomenon first, then a has invented a kind of ethno-rock, merging musical movement which grew clandestinely her disparate roots—Jewish and Maghrebin to express in its vitality the spirit of a whole culture and French language. generation, at once joyfully exuberant and Tunisia is also a land of extraordinary mu- freely melancholic. They called themselves sical vitality rooted in long tradition and in- chebs (meaning ‘young’), they crossed the sea, fluenced by a Turkish presence established for and took Paris and France by storm in 1986, 100 years as well as Andalusian nouba. In the adding an extraordinary dimension to the 1960s, apart from the academic malouf, more French musical landscape. popular styles were developed like the recita- GÉRARD POULET tive fondo. The 1970s saw the beginning of a rich period in the singing tradition, illustrated See also: beur music; francophone performing by Lofti Bouchenak (who gave concerts in arts (North Africa); francophone writing (fic- France) and Ahmed Hamza. Ridha Hjouini tion, poetry): North Africa from Tunis is the only artist of the 1980s and 1990s who performs in French as well as in Further reading Arabic and is the prolific writer of more than 3,000 songs. The new trends are the bisquit (from the French biscuit) meaning ‘commer- Coulomb, S. and Varrod, D. (1987) Histoires cial’ and the mezwed (whose name is derived de chansons 1968–1988, Paris: Balland from the Breton bagpipe). Popular Tunisian (some entertaining and pertinent pages on tunes rarely cross the Mediterranean. the upsurge of raï love music in France in After 1962, Algeria experienced an ebullient 1986). period, when a strictly state-controlled cultural Seck, N. and Clerfeuille, S. (1993) Les Musiciens policy of Arabization, and of instruction in du beat africain, Paris: Bordas (essential Andalusian traditional musical style (perceived guide to African artists of renown from as ‘politically correct’), did not prevent some North to South Africa, alphabetically classi- artists from exposing their modern-day Alge- fied, usefully completed by a concise presen- rian-style pop music, mainly in Algiers and tation of the different musical styles, e.g. raï). Oran. The new styles emerged from the poorer suburbs. Around Oran there was a modern version of raï, created in the 1920s and from francophone radio: the Algiers casbah, the chaâbi, a sort of Alge- rian traditional blues, which pervaded this DOM-TOMs young country whose population more than doubled in twenty years. The central planning Radio audiences in the départements of cultural policy became more marked in d’outremer (DOM) and the territoires d’outre- 1965, with the arrival of Boumedienne as presi- mer (TOM), France’s overseas departments dent, but, nevertheless, the international pop and territories, depend mainly on programmes and rock movement did permeate somehow, broadcast by Radio France Outre-Mer (RFO, and the introduction of the acoustic guitar al- whose headquarters are at 5 avenue du lowed a new breed of artists (Aït-Menguellet, Recteur Poincaré, 75016 Paris), which em- and Idir with his famous hit, A vava Inouva) ploys a full-time staff of over 1,000. This sub- to express outside official channels the trou- sidiary of Radio France, whose official title is bled existence and aspirations of Algerian the Société Nationale de Radio et de Télévision francophone radio: Europe 237

Française d’Outre-Mer, was created in 1982. ALAN PEDLEY Short-wave radio broadcasts to former French See also: francophone radio: Europe; parties colonies began as early as 1931, on the occa- and movements in francophone countries: sion of the opening of the Colonial Exhibition DOM-TOMs in Paris. In 1955, DOM-TOM radio services were taken over by a new organization, SORAFORM (Société de Radiodiffusion de la France d’Outre-Mer), which became OCORA francophone radio: Europe (Office de Coopération Radiophonique) in 1964. From 1975 to 1982, the service was According to the most recent estimates, over controlled by FR3, the television channel. 61 million Europeans use French as their first There are nine RFO stations, each avail- language. Many more can understand it and able on FM networks: Martinique, speak it as a second language. Radio, which is Guadeloupe, Guyane, Réunion, St Pierre-et- unaffected by national frontiers, makes a sig- Miquelon, Polynésie (Tahiti), Nouvelle- nificant contribution to the maintenance of Calédonie, Wallis-et-Futuna and Mayotte. francophonie, which extends in Europe be- Since 1991 RFO programmes have been yond French borders into Belgium, Switzer- broadcast via the Télécom 2B satellite. Pro- land and Luxembourg. grammes are planned centrally (but 75 per France’s 23 national radio stations (includ- cent are produced locally) and concentrate on ing networks), 39 state-owned local radio sta- reflecting local culture, traditions and social tions and estimated 1,600 private local radio and economic affairs. Programmes stations provide the bulk of francophone ra- retransmitted from Radio France stations are dio in Europe. Some of these stations, the so- provided free to RFO. Advertising on RFO called radios périphériques, do not even trans- stations has been authorized since 1984—in mit from within French borders: RTL (formerly 1993, 14.5 per cent of RFO’s total revenue known as Radio Luxembourg), the most popu- came from advertising—but the major part of lar station in France since 1982 (with 17.6 per its income (over 70 per cent) was provided by cent of the national audience), has its long and the redevance (radio and television licence-fee short-wave transmitters in the Duchy. Europe payments). The state occasionally contributes I, the other main private périphérique station subsidies. (attracting 10 per cent of French radio listen- In most overseas departments and territo- ers), transmits from the Sarre in Germany. Both ries, France-Inter programmes are also avail- these long-wave stations are listened to by able on FM. There is also a popular private many Belgians, Swiss and Luxembourgers. In périphérique radio station, Radio Antilles, the southern half of France, two other private which is available to most French Caribbean périphérique stations broadcast non-special- listeners (Guadeloupe and Martinique), and ized programmes similar to those of RTL and transmits from the nearby British island of Europe 1: RMC (Radio Monte-Carlo), claim- Montserrat. ing over 4 per cent of the national audience, Overseas francophone listeners can also and Sud Radio, which transmits from the Prin- tune into France’s world service news broad- cipality of Andorra. casts on short wave, many of which are in The French state broadcasting company, French. This service, which has an estimated Radio France, also runs a non-specialized na- regular audience of 30 million, is provided by tional station, France-Inter (commanding 11.2 RFI (Radio France Internationale), another per cent of the national audience), both on FM subsidiary of Radio France. France’s world and long wave, so capturing many listeners in service dates back to 1935: RFI was created in Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg and even 1975 and became an autonomous organiza- Britain. Radio France also runs five other nation in 1983. tional stations of a more specialized nature: 238 francophone radio: Europe

France Info, France Culture, France Musique, was created by the Swiss Confederation as a Radio Bleue and FIP. Radio France’s local sta- private company enjoying a monopoly of tions cover all corners of the country, from Lille broadcasting, controlled by the state. It is sub- (Fréquence Nord) to Bayonne (Pays Basque), divided into three regional/linguistic organi- from Quimper (Bretagne Quest) to Bastia zations: the RDRS (for German speakers), the (Corse Frequenza Mora). SSR (Société Suisse de Rediffusion et In addition to the périphérique stations there Télévision) and RDSI (for Italian speakers). are a number of private national networks French-language radio programmes are pro- which are more specialized: NRJ, Fun, vided by Radio Suisse Romande (RSR), which Nostalgie, Europe 2, Skyrock, Chérie FM, RFM, is based at Lausanne (40 avenue du Temple, M40, Metropolys-Maxximum, Super-Loustic, Case Postale 78, 1010 Lausanne). RSR runs Montmartre, Notre-Dame, Fourvière, TSF, RTL three stations: RSR-La Première, RSR-Espace 2 and Radio Classique. These stations are tend- 2 and RSR-Couleur 3. It is financed partly by ing to progress in terms of audience at the ex- revenue produced by the licence fee and partly pense of the non-specialist stations. by income from advertising. The latter is strictly Outside France, the largest number of controlled: commercial breaks must not ex- French speakers is to be found in Belgium ceed 8 per cent of any single day’s broadcast- (about 4.5 million). Before World War II, ra- ing. The SSR monopoly was broken for the dio broadcasting was in the hands of a private first time in 1979 by Radio 24, and further company, INR (Institut National Belge de concessions have been granted to a number of Radiodiffusion)—founded in 1930, it ran two local private radio stations since that time. stations, one broadcasting in Flemish and the While managing reasonably well to hold other in French. In 1945, the INR was granted its own in the face of the ever-increasing popu- a monopoly of broadcasting and became a larity of television, radio listening in state-owned concern. Following a period of francophone Switzerland compares unfavour- growing tension between the two main cultural ably with the other two major linguistic areas and linguistic groups in Belgium, a law cre- of the country. While Italian speakers average ated two distinctive autonomous organizations 156 minutes of listening per day, and German in 1960: RTBF (Radio-Télévision Belge de la speakers average 198, French speakers only Communauté Française) for Walloon/French manage 133. speakers and BRT for Flemish speakers. ALAN PEDLEY These two state-owned companies could not originally carry advertising. During the 1970s See also: francophone radio: DOM-TOMs; they were increasingly challenged by private radio (private/free); radio (state-owned) pirate radio stations and RTL. This led the Belgian government to legalize private radio Further reading at the local level. In 1987, BRT and RTBF were allowed to take advertising. BRT runs four FM stations; RTBF runs three FM stations and one Albert, P. and Tudesq, A.-J. (1987) Histoire station on medium wave. Despite the spread de la radio- télévision, Paris: PUF (a con- of television into virtually every Belgian home cise historical overview). in the 1980s, radio listening has increased (the Boon, M., Ryst, A. and Vinay, C. (1990) average of 2.5 hours a day in 1980 became Lexique de l’audiovisuel, Paris: Dalloz 3.5 hours in 1990), even more than TV view- (general reference work). ing (2 hours in 1980, 2.25 hours in 1990). Chevalier, P.-A. (1993) ‘Le Paysage médiatique In Switzerland, where there are nearly 1.25 helvétique’, Swiss Embassy. million French speakers, broadcasting has been Debbasch, C. (1985) Radio et télévision en in the hands of the SRG (Schweizerische Europe, Paris: Éditions du CNRS (a useful Rundfunk Gesellschaft) since 1931, when it survey of the European scene). francophone television: DOM-TOMs 239

Études de radio-télévision, Brussels: RTB (an- however, RFO is facing increasing competition nual review, useful for updating European for viewers with the establishment of new context). sources of television programming. In the early Landam, G. (1986) Introduction à la 1990s, several local private television compa- radiodiffusion Internationale, Paris: Davoze nies were licensed by the national regulatory (a good basic guide to international broad- authority, the Conseil Supérieur de casting). l’Audiovisuel (Higher Audiovisual Council). The most popular private television channels in the DOM-TOMs include: Antenne Réunion, francophone television: whose main shareholder is the Bourbon sugar company; Archipel 4 in Guadeloupe; DOM-TOMs Télévision Caraïbe Internationale and Antilles Télévision in Martinique; and Antenne Créole Francophone television in the French overseas Guyane. In addition, encrypted pay-TV chan- departments and territories (DOM-TOMs) nels, in which Havas DOM is a major share- comes from three main sources: the public sec- holder, have very quickly established them- tor company Société National de Radio et de selves in the market. These include: Canal Télévision Française d’Outre-Mer (RFO), Réunion, Canal Antilles in Guadeloupe and which operates two channels; local private tel- Martinique, Canal Guyane, Canal Calédonie evision companies; and pay-TV on the Canal and Canal Polynésie. Finally, there are assorted Plus format. pirate television stations, including Canal 10 In terms of audience share, the most impor- and TV-Éclair in Guadeloupe and TV Freedom tant broadcaster by far is RFO. This company in Reunion, broadcasting illegally to small but was originally established by the 1982 broad- often very faithful audiences. casting statute (the loi Fillioud) as a subsidi- There is little doubt that the pay-TV sta- ary of the state broadcasting companies, Ra- tions will attract enough subscribers to be a dio France and FR3, but was transformed into viable commercial enterprise. In contrast, the a separate self-standing programme company advertising-funded private channels face an by the 1986 audiovisual statute (the loi uncertain financial future as satellite and dig- Léotard). RFO is funded primarily from li- ital technology opens up the DOM-TOMs to cence-fee income, supplemented by state grants the output of foreign broadcasters. More wor- and advertising revenue. It has three zones of ryingly for French policy-makers, if in the fu- transmission. The Atlantic zone comprises ture local viewers turn away in large numbers Martinique, French Guiana, Guadeloupe and from the output of RFO, then the high cost of St-Pierre-et-Miquelon; the Indian Ocean zone maintaining a separate public sector company consists of Reunion and Mayotte; and the Pa- for small overseas audiences is bound to fea- cific zone includes New Caledonia, Polynesia, ture on the media policy agenda in metropoli- and Wallis and Futuna. Its first channel, RFO tan France. In this case, the French state will 1, broadcasts programmes from the schedules have to decide the extent to which it is pre- of TF1, France Télévision and ARTE as well pared to underwrite a publicly funded broad- as some locally produced output, especially casting service in the DOM-TOMs to help news. The second channel, RFO 2, transmits maintain its cultural and political presence the programme schedule of France 2. In the there. early 1990s, thanks to developments in satel- RAYMOND KUHN lite technology, the programme schedules of both channels were lengthened and reception See also: francophone radio: DOM-TOMs; improved. RFO’s audience share is upwards francophone television: Europe; parties and of 70 per cent across the DOM-TOMs. movements in francophone countries: DOM- Having lost its long-standing monopoly, TOMs; television 240 francophone television: Europe francophone television: Europe Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion (CLT), which is the main broadcaster in Lux- embourg. The CLT is in part owned by the Television is a vital medium for the dissemina- French company Havas and has an ownership tion of the French language and francophone stake in the French television company M6. culture to European audiences who are resi- Since over 90 per cent of Belgian households dent outside of metropolitan France. Its pro- are hooked up to cable systems, francophone gramme output can help maintain a sense of a Belgians can also receive French-language pro- francophone community which often looks gramming from the metropolitan French tel- towards the ‘mother country’ as a source of evision channels as well as from ARTE and cultural values and artefacts. However, the TV5. TF1, for example, has a large share of French-speaking audience outside of France is the Belgian francophone audience, making it not extensive, and the francophone audiovisual a major competitor with RTBF and RTL-TVi. product has to compete with a wide range of The pay-TV channel Canal Plus Belgique was non-francophone programming in the fast-ex- started in 1989, and is owned by a consor- panding multichannel environment of late tium comprising RTBF, Canal Plus France and twentieth-century Europe. assorted Belgian companies. Francophone television in Europe can be In Switzerland, the Société Suisse de divided up into four distinct categories. First, Radiodiffusion (SSR) produces programming there is the output of French television chan- for each linguistic region, with its studios in nels such as TF1 and France Télévision, which Geneva catering for the French-speaking Swiss can be received by audiences in other Euro- population. The SSR had a public service mo- pean countries via the new distribution sys- nopoly until 1983. However, because of the tems of cable and satellite or in some cases by widespread availability of cable television, traditional terrestrial transmission. Second, in francophone Swiss viewers also have access to countries such as Belgium and Switzerland, foreign channels, including those from metro- which have their own indigenous French- politan France. Well over half of the viewing speaking audiences, French-language channels time in the French-speaking cantons is devoted form part of the national broadcasting system. to non-Swiss channels. In 1990, for example, Third, with national boundaries becoming the metropolitan French channels—France 1, more permeable as a result of the development Antenne 2, France 3, La Cinq and M6—took of new communication technologies, over half of the French-speaking audience transnational and pan-European French-lan- share, with TF1 alone taking 24 per cent. guage channels such as ARTE and TV5 have The development of cable and satellite tech- entered the market. Finally, pay-TV channels nology in the 1980s, and the arrival of digital (in which Canal Plus has a stake) are attract- television in the 1990s, have opened up new ing subscribers in various European countries. opportunities for pan-European francophone In this last case, what is being exported is more output by facilitating a huge expansion in the a French model of television based on the Ca- number of channels and breaking down na- nal Plus experience rather than French-lan- tional boundaries in transmission and recep- guage product. tion. In 1996 Canal Plus entered into an agree- In Belgium, the public service broadcaster ment with BSkyB (United Kingdom) and for French-speaking Wallonia is the RTBF, Bertelsmann (Germany) to form a European which is funded from a mix of licence income consortium to promote the expansion of Eu- and advertising revenue and operates two rope-wide digital television. With its techno- French-language channels. Its official mo- logical expertise and production experience, nopoly status was abolished in 1987 and it now Canal Plus is set to be a major player in the faces stiff competition from the commercial media market of the twenty-first century and, channel, RTL-TVi. The latter is owned by the as a result, French television will be at the heart francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Belgium 241 of the European audiovisual revolution. How- Dynamics of Media Politics, London: Sage ever, the problems for francophone television (thematic study of the media in Western in Europe remain formidable. On the supply Europe). side, the French programme production industry is not geared up to providing huge amounts of original francophone product. In contrast, francophone writing (fiction, the United Kingdom has a well-developed audiovisual media sector whose programme out- poetry): Belgium put is popular with audiences across continen- tal Europe. Moreover, there are very limited Belgian writing is here defined as the collec- non-European sources of francophone production of texts (novels, short stories and poetry) tion. Programme imports to Europe from produced by authors of Belgian origin, and has abroad tend to be in English (from the United been better known through famous figures States) or Spanish/Portuguese (from Latin than through an easily identifiable label (such America). On the demand side, the European as ‘Belgian literature’). While few would dare francophone community resident outside of propose a definition of what exactly consti- metropolitan France is small and concentrated tutes ‘Belgian literature of French expression’, in areas close to French territory. Belgian authors have in fact contributed to the The French state has sought to promote history of French literature: for example, francophone television in Europe and assist the Maurice Maeterlinck (recipient of the Nobel production base of its audiovisual industries prize for literature in 1911), Émile Verhaeren, through a combination of financial aid and Henri Michaux, Georges Simenon, Dominique protectionist measures such as programme Rolin, Françoise Mallet-Joris, Pierre Mertens, quotas. However, France’s major partners in and the inevitable Tintin, whose adventures the European Union have not been sympathetic scarcely need to be presented. For ideological to its advocacy of regulation and financial sup- and political reasons, for want of institutional port to offset the allegedly undesirable cultural or academic support (except a Royal Academy consequences of free trade in audiovisual goods of French Language and Literature, avoided and services. In any case regulation can be only by new talents as a stifling institution), and part of the equation. If francophone television because Belgian publishers were never able to is to be successful in securing audiences in the compete with their established and prestigious future, this will require not just a larger French- French neighbours, many Belgian authors have speaking market in Europe but also pro- chosen to live in France or to give up their Bel- grammes whose content, form and style make gian nationality altogether (Michaux became them competitive with non-francophone and French in 1955). When they choose to remain particularly anglophone production. in Belgium, Belgian novelists set their novels either in France or behind closed doors with RAYMOND KUHN no reference to location. Throughout the his- See also: francophone television: DOM- tory of Belgian literature, the trend of exile to TOMs; television Paris has been so consistent that there is indeed some truth in the adage that ‘One French author out of two is Belgian.’ Since the 1980s, Further reading however, the situation has changed. Thanks to the combined efforts of Belgian publishers Euromedia Research Group (1992) The Me- (Labor), and to a proactive Ministry of Cul- dia in Western Europe, London: Sage (a ture and Social Affairs represented by Marc country-by-country study of Western Eu- Quaghebeur (who is not only a diplomat but ropean media systems). also an author and critic), Belgian authors have Siune, K. and Truetzschler, W (eds) (1992) become visible on the international scene as 242 francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Belgium specifically Belgian, though it is no longer felt and recipient of the 1987 Médicis prize for his that such an identity requires a fixed defini- Shadowlight (Les Éblouissements)—deals tion outlining exactly what is Belgian and what with a popular Belgian theme, the interior is not. exile of the tourist, entwined with childhood The post-1950 literary production remains memories, in Une Paix royale (A Royal Peace). polymorphous. While many authors of the In his 1995 novel, La Place du mort (The first half of the century have set their own Passenger Seat), Jean-Luc Outers also deals work within a movement or have been ‘la- with memory, but integrates it with a theme belled’ according to French literary taxonomy central to the Belgian novel of French expres- (naturalism for Camille Lemonnier, symbol- sion—language itself. In the same year, Louise ism for Georges Rodenbach, and Surrealism Lambrichs, whose Journal d’Hannah for Paul Nougé and Christian Dotremont), (Hannah’s Diary) was elected best novel for contemporary Belgian authors remain idiosyn- 1993 by the French literary journal Lire, cratic. The 1980s saw a tremendous develop- analyses the dangers of history and memory ment as far as Belgian writers were concerned, in Le Jeu du roman (The Game of the Novel). both with new voices and with writers who On the more experimental side, Eugène had published before and who came back with Savitzkaya manipulates the French language much-acclaimed novels. to translate the tragedy of the human condi- In a deceptively classical style, Jacqueline tion and memory in a world inhabited by deca- Harpman explored the abysses of history and dence, decay and putrefaction—see Mongolie memory from La Mémoire trouble (Blurred plaine sale (Mongolia, dirty plain) from 1976, Memory) in 1987, and 1990’s La Fille La Disparition de maman (The Vanishing of démantelée (The Dismantled Daughter), to Mother) of 1982, Marin mon coeur (Marin, Moi qui n’ai pas connu les hommes (I Who My Beloved) from 1992, and En Vie (Alive) Have Not Known Men) from 1995, a claus- published in 1995. Jean-Philippe Toussaint trophobic novel set in a wasteland which ex- explores the narrative possibilities of the frag- plores life without memory, and her 1992 col- ment in La Salle de bain (The Bathroom) and lection of short stories, La Lucarne (Skylight), Monsieur: A Novel (Monsieur), published in in which she rewrote old myths, from the Vir- 1995 and 1996. The most famous writers of gin Mary and Antigone to Joan of Arc. the new generation include Pascal de Duve, One of the most prolific and acclaimed Bel- who explored the tragic ironies of modern life gian authors, Dominique Rolin, who was in his 1990 novel (Izo), and the playful and awarded the 1952 Femina prize for Le Souffle tragic possibilities of the French language in (Breeze), explores love, family and their trag- his 1993 travel narrative Cargo Vie (Cargo edies—from Les Marais (Swamps) of 1942, Life), before his death from AIDS at the age of Moi qui ne suis qu’amour (I Who Am Noth- 29. Amélie Nothomb has become the enfant ing But Love) of 1948, 1960’s Le Lit (The Bed) terrible of Belgian literature, a cultural phe- and Le For intérieur (Heart of Hearts) of nomenon, not only with her novels but also 1962, novels influenced by the nouveau ro- with her interviews, in which she has created man, to 1992’s Deux Femmes un soir (Two herself into a myth (coming from a famous Women One Night), the subtle story of a family of Belgian diplomats and ministers, she mother-daughter relationship in which their declares that she was an alcoholic between the points of view alternate. ages of 3 and 14 and that only anorexia saved In a much-debated novel (taken to court her from alcoholism). After her first novel, for its allegedly irreverent comments on Bel- Hygiène de l’assassin (Hygiene of the Mur- gian monarchs Leopold III and Baudouin), derer), a thriller published in 1992 whose ac- Pierre Mertens—the author of what had been tion is the very act of writing, she published considered the ‘first modern Belgian novel’, Le Sabotage amoureux (Amorous Suicide), Les 1974’s Les Bons Offices (The Good Services), Combustibles (Combustibles), and Les francophone writing (fiction, poetry): DOM-TOMs 243

Catilinaires (Hate Speeches), which was hailed is internationally acclaimed, while not all texts by the popular French literary journal Lire as emanating from the French islands are in the best novel for 1995. Amélie Nothomb’s French: many poems, novels or folk-tales are novels, usually based on the dialogue form, are written in Creole by Hector Poullet and caustic and captivating domestic tragedies. Raphaël Confiant or collected by Ina Césaire. Recent novels have explored the potential of JEAN MAINIL Creolized French: for example Patrick See also: comic strips/cartoonists; francophone Chamoiseau’s (1988) attempt at becoming a cinema: Belgium; francophone performing marqueur de parole in Solibo Magnificent arts: Belgium; literary prizes; publishing/ (Solibo magnifique) and Daniel Maximin’s l’édition 1995 prose poem about a hurricane, Une Île et une nuit (One Island and One Night). Caribbean writings from départements Further reading d’outre-mer are closely related to texts written in other Caribbean islands (in Creole, French, Biron, M. (1994) La Modernité belge, Brussels: English, Spanish or Dutch), but also to the Éditions Labor (a theoretical analysis of what Creole (though non-Caribbean) literatures of led to, and constitutes, Belgian modernity). the Indian Ocean (Mauritius and Reunion). Frickx, R. and Trousson, R. (eds) (1988) Moreover, many authors live and write far Lettres françaises de Belgique: dictionnaire from their native islands. Gisèle Pineau, who des oeuvres, Paris: Gembloux (a four-vol- wrote La Grande Dérive des esprits (The Great ume dictionary of Belgian literature with Drift of the Spirits) and L’Espérance-Macadam alphabetical entries by title with an index (Macadam-Hope), was born in Paris; Maryse by author: volume 1, the novel; volume 2, Condé has lived in Africa—see Segu (Ségou), poetry; an indispensable work of reference). and Heremakhonon (1976)—in France and in Quaghebeur, M. (1990) Lettres belges entre the United States. Always, Caribbean writings absence et magie, Bruxelles: Éditions Labor redefine fiction and poetry because they bring (on poetry). together literature and politics, history and myths, storytelling and the written word. Politics and history, turbulent sites of con- francophone writing (fiction, tested cultural reappropriation, constantly mingle with fictional accounts. Many recent poetry): DOM-TOMs novels write a Caribbean history of (de)colonization. Writers denounce the silences In the Caribbean, the borders of nation-states of official history—see Dany Bebel-Gisler’s are incompatible with linguistic and literary 1985 biography of an unknown Guadeloupean frontiers. By concentrating on the (strictly woman, Leonora: The Buried Story of speaking) French territories of Guadeloupe, Guadeloupe (Léonore: l’histoire enfouie de la Martinique and French Guiana that officially Guadeloupe) or shatter persistent myths: re- acquired the status of overseas departments reading the tragic turning point of 1802 when (départements d’outre-mer) in 1946, it is pos- slavery was re-established by Napoleon after sible to delineate a thriving literary corpus. But having been abolished in 1794, André no common denominator is easily pinpointed, Schwarz-Bart’s 1972 work La Mulâtresse soli- because Caribbean literatures always question tude, and Maximin’s Lone Sun (L’Isolé Soleil) the categories of literary genres, of national or and Soufrières, ridicule the theory that Carib- even post-colonial literatures, and invite us to bean people cannot appreciate their freedom adopt a comparativist approach. because they never had to fight for it. Novels The French language is not a unifying ele- also provide a Caribbean vision of recent ment: Haitian literature of French expression events: Raphaël Confiant’s 1988 text, Le Nègre 244 francophone writing (fiction, poetry): DOM-TOMs et l’amiral (The Negro and the Admiral) adds writer and Communist leader of Indian ori- a lively Caribbean rendition of Vichy-led gin, Ernest Moutoussamy). The universe de- Martinique to the few and often sketchy ac- scribed in Joseph Zobel’s 1955 Black Shack counts left by famous literary figures after their Alley is still present in collective memories but short and unhappy stay in the island on their the grandmother’s struggle to help her grand- way to the United States (see, for example, Lévi- son infiltrate the white educational system is Strauss’s Tristes Tropiques). far from recent novelists’ preoccupations: Caribbean culture and the way in which it Chamoiseau’s 1992 Goncourt prizewinning is mediated through written and oral produc- Texaco retraces the history of quite contem- tions is often a controversial site of struggle porary urban developments. against neocolonial reflexes, as shown in In 1989, when three Martinican thinkers Bebel-Gisler’s Le Défi culturel guadeloupéen: published a lyrical manifesto to celebrate devenir ce que nous sommes (The créolité as a specific West Indian cultural iden- Guadeloupean Cultural Challenge: Becoming tity, they did not hesitate to claim that West Who We Are), published in 1989. Caribbean Indian literature does not exist yet In Praise of writing has a long tradition of opposing the Creoleness (Éloge de la créolité). Readers may racist stereotypes that have survived the hey- have wondered if such a self-disparaging state- day of colonial assimilationist policy. ment was the result of lasting forms of cul- Recent fiction has celebrated heroic nègres tural alienation that Chamoiseau, Bernabé and marrons (maroons), trying to erase the popu- Confiant’s literary predecessors had already lar image of runaway slaves as mythical vil- virulently condemned: Aimé Césaire’s 1939 lains invoked to scare children (see Édouard Return to My Native Land (Cahier d’un re- Glissant’s Malemort). In recent fiction and tour au pays natal) predates World War II. But poetry, cultural marronnage (marooning) is a the provocative suggestion may also be an in- conscious tactic of reappropriation, and nov- vitation to revise our conception of ‘literature’ elists choose to tap both African storytelling in the West Indies. Glissant proposes ‘relation’ traditions and the Western canon—see Simone as a keyword in his Caribbean Discourse (Le Schwarz-Bart’s Between Worlds (Ti-Jean Discours antillais) of 1981, and in his 1990 l’horizon) or The Bridge of Beyond (Pluie et text, Poétique de la Relation (Poetics of Rela- vent sur Télumée Miracle), and Condé’s re- tion). Playing on the French word ‘relation’ writing of Wuthering Heights, La Migration (meaning ‘relationship’, but also what is ‘re- des coeurs (Migrating Hearts). lated’ and what is ‘relayed’), he presents us with What Frantz Fanon called lactification in cross-disciplinary and cross-cultural models. his 1952 publication, Black Skin White Masks Similarly, In Praise of Creoleness invites us to (the tragically alienated desire to mix black concentrate on the beautifully entangled web blood with the milk of white sexual partners of relationships created by our search for a in order to ‘save’ the race), is still recognizable specific French West Indian literature; This web in derogatory Creole phrases referring to the or mosaic finds both thematic and structural texture of black people’s skin or hair—see Julie representation in novels such as Maryse Lirus’s Identité antillaise (Caribbean Iden- Condé’s Crossing the Mangrove (Traversée de tity)—and denounced in Michèle Lacrosil’s or la mangrove) from 1989, an intriguingly poly- Jacqueline Manicom’s stories. Most novels phonic text where the voices of first-person published in the 1980s and 1990s, however, male and female narrators of different races welcome racial and cultural hybridity. While and social origins alternate from chapter to they hardly present diversity as a cultural or chapter. The juxtaposition of separate Carib- economic panacea, they move far beyond the bean identities does not add up to a coherent tenets of negritude, that focused on black iden- whole, but to a complex and sometimes frag- tity and race, neglecting people of mixed-blood, mented mosaic, a symbol of the islands’ mul- Indian and Chinese origins (see Aurore by the tiracial and multicultural society. francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Indian Ocean 245

MIREILLE ROSELLO The postwar years have seen contrasting developments of these latter two traditions. See also: decolonization; francophone popu- Mauritian poetry has achieved French and in- lar music: DOM-TOMs; parties and move- ternational consecration through the figures of ments in francophone countries: DOM-TOMs Malcolm de Chazal (1902–81), a visionary and aphoristic poet much admired by André Breton Further reading and Jean Paulhan; and Edouard Maunick (b. 1931), a poet of exile and multicultural island identity and a figurehead of francophone liter- Antoine, R. (1992) La Littérature franco- ary circles in Paris. By contrast, the contem- antillaise: Haïti, Guadeloupe et Martinique, porary poets of Reunion have been more con- Paris: Karthala (a history of the literature cerned to establish and explore their Creole produced in these islands from the begin- identity, often by writing in Creole or incor- ning of the colonial period to the present). porating Creolisms into their use of French. Boyce Davies, C. and Savory Fido, E. (eds) The pioneer of the movement of créolie was (1990) Out of the Kumbla: Caribbean Jean Albany (1917–84), with his collection Women and Literature, Trenton: Africa Zamal of 1951—the title is the Creole word World Press (a collection of interdiscipli- for ‘marijuana’, symbolizing the poet’s heady nary articles by leading specialists of Car- memories of his childhood on the island. Oth- ibbean studies). ers of a more conventional inspiration celebrate Burton, R. (1995) ‘West Indies’, in P.France Reunionnais decor and culture, such as the (ed.) The New Oxford Companion to Lit- archbishop Gilbert Aubry (b. 1942), in Rivages erature in French, Oxford: Clarendon Press d’Alizés (Trade-Wind Shores) of 1971, and (a thorough, chronologically organized sur- Hymne à la Créolie (Hymn to Creolia) of 1978; vey of Caribbean literature). or the long-exiled Jean-Henri Azéma (b. 1913) Chamoiseau, P. and Confiant, R. (eds) (1991) in Olographe (Testament) of 1978. A more Lettres créoles—tracées antillaises et militant poetry grew up in the 1970s, aware continentales de la littérature, 1635–1976, of the heritage of slavery and contemporary Paris: Hatier. social inequalities, with the monumental epic poem Vali pour une reine morte (Lament for a Late Queen) of 1973 by Boris Gamaleya (b. francophone writing (fiction, 1930); and the populist and autonomist po- poetry): Indian Ocean etry of Alain Lorraine (b. 1946) in Tienbo le rein (Let’s Stay as One) of 1975. More recent militant poets, such as Carpanin Marimoutou The principal islands—Madagascar, Mauri- (b. 1956), have moved from French to Creole, tius, Reunion and the Seychelles—all have a often publishing bilingual editions of their literary output in French, but its status differs poetry, such as Romans pou la mèr et la tèr as a result of their varied populations and con- (Romance for the Sea and the Land) of 1995. trasting colonial history. In all these areas, In Madagascar, with the colonial imposi- French as a literary language is rivalled by lo- tion of education in French, a generation of cal languages such as Creole in Reunion, Mau- poets grew up who attempted to transpose ritius and the Seychelles, English and Indian into French the forms and qualities of the in- languages in Mauritius, and Malagasy lan- digenous Malagasy poetic tradition. Three of guages in Madagascar. There is nevertheless a these, Jean-Joseph Rabéarivelo (1903–37), well-established tradition of writing in French, Jacques Rabémananjara (b. 1913) and Flavien going back to the late eighteenth century in Ranaïvo (b. 1914), were made famous by their the case of Reunion and the early nineteenth inclusion in L.S.Senghor’s Anthologie de la century in Mauritius. nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache (Anthology 246 francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Indian Ocean of the New Negro and Malagasy poetry) in 1963’s Le Chemin de pierre ponce (The Pum- 1948. The pioneering Rabéarivelo committed ice-Stone Path) and Le Temps juste (A Just suicide in 1937, but the militant nationalist Time) from 1966—which evoke metaphysical Rabémananjara was to dominate the Mala- doubts through the depiction of Mauritian gasy literary scene during the postwar years. social problems such as racial prejudice. The Imprisoned after the uprising of 1947, most notable defenders of the Mauritian novel Rabémananjara became a spokesman for the in recent years have often been exiles: Jean aspirations of his country to independence and Fanchette (b. 1932) with Alpha du Centaure worked closely with Alioune Diop on the re- (The Alpha of the Centaur) in 1975; Marie- vue Présence africaine. His prison poetry Thérèse Humbert (b. 1940) with her autobio- Antsa (Testament) of 1948, Rites millénaires graphical novel A l’autre bout de moi (At the (Millennial Rites) of 1955 and Lamba in 1956 Other End of Myself) in 1979; and the French are among his most poignant celebrations of novelist Jean-Marie Le Clézio who rediscov- the mystery and beauty of the decor and cus- ered his Mauritian identity with Le Chercheur toms of his country. After independence in d’or (The Gold-Hunter) in 1985. The island 1958, Rabémananjara became an influential has at the same time experienced a revival of politician and government minister, but was literature in Creole, be it novels such as René forced into exile by the coup d’état of 1972 Asgarally’s Quand montagne prend difé… which soon brought to power the Marxist re- (When the Mountain Catches Fire…) of 1977 gime of Ratsiraka. The more discreet figure of or the poems of the dramatist Dev Ranaivo published L’Ombre et le vent Virahsawmy. (Shadow and Wind) in 1947, Mes chansons The mid-1970s in Reunion saw a renais- de toujours (The songs I always sing) in 1955, sance of socially committed novels, often writ- and Le Retour au bercail (Return to the Fold) ten in Creole or a Creolized French, whose in 1962, before he too was forced to settle in subject matter was the lives of the poorest France. The period of the People’s Republic members of Réunionnais society: the most was not favourable to writing in French and notable of these are Les Muselés (The Silenced) very few new poets in French have come to of 1977 by Anne Cheynet (b. 1938), Daniel prominence in the intervening years. Honoré’s Louis Redona of 1980, written in In both Mauritius and Reunion the first at- Creole, and Quartier trois-lettres (Three-Let- tempts at novel writing date back to a nine- ter District) of 1980 by Axel Gauvin (b. 1944). teenth century more preoccupied with poets Gauvin has continued to publish (in Paris) and poetry, and it is often the case that novel- novels with similar themes of social exclusion ists are also famous as poets. In the postwar and characteristics of formal experiment, years, the brothers Loys (1915–69) and André which he has subsequently republished in Re- Masson (b. 1921) impose a Mauritian pres- union in Creole: Faims d’enfance (Childhood ence in metropolitan French literature with an Hungers) of 1987 and L’Aimé (The Loved impressively prolific production of novels. One) from 1990. The implied questioning of Loys Masson left his native island in 1939, Réunionnais identity has been pursued through never to return, but some of his best-known historical novels about the island’s often som- novels, L’Étoile et la Clef (The Star and the bre past by Jean-François Samlong (b. 1949), Key) of 1945 and Le Notaire des Noirs (Law- such as Terre arrachée (Torn Earth) of 1982 yer to the blacks) of 1961, evoke episodes of and Madame Desbassayns of 1985, and by the Mauritian society, and the mythical presence metropolitan Daniel Vaxelaire, in Chasseur de of the island and the sea are recurrent motifs Noirs (Slave Hunter) of 1982 and L’Affranchi in his fictions. His brother André remained in (The Freedman) of 1984. The last twenty years Mauritius but none the less managed to pub- have seen a period of considerable richness in lish several novels in the 1960s in Paris—Un Reunionnais writing in both French and Cre- temps pour mourir (A Time to Die) in 1962, ole, and this looks likely to continue. francophone writing (fiction, poetry): North Africa 247

The novel in French has not really estab- geria and Tunisia) experienced French colo- lished itself as a genre for indigenous writers nial rule. Morocco and Tunisia gained their in Madagascar; an exception to this general independence in 1956, Algeria in 1962. Be- rule is the recent output of short stories and cause of the French policy of assimilation and novels by Michèle Rakotoson (b. 1948), such the length of time (132 years) it was in con- as Dadabe of 1984 and Le Bain des reliques tact with the French language, Algeria has (The Bathing of the Relics) of 1988, which produced more francophone writers than evoke from a woman’s point of view the so- Morocco or Tunisia. At first, Maghrebin peo- cial problems of a people emerging from a ple refused to acknowledge as legitimate the long period of repression. In general the short use of French as it was an imposed language, story has shown more vitality as a genre, be- but later accepted its usage, often appropriat- ing easier to publish in local newspapers and ing it for their own ends. Thus French became magazines and able to attract the attention of the language of anti-colonial struggle, particu- a wider public through the competitions or- larly through writing. ganized by Radio-France Internationale. The first short story to appear in French in The smaller islands in the region—the Sey- 1891 was La Vengeance du cheikh (The chelles, the Comores, Mayotte—have shown Vengeance of the Sheikh) by the Algerian the first signs of autonomous literary activity M’hammed Ben Rahhal. However, this early during the last twenty years, with their first francophone writing was discarded by genera- novels and poetry written in French. In gen- tions of Maghrebins as assimilationist and eral, however, it is the sustained vitality of the over-friendly towards France literary output of Reunion and Mauritius It was not until the 1950s that the Maghreb which remains the principal contribution of witnessed the birth of a literature written in the area to francophone culture, which can French that was acknowledged by many as arbitrarily be measured by the recognition by being of quality. The representative writers of Parisian publishing houses of figures such as this period are Albert Memmi, Driss Chraïbi, Malcolm de Chazal, Loys Masson, Marie- Kateb Yacine and Mohammed Dib, among Thérèse Humbert, Axel Gauvin or Jean- others. The dynamic and powerful style of François Samlong. these writers earned them the title of forefa- thers of what is today known as ‘francophone PETER HAWKINS Maghrebin literature’. See also: francophone performing arts: Indian The early 1950s writers, such as the Alge- Ocean; francophone popular music: DOM- rian Mouloud Feraoun who published Le Fils TOMs; parties and movements in du pauvre (The Pauper’s Son) in 1950, and francophone countries: DOM-TOMs the Moroccan Ahmed Sefrioui with his 1954 novel La Boîte à merveilles (The Box of Won- ders), were labelled by their peers as ethno- Further reading graphic writers because they provided the reader with a colourful and exotic picture of Joubert, J.-L. (1991) Littératures de l’Océan everyday life in the French colonies. Such Indien, Paris: EDICEF (essential reading). writing was essentially directed to a French audience. It was regarded by Maghrebin critics as being politically disengaged, considering that the 1950s were, above all, a period of francophone writing (fiction, political unrest throughout the Maghreb. poetry): North Africa However, in the case of Feraoun, the critics failed to recognize that through the autobio- All three Maghrebin countries (Morocco, Al- graphical narration and the humanist style of The Pauper’s Son the writer does not simply 248 francophone writing (fiction, poetry): North Africa portray the poverty-stricken Berber region of writers emerged, including Rachid Boudjedra Kabylia, but shows implicitly that such pov- and Mohammed Dib in Algeria, and Moham- erty was a direct consequence of French colo- med Khaïr-Eddine in Morocco. They were nization. concerned less with the war than with the situ- The 1950s was also marked by the revolu- ation of the Maghrebin countries in the after- tionary style of writing of the Tunisian Albert math of independence. They focused on their Memmi, the Moroccan Driss Chraïbi and the own societies, which they criticized for inhib- Algerian Kateb Yacine. They respectively pub- iting freedom of expression and for abusing lished what were to become canonical texts in human rights. Likewise, under the banner of francophone Maghrebian literature: La Statue free speech, the Moroccan poet Abdellatif de sel (The Statue of Salt) in 1953, The Simple Laâbi founded the literary review Souffles Past (Le Passé simple) in 1954 and Nedjma in (Breaths) in 1966. He was later jailed as a po- 1956. While Yacine wrote about the meta- litical prisoner but was released in 1988 after phorical repeated rape of Algeria, Memmi and Amnesty International intervened on his be- Chraïbi respectively attacked the traditional half. Jewish and Muslim societies from which they The publications of the 1970s marked a feel alienated and which they describe in an- complete break from the previous styles of gry and violent tones. francophone Maghrebin literature. The writ- Of the three writers, it is Chraïbi who drew ing of this period subverted the French lan- more attention, both for the quality of his novel guage and gave it new dimensions with highly and for the aftermath of its publication. His philosophical tones. Illustrative writers of this direct attack on Islamic law, which in Chraïbi’s period are Abdelkebir Khatibi with his 1971 view subjugates the individual, gained him the novel, La Mémoire tatouée (The Tattooed applause of those in France who were for the Memory), and Abdelwahab Meddeb’s 1979 continuation of colonial rule over a nation who work, Talismano. Language, identity, history they believed needed to be civilized, and at- and sexuality were the key themes of writing tracted the anger of Moroccans who, during of this period. The production of poetry the publication of The Simple Past, were strug- gained ground on the novel in the 1970s. gling for independence and saw the novel as Thus, in addition to novelists who are also propaganda against their fight. poets, such as Mohammed Dib and Tahar Ben While the 1950s novels were highly auto- Jelloun, new names became prominent, such biographical, the 1960s saw a more politi- as Abdellatif Laâbi (who continued to write cized kind of writing, especially in Algeria. from his prison cell), Mohammed Loakira and With the Algerian war of independence, Alge- Mostafa Nissaboury. rian writers took up arms, and this period saw Maghrebin women started publishing in prolific literary production with revolution- French as early as 1947. Religious, social and ary tones and themes. Thus, Mouloud state censorship often constrain women’s Mammeri’s 1965 novel L’Opium et le bâton writing, which results in some women giving (The Opium and the Baton) set in a small up writing altogether or publishing under Kabyle village, became a classical text dealing pseudonyms, such as Aïcha Lemsine. While, with the Algerian Revolution and the role of generally, women writers share the same so- the National Liberation Front (FLN) and the ciopolitical concerns, Assia Djebar stands as resistance fighters. But, before that, Les En- the only woman writer whose work experi- fants d’un nouveau monde (Children of a ments with the multiplicity of women’s voices New World) was published by a woman in literature and whose use of French is a sub- writer, Assia Djebar. In her 1962 novel, version of what she calls her ‘stepmother Djebar celebrates the role of women in the tongue’. war of independence. Despite the controversies surrounding the From the mid-1960s, a new generation of use of French, women writers continue to use francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Switzerland 249 it as a medium to make their voice heard. In francophone writing (fiction, fact, in spite of the policy of Arabization in poetry): Switzerland the Maghreb since the 1970s, the 1980s and 1990s produced more names from both sexes on the francophone literary scene. Repre- Switzerland and its literature are often viewed sentative of these periods are women writers as constituting an island in the middle of Eu- such as Béji Hélè, Nina Bouraoui, and male rope—an appropriate image, as long as one writers such as Rachid Mimouni, and bears in mind that the closed world of an is- Edmond Amrane El Maleh. On the other land is also the symbol of travel, refuge and hand, of the old generation, Kateb Yacine escapism. Historically speaking the Swiss have ceased to write in French as a result of his always tried to ‘escape’ their boundaries (in opposition to the institutionalization of 58 BC Julius Caesar sought to halt their gen- francophonie. However, ironically, in 1986 he eral exodus). The fragmentation of Switzer- was awarded the prestigious Prix National land, with its late absorption of some of the des Lettres for his rich contribution to French-speaking cantons, means that Swiss francophone writing. identity is often constructed in contradistinc- Though the 1990s represent political and tion to other nationalities. religious threats to Maghrebin writers—espe- Historically, perhaps inevitably, French- cially intense in Algeria—the majority con- Swiss literature is strongly linked with France. tinue to publish. Unlike their predecessors, Indeed the romand intelligentsia traditionally most of whom lived in France, they have opted went to Paris to study or work. Within Swit- to remain in their own countries. This is a zerland, France is often accused of claiming as brave and risky choice: many writers, like her own the greatest Swiss-French writers, Tahar Djaout in 1993, have been murdered such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Mme de Staël, by Islamist opposition groups in Algeria (any- the linguist Saussure, Blaise Cendrars, Robert one perceived to be an ‘intellectual’ is a tar- Pinget, Albert Cohen and Pierre Klossowski. get). The very real risk of violent death is a In the same way, most Swiss visual artists are high price to pay to keep alive a literature that perceived to become ‘un-Swissed’ once famous some critics previously regarded as being of (for example, Füseli, Balthus, Le Corbusier, little real value. Alberto Giacometti, Paul Klee, Jean-Luc Godard), leaving ‘local’ and ‘minor’ artists to LAÏLA IBNLFASSI remain Swiss. See also: autobiography; decolonization; Charles-Ferdinand Ramuz (1878–1947), francophone performing arts (North Africa); whose innovative characteristic is the placing francophone popular music: North Africa; lit- of the reader within the novel by a poetic use erary prizes of the pronouns ‘we’ (nous, on) and ‘you’ (vous), instigated the rebirth of local literature, his rhythmic, poetical style influencing many Further reading later writers beyond the borders of Switzer- land. However, his nationality and his affir- Ibnlfassi, L. and Hitchcott, N. (eds) (1996) mation thereof have undoubtedly served to African Francophone Writing: A Critical diminish his international standing as a great Introduction, Oxford: Berg (first selection writer. of critical essays on North and sub-Saha- The movement of emigration and immigra- ran African literature in English). tion that constituted Switzerland has gener- Khatibi, A. (1968) Le Roman maghrébin, ated two specific types of literary Swissness: Paris: Éditions du Seuil (full-length study that adopted by the refugee and immigrant of the North African novel in French). (such as Cohen, Anne Cuneo, Klossowski, Benjamin Wilkominski), and that of the ‘fifth 250 Frères Jacques, Les

Switzerland’, comprising the Swiss abroad Frères Jacques, Les (like Blaise Cendrars, Edmond Fleg, Clarissa Francillon, Philippe Jaccottet, Pinget, Singers Monique Saint-Hélier), who produced a substantial body of travel and exile literature, as A legendary quartet of male singers, formed well as some internationally recognized in 1944, whose stage costumes (including leo- ‘French’ literature. The insular Swiss have not, tards, white gloves, top hats and handlebar as generally believed, generated solely dull and moustaches) became their distinctive trade- austere work. Playfulness and observation of mark. They perfected their stage performances the outside world are strong preoccupations, in variety theatres rather than music halls, as if singularity could be better expressed by combining gesture, mime, movement and toying with otherness (see, for example the lighting in songs which became sketches or work of Amélie Plume). Peasant and workers’ playlets. Les Frères Jacques gave their farewell roots have also inspired an important strain performance at the Champs-Élysées in 1980. of Marxist literature (for example, Yves Velan, IAN PICKUP and Jacques Chessex, who received the Goncourt prize for L’Ogre in 1973). See also: song/chanson This singularity has led to Swiss-French writers wishing to be seen as individuals rather than as a group, and certain ambiguities to- Fresson, Bernard wards the notion of nationality can be discerned in their work. Distinctions between writers are today felt to be thematic rather b. 1931, Reims than nationalistic, their Swiss roots often only Actor being identifiable by the fact that they are published by Swiss presses (see, for example A film, television and theatre actor since the Charles-Albert Cingria, Anne Cuneo, Amélie 1960s. Fresson has worked with directors, in- Plume, Gustave Roud, Yvette Z’Graggen). In- cluding Jean Vilar at the Théâtre National de deed, except for a substantial corpus of inter- Paris, Planchon, Maréchal and Barsacq, in nationally recognized Swiss-French academics productions including Planchon’s Troilus and and intellectuals (Albert Béguin, Léon Bopp, Cressida, Fagadau’s Cat on a Hot Tin Roof Marc Eigeldinger, Jean Piaget, Marcel and Maréchal’s mise en scène of de Filippos’s Raymond, Denis de Rougemont, Jean Filumena Marturana. Rousset, Jean Starobinski, Jean Ziegler), the international reputation of Swiss-French writ- ANNIE SPARKS ing today rests on the unjustly small number See also: theatre taken up by publishers in France (Chessex, Cohen, Jaccottet, Pinget, Velan). VÉRÈNE GRIESHABER Funès, Louis de See also: francophone performing arts: Swit- zerland; literary prizes b. 1914, Courbevoie; d. 1983, Nantes Further reading Actor

Francillon, R. (ed.) (1996–8) Histoire de la France’s most popular film star of the 1960s. littérature suisse, 4 vols, Lausanne: Payot The generally downmarket nature of his films, (essential background reading). such as the Gendarmes series directed by Jean Furet, François 251

Girault between 1964 and 1982, made great The best-known recent historian of the French play with a grimacing, irascible body language Revolution. Furet’s works—above all 1978’s originally developed in the music hall. The Interpreting the French Revolution (Penser la other director for whom he excelled, in a dou- Révolution française) and, with Mona Ozouf, ble act with Bourvil, was Gérard Oury (in Dictionnaire critique de la Revolution 1966’s La Grande Vadrouille). He had begun française (1988)—were instrumental in articu- his career working with more ‘respectable’ lating a post-Marxist view in which 1789 was film-makers such as Sacha Guitry and Autant- seen as foreshadowing the Russian Revolution Lara (La Traversée de Paris, also with Bourvil, of 1917 only in its bloody excesses. For Furet, in 1956). His attitude towards authority—hec- the positive aspects of the French Revolution toring in exercising it, submissive when it was found their apotheosis in electoral social de- exercised over him—perhaps most fully ac- mocracy—a view given credence by the sec- counts for his extraordinary popularity with ond Mitterrand term and the geopolitical col- mainstream French audiences. lapse of Communism. A PCF member in his youth, Furet acted as adviser to education KEITH READER minister Edgar Faure in the restructuring of See also: cinema French universities after May 1968, and was president successively of the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales and of the Institut Raymond Aron. Furet, François KEITH READER b. 1927, Paris; See also: Marxism and Marxian thought; par- d. 1997, Paris ties and movements

Historian G

Gainsbourg, Serge he burned a 500 franc note on television. Equally provocative was the duet, Lemon In- b. 1928, Paris; cest, which he recorded in 1985 with his d. 1991, Paris daughter, Charlotte. One of Gainsbourg’s more notable obses- Singer-songwriter, real name Lucien sions was the opposite sex. From an early stage in his career, female singers such as Ginzburg France Gall, Juliette Gréco and Régine recorded his songs. He was often accused of If any French singer was guaranteed to cause manipulating, eroticizing and objectifying controversy, it would surely be Gainsbourg. women in his life and work, and he became Although he was mainly known for his music, particularly fascinated with the sex-kitten im- his other great passion was painting, which age of Brigitte Bardot whom he met in 1967. was his father’s profession. After studying fine Together they recorded Bonnie and Clyde and art in Paris and a spell as bar pianist, he sang Gainsbourg paid tribute to her in Initials BB. in the Left Bank cabarets and Théâtre des Tr- In Je t’aime moi non plus (I Love You Me ois Baudets, achieving initial success in 1958 Neither), which was censored by the BBC in with Le Poinçonneur des lilas (The Ticket- 1969, Gainsbourg celebrated overtly the ad- Puncher on the Tube). dictive nature of sex while undermining tradi- What is particularly fascinating is the split tional notions of romantic love. His subse- personality Gainsbourg developed: on the one quent marriage to the English actress and hand, the naive, sensitive artist figure who singer, Jane Birkin, created one of the most carefully created words and music; and on the famous celebrity couples in France. Although other, his alter ego, whom he named he appeared at times to be savage and some- Gainsbarre, an anti-conformist provocateur. thing of a misogynist, he was nevertheless a Gainsbourg cultivated an unshaven, unkempt romantic who regarded himself as physically look; he led a hedonistic, self-destructive life- unattractive. style, drinking and smoking to excess and, as Between 1965 and 1979, a relatively un- the years wore on, his nervous twitch and ver- productive time in terms of songs, Gainsbourg bal incoherence became steadily more pro- gave up concert tours. He did, however, di- nounced. A figure who sought infamy, rect, appear in and write music for several Gainsbourg caused a storm of protest from films, and earned his living by making televi- the military with his 1979 reggae version of sion commercials. the French national anthem, La Marseillaise, Musically eclectic and innovative, Aux armes et cetaera (To Arms, etc.). In 1984 Gainsbourg created new musical styles out of

252 game shows 253 established and current trends, such as jazz of Love) and Musique. France Gall is still (Black Trombone). He developed his literary popular today. talent through wordplay, rhyme and allitera- IAN PICKUP tion; for example, La Javanaise, a song using Javanese or ‘av’ slang. He had a particular See also: song/chanson penchant for franglais and contemporary fashion, as in Qui est ‘in’ qui est ‘out’ (Who is in Who is Out) and Ford Mustang. Following his death, Gainsbourg achieved Gallimard the ultimate status of popular icon: an anti- hero, especially for a disenchanted youth and Publisher the personification of liberty in its most excessive forms. Gaston Gallimard (1881–1975) co-founded the Éditions de la Nouvelle Revue Française CHRIS TINKER with André Gide and his friends in 1911. The See also: slung/argot/verlan; song/chanson Éditions Gallimard publish some of the greatest works in French literature in different collections, among the most important of which Major works are ‘Folio’ (accounting for over 30 per cent of turnover) and the renowned ‘Bibliothèque de Gainsbourg, S. (1994) Dernières Nouvelles la Pléiade’. The crime novels of the ‘Série noire’ des étoiles, Paris: Plon, Presses Pocket (col- are also very popular with the reading public. lected song lyrics). MARTYN CORNICK See also: detective fiction Further reading

Further reading Verlant, G. (1985) Gainsbourg, Paris: Livre de Poche (biographically oriented study). Assouline, P. (1984) Gaston Gallimard, un demi-siècle d’édition française, Paris: Balland. Gall, France Martin, H.-J., Chartier, R. and Vivet, J.-P. (eds) (1986) Histoire de l’édition française, vol. b. 1947, Paris 4, Le Livre concurrencé 1900–1950, Paris: Promodis (essential reading). Singer

Having had early success as one of the French yé-yé (1960s pop) generation, France Gall game shows modified her image successfully in two different reincarnations: first, singing songs by Serge Ratings rivalry between TF1 and France 2 has Gainsbourg—including Poupée de cire, produced a variety of game shows for prime- poupée de son (Wax Doll, Rag Doll), which time TV. Many are American by-products, won the Eurovision Song Contest in 1965 and such as Wheel of Fortune (Roue de la fortune) sold over a million copies in Japan alone; and and Une Famille en or (both TF1), and Des second, singing songs by the man who became Chiffres et des lettres (France 2). Less slavish her husband, the late Michel Berger, includ- towards their Anglo-Saxon prototypes are ing La Déclaration d’amour (The Declaration Dessinez c’est gagné and Que le meilleur gagne 254 Garaudy, Roger

(both France 2). Live audience participation to ridicule by the middle-aged compère. There in most game shows is reduced to applauding. appears to be no prize, except the delight of The two exceptions to the normal kind of winning, being insulted and being so close to game show are Des Chiffres et des lettres and fame. One particular broadcast, however, might Que le meilleur gagne. In the former, if partici- not have been so pleasurable: the star in ques- pants fail, members of the audience (those with tion was the actor Philippe Léotard whose the right answer) are picked out to stand up drunkenness was apparent to all. Attempts to and read it out—a moment of glory. In the lat- laugh off his rudeness and stifle his volubility ter, the audience is the game, which is one of failed completely—but the spectacle went on, auto-elimination and self-applause (they clap as live broadcasting at its best! they lose). Of the 200-odd participants, only SUSAN HAYWARD one must remain at the end, and he or she goes on to try to win the prize. The audience shouts See also: stars; television ‘Au revoir’ as participants are skittled out by failing to answer silly multiple-choice questions. Of all the games this is the only one that in any Garaudy, Roger way resists the codes of game shows. The compère, Naguy, is North African (elsewhere b. 1913, Marseille on these shows, white males dominate). He in- sults his participants—especially those who get answers wrong. But the audience hits back: they Writer take pleasure from losing, even deliberately los- A writer and philosopher who might be dubbed ing to get their moment on the box. Naguy un- the ‘Vicar of Bray’ of postwar French intellec- dermines the myth of the all-knowing tual life, Garaudy converted to Protestantism compère—‘it’s all written on the card’, he an- in his youth, then for twenty years was a mem- nounces, thus also ridiculing the myth of knowl- ber of the Communist Party’s central commit- edge as the key to social and economic mobil- tee. He subsequently moved, by way of a hu- ity to which game shows subscribe. He is not manist leftism that led to his expulsion from the patriarch nor the prof his more elderly coun- the party, first to radical Catholicism and fi- terparts have become. He caricatures the nudge- nally, in 1982, to Islam. His ardent Stalinism nudge/wink-wink sexual innuendos so com- at the height of the Cold War finds an omi- monplace in the compère’s discourse by aping nous echo in his recent identification with an the ‘black man as macho/virile’ and by deliber- anti-Zionism that minimizes (if it does not ately setting up question marks around his own deny) the Holocaust. sexuality as much as around that of the male participants in the game. KEITH READER Dessinez c’est gagné is a reinscription of cha- See also: racism/anti-semitism rades on to a large flip chart, upon which participants draw clues for their team to guess the unnamed word, phrase or whatever. Two teams compete, three to each side—two young con- García, Victor testants plus a well-known TV or media personality. They sit opposite each other on sofas b. 1934, Tucumán, Argentina; and are surrounded in close proximity by the d. 1982, Paris TV audience. This cosiness is deconstructed by the fact that the teams are single-sexed—male Director versus female, battle of the sexes—and that ageism and the teacher-pupil dynamic are well After his arrival in France in 1962, García in place as the young contestants are subjected heavily influenced French theatre with his gastronomy 255

Artaudian-style productions, primarily of able to the domestic cook or restaurateur was works by Lorca, Arrabal, Genet and Valle- restricted. The red Guide Michelin, like Inclàn. He directed in Spain, the United King- France’s leading restaurants dependent on the dom, Portugal and Brazil. motor car and the expanding tourist industry, shows certain of their number listing the same ANNIE SPARKS specialities literally year in, year out. Crayfish See also: Artaud, Antonin; theatre au gratin, duckling, truffles and foie gras as accompaniments suggest what may now seem the indigestible tone of this cuisine, in which Further reading vegetables were relegated to a strictly secondary position. Presentation was as heavy and Whitton, D. (1987) Stage Directors in Mod- codified as the dishes themselves; the ceremo- ern France, Manchester: Manchester Uni- nial raising of the silver dome that covered the versity Press (a discussion of García’s work plat de resistance was an indispensable part of and influence). the dining ritual. The vast majority of French people, of course, had neither cultural nor financial access to this type of cooking. La cuisine bourgeoise, often perforce rooted in re- gastronomy gional specialities, yielded such dishes as the tripes à la mode de Caen characteristic of France’s reputation as the world centre of gas- Normandy or the quenelles (sausages of tronomy—loosely defined, perhaps, as the minced pike) of Lyon. Popular restaurants consumption not only of fine food and drink, such as the bistrots in the Les Halles area of but of discourses about it—is closely con- Paris or the bouchons of Lyon fed into the nected with both her geography and her his- loftier gastronomic tradition—a tendency that tory. At once a Mediterranean and an Atlan- has continued apace until the present day. tic, a northern and a southern country, the The spread of refrigeration, improved sys- range of raw materials to which she has ac- tems of transport and the increasing impor- cess is probably unrivalled in Europe, and it tance of television all contributed to the de- was after the French Revolution and the bour- mocratization of gastronomy that has been a geoisie’s triumph over the nobility that the dominant tendency of the postwar period. multiple ways in which these foodstuffs could Raymond Oliver, owner of the celebrated Pa- be prepared and served spread through soci- risian restaurant, Le Grand Véfour, gave the ety. It is no accident that the first restaurant in first live television cookery demonstrations in the modern sense of the term was opened in the 1950s, thereby becoming one of the two Paris in 1782 by a former cook to the count of key French gastronomic personalities of his Provence (later to become Louis XVIII). time. The other was Fernand Point (1897– Yet la haute cuisine as it was known and 1955), whose Restaurant La Pyramide in consumed immediately after the war might Vienne (between Lyon and Grenoble) trained well appear monotonous and turgid to a con- many of the greatest chefs of succeeding gen- temporary public. Refrigeration was uncom- erations and whose stress on fresh products of mon, and produce in consequence often far the highest quality, always freshly prepared, from fresh; it was often as much to mask the combined with his innovative use of sauces to less-than-pristine state of fish or meat as to mark a welcome break from the often lacklus- enhance their flavour that the heavy dairy- tre cuisine of the bigger hotels. based sauces characteristic of this type of The spread of colour photography , enli- cooking were used. Even in 1960 there were vening the cookery columns of such maga- only seven supermarkets in the whole of zines as Elle or L’Express, also had a major France, so the range of raw materials avail- influence, especially combined with the 256 gastronomy weekly column in Elle written by Dr Édouard nigh Surrealist absurdity (raspberry vinegar de Pomiane, France’s best-known apostle of was a favourite component), in visual forms the healthy diet until 1964, when he died. more reminiscent of abstract painting than of More types of food became widely available still life, and most notoriously all too often in and more care went into finding healthier minuscule portions (a cartoon in the English ways of preparing them; Oliver and other magazine Punch memorably distilled this last chefs ‘returned from the [1964] Tokyo Olym- tendency in depicting a puzzled couple in a pics infatuated with Japanese cooking’ nouvelle cuisine restaurant asking the waiter: (Mennell 1993), and this was to exercise a ‘Excuse me, have we eaten?’). It was not sur- major influence on what was later to become prising that no less a figure than Bocuse was known as la nouvelle cuisine. The food critics to abjure the ‘movement’, nor that its succes- Henri Gault and Christian Millau applied this sion, enthusiastically abetted by Gault and term (whose first use dates back as far as Millau, should have been assumed by cuisine 1740) to the cooking of such figures as Paul du terroir, harking back historically to the sup- Bocuse and Michel Guérard, though Point posed heyday of France’s peasantry rather has a strong claim to be its founding father. than looking exotically to the East for its in- Through their annual restaurant guide and spiration. It was the turn of haricot beans, monthly magazine, Gault and Millau became black and white pudding, humbler fish such the dominant figures in French gastronomy. as the grey mullet, lesser-known varieties of Nouvelle cuisine reacted against heavy regional cheese all to find stardom. Heartier saucing, lengthy cooking times, excessive reli- this type of cooking undoubtedly was, but it ance on dairy products and the orthodoxies in no sense represented a return to the haute of Parisian and grand hotel dishes, in favour cuisine of yore, whose omnipresent frying and of lighter types of cooking (steaming, under roasting were largely replaced by grilling and the Oriental influence, was a favourite), the even more casseroling. use of unusual herbs and fruits to impart new The last-named method of cooking, of flavours, and an inventiveness often drawing course, takes time, which is doubtless why it upon regional and provincial traditions for its has been raised from the rank of commoner to inspiration. the nobility; easier by far, if one can afford it, Nowadays many of the innovations of to pay somebody else to prepare a gourmet nouvelle cuisine scarcely seem novel at all. The casserole for you in a restaurant…The corol- serving of sorrel with salmon (a Troisgros dis- lary of this, of course, has been a movement covery), the use of a plethora of wild mush- on a vast scale towards various kinds of con- rooms, the promotion of once ‘vulgar’ items venience food for everyday eating. These need such as lentils or spinach to gastronomic glory not necessarily be bad: the big-name chefs all have all long since become part of the French endorse deep-frozen or vacuum-packed prod- diner’s landscape. The controversy it raised ucts bearing their name, the best of which are between about 1973—the date of Gault and quite as delicious as anything most people Millau’s article ‘Vive la nouvelle cuisine could expect to prepare at home, even given française’—and 1976, when Guérard’s La unrealistic amounts of time and energy. Grande Cuisine minceur was published, was ‘Macdonaldization’, however, is spreading none the less fierce, partisans of the ancien apace in France as everywhere else, and for régime such as Le Monde’s food critic La every Bocuse- or Guérard-signed vacuum- Reynière (Robert Courtine) or Jean-Robert packed scallop ragoût, numerous tins of Pitte often acrimoniously crossing swords with cassoulet or sauerkraut in the downmarket Gault and Millau and ‘their’ young Turks. William Saurin range are undoubtedly sold in Nouvelle cuisine’s cause was certainly not supermarkets. Younger people, their elders helped by the zealotry of some of its practi- often complain, care little for food and less for tioners, who dished up combinations of well- its traditions, and even actively prefer a Gaulle, Charles de 257

Macdo to the traditional dishes of their re- Blackwell (the most thorough and schol- gions. Non-European restaurants—North Af- arly historical overview readily available). rican ones in particular, generally serving ——(1993) ‘Food and Wine’, in M.Cook (ed.) couscous, which occupies a similar place in French Culture Since 1945, Harlow and France to Indian food in Britain—are often New York: Longman (a concise distillation popular with younger people, especially stu- of the key developments since the war). dents, and their range has been steadily on the Neirinck, E. and Poulain, J.-P. (1992) Histoire increase. Fifteen years ago, a Thai or Indian de la cuisine et des cuisiniers, Malakoff: restaurant was a rarity even in Paris; today, Jacques Lanore (a succinct illustrated his- most provincial towns of any size have one or tory, with good biographical and chrono- more of each. That, of course, is no less symp- logical information). tomatic than Macdonaldization of the growing internationalization of everything to do with food. Nor, for all the rarity of mad cow disease and the plethora of jokes about it to Gatti, Armand which English people living in France have been exposed, is anxiety about the quality and b. 1924, Monaco purity of one’s diet. Excessive use of preserva- tives, standardized fruit and vegetables grown Journalist, playwright and director, for appearance not flavour, cheeses with the real name Saveur Dante Gatti taste pasteurized out of them—the litany of worries is a familiar one. It is ironic, after two Wartime experiences as a deportee, resistance decades and more in which French cuisine re- fighter and prizewinning journalist fuelled turned to the precept of the gastronomic many of Gatti’s flamboyant political plays. In writer Curnonsky (1872-–1956), ‘Gas- 1968, he began developing theatre studios for tronomy is when things taste like what they the people of Toulouse and Montreuil, and are’, that the very technical developments that turned to television, while continuing to de- made such a return possible seem to be men- velop community theatre projects. acing its survival. ANNIE SPARKS KEITH READER See also: theatre See also: fast food; wine Further reading Further reading Knowles, D. (1989) Armand Gatti in the Fischler, C. (1990/3) L’Homnivore, Paris: Odile Theatre: Wild Duck Against the Wind, Jacob/Points (a fascinating socio-anthropo- London: Athlone Press (analysis of his life logical overview, striking a good balance and work). between information and interpretation). Gillet, P. (1994) Soyons français à table!, Paris: Payot/Rivages (contains a helpful glossary of key names and figures). Gaulle, Charles de Guérard, M. (1976) La Grande Cuisine minceur, Paris: Robert Laffont (an eloquent b. 1890, Lille; plea for the new style of cooking). d. 1970, Colombey-les-deux-Églises, Mennell, S. (1985) All Manners of Food (Eat- Haute Marne ing and Taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the Present), Oxford: Politician 258 Gaulle, Charles de

De Gaulle is the outstanding political figure The honeymoon between de Gaulle and the of modern France. Born to a conservative and political parties did not last long. In January strongly Catholic family, he embarked on a 1946, he stormed out of office and in June military career in 1913 and fought in World made a speech at Bayeux which set out his War I. Between the two wars, he gained a belief that only a strong presidency, independ- reputation as an unorthodox military thinker ent of the parties, could give France the strong and wrote a remarkable study of leadership, leadership it needed. This was a challenge to Le Fil de l’épée (The Sword’s Edge). Little the entrenched Republican doctrine that per- known to the general public, he was plucked sonal power was incompatible with democracy in May 1940 from obscurity to a junior min- and that the only genuine Republic was one isterial post as Undersecretary for War in the based on the sovereignty of the National As- crisis weeks that followed Germany’s invasion sembly. The result was open political war be- of France. When the new prime minister, tween de Gaulle and the parties. In April 1947 Philippe Pétain, announced that the fighting he launched a mass political movement, the must stop, de Gaulle flew to London and on Rassemblement Pour la France (RPF), which 18 June 1940 made the celebrated broadcast became the spearhead of his campaign to re- inviting those of his compatriots who were place the parliamentary constitution of the able to do so to join him in a Free French Fourth Republic. Initially able to capitalize on movement whose purpose was to continue the France’s domestic and international difficul- struggle against the enemy. This June broad- ties, de Gaulle failed in his ambition of forcing cast is the founding moment of the de Gaulle the Fourth Republic to abdicate. In 1954 he myth and the basis of his subsequent national withdrew from public life and retreated to his legitimacy. At the time, however, it had little austere country residence at Colombeyles- impact on a France traumatized by defeat. deux-Églises, where he wrote three highly re- Even after opposition to the German occupa- garded volumes of war memoirs. It was not tion began to emerge, de Gaulle had great dif- the behaviour of a man with a political future. ficulty in getting his authority accepted, not Yet such a future was to be his. In 1958, only by other Resistance organizations but faced with the collapse of the authority of the also by the United States government, which civil government in Algeria and the menace of regarded him as the sort of military dictator civil war in France, the bulk of the party lead- against whom the war was being fought. What ers turned to him as the one man who could enabled him to assert his leadership was his somehow ‘win’ the war against the Algerian single-minded determination not to be pushed nationalist movement without turning France aside by the Allied powers and his ability to into a military dictatorship. De Gaulle made win the support of the domestic Resistance his return to power conditional on the right to movement by stressing his commitment to draw up a constitution which would enable postwar political and social reconstruction. government (by which he meant himself) to American attempts to exclude him from a role govern, and in 1959 became the first president in liberated France failed, and in 1944 he be- of the Fifth Republic. Between 1958 and 1962 came head of the provisional government of he used referenda to win mass approval for a the French Republic, which contained repre- series of constitutional changes designed first sentatives of the major political groupings, to strengthen the power of the presidency and including the powerful Communist Party. His second to put an end to the ruinous war in government carried out an extensive nation- Algeria. The decisive year was 1962. Algeria alization programme and organized the refer- became independent and de Gaulle held, and endum of October 1945 on France’s constitu- won, a referendum providing for the direct elec- tional future, which resulted in a massive re- tion of the president. By doing so, he ensured jection of a return to the Third Republic and a shift in the balance of political power away the election of a Constituent Assembly. from the National Assembly towards the Gaulle, Charles de 259

Executive, and in particular the presidency; he to the pressure of events. But the electoral land- also laid the bases for a new party system. With slide his supporters won in the June elections Algeria and a troublesome legislature out of was a victory much more for law and order the way, de Gaulle was now able to realize his than for de Gaulle’s heroic vision of France. core ambition of restoring France’s status as a Less than a year later, he resigned office after major, and independent, player in the interna- the defeat of a referendum on regional reform. tional system. To realize the grandeur inher- During his lifetime, de Gaulle attracted ent in his ‘certain idea of France’, he challenged great devotion from those who regarded him the right of other powers, be they the Com- as the two-time (1940 and 1958) saviour of mission of the European Community or the France and as a political genius; he also president of the United States, to interfere in aroused deep hostility among those, like the French policy. He developed France’s inde- followers of Pétain, the French settlers in Al- pendent nuclear deterrent, thwarted Britain’s geria, and also the defenders of traditional ambitions to join the European Economic Republicanism, who paid the price of his suc- Community, withdrew French troops from the cess. At the end of the century, there is near integrated command structure of NATO, and consensus in France that he was the country’s launched an attack on the financial pre-emi- greatest twentieth-century leader. nence of the American dollar. At the same time, PETER MORRIS he sought to persuade Third World and Euro- pean countries that France could be an effec- See also: Algerian war; constitution of the tive champion of their independence against Fifth Republic; European economic integra- the might of the superpowers and was a strong tion; European Union; parties and movements critic of American involvement in Vietnam. For a man who personified the military virtues of Major works hierarchy and order, de Gaulle showed a singular lack of respect for the conventions of the postwar international order. Gaulle, C. de (1956–9) Mémoires de guerre, De Gaulle’s domestic agenda was designed Paris: Plon (de Gaulle’s own record of his to promote economic modernization and po- wartime career). litical order. His enthusiasm for state-led tech- ——(1970–1) Mémoires d’espoir, Paris: Plon nology and industrial modernization was (de Gaulle records his postwar career). matched by his disdain for what he regarded ——(1975) Articles et écrits, Paris: Plon (a use- as the selfish demands of interest groups and ful anthology). the whingeing pieties of opposition liberals. The image he conveyed of caring much more Further reading about France than about the French contributed to the unexpectedly good showing of the opposition candidates (notably François Lacouture, J. (1986) De Gaulle, 3 vols, Paris: Mitterrand) in the 1965 presidential elections Éditions du Seuil. Vol. 1 translated P.O’Brian and to widespread criticisms of his ‘solitary (1993) De Gaulle: The Rebel, 1890–1944, exercise of power’. Nothing, however, prepared New York: W.W.Norton and London: him—or his political opponents—for the ex- Harvill; vol. 2 translated A.Sheridan (1993) plosion of civil protest which rocked France De Gaulle: The Ruler, 1945–1970, New in May 1968 and cast an ironic light on his York: W.W.Norton and London: Harvill (a claims to have given France unprecedented magisterial political biography ). political stability. In the short run, de Gaulle Williams, P.M. and Harrison, M. (1973) Poli- was able to ride out the storm, thanks in part tics and Society in de Gaulle’s Republic, to a last, great radio broadcast in which, as in New York (the best English-language in- June 1940, he declared his refusal to submit troduction). 260 Gaultier, Jean-Paul

Gaultier, Jean-Paul years later, in March 1971, the Front Homosexuel d’Action Révolutionnaire b. 1952, Arcueil (FHAR), in favour of direct action for the achievement of gay liberation, came into be- Fashion designer ing after the disruption of a radio programme on homosexuality. In line with the general Known for the irreverence and humour of his decline in radical politics post-May 1968, designs, Gaultier’s forte is the glamorization of FHAR ceased to exist in mid-1973. street style at couture level. He established his 1974 saw the birth of the Groupe de Lib- house in 1977 and his first menswear line in eration Homosexuelle (GLH), formed by ex- 1984. His eclectic references range from punk militants from FHAR. Divisions among its to Victorian underwear, and his corset designs members between reformists and revolution- for Madonna’s ‘Blonde Ambition’ tour received aries led in 1987 to the establishment of two global attention. Gaultier’s technical virtuosity, separate groups—the GLH—Groupe de Base gleaned from his training at traditional French (GLH-GB) comprising reformists, and the couture houses, allows him to play with con- GLH—Politique et Quotidien (GLH-PQ), the ventional ideas of gender and manipulate body revolutionaries. The lack of cohesion result- forms through careful tailoring. He has hit the ing from such a split led to the creation of a headlines frequently with his skirts and corsets Centre d’Information et de Documentation sur for men, and also for his costumes for Besson’s l’Homosexualité (CIDH), providing informa- Le Cinquième Élément (1997). tion as its name suggests. Although the GLH- GB ceased to exist in 1976, the GLH-PQ per- NICOLA WHITE sisted, forcing the PCF to adopt an anti-dis- See also: fashion crimination policy in July 1977. Two gay candidates stood in the 1978 parliamentary elections, but their presence could be seen as the last throes of the group. gay activism Survivors from the Marseille GLH-PQ group created the Comité d’Urgence Although the 1980s and 1990s have seen the Antirépression Homosexuelle (CUARH) in rise of gay activism and increasing coverage in 1979, a federation of Parisian and regional mainstream media, gay activists have long been groups with different religious and political in existence. Vichy-inspired laws for the pro- backgrounds. From 1980 to the elections of tection of minors, preventing same-sex rela- 1981, CUARH provided a mobilizing force for tionships with men under 21 years of age, re- many gays, organizing a demonstration of mained on the statute book until 1981 when, some 10,000 participants in April 1981 and in the wake of Mitterrand’s election, they were launching its own newspaper Homophonies. repealed and the age of consent equalized at In the non-political sphere, Catholics had 15. Any apparent reluctance to change the law founded David et Jonathan in 1972, with Prot- between 1945 and 1981 may be seen to be estants led by Pastor Joseph Doucé (himself linked to the inherent conservatism of the MRP murdered in 1990) founding the Centre du and Gaullist regimes that followed the war. Christ Libérateur in 1976. The radicalization of ‘homosexuals’ around Although Mitterrand repealed repressive the events of May 1968 led to the establish- legislation in 1981 and freed civil servants ment of the Comité d’Action Pédérastique from the ‘good morality’ clause which had Révolutionnaire (CAPR)—a short-lived or- blocked promotions within the civil service, ganization, since the (bourgeois) concept of repression remained elsewhere, for example homosexuality could arguably have no place with elements within the police (and the Sen- within a revolutionary context. Some three ate) resisting the abolition of police squads gay activism 261 established to monitor homosexuals. Raids on Health and of laboratories known to be con- gay bars continued, though with lessening fre- ducting multiple (instead of individual) HIV quency. Politically, the group Gais pour les tests, ACT-UP has ensured that problems Libertés was launched in 1985, enjoying wider around AIDS are not left quietly to go away. political support than the PS’s own Although initially quite small, the group has Homosexualité et Socialisme. Groups on the grown: with 200 militants in Paris alone, ACT- Right began to find a gay voice around this UP is now larger than the New York group, period, with the establishment in 1984 of the which has itself split because of internal prob- Mouvement des Gays Libéraux (MGL), and lems. even that of an extreme Right group called At the same time as AIDS has served to Gaie France in 1987. crys-tallize activity and activism, the gay com- It was around this time that France also munity as a whole has become more visible in began to see cases of what is certainly the most France, with the 1995 Paris Gay Pride gaining powerful mobilizing activist force around wide coverage in the mainstream press. This questions of homosexuality, HIV and AIDS visibility, partly arrived at through greater con- (though AIDS is not, of course, an exclusively fidence in openness around one’s sexuality, is homosexual problem). The activities of ACT- in no small way a tribute to the changes in UP (the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power) tolerance and acceptability that have been provide a focus for the frustration felt by many achieved through the actions of activists since suffering from the syndrome, seeking as they 1945. There is still a long way to go—for ex- do to bring the plight of PWAs (people with ample, the recognition of gay partnerships— AIDS) to public attention through rapid ac- but progress is slow but sure. tion tactics, ‘zapping’ meetings, boycotting/ STEVE WHARTON blockading laboratories, pharmaceutical companies and so on. The reasoning behind their See also: Catholicism and Protestantism; femi- actions is simple: silence equals death, action nism (movements/groups); gay press; lesbian equals life. Their action is intended to pro- activism; parties and movements voke reaction. ACT-UP’s origins in France may be traced Further reading to 1987, when Didier Lestrade—until recently the group’s chair, and now editor of the gay monthly Têtu—became aware of the concept ACT-UP Paris (1994) Le Sida: combien de di- on a trip to New York. Struck by the simple visions?, Paris: Éditions Dagorno (a good achievements of direct action, he spent as overview of the motivations and activities much time as possible between 1987 and 1989 of ACT-UP, written by those most directly finding out more about it. At the 1989 Gay involved). Pride march in Paris, fifteen French ‘militants’ Darier, E. (1987) ‘The Gay Movement in in T-shirts brought over from New York French Society Since 1945’, Modern and handed out simple photocopied sheets of pa- Contemporary France 29 (charts the main per that had been typed in the offices of Gai historical developments of gay activism up Pied, asking for supporters. On 26 July 1989, to the mid-1980s). the required paperwork founding the organi- Martel, F. (1996) Le Rose et le noir, Paris: zation was lodged with the authorities, and Éditions du Seuil (a controversial account ACT-UP in France was in official existence. of the modern French gay and lesbian cul- From practically its first action on 2 Octo- tural and political scene). ber 1989 (demonstrating in front of the Na- Martet, C. (1993) Les Combattants du sida, tional Assembly), through protests in front of Paris: Flammarion (the history of ACT-UP Notre-Dame against the Catholic church’s ban in France written by one of its founder on contraception, pickets of the Ministry of members). 262 gay cinema gay cinema chant d’amour of 1950, which is silent, lasts twenty minutes, and was not given a commercial release. Scenes in a prison, where a guard In the 1980s and 1990s, representations of cen- spies on men masturbating in their cells or tral lesbian, gay and bisexual characters have communicating with each other through the become more common in mainstream French walls, alternate with shots of a garland of cinema. Examples include: the La Cage aux flowers being swung from a cell window, and Folles series (I and II directed by Édouard of the men in the film making love. However, Molinaro in 1978 and 1980; III by Georges Cocteau’s influence is not far away: aestheti- Lautner in 1985); Chacun cherche son chat, cism in Genet is combined with the directed by Cédric Klapisch in 1996; Deux li- homoerotic and a poetry of the sordid, mar- ons au soleil, directed by Claude Faraldo in ginal and ‘lower depths’ to produce one of 1980; Josiane Balasko’s 1995 French Twist cinema’s most profound meditations on the (Gazon maudit); Tenue de soirée by Bertrand links society constructs between homosexual- Blier (1986); and Yannick Bellon’s La Triche ity and criminality, power and homophobia. from 1984. The context of changing sexual dis- The oppressive postwar climate for homo- courses, and the complexities of their reception sexuals began to weaken only in the aftermath by gay audiences, mean that they are relevant of May 1968, which also created more spaces to any discussion of ‘gay cinema’. In addition, for independent and avant-garde film. The 1970s classical French cinema has had its gay direc- were the heyday of affirmation films from the tors, most notably Marcel Carné. However, a gay movement. The GLH-PQ (Groupe de different perspective arises if we understand the Libération Homosexuelle—Politique et term to mean ‘films made by lesbians and gay Quotidien) organized film festivals in 1977 and men with lesbian and gay subject-matter’ (see 1978 in Paris which embraced pornography but Dyer 1990). The history of these films—distinct also showcased short films such as Hommes en- in France from developments in Anglo-Saxon tre eux, directed by Norbert Terry, and La countries—begins with Cocteau and Genet, Banque du sperme, by Pierre Chabal and Philippe continues in marginal, politicized film-making Genet, which cheerfully played with both porn from 1968 to about 1981, and produces recog- and political or philosophical preoccupations. nized auteurs in the form of Chéreau, Collard, Perhaps the most consistent film-maker of this Téchiné and Vecchiali. type was Lionel Soukaz, who made two films in Male homosexuality, first criminalized by collaboration with Guy Hocquenghem, Race the Vichy regime, remained oppressed in the d’ep! (backslang for ‘pederast’) in 1979, a docu- postwar period, and its first cinematic expres- mentary on ‘gay history’ rounded off by a cruis- sions are firmly located in high literary cul- ing dialogue in the Tuileries, and Toni in 1980, ture. Aestheticism, narcissism, the links be- as well as Boy Friend 1 and Boy Friend 2 (1977), tween same-sex desire, poetry and death are Le Sexe des anges in 1978 and Ixe (1980). all on display in Jean Cocteau’s Orphée The Socialist government’s reforms and the (1949), a transposition of the Orpheus and consumerist appropriation of much gay culture Eurydice myth (starring Cocteau’s lover Jean in the 1980s meant that, with the diminution Marais) to postwar Paris and the existentialist of gay militancy, it became less clear what a heyday. Another reworking of myth, his ‘gay cinema’ might be. The more positive im- Beauty and the Beast (La Belle et la bête) of ages to be found in mainstream film were nei- 1946, can also be read homoerotically, espe- ther a way of placing gay desire dynamically in cially as the three protagonists of the final the forefront of a postmodernist cinema, as with transfiguration are all played by Marais. The Almodovar’s activities in post-Franco Spain, nor elusive symbolism and anti-realism of these were they to be challenged by a ‘New Queer films distinguish them in part from the most Cinema’ in the Anglo-Saxon sense, which would famous of Genet’s sorties into cinema, Un provocatively revel in the abject. The lack of a gay press 263 tradition of identity politics in Republican BILL MARSHALL France meant that directors, audiences and crit- See also: existentialism; gay writing ics, whether straight or gay, often tended to down-play the specificity of gay representation in favour of an individualist, integrative or Further reading universalist outlook. Thus Patrice Chéreau’s L’Homme blessé of 1983, with a script co-writ- Dyer, R. (1990) Now You See It: Studies on ten by Hervé Guibert, both owes much to Genet Lesbian and Gay Film, London: Routledge. in its iconography and decor (the toilets of the Gare du Nord, for example), and at the same time situates itself in a French tradition of portraying the crystallization and consequences of gay press l’amour fou, in this case the awakening gay passion of a teenager played by Jean-Hugues The launch of the newsletter Futur in October Anglade. This approach is also to be found in 1952 marked perhaps the beginnings of what French ‘AIDS films’, such as Paul Vecchiali’s we now understand as the gay press in twen- Encore from 1988 and Cyril Collard’s Savage tieth-century France. Drawing on the works Nights (Les Nuits fauves) of 1992, with their of ‘homosexual’ writers such as Gide (thereby, ‘bisexual’ protagonists, lack of reference to any arguably, acknowledging that literature has kind of gay or activist community, and posi- long been a privileged means of expressing tioning of the illness within existentialist and ‘homosexual’ desire), Futur also aimed to be a Romantic narratives of self-discovery. (This is newsletter on ‘information and sexual free- the approach favoured by the ‘straight’ AIDS dom’ in the wake of the Kinsey Report. Legal film that is Xavier Beauvois’s N’oublie pas que battles over the banning of its advertisements, tu vas mourir of 1996.) At their best, however, and restrictions on sales to over-18s, were to these French constructions of homosexuality force its closure in November 1955. produce the films of André Téchiné, whose con- January 1955 saw the launch of Arcadie, sistent output since the 1970s depicts in ‘relaxed’ seeking to enlighten the French with rational and empathetic fashion the complex social and scientific arguments concerning homosexual- historical interactions that go to make up his ity. From an initial 1,500 subscribers, figures straight and gay characters, whether the postal rose to some 10,000 in 1960. It was to be from worker in 1981’s Hôtel des Amériques, the these ranks that most of new gay organiza- young hustler in J’embrasse pas (1991) or the tions emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. adolescent in the 1963 setting of Les Roseaux Launched in April 1983, Gai Pied, which sauvages (1994). ceased publication in 1991, offered a weekly The emphasis on auteurism in critical dis- overview of the main political, cultural and course, and the continued sexism of the French social events on the gay scène in France and film industry, have militated against the emer- the world. In recognition of the growing gence of a distinctive lesbian cinema in France. power of the so-called ‘pink franc’, it also car- Chantal Akerman is Belgian. Women directors ried advertising from the gay commercial have tended not to identify as a group or (with scène. Government activity in the early 1990s, the exception of Varda) as feminist. Mention which was aimed at reducing the number of should be made of Diane Kurys’s Coup de messageries roses (‘lewd’ chatlines and small foudre from 1983, a commercial mainstream ads), impacted on the publisher’s income base film portraying the relationship between two to the extent that the magazine ceased publi- women, played by Miou-Miou and Isabelle cation, to be replaced by the intermittent La Huppert, in 1950s France, but here, typically, Lettre de Gai Pied, available on subscription. any sexual relations between them are merely The company responsible for Gai Pied’s hinted at and never named. 264 gay writing publication, Les Éditions du Triangle Rose, termittently specific ‘gay themes’: Marcel continues its publishing activities in other ar- Jouhandeau, Henri de Montherlant, Jean eas, for example with the bilingual Guide gai Cocteau, Julien Green, Michel Tournier, Roger covering the scene in France, Belgium and Peyrefitte. A second factor is the substantial Switzerland, and Minitel services. oeuvre of more recently established writers, Illico, published monthly in A5 format, of- who use particular forms of writing, such as fers a good overview of events, with editorial variants on the first-person narrative, journal comment and articles on burning issues of the or diary, and particular themes, such as eroti- day. Broadsheet format Exit (le journal), pub- cism, violence and AIDS, to explore and ques- lished monthly since 1993, carries national and tion different forms of identity and sexuality. international news and current affairs items. Particularly notable here are Renaud Camus, A more recent arrival has been Têtu, the first Conrad Detrez, Dominique Fernandez, Hervé colour monthly for lesbians and gays, launched Guibert, Guy Hocquenghem, Hugo Marsan in Easter 1995. Edited by Didier Lestrade of and Yves Navarre. Third, against this back- ACT-UP, it aims to inform and entertain, call- ground of real or fictionalized biographies, and ing for greater involvement in activities by mem- of the increasing ‘intertextual’ cross-fertiliza- bers of the lesbian and gay community. Indeed, tion of literary and non-literary genres, the it was launched with a challenge to gays and work of eminent critics such as Roland Barthes lesbians to demonstrate their sexuality con- and social analysts such as Michel Foucault is cretely by buying the magazine and helping to being similarly mined for its implications for ensure its survival. Despite an apparently rocky gay identity and culture. As a wide-ranging ac- start, sales have grown slowly. count of the different discourses surrounding Since the 1950s, then, the gay press has the evolving notion of homosexuality, from moved from initial tentative moves to explore classical to contemporary, Foucault’s (1976– discussion of homosexuality to a more 84) three-volume History of Sexuality (Histoire upfront, open interaction, with events nation- de la sexualité) is, moreover, a landmark for ally and internationally. The growth in the gay studies. Fourth, by emphasizing the gen- visibility of the ‘pink franc’ has aided this phe- der-relatedness of thinking and production nomenon, which is far from over. across the humanities, the social sciences and the sciences, feminist, lesbian and queer theo- STEVE WHARTON rists from both sides of the Atlantic have helped See also: AIDS; gay activism; lesbian press give gender-related writing—écriture gaie, by analogy with écriture féminine—and particular forms of gendered intertextuality (such as fiction and medicine in ‘the AIDS novel’) a gay writing clearer space and a stronger platform. Finally, there is no doubt that the strength of gay writ- Although less established as a genre than in ing in France goes with the heightened gay vis- the Anglo-American world, gay writing—un- ibility, energy and creativity in many parts of derstood here as literature written by or about the globe, from San Francisco to Sydney. male homosexuals—is increasingly recognized Despite—or perhaps because of—this rela- in France. This is due to a number of factors: tive visibility, at least in the cities, the issue of literary giants of the earlier part of the twenti- growing up/‘coming out’ as gay is an impor- eth century like Proust, Gide and Genet can, tant theme. Although evocations of adolescent notwithstanding their own different positions or post-adolescent sexuality may be accompa- and allegiances, be identified as key contribu- nied by a 1960s sense of liberated eroticism as tors to a specifically gay tradition, alongside a in Roger Peyrefitte’s 1979 Roy (admittedly set constellation of other, almost equally emi- in California), such newly discovered sexual- nent—and prolific—writers with at least in- ity can also be intensely problematic, either gay writing 265 because it is associated with young male vio- tive energy in writers such as Marcel Proust, lence, as in Éric Jourdan’s 1984 Les Mauvais André Gide, Julien Green and the Japanese Anges (The Bad Angels) (banned since 1956) writer influential in France, Yukio Mishima or because it leads to a sense of isolation and (Confessions of a Mask). Ritualized or con- rootlessness: Loïc Chotard’s first novel Tiers senting/unconsenting violence, in the écrivain Monde (1994) (Third World) follows the des- maudit tradition exemplified by Sade, ultory, almost despairing, erotico-sentimental Mirbeau and Bataille, features in Tony flâneries of a group of youngsters in a cocoon- Duvert’s Paysage de fantaisie (Imagined Coun- ing but anonymous Paris. Equally problematic try) of 1973; Jean Genet’s Funeral Rites is the viewing of adolescent sexuality from the (Pompes funèbres) and The Thief’s Journal perspective of the potentially exploitative older (Journal du voleur) from 1947 and 1949; male partner. Even if, as Christopher Robinson Hervé Guibert’s Vous m’avez fait former des has indicated, adolescent sex ‘is not, in a French fantômes (You Made Me Invent Ghosts) from text, automatically a pederastic theme’, the 1987; Pierre Guyotat’s 1970 Éden, Éden, older male tends to be either provocatively self- Éden; and Éric Jourdan’s Charité (1991), justificatory, as in Tony Duvert’s Journal d’un Révolte (1991) and Sang (1992). Here the innocent (Diary of an Innocent) of 1976; maso- main characters, who usually (but not invari- chistic and wistful, as in Julien Green’s 1974 ably) self-identify as gay, foreground their Youth (Jeunesse); or reproaching himself with position of outsiders and outlaws through a the suicide of the younger partner, as in Roger violence which can, like gay SM, be seen as Vrigny’s Le Garçon d’orage (The Storm-Boy) either gender-stereotypical or as self-ironizing from 1994. The voyeurism and the power of and subversive. This writing—as, for exam- the older male is, however, repudiated in ple, in Guyotat’s incorporation of blood and Guillaume Le Touze’s Comme ton père (Like semen—also reflects an attempt to write (with) Your Father), also of 1994. The dying Giuseppe the male body and ‘to put the sex back into takes refuge, along with his mother, Claudia, homosexuality’ in forceful and intentionally in the retreat of his gay father, Paul, in a re- shocking ways. A celebrated example of this mote part of Africa—the fusion of gay, straight is Renaud Camus’s Tricks (1988), whose de- and cross-generational bonds gives all the char- scription of some forty-six one-night stands acters new strength and serenity. In Michel achieves a certain verbal and psychological Braudeau’s 1992 Le Livre de John (John’s violence through relentless repetition, even if Book) and 1993 Mon ami Pierrot (My Friend actual physical violence is absent from the Pierrot), intimacy between different genera- ‘tricks’ themselves. tions of males raises the issue of homoeroticism Another form of violence which inevitably in actual or adoptive paternities. The novel of questions both identity and its inscriptions sexual initiation is thus opening up and out (both written and visual) can be found in into more general questions about male-to- works which treat AIDS. The most well- male relationships, masculinity, fatherhood, known of these are, perhaps, Hervé Guibert’s homosexuality—and gay writing. three novels—To the Friend Who Did Not Another way of interrogating (gay) male Save My Life (A l’ami qui ne m’a pas sauvé la identity is by associating it with violence, vie) of 1990, which, notoriously, evokes whether the violence of social stigmatization, Foucault via the character of Muzil; The as in Navarre’s 1980 Goncourt-winning Compassion Protocol (Le Protocole Cronos’ Children (Le Jardin d’acclimatation), compassionnel) from 1991 and or the violence of self-oppressive masochism, Cytomégalovirus (1992)—together with his or ‘natural’ male violence converted into ritu- 1992 televised film-journal of his own body alized, sadistic male-to-male relationships. In- with AIDS, La Pudeur ou l’impudeur (Mod- ternalized, masochistic violence is shown to esty or Immodesty). Guibert’s surgically pre- be a source of pain, self-reappraisal and crea- cise self-analyses contrast with the exuberant 266 gay writing brinkmanship of Cyril Collard’s Savage also links to the topos of the ‘gay martyr’, Nights (Les Nuits fauves), both in its novel evoked by the title of Sartre’s Saint Genet (1989) and his highly successful film version, (1952) and described with relish by Mishima with himself in the lead role (1992). Different (the St Sebastian theme) and Jourdan. An ini- again are other works by well-known writers, tially more positive version of the same com- such as Dominique Fernandez’s 1987 La bination can be found in novels such as Gloire du paria (The Glory of the Pariah), Michel Tournier’s Les Météores (1975) where Guy Hocquenghem’s Ève (1987), Yves the homosexual Alexandre seeks to sexualize Navarre’s Ce sont amis que vent emporte (It is social rejection in a hunt for ‘exogamic’ part- Friends the Wind Bears Away) from 1991, ners and to sublimate his sense of abjection and Alain-Emmanuel Dreuilhe’s 1987 Corps through ‘endogamic’ fraternal union. à corps: journal du sida (Body to Body—An Alexandre does, however, achieve neither of AIDS Diary). In most of these, anger at medi- these unions, since he is murdered mid- cal inadequacy and social ostracization tends ‘chasse aux garçons’ in North Africa. Erotico- to recede before the loyalty and devotion pro- mystical unions, whether through brother- voked (within the partnerships affected) by twins (Les Météores), boy pairings (Jourdan’s the prospect of death. In Fernandez’s La Les Mauvais Anges) or doubling across gen- Gloire du paria, moreover, the onset of AIDS erations (the two Adams in Hocquenghem’s reassures the older, ‘neo-romantic’ partner, Ève, and the various Romans in Jourdan’s Bernard, that he is still different, still the eter- Révolte and Sang), fail ultimately to shield nal rebel, still the outlaw—a theme repeated men from the sterility and death which haunt in his racy provocatively decadent historical Marsan’s Les Absents and Pancrazi’s Les novel, Le Dernier des Médicis (1994). In Ève Quartiers d’hiver. A more humorous, satirical and Ce sont amis que vent emporte death version of this erotico-mystical union is to be from AIDS is at least partly redeemed by the found in Conrad Detrez’s 1975 Les Plumes presence of a healthy daughter or son to con- du coq (Cockfeathers), where the supposedly tinue life in their father’s place. Elsewhere, in closed world of the Catholic boarding school Hugo Marsan’s 1995 Les Absents (The Ab- is the incongruous launch pad for revolt, vio- sent Ones) and Jean-Noël Pancrazi’s 1990 Les lence and farmyard intimacies. In Renaud Quartiers d’hiver (Winter Quarters), very dif- Camus’s Le Chasseur de lumières (The Light ferent clandestine bars (La Maison Rose and Tracker) of 1993, it is again the setting of the Le Vagabond respectively) are haunted by a novel, here the semi-spiritualized countryside sense of AIDS-associated death: instead of the of Gascony, which offers glimpses of erotico- visible, lived illness of Guibert, AIDS infil- mystical union between its interlinked charac- trates as an image of nostalgia, inertia and ters, notably between the young chasseur de decay. Rather than being etched in and on the lumières and landscape photographer Vin- body, AIDS contributes to the embodiment of cent, and the older, impecunious, semi-aristo- an aesthetic. cratic Adam. Despite Vincent’s reappearance By endowing both past pleasures and in Camus’s L’Épuisant Désir de ces choses present intimacies with a sense of irretrievable (The Draining Desire for Such Things), con- loss, AIDS novels also develop two related tact between the characters is here even more leitmotifs of gay, gay-authored or at least spasmodic and elusive: mystical union gives sexually ambivalent fiction—the cultivation way to self-conscious intertextual play and of a moral, physical or aesthetic asceticism eroticism to an unspecified longing in ab- and of a certain erotico-philosophical mysti- sence. The combination of asceticism, eroticism—evident, for example, in the very differ- cism and mysticism has itself been absorbed ent works of Gide, Green, Mauriac, into a self-conscious narrative style—whether Montherlant and even Proust. This combina- the baroque extravaganzas of Detrez or the tion of asceticism, eroticism and mysticism impressionistic kaleidoscopes of Camus. gay writing 267

Given that the interrogation of identity has (eds) (1998) Gay Signatures, Oxford: Berg been one of the hallmarks of gay writing from (essays on a range of French gay and les- Proust and Gide through to Pancrazi and bian writers and film-makers; a general Guibert, it is appropriate that this interroga- theoretical and analytical introduction). tion be accompanied by a corresponding ex- Larivière, M. (ed.) (1984) Les Amours ploration of literary forms, notably the first- masculines: anthologie de l’homosexualité person narration. The commodiousness and dans la littérature, preface by Dominique the flexibility of first-person narrative allows Fernandez, Paris: Lieu Commun (includes for the identity of author and characters to be extracts from some fifty twentieth-century inextricably fused and confused—as in writers, mainly French but not exclu- Collard’s Les Nuits fauves—or simultane- sively). ously revealed and masked—as in Duvert’s Lévy, J. and Nouss, A. (eds) (1994) Sida-Fic- Journal d’un innocent—or for the writer to be tion: essai d’anthropologie romanesque, both exposed and distanced as in the multi- Lyon: Presses Universitaires de Lyon (use- person Roland Barthes par Roland Barthes ful, wide-ranging, essentially descriptive (1975) and in nearly all Guibert’s oeuvre. The survey; bibliography). first-person narrative also allows for very dif- Lilly, M. (1993) Gay Men’s Literature in the ferent representations of the male body, from Twentieth Century, Basingstoke: René Crevel’s surreal Mon corps et moi Macmillan. (1925) to Navarre’s 1979 wistfully melan- Malinowski, S. (ed.) (1994) Gay and Lesbian cholic Le Temps voulu (Time Willed), and to Literature, Detroit and London: St James Jouhandeau’s erotic Chronique d’une passion Press. (1949) and Tirésias (1954). The first-person Maxence, J.-L. (1995) Les Écrivains sacrifiés narrative also allows for intermittent or ex- des années sida, Paris: Bayard (short, read- tended flashbacks to point to the pain or the able review-style accounts of Aron, pleasures of memory (Camus, Navarre), Collard, Detrez, Dreuilhe, De Duve, while the juxtaposition of multiple-person Foucault, Guibert and Hocquenghem). narratives within the one novel creates com- Robinson, C. (1995) Scandal in the Ink: Male plementary or divergent perspectives: Le and Female Homosexuality in Twentieth- Touze, Marsan, Tournier. When these are Century French Literature, London: combined with a rich vein of third-person Cassell. (very useful overview) narratives, whether formally conventional Schehr, L. (1995a) Alcibiades at the Door: Gay (Navarre, Pancrazi, Vrigny) or unconven- Discourses in French Literature, Stanford: tional (Camus, Detrez), or simply flamboy- Stanford University Press (identifies and antly erotic (Éric Jourdan’s Sexuellement in- analyses a homosexual poiesis in Crevel, correct of 1995) it can be seen that gay writ- Sartre, Gide, Barthes and Guibert; bibliog- ing in France is sufficiently substantial and raphy ). varied for its explorations of the gay self, the ——(1995b) The Shock of Men: Homosexual gay body and gay identity to offer a map and Hermeneutics in French Writing, Stanford: a platform for the future. Stanford University Press (tests the idea of homosexuality as a mode of interpretation OWEN HEATHCOTE and subversion in Gide, Foucault, Proust, See also: autobiography; gay cinema; wom- Barthes, Renaud Camus and Tournier; bib- en’s/lesbian writing liography). Stambolian, G. and Marks, E. (eds) (1979) Homosexualities in French Literature, Further reading Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell (early seminal collection of essays). Heathcote, O., Hughes, A. and Williams, J. 268 Geismar, Alain

Geismar, Alain happier and calmer than he would have us believe, but he had to leave the Régnier family b. 1939, Paris at the age of 13 to learn a trade; after ten days he ran away from the school where he had been Academic sent to learn typography and began a life of petty crime that resulted in him finally being A physicist and Ingénieur des Mines, Geismar sent to Mettray Reformatory until he was 21. became a university teacher in Paris in 1963 He had his first homosexual experiences there, and general secretary of the higher education and in his 1946 novel, Miracle de la rose, trans- teachers’ union (SNESup) in 1967. He was formed this borstal into a paradise of mystical catapulted to notoriety as one of the triumvi- and melancholy passions. His first important rate (alongside Daniel Cohn-Bendit and works are autobiographical novels, even Jacques Sauvageot) who acted as leaders and Querelle de Brest, the only novel in which spokespersons for the May 1968 student ‘Genet’ is neither a character nor the narrator. movement. His ‘Maoist’ political affiliations These novels can perhaps best be seen as in the immediate post-1968 years seem to have autofictions, as the traces of a life that was had no adverse effect on his subsequent ca- both lived and invented, both real and imagi- reer. He was an official in the Département nary. In them, Genet juxtaposes confession, d’Education Permanente (1974–8) and vice- imagination and scandalous provocation, cre- president of the University of Paris VII (1982– ating a world in which established social and 4). In 1985, he became assistant director-gen- moral systems are both inverted and (paradoxi- eral of the Agence de l’Informatique and later cally) maintained, a fictional world which he acted as an adviser to Jack Lang, when he was called—and which was—his ‘chant d’amour’. Minister of Culture. In The Thief’s Journal (Journal du voleur), the LAURENCE BELL most evidently autobiographical of his texts, he repeatedly insists that his aim was to make See also: parties and movements his life a legend: for him, his ‘real’ life was only ever the preparation for further adventures that would find their full meaning only when writ- Genet, Jean ten down—and read. In fact, Genet’s true triumph over a society he both despised and needed was through language—it was in and b. 1910, Paris; by his writing that he defined himself and de- d. 1986, Paris fied society. Among his early admirers were Cocteau and Writer, dramatist, poet, essayist and Sartre, who obtained a presidential pardon for political activist him in 1949. This public recognition, however, amounted in his eyes also to recuperation of One of the great lyrical writers of modern him by society, and when it was followed in times, as well as one of the most shocking, 1952 by Sartre’s monumental biography Saint Genet spent much of his life creating an image Genet, which presented him as an existential- of himself as the archetypal outcast: a thief, a ist hero, he burned all the unpublished manu- traitor and a homosexual. However, even his scripts he had written over the previous five most meticulous biographers cannot agree on years and thereafter wrote no more fiction. At the sequence—or, indeed, the truth—of the the heart of his work lies a duality whereby major events in his life. He was certainly aban- every act elicits and merits both praise and doned as an infant by his mother, never knew condemnation. But Genet does not seek reso- who his father was, and was raised by a foster lution of such oppositions; rather he envisages family in the Morvan. His childhood was much a transcendence of them in and through Genette, Gérard 269 poetry. In the mid-1950s he devoted himself mous works have been published, but none to theatre, repeatedly presenting his vision of has the force or the profound emotion of this a world divided into oppressors and oppressed, work of redemption and reconciliation. the latter able to conceive their function only MICHAEL WORTON in terms of the needs and desires of the oppressors. His plays all have a political dimen- See also: autobiography; existentialism; gay sion—notably The Blacks (Les Nègres), with writing; theatre its exposition of the impotence of the blacks’ attempts at revolt, and The Screens (Les Further reading Paravents), set in Algeria, which scandalized French society with its indictment of colonial Brooks, P. and Halpern, J. (eds) (1975) Jean conflict. While Genet’s theatre highlights the Genet, Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall urgent reality and importance of struggle, it is (an anthology of essays by such distin- also highly ritualized, the distinction between guished critics as Sartre, Bataille and Rich- illusion and reality being blurred and language ard Coe). being used less as a means of communication Moraly, J.-B. (1988) Jean Genet: la vie écrite, than as a constant fountain of incantation. Paris: Éditions de la Différence (convinc- In 1964, the suicide of his lover Abdallah ingly challenges the legend Genet made of (a young tightrope walker) devastated Genet, himself and shows how a concern with writ- who once again destroyed his manuscripts and ing determined all of Genet’s life choices). disappeared, reappearing as a political activ- Sartre, J.-P. (1952), Saint Genet, comédien et ist, working with the Black Panthers in the martyr, Paris: Gallimard. Translated B. United States and then with Yasser Arafat and Frechtman (1988) Saint Genet: Actor and the PLO. These activities inspired his last fin- Martyr, London: Heinemann (this ‘existen- ished work, Prisoner of Love (Un Captif tial biography’, which continues to domi- amoureux), a book in which he explicitly nate thinking on Genet, traces what it calls swears to tell the whole truth as in a court of the history of a liberation; for Sartre, Genet law. Much more than a political book, it is a underwent three metamorphoses: the child speculation on the nature of truth, a medita- became a thief, the thief became an aesthete, tion on the interdependence of egoism and al- and the aesthete finally became a writer). truism, an exploration of different narrative Savona, J. (1983) Jean Genet, London: techniques and, above all, a hymn to love, Macmillan (an excellent introduction to the both erotic and fraternal. Here Genet finally theatre, in which each play is analysed sepa- presents us with a non-erotic couple, Hamza, rately). a young feddai, and his mother, and the book White, E. (1993) Jean Genet, London: Chatto draws together all of Genet’s philosophical, & Windus (a monumental and meticulous political, theological and mythological ideas biography which focuses on Genet’s homo- as well as many biographical references, into sexuality; particularly interesting on a new vision of unity centred on a sense of Genet’s responses to painting). family and community. In one of the most radical and astonishing reversals of his career, Genet, who had often parodied the cult and iconography of the Virgin Mary, as in his Genette, Gérard novel Our Lady of the Flowers (Notre-Dame- des-Fleurs), places at the centre of this, his last b. 1930 book, the Christian image of the pietà and the figure of Mary mater dolorosa, who in the Literary theorist and critic very moment of her mourning is able to for- give everything and everyone. Several posthu- Genette has published several important 270 Giacometti, Alberto essays on literary forms. His 1972 Discours human condition as interpreted by existen- du récit (translated in 1980 as Narrative Dis- tialism. course), which attempts to build a comprehen- CAROL WILCOX sive theory of narrative, based on copious examples from Proust’s work, has been particularly influential in the field of poetics. His original categories for analysing time in the Gipsy Kings novel and his concept of focalization have, for example, been widely quoted. Musicians BÉATRICE DAMAMME-GILBERT A paradox of the French pop scene, the Gipsy See also: Barthes, Roland; Greimas, A.J.; lin- Kings are a highly talented group of gypsy guistic/discourse theory; structuralism musicians who sing in Spanish and manage to ‘represent’ France at some official cultural Further reading events. They are based in France and provide evidence of the multicultural heritage of their ‘adopted’ country, with its tradition of openly Rimmon-Kenan, S. (1983) Narrative Fiction: welcoming artists of other nationalities. Their Contemporary Poetics, London and New latest productions are Este mundo (1991) and York: Routledge (refers extensively to Love et liberté (1993). Genette’s work). GÉRARD POULET See also: song/chanson Giacometti, Alberto b. 1901, Borgonovo, Switzerland; Girard, René d. 1966, Chur, Switzerland b. 1923, Avignon Artist Philosopher and critic Giacometti’s early work, after his move to Paris in 1922, was influenced by Brancusi, In novels, primitive mythology and the Bible, Cubism via Lipchitz and, more significantly, Girard discerns an essential association be- the Surrealist movement. After the war he tween violence and desire, and an opposition produced the sculpture for which he is best between desire and knowledge. Deceit, Desire known—his attenuated, almost undifferenti- and the Novel: Self and Other in Literary ated, bronze figures, isolated or in groups, Structures (Mensonge romantique, vérité seen as if from a distance and inviting com- romanesque) of 1961 examines how literature parisons, during this postwar period, with helps us to understand the unconscious work- concentration camp victims or displaced per- ings of desire. The essayistic Violence and the sons. The critical recognition and interna- Sacred (La Violence et le sacré) from 1972, tional acclaim these works received was and 1978’s more systematic Things Hidden largely due to their endorsement by Jean-Paul Since the foundation of the World (Des Choses Sartre, who discerned in Giacometti’s rejec- cachées depuis la fondation du monde), tion of the traditional sculptural presentation present the attenuation of desire through the of the human figure an assertion of the art- religious ritual of universal victimage, as em- ist’s existential freedom and saw in the fig- bodied in the scapegoat. The singularity of ures themselves the spiritual isolation of the Girard’s theme and his confident crossing of Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry 271 generic boundaries distance him from most He was Finance Minister from 1962 to major schools of contemporary theory. 1966, during which period, while loyal to the Fifth Republic, he kept his distance from de SEÁN HAND Gaulle through his membership of the Républicans Indépendents (RI) party. The distinctive Giscardian style—‘French’ in its elitist Giroud, Françoise and patrician qualities, ‘American’ in being technocratically forward-looking and in its b. 1916, Geneva, Switzerland economic liberalism—began to emerge in these years. Critical of Gaullist centralization, Journalist, writer and political figure though he refused to join the vote of censure against the government after May 1968, he One of France’s leading journalists, Giroud remained in eclipse until Pompidou came to has written for a number of newspapers and power in 1969, when he returned as Finance magazines, including Elle, Le Nouvel Minister, a post he was to occupy for the en- Observateur, and L’Express, which she co- tire Pompidou presidency. founded with Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber. Giscard’s political position is best encapsu- In the 1970s, she headed the short-lived Sec- lated by his October 1972 assertion that France retariat for Women, established in 1974 by wanted to be governed from the centre, and Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, before becoming his 1974 election slogan of ‘change without Secreatary of State for Cultural Affairs (1976– risk’. Such blandness, after the upheavals of 7). As well as collections of articles, she has the Algerian war and 1968, was what a great published literary and biographical works, in- many French wanted to hear, and his victory cluding 1981’s Une Femme honorable (An over Mitterrand, while an extremely narrow Honourable Woman), and Alma Mahler ou one, was far from surprising. As president, he l’art d’être aimée (Alma Mahler, or the Art of attempted to offset his aristocratic name and Being Loved). demeanour with a series of not always convincing demotic gestures, such as posing in a ALEX HUGHES lounge suit for the official presidential photo- See also: feminism (movements/groups); femi- graph, inviting the Élysée dustmen to break- nist press fast with him and getting himself invited to dine, with ostentatious spontaneity, in the homes of ‘ordinary’ French men and women. He had to contend in his early years with poor Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry relations with his first prime minister, Chirac (replaced by Raymond Barre in 1976), and a b. 1926, Koblenz, Germany resurgent Left opposition; but their defeat in the 1978 legislative elections and the Giscard/ Politician Barre tandem’s image of economic competence strengthened his position. Major reforms un- Giscard was president of the Republic from der his rule included the breaking-up of the 1974 to 1981, and the only Fifth Republic ORTF into a number of smaller companies, head of state to have gone down to defeat at a the legalization of abortion and France’s entry presidential election. From an haut-bourgeois into the European Monetary System. He felt background, and a graduate of the prestigious unable to abolish the death penalty, however, École Nationale d’Administration, he rose to despite proclaimed personal opposition. prominence as an inspector in the Ministry of As the youngest president this century, Finance, becoming member of parliament for Giscard was clearly looking forward to a lengthy an Auvergne constituency in 1956. period in office, and his defeat by Mitterrand 272 Glucksmann, André in 1981—only three years after the collapse of philosophers of the 1970s. After passing the the Union of the Left on which the latter had competitive agrégation examination in phi- built his strategy—was all the more traumatic losophy in 1961, Glucksmann became a for him in consequence. With neither a House Marxist student militant, gravitating towards of Lords nor the equivalent of the United States’ the Maoists and taking an active role in the Carter Foundation to provide a political ‘retire- intellectual debates around May 1968. In the ment home’ for him, he has had to content him- aftermath of the events, he became one of the self since with the presidency of the Auvergne leading figures of the ‘new philosophers’ Regional Assembly, and in 1995 a mortifyingly movement, comprising former radicals who failed attempt to capture the mayorship of developed a trenchant right-wing critique of Clermont-Ferrand from the Socialists. His re- their own former beliefs, drawing inspiration cent publication of an erotic novel has merely from Solzhenitsyn. He campaigned for causes reinforced the rather sorry sense of a figure a such as the Vietnamese ‘boat people’, and is long way past his sell-by date. generally credited with promoting the reconciliation of Jean-Paul Sartre and Raymond KEITH READER Aron in 1978. In the 1990s he wrote force- See also: abortion/contraception; parties and fully on the treatment of AIDS sufferers, and movements campaigned against the siege of Sarajevo by Bosnian Serbs. His thought focuses on moral issues, rejecting systems of lofty ideals and Major works proposing a permanent revolt against indifference, oppression and other manifestations of Giscard d’Estaing, V. (1983) Démocratie evil in society. His bestknown book remains française, ed. A.Clark, London: Methuen The Master Thinkers (Les Maîtres penseurs) (a well-annotated and well-contextualized of 1977, whose title became a byword in the republication of Giscard’s 1976 political postmodernist attack on Marx, Freud and credo). other proponents of systematic thought. MICHAEL KELLY Further reading See also: educational elitism; Marxism and Marxian thought; revolutionary groups Duhamel, A. (1980) La République giscardienne: anatomie politique de la France, Paris: Grasset (the most comprehensive French-language work on the Godard, Jean-Luc Giscard years). Frears, J.R. (1981) France in the Giscard Presi- b. 1930, Paris dency, London: Allen and Unwin (a sound overall account). Director and critic

Considered by many the greatest film-maker of his generation, certainly the most prolific Glucksmann, André and influential, Godard has produced an oeuvre of unparalleled range, energy and am- b. 1937, France bition. With provocative wit and intelligence, as well as an acute sensitivity to beauty and Philosopher form, he has consistently brought together questions of aesthetics, politics and philoso- Glucksmann is the best known of the new phy. His is the most sustained and challenging Godard, Jean-Luc 273 analysis in cinema of the relations between Karina, whom Godard later married. So be- sound and image, and all his work—critical gan a remarkable period of uninterrupted crea- and filmic—is to some extent essayistic, at tivity during which Godard developed a frag- once speculative and transitional. When this mented, intensively edited and self-ironic style process fails, it can sometimes expose Godard that broke down the divisions between fiction as politically naive, overintellectual, even ni- and documentary, actor and character, narra- hilistic. However, what made him such a criti- tive and experimental film. The films of this cally important voice during the 1960s and first period (almost all shot by Coutard), in- 1970s was the fact that people could identify clude Vivre sa vie (1962), an analysis of pros- with this son of the bourgeoisie negotiating titution in twelve tableaux, the classically per- the great social and political changes of the fect Le Mépris (1963) made in Cinemascope Fifth Republic by confronting directly French and mischievously employing Brigitte Bardot, culture and tradition. and Alphaville, une étrange aventure de Godard’s first film, Opération béton, a Lemmy Caution (1965), a mixture of film noir twenty-minute short made in 1954 about the and science fiction. The poster-bright Pierrot construction of a dam in Switzerland, was an le fou (1965), regarded by many as Godard’s undistinguished beginning, yet already antici- masterpiece, follows the love-hate relationship pated the documentary aspect of his work. On between Marianne (Karina) and Ferdinand returning to Paris, where he had studied eth- (Belmondo) and is clearly a reflection of the nology at the Sorbonne and attended the state of Godard’s marriage with Karina, then cineclubs of the Left Bank, he worked on a nearing its end. series of short films with a group of aspiring Godard was seeking to develop a material- film-makers and critics—Jacques Rivette, Éric ist film poetics, the first signs of which are vis- Rohmer, François Truffaut—who would even- ible in 1966’s Masculin-Féminin, starring Jean- tually become known as the Nouvelle Vague Pierre Léaud, about the generation of ‘the chil- (New Wave), all united in their contempt of dren of Marx and Coca-Cola’. In 1966–67 he the traditional French cinéma de qualité. In made a trilogy exploring modern alienation, in 1956, using the pseudonym Hans Lucas, particular the Americanization of French eco- Godard became a regular contributor to the nomic and cultural life highlighted by the Viet- magazines Arts and Cahiers du cinema and, nam war. Deux ou trois choses que je sais d’elle inspired by the work of American directors like is a social and psychological portrait of Paris Hawks and Hitchcock, helped to formulate an and its new suburban sprawl as seen through aesthetic policy of the auteur. In 1957, he met the eyes of a housewife-cum-prostitute. La the film producer Georges de Beauregard, who Chinoise, about a Maoist cell in Paris, is an ac- financed his first feature-length film, A bout curate premonition of the student uprisings of de souffle, a homage to American ‘B’ gangster 1968. Weekend, a savage indictment of social movies starring Jean Seberg and Jean-Paul violence and arguably Godard’s most extreme Belmondo. Shot by Raoul Coutard in natural film, offers an apocalyptic vision both of soci- light on location in Paris, the film was an un- ety and of cinema (the closing caption reads ‘FIN expected critical and commercial success. Bris- DU CINÉMA’). May 1968 saw Godard lead- tling with quotes and references, it used the ing the protests over the dismissal of Henri techniques of hand-held camera and jump-cut Langlois from the Cinémathèque Française, and to disrupt the act of narration and so create producing a series of cinétracts, or impromptu spontaneity. Godard’s second film, Le Petit collages, of revolutionary sounds, images and Soldat (made in 1960, but not released until slogans. Le Gai Savoir (1968), a treatise on ‘pro- 1963), was a fierce exposé of the Algerian war, gressive’ education which heavily foregrounds disturbing both for its realistic depiction of its means of production, marks the culmination horror and for the ambiguous politics of its of Godard’s self-reflexive film aesthetic. He then protagonists. It featured the actress Anna began to disavow his earlier work, claiming that 274 Godard, Jean-Luc it functioned only at the level of theoretical ex- to the mainstream and explicitly autobio- periment rather than of social and political graphical in nature. Produced with a minimal struggle. His setting up with Jean-Pierre Gorin crew and featuring Jacques Dutronc as of the Maoist film collective, the Dziga Vertov Godard’s alter ego, Paul Godard, the film used Group, marked a complete break with commer- the video technique of stop-starting images to cial film structures. Joint works like Pravda, analyse the relations between female prostitu- Luttes en Italie, Vent d’est, (all 1969), and tion and male impotence, space and represen- Vladimir et Rosa (1971), commissioned by Eu- tation. It also included a voice-over sequence ropean television although never broadcast, with Marguerite Duras, illustrating Godard’s deconstructed in different ways the signs of desire to engage directly with female discourse bourgeois ideology. Tout va bien (1972), fea- and, perhaps even more importantly, literature turing Yves Montand and Jane Fonda as char- (Godard is himself the author of six published acters and as themselves, is Godard’s most au- collections of poetry). Passion followed (1981), thentically Brechtian film, but failed to excite a soaring tale of aesthetics, painting, class poli- either his increasingly impatient Marxist follow- tics and religion which inspired the even more ing or the capitalist film system which had in- astonishing Scénario du film ‘Passion’, a video tended to welcome back a prodigal son. Godard where Godard explores how Passion came into had reached an artistic impasse, a fact crudely being. Prénom: Carmen (1983), which won the symbolized by his motorcycle accident in 1971 Lion d’Or at the 1983 Venice Film Festival, which left him an invalid for two years. Despite confronts Mérimée with Beethoven to exam- its analytical rigour, his work was becoming less ine the relationship between (pre-)language and revolutionary than simply didactic, losing its identity. Its burlesque figure of Uncle Jean audience in the process. The Group disbanded marks the first of Godard’s appearances in his and Godard left for Grenoble with Anne-Marie own film-fictions. ‘Je vous salue, Marie’ (1983), Miéville, a set photographer on Tout va bien, a contemporary reworking of the story of the to set up a new production company called Nativity, explored the metaphysical themes of Sonimage (romantically conceived as a combi- love, faith and creativity. Although condemned nation of her ‘sound’ and his ‘image’). by the Pope, the film was an honest attempt Godard then underwent a process of com- by Godard (a Protestant) to deal with the ques- plete self-evaluation unlike that of any other tion of divine mystery, and its dense sound- major film-maker. After Ici et ailleurs (1974), track mixing Dvorák with Bach showcased his which used video and previously shot film of total mastery of sound. Palestine to take personal and political stock An extensive and still evolving phase of per- of the post-1968 situation, Godard and sonal, historical and philosophical contempla- Miéville returned deliberately in 1973 to basic tion was initiated by the video Godard made themes with Numéro deux, a stunning exposé with Miéville in 1986 entitled Soft and Hard. of the blockage in French society which incor- Putting aside self-indulgent exercises like King porated and superimposed video within the Lear and Soigne ta droite (both 1987), this fifth cinematic frame. Two major television series period includes works like Puissance de la pa- followed, Six fois deux (sur et sous la commu- role (1988), a dazzling video piece exploiting nication) (1976) and France/tour/détour/deux/ techniques of speed and pulsation; Nouvelle enfants, (1977/8) which, although meeting Vague (1991), a paean to nature stripped of with general incomprehension and disap- all but the barest threads of narrative; proval, revealed that Godard was seeking Allemagne année 90 neuf zero, a meditation above all to resolve the antagonism between for television on the solitude of post-Berlin Wall video and cinema (Cain and Abel). By the late Germany and Europe; and JLG/JLG: 1970s, he was back in Switzerland (his coun- autoportrait de décembre (1991), an intimate try of citizenship). There he made Slow Mo- and elegiac short which is less a self-portrait tion (Sauve qui peut [la vie]) (1979), a return than a study of childhood, memory and loss. Gorz, André 275

Godard has also experimented with filmed York: Museum of Modern Art (the best poems, letters, reports, contributions to col- general collection of criticism on Godard’s lective works, historical studies, work notes, work post-1974). fragments of a private diary and dialogues. Douin, J.-L. (1994) Jean-Luc Godard, Paris: However, the key work of the recent corpus is Rivages (a solid and highly readable over- the eight-part video Histoire(s) du cinéma. view of Godard’s oeuvre). Here, Godard, the self-styled artisan, reinvents MacCabe, C. (1980) Jean-Luc Godard: Im- the cinematic process by means of an extraor- ages, Sounds, Politics, London: British Film dinary ‘videographic’ flux of clips, stills, art Institute (an excellent analysis of Godard’s reproductions, captions and photography. This work up to the late 1970s). approach confirms the view of the film critic Serge Daney that Godard is less an iconoclast and innovator than a radical reformer tirelessly correcting and redefining. A work of genuine Goldmann, Jean-Jacques humanist commitment and passion, Histoire(s) du cinéma has rarely been seen, suffering the b. 1951, Paris fate of much of Godard’s recent output which, if it attracts producers, lacks adequate distri- Singer-songwriter bution. In fact, although revered by young film- makers such as Léos Carax, Godard is gener- Goldmann is a prolific songwriter and a per- ally known less for his recent work than for former. He started his career in 1975 with the his enduring fame as a public figure, the au- group Tai Phong, where he first met the Welsh thor of axioms like ‘cinema is truth 24 times a guitarist Michael Jones. In 1981, Goldmann second’, or ‘it’s not a just image, just an im- started a solo and highly successful career for age’. He received the prestigious film award ten years and then formed a new group of an honorary César in 1986. Fredericks, Goldmann et Jones. A talented musician, he gives the traditional poetical JAMES WILLIAMS chanson a modern musical idiom. Against his See also: feminist thought; Marxism and own wishes he is perceived as a leading voice Marxian thought; postmodernism; prostitu- of the new moral generation. tion GÉRARD POULET See also: song/chanson Major works

Godard, J.-L. (1980) Introduction à une Gorz, André véritable histoire du cinéma, vol. 1, Paris: Éditions Albatros (a first version of the Histoire(s) du cinéma project). b. 1924, Vienna, Austria ——(1985) Jean-Luc Godard par Jean-Luc Godard, Paris: Cahiers du Cinéma/Éditions Political philosopher, de l’Étoile (a lavishly illustrated compila- real name Gérard Horst tion of all Godard’s film criticism). Gorz left his homeland when it was annexed by Hitler in 1938 and it was in 1946, during Further reading his exile in Switzerland, that Gorz met Jean- Paul Sartre, thus beginning a long association Bellour, R. and Bandy, M.L. (eds) (1992), Jean- with Les Temps modernes. Gorz’s books are Luc Godard: Son+Image 1974–1991, New concerned mainly with the nature of work in 276 Gracq, Julien post-industrial societies: he examines the emer- See also: literary prizes gence of and tendency towards societies having to contend with mass unemployment in Further reading economies experiencing jobless growth. His analysis extends also to changing class structures in such societies, and discusses how work Murat, M. (1992) Julien Gracq, Paris: Pierre should be more equitably distributed. Gorz’s Belfond (an approachable and penetrating name has in more recent years become associ- overview of Gracq’s entire work). ated with the ecology movement. MARTYN CORNICK See also: employment; green issues Grand Magic Circus, Le Theatre company Major works An anarchic, lively company led by Jérôme Gorz, A. (1980) Ecology as Politics (Écologie Savary, whose aim was to bring culture to the et politique), Boston: South End Press. people by ridiculing the existing cultural es- ——(1982) Farewell to the Working Class: An tablishment. Collectively scripted shows were Essay on Post-Industrial Socialism, Lon- designed to shock middle-class audiences, and don: Pluto. used the music-hall tradition of song, dance, ——(1988) Métamorphose du travail: quête stage effects, clowning and pantomime for du sens, Paris: Galilée. which shows such as its 1973 De Moïse a ——(1994) Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology Mao, and its 1981 Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (Capitalisme, socialisme, écologie), trans. are particularly famous. C.Turner, London: Verso. ANNIE SPARKS See also: theatre Gracq, Julien Further reading b. 1910, St-Florent-le-Vieil Savary, J. (1974) Album du Grand Magic Cir- Writer, real name Louis Poirier cus, Paris: Belfond. Gracq is the author of novels and essays, was initially close to Surrealism (he was a friend of André Breton) and is noted for his rare poetic Grappelli, Stéphane style and his individual vision of literature. In 1950 he delivered a violent attack on the Pa- b. 1908, Paris risian literary establishment in Literature in d. 1997, Paris the Gut (La Littérature a l’estomac) and later refused the Goncourt prize awarded for his Musician 1951 novel The Opposing Shore (Le Rivage des Syrtes). Standing apart from all literary A legendary jazz violinist who formed an un- trends, his work has moved from fiction to- forgettable partnership with the guitarist wards original forms of personal and reflec- Django Reinhardt in the 1930s. The two of tive writing. them were members of the Hot Club de France BÉATRICE DAMAMME-GILBERT Quintet which was formed in 1934 and stayed green issues 277 together until the war (when Grappelli came tors, especially the role of the state and the to England). Reformed in 1946, the Quintet conflicts around nuclear power. continued to perform until Reinhardt’s retire- The relationship between society and the ment in 1950, since when Grappelli pursued a natural environment has been a much-debated solo career, working with the likes of Duke issue for a long time. Indeed, it was pivotal Ellington, Oscar Peterson, Barney Kessel, Earl during the Enlightenment period; Rousseau, Hines, Yehudi Menuhin and Claude Bolling with his vision of humans as ‘good in Nature’ until his death in December 1997. in Le Contrat social and in Émile, differed from the modernism of the Encyclopedists such as IAN PICKUP Diderot or D’Alembert, for whom ‘reason’ and See also: jazz ‘industry’ control ‘nature’. In the Romantic period, this debate was continued from all sides. The impulse to ‘preserve’ nature can be dated back to the creation of the first nature Gréco, Juliette reserve in the forest of Fontainebleau in 1853, after a long campaign by well-known artists b. 1926, Montpellier and writers such as George Sand and Victor Hugo. Later, the deeply rural character of Singer and actor French society strongly marked the relationship with the natural environment. However, Known in her early years as the ‘muse of St- the ambient modernism which, from the 1950s, Germain-des-Prés’, Juliette Gréco began her presided over the ‘30 Glorious’ years of eco- career in the late 1940s and early 1950s per- nomic growth, and which at first reacted forming songs with words by Jean-Paul Sartre against the ‘ruralist’ ideology of the and Raymond Queneau. Having alienated the collaborationist Vichy regime of World War II French bourgeoisie in her early years, Gréco (which had a wheatsheaf as its symbol), had progressively captivated a wider public, sing- soon to respond to the deep environmental ing songs by Brel, Prévert, Guy Béart, changes provoked by industrialization and Gainsbourg, Aznavour, and others. An out- urbanization. These changes, which acceler- standing stage performer, Gréco projected the ated the disappearance of traditional rural so- image of the archetypal ‘liberated’ woman. She ciety, assured the continued popularity of is also important as an ambassador of French works extolling the values of doomed rural song abroad and (to a lesser extent) as a film cultures in touch with ‘nature’—hence the suc- star. Gréco was married to Michel Piccoli. cess of writings by authors such as Pagnol, IAN PICKUP Genevoix, Giono and Ramuz. On the other hand, it became obvious that the natural and See also: song/chanson human environments were threatened through pollution and degradation, and that a serious policy response had to be developed. green issues In this context, two dates are particularly relevant. In 1960, the act creating the national parks was voted in. The first, the Parc National Green issues emerged as part of France’s so- de la Vanoise, was established in the Alps in cial and political agenda in the 1960s, al- 1963, to be followed by six other national though the debate about the relationship be- parks and many regional parks and nature re- tween nature and society is an old one. Mod- serves. In 1963, Jean Dorst’s book Avant que ern environmentalism, which followed the nature se meure (Before Nature Dies) rivalled growth of the nature protection movements, Carson’s Silent Spring in the Anglo-Saxon has been shaped by a number of specific fac- world. At the end of the 1960s and in the early 278 green issues

1970s, green trends were developing in France degrading of the local natural environment by (as elsewhere), generating debate about the infrastructure encroachment was increasingly ‘limits to growth’, the ‘hippy’ craze, a nostal- resisted—for instance, a new TGV rail track gia for the terroirs and produits de pays, and project in the Rhône valley, an area already associations for the protection of animals and cramped between existing railways, motor- nature becoming mass movements. The Amis ways and canals, and not far from the Côte de la Terre (Friends of the Earth) started in d’Azur, a fragile environment destroyed by 1970; three years later came WWF’s French speculative and undercontrolled developments, section (Greenpeace France had to wait until was strongly opposed in the early 1990s. 1977). The term écologiste (environmentalist) From the mid-1970s, a new generation of became popular, especially in its familiar, activists, less marked by the political issues slightly derogatory form of écolo. inherited from the 1960s, brought forward the The main area of conflicts during the 1970s Greens’ political project. Green politics, which was the development of nuclear power. The have been marked by deep divisions and a 1973 Messmer Plan planned to make of nu- gradual erosion of the electoral and political clear power the main source of electricity gen- positions gained in the mid-1980s, have not eration (le tout-nucléaire policy). This decision managed to alter significantly the ways in was never debated publicly, and local public which green issues are considered. Indeed, enquiries for nuclear plants were seen as rub- ‘green’ themes are used in widely differing ber-stamping procedures. The anti-nuclear ways. For instance, a conservative-orientated movement, therefore, was also a protest party, the CPNT or Chasse, Pêche, Nature, against the centralized state. Many environ- Traditions (Hunting, Angling, Nature, Tradi- mentalists associated themselves with the lib- tions), claiming to have an environmental pur- ertarian ideals of the May 1968 movement, pose by lobbying for ‘traditional’ hunting and pacifism (as the civil nuclear power pro- angling, gained 3.95 per cent of the votes in gramme had never been fully separated from the 1994 European elections—more than the the military nuclear programme) and region- main Green Party (Les Verts). alism (especially in Brittany). The CPNT’s relative success is typical of The high point of anti-nuclear campaigning protest politics, but it reveals some of the spe- came in 1977, during the campaign against the cific aspects of ideologies on nature which are Creys-Malville ‘fast breeder’ reactor near Lyon. very different from the usual green image. With the arrival in power of Mitterrand in There are 1.65 million licensed hunters in 1981, a few concessions were made, but the France, who constitute a powerful and active nuclear programme had largely been set in lobby which claims to have the protection of train, and the opposition foundered on the nature as its main aim. Some recent conflicts powerful alliance of pro-nuclear interests. To- illustrate the force of such ideologies: for in- day, France is the country with the highest pro- stance, the seasonal hunting of the palombe (a portion of electricity generated from nuclear kind of migrant dove) in the southwest region plants. Protests were renewed only when pub- of France is, in principle, forbidden by an EU lic authorities were accused of providing little directive, but is fiercely defended and practised or misleading information about the radioac- by locals. Indeed, ‘ecocentrist’ thinking, influ- tive clouds from the Chernobyl disaster blow- ential in Anglo-Saxon environmentalism, has ing across France in 1986. During the same had little impact in France, and has been sub- period, other green issues attracted the atten- jected to fierce attacks, for instance by the phi- tion of activists and the general public, espe- losopher Luc Ferry. Alternative lifestyles in- cially urban pollution and the mismanagement fluenced by green issues have yet to have the of dangerous waste. A number of scandals same impact in France as they do in the United around the import of hospital waste and illegal Kingdom or in Germany, where problems of chemical dumps erupted across the 1980s. The pollution, energy wastage, losses of wilderness green politics 279 or biological diversity are treated as technical ister under the Socialists during 1989–92). and sociopolitical problems. However, both parties agree on the need for global environmental strategies, more work- FRANÇOIS NECTOUX sharing and a deepening of democracy. Despite the greening of the French public Further reading as measured by opinion surveys, between 1974 and 1988 no single ecology party or candidate polled 5 per cent in a major election. Hoffmann-Martinot, V. (1991) ‘Grüne and The breakthrough came in the 1989 European Verts: Two Faces of European Ecologism’, elections (with 10.6 per cent of votes, the Verts West European Politics 14:4 (although returned nine MEPs), followed by success in dealing mainly with green politics, this ar- the 1992 regional elections, where ecology ticle also analyses the background in terms parties attracted nearly 15 per cent of voters. of green issues). In both years, ecologists benefited from the Touraine, A. et al. (1983) Anti-Nuclear Pro- popularity of environmental issues and protest, Cambridge: Cambridge University portional representation. But the 1993 parlia- Press (a sociological analysis of the reac- mentary elections (only 7.6 per cent of votes tions to the most important green issue in in the first round and no seats won) and the France in the 1970s). 1995 presidential elections (3.3 per cent for Dominique Voynet) constituted serious set- backs. Explanatory factors for these disap- green politics pointing performances included inexperience in major elections, poor communication of policy, the aftermath of recession, the first- Despite heightened international concern over past-the-post electoral system and the resur- the environment, the impact of green politics gence of the Right. in France has been limited by chronic internal But the major weakness of French political divisions. ecology has been its ever-increasing fragmen- The origins of French political ecology lie tation, with green politicians more intent on in the ‘new social movements’ of the late ideological finesse and factional disputes than 1960s, particularly environmentalism, anti- on formulating environmental policy. These nuclear protest, pacifism and feminism. Unre- divisions prevented the election of a single solved tensions within the green movement green MEP in the 1994 European elections. over appropriate forms of activism—be it By that year, there was a green party for most through direct action, associations, pressure shades of the political spectrum, with the Verts groups or mainstream politics—have resulted moving leftwards, GE drifting to the centre, in ambivalent strategies. Structured political CPNT (a hunting lobby) and the Nouveaux parties emerged late. Of the two main parties, Écologistes firmly on the Right, while Antoine the Verts (the Greens) was formed in 1984, Waechter’s Mouvement Écologiste and Génération Écologie (GE) in 1990. The Indépendant sought to be on neither Left nor former retains strong elements of grassroots Right. Although this is a fair reflection of the democracy and has a radical platform (oppo- competing constituencies that form the envi- sition to French nuclear power, to the rush for ronmental movement, it has led to voter con- economic growth, to collaboration with the fusion, the marginalization of green parties parties of government, advocacy of cancelling and the dilution of their influence on decision- Third World debt). The latter is centralized, makers, despite the continued saliency of na- focused on its founder, Brice Lalonde, reform- tional and global environmental problems. ist in orientation and accepts civil uses of nuclear power (Lalonde was Environment Min- JOSEPH SZARKA 280 Greimas, A.J.

See also: green issues; parties and movements York: Routledge (has several sections on Greimas’s work and a bibliography). Further reading

Cole, A. and Doherty, B. (1995) ‘Pas comme Groult, Benoîte les autres—the French Greens at the Cross- Roads’, in D.Richardson and C.Rootes b. 1920, Paris (eds) The Green Challenge: The Develop- ment of Green Parties in Europe, London: Journalist, novelist and essayist Routledge (studies the greens within the context of the French political system). The author of novels co-written with her sis- Sainteny, G. (1992) Les Verts, Paris: PUF (deter Flora in the 1960s—Diary in Duo (journal tailed history and development of the a quatre mains); Feminine Plural (Le Féminin Verts). pluriel); II était deux fois (Twice Upon a Szarka, J. (1994) ‘Green Politics in France’, Time)—as well as of single-authored fictions— Parliamentary Affairs 47, 3 (June) (on elec- including 1972’s La Part des chases (All toral performance and political positioning Things Considered), and the erotic novel Salt of green parties). on Our Skin (Les Vaisseaux du coeur), published in 1988—Groult is perhaps best known for two feminist essays. These texts—Ainsi soit-elle (So Be She) and Le Féminisme au Greimas, A.J. masculin (Feminism in the Masculine Mode)— contributed to the rise of feminist awareness b. 1917, Tula, Lithuania; in 1970s France. A dedicated campaigner for d. 1992 equal rights, Groult became president of the Commission for the Feminization of Job Des- Linguist ignations in 1985. ALEX HUGHES An influential French semanticist and semiologist who taught at the École Pratique See also: erotic writing; feminist thought; des Hautes Études and worked in the 1960s women’s/lesbian writing alongside Barthes, Todorov and Genette on the structure of narratives. Two of his theoretical models exploring deep and surface Grumberg, Jean-Claude structures, the semiotic square and the actantial model, have been widely used and b. 1939, Paris applied to a range of subdisciplines within semiotics. Playwright BÉATRICE DAMAMME-GILBERT Over three decades, Grumberg has been writ- See also: linguistic/discourse theory; structuring plays, such as Zone libre (Free Zone) and alism Linge sale (Dirty Linen), television scripts and a screenplay in 1988 (Les Années sandwichs). Further reading His work displays differing formats and subjects, employing humour to make social observation. Rimmon-Kenan, S. (1983) Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics, London and New ANNIE STEPHENSON Guibert, Hervé 281

See also: theatre entation and the supposedly minuscule size of the portions they offered, but his influence has been the major individual one on French cooking of the past twenty years. Guattari, Félix KEITH READER b. 1930, Colombes; See also: gastronomy d. 1992, Cour-Cheverny, Loir-et-Cher

Radical psychiatrist and intellectual Guérin, Daniel Guattari was influenced by the work which he began in the 1950s at Dr Jean Oury’s experi- b. 1904, Paris; mental Clinique de la Borde psychiatric hospi- d. 1988, Paris tal at Cour-Cheverny. In 1960, he was active in the creation of the Groupe de Travail de Political militant and thinker Psychologic et de Sociologie Institutionnelle. He was also the co-author of five important philo- Prominent in prewar left-wing politics as a sophical works with Gilles Deleuze, most nota- revolutionary syndicalist and dissident Social- bly Anti-Oedipus (LAnti-Œdipe) in 1972. As ist, Guérin developed in the postwar era a form well as being politically active on the Left, of libertarian socialism marked especially by Guattari worked with Deleuze to outline a phi- antimilitarism and anti-colonialism. His writ- losophy of desire and ‘molecular’ revolution ings on Kinsey and Reich, and the accounts of which calls into question the ‘molar’ organiz- his homosexual activity in autobiographical ing tendencies of contemporary societies. In the works such as Autobiographie de jeunesse (Au- 1980s he began to write on ecological questions. tobiography of Youth) and Le Feu du sang (Fire in the Blood), of 1972 and 1977 respectively, JOHN MARKS provide a link between the Socialist tradition See also: psychoanalysis and the post-May 1968 landscape. BILL MARSHALL See also: autobiography; gay activism; gay Guérard, Michel writing; lesbian activism b. 1933, Vétheuil

Chef Guibert, Hervé

Guérard is the chef who founded la nouvelle b. 1955, Paris; cuisine (also known as la cuisine minceur), a d. 1991, Paris reaction of the health-conscious late 1970s against heavy sauces and a surfeit of dairy Writer and photographer products. This style of cooking, practised by Guérard at his restaurant in the southwestern Hervé Guibert is the author of over twenty spa town of Eugénie-les-Bains, makes great use novels, plays, collections of stories, photo- of mousses, steamed dishes and low-fat reduc- graphs and a televised film. Although not tions, flavoured with unusual (frequently Ori- prominent until his three ‘AIDS novels’ and ental) herbs and spices. Guérard’s imitators television appearances on Apostrophes and Ex- were often derided for their stress on fussy pres- Libris, his medicalization and mediatization as 282 Guignols de l’info, Les an ‘AIDS writer’ also illustrate his main themes: Guignols de l’info, Les the analytical representation of the external and internal human body; the relation between image/imagination and reality; shifts from the Television programme hallucinatory to the punctiliously precise. His combination of extreme restraint and mischie- Les Guignols de l’info is a puppet-based satire vous, provocative excess, notably in his treat- programme which emulates the United King- ment of violence and the erotic, mark him as a dom’s Spitting Image. Broadcast nightly on the fine literary stylist and moraliste. pay-TV channel Canal Plus in an unencrypted form, it pokes fun at politicians, media per- OWEN HEATHCOTE sonalities and show-business stars. It is See also: AIDS; gay writing watched by a smaller, younger and more left- wing audience than its competitor on TF1, the Further reading Bébête-Show. During the 1995 presidential campaign the possible electoral impact of the programme’s portrayal of the leading candi- Boulé, J.-P. (1995a) ‘A l’ami qui ne m’a pas dates became a topic of media and political sauvé la vie’ and Other Writings, Glasgow: debate. The format of Les Guignols has been University of Glasgow French and German exported to other countries with considerable Publications (this focuses on the best success. known of his ‘AIDS novels’ ). ——(1995b) ‘Hervé Guibert’, Nottingham RAYMOND KUHN French Studies 34, 1 (edited collection of articles and bibliography). See also: television

Hallier, Jean-Edern ——(1992) La Force d’âme: l’honneur perdu de François Mitterrand, Paris: Belles Lettres. b. 1936, St-Germain en Laye; d. 1997, Paris Hallyday, Johnny Novelist and publisher b. 1943, Paris A co-founder of Tel quel, Hallier’s career as a maverick intellectual was always inclined to- Lyricist and singer, wards non-conformity, provocation and real name Jean-Philippe Smet iconoclasm. A lover of publicity, much of his work was conceived to challenge the status of France’s best-known rocker, Johnny Hallyday institutional and political authorities. After sang mainly French translations of American May 1968 such efforts were channelled into rock, twist, and rhythm and blues songs in the the left-wing and humorous monthly L’Idiot early years of his career, before introducing international (1969–73) and the establishment more French compositions into his repertoire. of his own publishing house, Les Éditions Seemingly the incarnation of violence and of Hallier (1974). Having already attacked the loneliness in many of his stage performances, regime of Giscard d’Estaing in 1979 in Lettre Hallyday has perfected his high-tech public ouverte au colin froid (Open Letter to the Cold appearances for a great (if mainly ageing) band Hake), during the 1980s Hallier turned his ef- of fans. Despite huge success in France, he has forts to delving into the past and personal life made no impact in the English-speaking world. of his former close friend, François He married for the fifth time in March 1996. Mitterrand. IAN PICKUP MARTYN CORNICK See also: song/chanson See also: national press in France; Tel Quel group

Major works Hardy, Françoise b. 1944, Paris Hallier, J.-E. (1972) La Cause des peuples, Paris: Éditions du Seuil. Singer-songwriter

283 284 health

An instant star of the pop world at the age of involved in fatal accidents. Among the older 18 with her first composition, Tous les garçons age groups, the main causes of death for men et les filles (All the Boys and Girls), Françoise are malignant tumours, followed by circula- Hardy has progressed from rock and twist, to tory diseases. The order is reversed for women. ballads, and to ever more reflective (often po- With Spain, France records the highest inci- etic) songs, some of which were written for dence of AIDS in the Union, with 42.55 cases her by Michel Berger, Michel Jonasz and oth- for 100,000 inhabitants—more than three ers. One of the survivors of the 1960s genera- times the level in the United Kingdom. tion, Hardy is often seen as the incarnation of The health care system that developed in loneliness. She is married to Jacques Dutronc, France in the postwar period to meet the de- the singer and film star. mands of a rapidly growing population and changing lifestyles is based on two fundamen- IAN PICKUP tal principles, which may help to explain why See also: song/chanson the system is one of the most costly to operate in Europe. The health service was premised on the freedom for patients to choose their own medical practitioners, consultants and hospi- health tals, and on equality of access to services. Health is one of the main branches of the Over the postwar period, health has become French social security system. The health in- an important concern for governments in surance funds (caisses d’assurance maladie) Western industrialized nations. Medical ad- cover sickness, disability and accidents at vances and the organized provision of health work for about 80 per cent of the insured services may have contributed in no small population. The remaining 20 per cent are measure to increasing life expectancy, but the covered by special schemes or as self-employed soaring cost of providing medical care has led workers. In return for employer and employee governments to search for ways of containing contributions, which are calculated as a pro- expenditure, while maintaining the high stand- portion of salary, insured persons and their ards of provision people have come to expect. dependants are eligible for partial reimburse- As a proportion of total expenditure on ment of medical fees and most pharmaceuti- social protection and in relation to gross do- cal costs incurred in the course of treatment. mestic product (GDP), within the European The amount paid by the patient, known as the Union (EU) France is among the big spenders ticket modérateur, was intended to ensure that on health. In 1993, per capita expenditure on patients had a financial involvement in their health was higher in France than in any other treatment and developed a sense of responsi- member-state, although the level of provision bility. Payment for in-patient hospital care is in terms of the proportion of medical practi- made direct by the funds to the hospital. The tioners, chemists, hospital beds or length of full cost of medical care during pregnancy is stay in relation to population size was not con- covered by the same funds. In addition, em- sistently above average. ployed persons receive a daily rate to compen- Irrespective of whether a high level of sate for loss of wages during absences due to spending on health can be interpreted as the illness or industrial accidents. cause or effect of declining mortality rates, While the health funds are run by the so- French women register the greatest life expect- cial partners (employers’ and workers’ repre- ancy of all Europeans. The evidence is less sentatives) and are, in theory, responsible for positive for men, who display higher mortal- managing their own affairs, the Ministry of ity rates at all ages, and particularly in the 20– Health lays down the conditions for levying 24 age group. The disparity here is explained contributions and the principles for setting by the greater propensity of young men to be rates of reimbursement, and it decides on the Hersant, Robert 285 allocation of hospital budgets. Private hospi- fession and the social partners, who see re- tals (cliniques) also fall under the administra- form as a threat to their freedom of action. tive and financial control of the ministry and LINDA HANTRAIS are obliged to engage in contracts with the funds. Medical practitioners can choose See also: alcohol, cigarettes, drugs; demo- whether to enter into such an agreement, and graphic developments; social policy some 80 per cent of all general practitioners are under contract. In return for doctors observing set fees, their patients are reimbursed Further reading at a higher rate. Chemists are subject to a nu- merus clausus. Although similar restrictions European Commission (1995) Social Protec- are not imposed on medical practitioners, the tion in Europe, Luxembourg: Office for number of medical students has been limited Official Publications of the European Com- since the 1970s. While doctors are expected munities (a wide-ranging review covering to display moderation, they have retained their current debates on social protection). freedom to prescribe whatever drugs they con- Wilsford, D. (1991) ‘The Continuity of Crisis: sider necessary, and patients can consult any Patterns of Heath Care Policymaking in number of doctors if they are not satisfied with France, 1978–1988’, in J.S.Ambler (ed.) their diagnosis or treatment. In line with the The French Welfare State. Surviving Social principle of solidarity, low income groups and and Ideological Change, New York and certain categories of chronic illnesses may be London: New York University Press (a exempt from the patient’s contribution, but thorough analysis of an important period about half the population contribute to sup- of change in the development of the French plementary schemes, mutual insurance com- health care system). panies (mutuelles) or private insurance schemes, which provide additional cover for their members. The constraining regulatory function exer- Hersant, Robert cised by the state was intended to ensure that both patients and the medical profession as- b. 1920, France; sume responsibility for the demand and sup- d. 1996 ply of treatment, but it has not been effective in containing costs. Since the 1980s, schemes Press baron have, therefore, been introduced to control hospital budgets and cut administrative over- A controversial right-wing figure, Hersant suc- heads; daily charges have been levied for pa- cessfully circumvented anti-concentration leg- tients in hospital; restrictions have been intro- islation, and in the early 1990s controlled duced on exemptions from medical bills; and roughly 30 per cent of French dailies, includ- the level of reimbursement for patients has ing Le Figaro, France-Soir and numerous re- been reduced. One of the results of retrench- gional titles, as well as advertising agencies, ment is that the share of expenditure borne by printing plants and radio stations. Despite a the health funds has fallen. The burden has suspect past and wartime collaboration, he shifted more heavily on to private individuals held political office locally and nationally. His and the supplementary insurance schemes. It newspaper career began with the creation of is doubtful, however, whether the attempts at the successful motorists’ monthly L’Auto- reform have resulted in long-term efficiency Journal in 1950. He built his empire by buy- gains, since policies have been introduced in ing up and ruthlessly restructuring or merging piecemeal fashion. In any case, they have met newspapers in difficulty (over fifty titles in with strong opposition from the medical pro- 286 Heure de vérité, L’ forty years). His holdings extended to Bel- b. 1946, Boulogne-Billancourt; gium, Spain and eastern Europe. d. 1988, Paris PAM MOORES Intellectual, gay activist, writer and See also: advertising; national press in France; journalist regional press in France In 1971 Hocquenghem was one of the founders of the FHAR. Although he was a promi- Heure de vérité, L’ nent media spokesperson for the cause in the 1970s, he was uncomfortable with the ortho- Television programme doxies of identity politics. This is clear as early as 1972’s Homosexual Desire (Le Désir A current affairs programme which started in homosexuel), which is heavily indebted to 1982. Broadcast on Antenne 2 (later France Deleuze and Guattari, and his iconoclastic 2) the format was based on a studio interview social dissidence is developed throughout his between a leading politician and three jour- theoretical works and five novels. nalists. The peculiarity of the programme lay BILL MARSHALL in its use of public opinion as an active element in the discussion. For example, from See also: gay activism; gay writing; lesbian 1985 onwards the programme included an activism instant audience opinion poll on the views expressed by politicians, concluding with a verdict on their ability to produce convincing Major works arguments. RAYMOND KUHN Hocquenghem, G. (1993) Homosexual De- sire, Durham: Duke University Press. See also: television

Further reading Hirsch, Robert Marshall, B. (1996) Guy Hocquenghem, Lon- b. 1927, L’Isle-Adam don: Pluto (essential reading). Actor

A Comédie Française sociétaire between 1951 horse racing and 1972, noted for his flexibility as an actor and his interpretations of Molière and French horse racing is dominated by its state- Marivaux, as well as performances in the lead run and café-based system of pool betting, the role of Arturo Ui at the Théâtre National Pari Mutuel Urbain (PMU), which forbids pri- Populaire in 1968, and in Thomas Dörst’s vate bookmaking. The weekly gambling high- 1989 Feuerbach. light is the televised Sunday tiercé, a 1–2–3 forecast bet which attracts some 8 million ANNIE SPARKS punters. This may focus on anything from a See also: theatre humble handicap to one of the great events in the racing calendar, such as the Prix de l’Amérique (a showcase for French trotting, Hocquenghem, Guy the country’s most popular form of racing), Humanité, L’ 287 or the culmination of the European flat-rac- housing costs has doubled since the 1960s, ing season, the Prix de l’Arc de Triomphe. accounting for a fifth of consumer spending. Postwar governments in France have inter- PHILIP DINE vened in two main ways to subsidize housing: See also: sport first, by building social housing (habitations a layer modéré), particularly between the 1950s and 1970s; and second, by paying housing benefits to families in need, as part of family housing policy. Over 15 per cent of all housing belongs to the social sector, representing a rapidly ex- In the immediate postwar period, a major panding proportion of rented accommoda- building programme was launched in France tion, though a lower level than that found in to replace the housing stock destroyed or dam- the United Kingdom. From the 1980s, policy aged during hostilities, to cater for the fast- shifted from subsidies on buildings to more expanding and urbanizing population and to personalized forms of housing benefit (aide modernize the existing stock. As population personnalisée au logement and allocation de growth began to ease in the 1960s, and as the logement social), which are paid to low-in- economy went into recession in the mid- come families, including young couples with- 1970s, new building slowed down, and policy out children, young workers and students shifted towards a more targeted approach (about 25 per cent of households). While mak- aimed at encouraging owner-occupation and ing an important contribution to the standard assisting low-income families. By the 1990s, of housing for the population in general, these the majority of housing in France was either measures have not been able to stem the rising pre-1918 or had been built between 1949 and tide of homelessness, estimated to affect some 1967, but over 90 per cent of dwellings were 202,000 people in France in the mid-1990s. equipped with a telephone, indoor toilet, with LINDA HANTRAIS access to a bath or shower and hot water, and nearly 80 per cent had central heating. See also: demographic developments; family; Despite the high concentration of popula- social policy tion in the major cities, particularly in the Paris area, almost 60 per cent of French people live Further reading in houses rather than flats, a proportion that is above the European average. Couples with children are more likely to live in houses, INSEE (1993) ‘Cadre de vie’, La Société which they have acquired by moving to the française: données sociales 1993, Paris: outskirts of towns where affordable housing INSEE, (a collection of informative contri- is available in the developing residential ar- butions covering various aspects of hous- eas. As arrangements for obtaining mortgages ing in France). have improved, and home ownership has been encouraged by state-funded mortgage subsidies, more couples have become owner-occu- piers, accounting for nearly 60 per cent of Humanité, L’ occupancies in the 1990s, a level slightly below the European average. Almost 10 per cent Newspaper of French people own a second home, inherited from a parent or relation in one in four Originally a Socialist newspaper, founded in cases. Although less than half of owner-occu- 1904 by Jean Jaurès, it became Communist in piers are paying for a mortgage, the share of 1920, and has been the official newspaper of the household budget devoted, on average, to the French Communist Party since 1923. Its 288 Huppert Isabelle fate parallels the demise of Communism: peak and 1950s, and including principally Roger circulation of over 400,000 copies in 1946 Nimier (1925–62), Antoine Blondin (1922– was halved by 1958, and dropped in the 1990s 91) and Jacques Laurent (1919–), though also to around 60,000. The last French daily to be comprising Michel Déon, Kléber Haedens, directly associated with a political party, its Stephen Hecquet, Félicien Marceau and readers are primarily party members and sup- Michel Mohrt. Although often coming from porters. The party appoints senior executives right-wing backgrounds, they were for the and editor; many journalists are party mem- most part too young to have active experience bers. The stance is partisan, the tone combat- of collaboration during the Occupation. They ive. L’Huma, as it is commonly known, de- adopted an acerbic right-wing stance in the votes special attention to social and industrial postwar years as an expression of both disori- problems, emphasizing the universal dimen- entation in a world which provided no role sion of the workers’ struggle. for them and contempt for a political system

which they saw as corrupt and hypocritical. PAM MOORES Their rebellion against an older generation and the political and moral orthodoxy took See also: left-wing press; national press in the form of ardent anti-republicanism and bit- France; parties and movements ter opposition to what they saw as the ‘official philosophy of the regime’, existentialism. This opposition was translated into polemical Huppert Isabelle texts, like Laurent’s Paul et Jean-Paul (1951), or intellectual fiction, like Nimier’s Les Épées b. 1955, Paris (The Swords) and Le Hussard bleu (The Blue Hussar) from 1948 and 1950 respectively, Actor which trace the disabused journey of the protagonist, François Sanders, through the Occu- Her career was launched in Goretta’s The pation and the French invasion and occupa- Lacemaker (La Dentellière) in 1977). She has tion of Germany in 1945. More importantly, made films for many auteurist directors: sev- the opposition to republican moral superior- eral for Chabrol, including Violette Nozière ity founded on a Resistance past and the high- (1977) and La Cérémonie in 1995, Pialat’s serious didacticism of existentialism, took the Loulou (1980), Godard’s Sauve qui peut (la form of fictional experimentation and exploi- vie) (1979) and Passion (1981), Tavernier’s tation of a strain of wistful comedy which both Coup de torchon (1981), Blier’s La Femme de punctured the prevailing pomposity and ex- mon pote (1983). Her favoured persona is that pressed an underlying sense of frustration. of the rebel with feminist overtones, e.g. the Laurent’s 1948 novel Les Corps tranquilles closet lesbian in Kurys’s Coup de foudre (Quiet Bodies) is an ambitious attempt to (1983) or the abortionist in Chabrol’s Une evoke the interwar years through one of its affaire de femmes (1988). major intellectual preoccupations—suicide— using a large cast of characters and a struc- PHIL POWRIE ture, indicated by the chemical title, which See also: cinema; stars comes from scientific theory. In this, he joins both Queneau and Vian in turning the novel away from moral or political thematic con- Hussards cerns to the aesthetic, intellectual and ludic domain which is the heartland of fiction. Simi- larly, Blondin’s 1949 L’Europe buissonnière (Eu- The name Hussards was given to a group of rope Plays Truant) depicts World War II in comic young right-wing writers working in the 1940s terms which owe much to Céline’s Journey Hyvrard, Jeanne 289 to the End of the Night (Voyage au bout de la Hussards, Oxford: Berg (a comprehensive nuit) and his 1952 Les Enfants du Bon Dieu account). (Children of God), evokes the lack of purpose of postwar youth through a whimsical psychological plot in which, literally, history, the cornerstone of existentialism, is rewritten. The Hyvrard, Jeanne Hussards constituted a powerful literary group and counterweight to existentialism in the late b. 1945, Paris 1940s and 1950s, mainly, but not exclusively, clustered around the publisher Roland Writer Laudenbach and Les Éditions de la Table Ronde. They also played an important part in Hyvrard’s adoption of a pseudonym and her postwar journalism, with Nimier as editor of efforts to protect her privacy led readers of Opéra, Laurent as editor of La Parisienne (of the novels she published in the mid-1970s— which he was also proprietor) and Arts, and Les Prunes de Cythère (The Plums of Cythera), Blondin as leading editorialist of Rivarol in its Mother Death (Mère la mort) and La early years, while at the same time becoming Meurtritude (Murderation)—to assume that one of France’s most distinguished sports jour- she, like their narrator/protagonists, was a nalists, writing regularly on rugby and cycling black woman from the Antilles who had ex- for L’Équipe. Their cultural heritage, however, perienced madness and psychiatric incarcera- came specifically from the 1920s and the tion. Hyvrard is in fact white and French, but ‘années folles’ following World War I, which was inspired to write after working in the Car- they sought to replicate after the next world ibbean in the late 1960s. Much of her creative war: hence their devotion to Morand, work deals with themes such as women’s iden- Cocteau, Chardonne and, especially, the tity/identity loss, their (oppressive) bond with memory of Drieu la Rochelle. While this pro- the mother, their relation to writing, and the duced genuinely innovative literature in the (deadly) restraints imposed upon them by pa- 1940s and 1950s, it was (arguably) not able triarchal society and its language. Identified to sustain the group’s output into de Gaulle’s by critics as a kind of écriture féminine, her presidency and beyond. literary style is multivocal, poetic and gram- matically unconventional. Apart from novels, NICHOLAS HEWITT Hyvrard has written short stories and, in the See also: committed literature; publishing/ 1980s, philosophical essays, including Canal l’édition de la Toussaint (All Saints’ Channel) and La Pensée corps (Thinking Through the Body), published respectively in 1986 and 1989. Further reading ALEX HUGHES

Hewitt, N. (1996) Literature and the Right in See also: Montrelay, Michèle; women’s/lesbian Post-War France: The Story of the writing

Ici-Paris See also: national press in France

Newspaper iconography Ici-Paris is one of France’s main weekly scandal sheets, euphemistically classified as the ‘escapist press’ (presse d’évasion). Founded in Like other same-suffix terms, iconography 1945 by Henri and Suzanne de Montfort, as designates both the object of investigation and successor to their Resistance newspaper, Ici- the investigative method itself (for most cur- Paris soon changed to target a lowbrow mar- rent scholarly purposes, Panofsky’s distinction ket, featuring horoscopes, titillating love in- between iconography as description-cum-clas- trigues, cartoons and society gossip. Locked sification, and iconology as interpretation, is in permanent battle to outdo its main com- largely disregarded). Originally devotional or petitor, France-Dimanche, it has consistently monarchical images, icons (from the Greek plumbed the depths of outrageous, shocking eikon) gradually acquired the triple functions and far-fetched reportage, drawing on bizarre of identification, mobilization and allegorical tales of the occult, gory accounts of medical narrative. In increasingly secular societies, ico- mishaps, exposés of secrets, and in particular nography expresses the beliefs and objectives the intimate detail of marriages and divorces. of different sociocultural groups, from foot- It has made a speciality of speculatively prob- ball clubs to political parties, and, like other ing the private lives of internationally known forms of symbolic discourse which connote as figures in politics or entertainment, often well as denote, is capable of overdetermination printing wholly fictitious accounts, and focus- and ideological recuperation with changing ing with particular relish on Europe’s royal historical circumstances. families, especially that of Britain; for exam- The Revolution of 1789 launched, and the ple, since the 1960s it has regularly headlined nineteenth century consolidated, a particular lurid announcements of the (secret) abdica- iconographical and symbolic lexicon (allegori- tion, blindness, terminal illness or death of cal female figures, Phrygian bonnet, Republi- Queen Elizabeth II. Its circulation rose to a can fasces, etc.), energetically idealized in high point of 1.2 million in 1970, but fell in works such as Rude’s sculpted Départ des the 1990s to a third of that level. Like France- volontaires (also known as La Marseillaise) Dimanche, it is now owned by the powerful and Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People (La Hachette publishing group. Liberté guidant le peuple). It was, however, the emergence in the 1920s of the antagonistic ide- MICHAEL KELLY ologies of Communism and Fascism which

290 iconography 291 produced the high-water mark of political ico- toonists such as Sennep, Jean Effel and Jacques nography in twentieth-century France, the pe- Faizant, became collectors’ items. 1968 also riod from the Popular Front of 1936–8, reactualized certain iconic symbols, notably the through the Vichy regime (1940–4) to the post- Phrygian-bonneted Marianne, since modelled war ‘tripartism’ of the victorious Resistance by vedettes such as Bardot and Deneuve. The coalition. Vichy’s corporatist experiment, en- sexualization is not new; Marianne was always shrined in the motto ‘Travail, famille, patrie’ a phantasy figure, who survives in more tradi- (Work, family, fatherland), was focused upon tional mode on the postage stamps. But the the cult of the head of state, Marshal Philippe legacy of the events was literary as much as Pétain, iconographically evoked in the military iconographical, and the ‘Occident’ symbol of képi, and the seven-starred marshal’s baton the right-wing student group of that name pro- which also constituted the shaft of the double- vided a motif for textual variations by headed francisque (decorative Gallic axe). With Ricardou in Révolutions minuscules (Minus- its regionalist, culturalist and agriculturalist cule Revolutions) of 1971. dimensions, Petainism was a sustained attempt The tendency for iconography as an accu- to establish a coherent iconographical system mulation of complex signifying practices to whose very coherence did not reflect, and was return to its origins, for iconography to regress doubtless designed in part to mask, its ideo- to icon, to single images whose meaning is logical and intellectual contradictions. The transparent and not constructed (the replace- mood of national reconstruction and recon- ment of traditional Socialist symbols by the ciliation, and the re-establishment of Republi- red rose, a phenomenon typical also of the canism which accompanied the Liberation, British Labour Party), accelerated significantly were encapsulated in Paul Colin’s strikingly in the 1980s. This arose partly from greater ‘Christian’ Marianne (1944), but this was es- televisual mediation, and partly from the de- sentially a resurrection of prewar symbolism cline of traditional party politics, and stable, and, like the coalition itself, likely to unravel overarching, totalizing ideologies with the rise into its constituent political strands. A 1958 of single-issue groups representing feminists, Colin poster combined the triadic arrows of sexual and ethnic minority rights, ecologists, Socialism with a stylized (female) bowsprit; etc. Whether a ‘rainbow coalition’ will emerge Communism continued to give pride of place from ‘this division of the French into hetero- to the hammer and sickle, but the Phrygian geneous consumer groups’ (translated from bonnet also served (both featured on partisan Fumaroli 1991) remains to be seen. Moreo- Resistance memorials) and, after 1961, so did ver, while the extreme right-wing amalgam of Picasso’s dove of peace. Gaullism, given its Lepenism and Catholic intégrisme (pre-Vati- origins, its organizing principles and the per- can II fundamentalism) briefly juxtaposed im- sonality of its founder, scarcely lent itself to ages of the Sacred Heart, Joan of Arc and the multiple variations of maréchaliste iconog- Pétain, iconography traditionally associated raphy and, apart from the Cross of Lorraine, with the Left and Centre Left has increasingly it is rather a series of discreet photographic been experienced in a nostalgic or caricatural images that represent de Gaulle’s achievement: mode: the Bicentenary reenacted 1789 as tour- the garden and study at Colombey-les-deux- ist spectacle and heritage industry; a églises, the Algiers prefecture in 1958, the tel- Mitterrand campaign poster with its country evised appeals to the nation and, after defini- village and the candidate’s tricolour rosette tive retirement in 1969, the last elegiac photo- contained echoes of a previous ‘return to the graph of the general and Madame de Gaulle land’, which, in the light of subsequent revela- on an Irish beach. The student revolution of tions about the late president’s wartime role, May 1968, which effectively ended his presi- could be deemed ironic as well as iconic. The dential tenure, generated innumerable posters powerful marketing imperatives of the adver- and graffiti, some of which, replicated by car- tising industry, the transient consecration of le 292 immigration look, also played a part in this transformation. diverse range of issues. The term ‘immigration’ As ‘icon’ and ‘iconic’ came variously to desig- is therefore ambiguous, since it can embrace nate media personalities, sport and leisure fash- both the limited questions of migration flows ion items (an international brand of training and the nature of the foreign population in shoes, for example), and the once-sacrosanct France, and wider issues and debates in con- base interest rate of the caisse d’épargne (Trus- temporary French society, such as French na- tees Savings Bank), some commentators tional history and national identity, Islam and adopted the term ‘emblematic’—equally evoca- secularism, and racism and anti-racism. tive, equally vague, but giving fewer hostages Let us briefly consider the recent history of to fortune. Paradoxically, but perhaps predict- migration flows and immigration policy in ably, in the 1990s traditional French iconog- France. Until the beginning of the 1970s, im- raphy enjoyed greater transnational and migration was largely confined to the realm crosscultural resonance: Delacroix’s Liberty, of technocrats concerned with the economy, and Géricault’s more problematic Radeau de the labour force and questions of demogra- la méduse (The Raft of the Medusa) have be- phy. The state had a minimal role in regulat- come established in the representational arse- ing migration flows (despite the presence of nal of contemporary British cartoonists, a tool the Office National d’Immigration, established for the portrayal of Anglo-Saxon attitudes, in 1945 precisely for that purpose), and immi- social and political, and a graphic expression gration was not a prominent political issue. A of underlying ambivalence towards the United more interventionist approach by the state was Kingdom’s nearest European partner. only deemed necessary when the nature of immigration changed from predominantly Euro- WILLIAM KIDD pean flows to North and sub-Saharan African See also: Catholicism and Protestantism; flows, was believed to have shifted from the comic strips/cartoonists; Le Pen, Jean-Marie; temporary residence of single men to the per- nationalism; painting; parties and movements manent settlement of families, and was consequently deemed to be no longer simply an economic but now a social and cultural question. Further reading The new ‘problem’ of immigration required a new ‘solution’ which, as in other Western in- Agulhon, M. and Bonte, P. (1992) Marianne: dustrial democracies at the time, took the form les visages de la République, Paris: Gallimard of immigration controls of non-European for- (an anatomy of France’s major icon). eigners whose presence was conceived as a Forbes, J. and Kelly, M. (eds) (1995) French threat to social cohesion. Cultural Studies: An Introduction, Oxford: Following the suspension of primary im- Oxford University Press (a collection of es- migration in 1974 by Giscard d’Estaing, ini- says). tial efforts to aid the process of integration of Fumaroli, M. (1991) L’État culturel: essai sur immigrants (for example, in the areas of hous- une religion moderne, Paris: Folio (a polemi- ing and employment) and to recognize cultural cal critique of state cultural intervention). difference soon gave way to a more rigorous attempt to control and reverse migration flows from North Africa. This policy was pursued through measures which linked the right of immigration residence to employment, clamped down on illegal immigration (immigration clandestine) Immigration has become an issue of major and established a package of financial aid for political, social and cultural significance. In repatriation (aide au retour). recent times, it has been used as both a politi- Despite Socialist claims that they would in- cal football and an umbrella term to refer to a troduce a new and coherent policy on immigration 293 immigration when they took over power in that almost half a million Harkis (Algerians 1981, the broad lines of Mitterrand’s policy who fought for France during the Algerian of ‘integration and control’ in the 1980s could war) and many second-generation immigrants be said to be simply a continuation of the ap- born in France had French nationality, did not proach adopted by Giscard in the 1970s. disturb the general impression that ‘immigra- Measures improving the lives and conditions tion’ was a question of what to do about ‘oth- of immigrants—the right to free association ers’ from the Maghreb. Increasingly, this un- of immigrant groups and the amnesty for ille- holy alliance of euphemism, dubious statistics gal immigrants in 1981, the ten-year residence and cultural stereotyping was bracketed (in and work permit in 1984—were offset by political and media discourse) with wider so- tighter controls from 1983 onwards, the re- cial and political questions, such as the prob- fusal to grant immigrants the right to vote in lems of housing and employment in the sub- municipal elections (a promise which was con- urbs of major cities, the crisis in universal val- tained in Mitterrand’s 110-point manifesto ues and the ‘integration’ of society, and the programme for the presidential elections of future of secular education (laïcité). 1981), and the reintroduction of a voluntary In other words, the contemporary repatriation scheme (aide à la réinsertion) in politicization of immigration is symptomatic 1984. Since 1986, the alternation of right- and of wider crises affecting France in a post-colo- left-wing governments has had little bearing nial and postmodern era: migration from the on the direction of immigration policy, which poorer south and the post-Communist East to has continued to favour restrictive controls on the richer Western democracies; the break- entry and residence, the removal of illegal im- down in processes of assimilation of diverse migrants, and the tightening up of rules on people through the major institutions of the political asylum. state; the question of cultural difference in a Despite the fact that the foundations for society which has traditionally prided itself on this politicization of immigration were laid in uniformity and equality in the public sphere the 1970s, it was only in the 1980s that immi- (la République une et indivisible); new forms gration became an issue of major political sig- of racism accompanying the fast-changing po- nificance: the rise of the extreme right-wing litical and cultural landscape; the nature of na- Front National (founded in 1972 by Jean- tional identity in what is, arguably, a post-na- Marie Le Pen), and the parallel rise of new tional era. anti-racist organizations (notably SOS Accompanying the debate on immigration Racisme in 1984 and France Plus in 1985), has been a far-reaching reappraisal of French polarized the issue around pro- and anti-im- national history and the idea of the nation. migrant positions; political parties sought to For some, it has been an opportunity to view use immigration for electoral ends; the media France’s past in terms of an historical cultural raised the stakes through their generally emo- unity which is threatened by the cultural dif- tive treatment of the question; while second- ference of today’s immigrants. For others, it generation youth sought new forms of expres- has been a chance to reaffirm the importance sion of cultural and political identities. By the of immigration (and hence diversity) in the middle of the decade it had become difficult development of the French nation, and to chal- to debate immigration in a rational, non-par- lenge the mythical cultural homogeneity of a tisan way, because the issues had become ob- ‘pure’ France. The historical question of scured by half-truth and distortion, while the whether the nation is a contractual associa- term ‘immigration’ had itself become a euphe- tion of individuals (irrespective of race, reli- mism to refer to those of North African origin gion or origin), or a community of cultural or or ‘appearance’. In this atmosphere, the fact racial heritage, is at the heart of these debates. that the Portuguese community was roughly This was most evident at the time of the pro- the same size as the Algerian community, or posed changes to the Nationality Code by the 294 Indochine

Chirac administration in 1986–7. The plan to migration treated as a symptom of wider transform the acquisition of French national- crises in contemporary France). ity for second-generation children born in Weil, P. (1991) La France et ses étrangers, Paris: France from an automatic right to a voluntary Calmann-Lévy (detailed and comprehensive request was shelved at the time, but became analysis of French immigration policy). law under the Balladur government in 1993. Many saw this as a clear sign that France had abandoned its traditionally open model of the Indochine nation based on residence (known as the political model) in favour of the ‘German’ model Musicians based on blood (the ethnic or racial model). The debate on the Code of Nationality dem- An influential, highly instrumental rock group onstrated to what extent ‘immigration’ raised with a harsh, rhythmic, powerful sound, fundamental questions about the history and whose career in France took off in the 1980s. institutional fabric of the French nation. Internationally renowned, they export their In recent times, immigration has been trans- product—polished, but with a hint of derision formed from a minor non-political issue into in their style—to the rest of Europe, Canada, a major issue encompassing diverse aspects of the Far East and Latin America. Their tours French society and history. At stake are fun- include numbers from their last three albums: damental questions concerning France’s The Birthday Album (1991), Un jour dans present and future: Are equality and uniform- notre vie (One Day in Our Life) from 1993 ity the only means by which social solidarity and Radio Indochine (1994). and cohesion can be preserved, or can an acceptance of difference and pluralism provide GÉRALD POULET the answer? Or can France find a satisfactory See also: rock and pop; song/chanson middle path between the two? MAX SlLVERMAN See also: beurs; demographic developments; InfoMatin Désir, Harlem, and SOS Racisme; Islam; Judaism; parties and movements; Newspaper postmodernism; racism/anti-semitism A new-style newspaper (created 10 January 1994), targeted at a young and busy city- Further reading dwelling audience and published on weekdays only, InfoMatin survived longer than any Hargreaves, A.G. (1995) Immigration, ‘Race’ other new national title since the advent of and Ethnicity in Contemporary France, Liberation. A product of market research, it London: Routledge (good overview of cur- was a small-format news-sheet, weighing just rent debates and issues). 60 g, and was printed on good-quality paper. Ireland, P. (1994) The Policy Challenge of Eth- Colour on every page and extensive use of nic Diversity: Immigrant Politics in France photographs emphasized the visual. Serious and Switzerland, Cambridge, MA: Harvard news coverage was provided in short, accessi- University Press (analysis of immigrants’ ble articles, and practical advice offered on a political mobilization within the context of wide range of topics. Initially enthusiastic re- a national framework of a ‘host’ society ). ception soon subsided: André Rousselet came Silverman, M. (1992) Deconstructing the Na- to the paper’s rescue in March 1995, but on 8 tion: Immigration, Racism and Citizenship January 1996 InfoMatin was obliged to cease in Modern France, London: Routledge (im- publication. Institute of the Arab World 295

PAM MOORES introduced for the long-term unemployed. Some were surprised that revolution had not See also: national press in France broken out on the streets, given the rising numbers of long-term unemployed who had come to the end of their period of entitlement to informal economy statutory unemployment benefits (Rosanvallon 1980). The conclusion was therefore drawn that the unemployed, having the time and the The term ‘informal economy’ refers to those incentive to do so, were busying themselves activities which are productive of goods or serv- working in the informal economy. However, ices, but which are ignored by or hidden from research found that this was not the case the state for tax, social security and labour-law (Barthe 1985). It was discovered that, although purposes, albeit legal in all other ways. Interest the unemployed have the time and the incen- was kindled in the informal economy in France tive to carry out informal economic activity, by the huge rises in unemployment which took various factors prohibit them from undertak- place during the 1970s and 1980s. ing such work. Often the unemployed do not Because the term ‘informal economy’ cov- have the skills to work informally, nor can they ers very diverse phenomena, it is necessary to afford to buy the equipment or raw materials distinguish between paid and unpaid informal necessary for such work. Equally, if there is no economic activity. Paid informal work is often market for their labour in the formal sector, it known as clandestine or ‘black market’ work. is likely that there will not be a market in the The term covers a range of activities from one- informal sector either. off cash-in-hand jobs undertaken for friends or neighbours, to the exploitation of illegal JAN WINDEBANK immigrant workers in sweatshops. Unpaid in- See also: economy; employment formal work includes voluntary work, work done for family, friends or neighbours and the everyday unpaid domestic work carried out in Further reading the home often by women for their families. It is obviously very difficult to discover the Barthe, M.-A. (1985) ‘Chômage, travail au actual amount of informal economic activity noir et entraide familial’, Consommation 3 taking place in an economy, but estimates are (article reporting a research project into the possible. In France, it has been suggested that relationship between unemployment and the paid informal economic sector may be worth the informal economy). anything up to 10 per cent of gross domestic Rosanvallon, P. (1980) ‘Le Développement de product (GDP). This figure is higher than that l’économie souterraine et l’avenir des for Britain and other northern European states, sociétés industrielles’, Le Débat 2 (theoreti- but lower than the figure for many southern cal article suggesting the unemployed are European nations. Furthermore, national stud- active in the paid informal economy). ies have revealed that the number of hours the Windebank, J. (1991) The Informal Economy French population spend engaged in unpaid in France, Aldershot: Avebury (a discussion informal work outstrips the amount of time of competing theoretical perspectives con- spent on employment and professional activi- cerning the informal economy in France). ties. Moreover, monetary estimates of the value of unpaid informal work in France indicate that it is worth around 50–65 per cent of GDP. In France, much interest has been shown in Institute of the Arab World the informal economy, particularly in the early 1980s, before a universal welfare benefit was Conceived in the context of the oil crisis under 296 Ionesco, Eugène the presidency of Giscard d’Estaing as part of finding it both embarrassing and false as a me- a policy to improve relations with the Arab dium. It was only after embarking on a series world, this became one of the Grands Projets of English lessons that he found himself, almost built under François Mitterrand. The site and against his will, writing his first play. Inspired architect originally chosen were changed un- by the nonsensical dialogue of his English der the auspices of Jack Lang at the Ministry primer, Ionesco produced The Bald of Culture and his adviser Christian Primadonna (La Cantatrice chauve), first staged Dupavillon. The building, designed by Jean by Nicolas Bataille in 1950. Billed as an ‘anti- Nouvel and partners, was acclaimed as an ar- play’, this marked his first challenge to the tra- chitectural masterpiece. Inaugurated in 1987, ditional, bourgeois theatre he detested. After its facilities include a museum, a library and acting for the first time for Bataille in his adap- exhibition space, but its record of activities has tation of Dostoevsky’s The Possessed, he went been generally disappointing, due to persist- on to write The Lesson (La Leçon), staged in ent conflicts between the founding partners. 1951, which he dubbed a ‘farce tragique’, an extremely black comedy, using language as a SUSAN COLLARD symbol of power, with seemingly nonsensical See also: architecture under Mitterrand communications between characters and grotesque political and power-related imagery. Jacques or Obedience (Jacques ou la Soumission) followed, re-employing the idea, Ionesco, Eugène emphasized through the language, of the individual forced into conformism, with strong b. 1912, Slatina, Romania; sexual imagery to stress the slavery of sexual d. 1994, Paris desire. Then followed The Chairs (Les Chaises), a set of cabaret-style sketches, and Victims of Playwright Duty (Victimes du Devoir), the latter arguing strongly against considered ideas of drama at One of the most internationally famous play- the time, and moving away from the theme of wrights of twentieth-century French theatre, language. In L’Improtnptu d’Alma in 1956 he Ionesco began writing plays in the 1950s, which argued once more against the dramatic dogmas by the following decade had become associated of the day, this time attacking Brechtian drama. with the so-called Theatre of the Absurd. Char- In The Killer (Tueur sans gages), staged in 1959, acterized by his rejection of traditional notions he developed the character of Bérenger, who of form, structure, character and language, was to reappear in several subsequent plays, Ionesco’s works incarnate his philosophical notably Rhinocéros. He epitomized the strug- ideas through employing both absurd and gling individual trying to challenge the absurd- absurdist material and methods of structure and ity of society, a theme which was to dominate presentation. He defines the Absurd as ‘that much of Ionesco’s later work. Rhinocéros, which is devoid of purpose…Cut off from his staged by Barrault at the Théâtre de l’Odéon, religious, metaphysical and transcendental in 1960, was perhaps his biggest success, at- roots, man is lost; all his actions become sense- tacking totalitarianism in all its forms and ex- less, absurd, useless’ (Esslin 1980). ploring the desire for conformism in human Born to a Romanian father and a French nature. By now, Ionesco was enjoying interna- mother, Ionesco grew up in France until 1925, tional success, ironically finding himself part of when he returned to Romania, teaching French the regular repertoire of the theatre establish- in a Bucharest lycée and writing articles for ment which he had sought to subvert, and ap- publication. He returned to Paris in 1940, plauded for the way his work redefined the where he worked in publishing until 1949. At possiblities of theatre. His plays are still regu- this time, he vowed that he detested the theatre, larly performed worldwide. Irigaray, Luce 297

ANNIE SPARKS ist. They also implied esoteric and thus elitist writing, which was difficult to penetrate, both See also: theatre because of its technicality (the range of psychoanalytical and philosophical reference) and Further reading because of its avant-gardist literary qualities. From the late 1980s onwards, a number of works have been published by Margaret Bradby, D. (1991) Modern French Drama Whitford and others which have addressed 1940–1990, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Irigaray’s work with the seriousness and at- versity Press (see Chapter 4 for a discus- tention to detail which it requires, helping to sion of Ionesco). unpick these misconceptions or Esslin, M. (1980) The Theatre of the Absurd, oversimplifications. Harmondsworth: Penguin (a thorough Unlike Cixous and Kristeva, Irigaray has analysis of plays and philosophy; see espe- fairly consistently presented herself as a femi- cially Chapter 3). nist. The former have both trained as analysts Lamont, R. (1995) Ionesco’s Political Impera- of literature, have produced literary works tive, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. themselves and, more unusually to an Anglo- Saxon feminist eye, have focused their celebratory analysis of linguistic transgressions and Irigaray, Luce modernist or avant-garde literary practices (which Cixous has called écriture féminine) on b. 1932, Belgium male-authored texts (with one or two notable exceptions, such as the writings of the Brazil- Psychoanalyst and philosopher ian modernist Clarice Lispector). Irigaray appears to have little interest in literature as such, Irigaray is a feminist working in the areas of although her amorous dialogues with philoso- psychoanalysis, philosophy and linguistics. phers such as Nietzsche—as in her Marine Her work in general has been more warmly Lover (Amante marine)—have an undoubted received in Italy, Canada, the United States and poetical quality. Her mode of reading does not Britain than in France, although the impor- display Kate Millett’s hostility to male authors, tance of her studies in sociolinguistics is rec- but it combines amorous dialogue (approach- ognized in France far more than in anglophone ing Cixous’s reading practice) with a feminist circles. critique which would be more welcome to an Initially the aspects of Irigaray’s work which Anglo-Saxon feminist audience than Cixous’s attracted widespread attention were her cri- readings of Joyce. While, as a practising psy- tiques of Freud and Lacan, and her poetic cel- choanalyst, she is not as hostile to Freud as ebrations of the female body in This Sex Which certain radical feminists, her approach is more is Not One (Ce Sexe qui n’en est pas un). This openly feminist than that of Kristeva, who also skewed perspective on her oeuvre led to her practises psychoanalysis (see Irigaray’s Specu- being associated with women such as Hélène lum of the Other Woman). Cixous and Julia Kristeva as a ‘French femi- Irigaray’s loving words about women’s nist’ or advocate of écriture féminine. In the sexual organs and possible relations between course of the 1970s and 1980s, these terms women still provoke charges of biologism, de- came to imply an emphasis on the joys of the spite hopeful pronouncements by her admirers female body, particularly in its reproductive that the debate is dead. Clearly her words are capacity, which appeared biologically essen- designed to help make women feel more posi- tialist, heterosexist and Eurocentric to many tive about what has been denigrated and de- other feminists—whether materialist or reform- graded in our society. Irigaray is aware that for change to occur a transformation must take 298 Irigaray, Luce place on several levels; she does discuss eco- pects of this work both elitist and too kind to nomic, political and legislative issues. However, the great misogynists of the past. The second her expertise is in philosophy and psychoanaly- strand has sometimes been found comically sis, and she has focused on questions of lan- detailed by more ‘sophisticated’ readers. The guage. Crucially this is not a disembodied lan- third strand inevitably provokes questions like guage—Irigaray has emphasized our need for a ‘how’ and ‘when’. The best answer utopian sensible transcendental which would overcome feminists can suggest is the transformative ef- the deathly opposition between body (indeed, fect of reading utopian writing—at least as all matter) and mind or soul. That opposition, likely as the transformative effect of reading which privileges the mental and spiritual above Mallarmé. mere matter, has not only had lethal effects in JUDITH STILL the biosphere, Irigaray tells us, but is also a question of sex, of downgrading the maternal See also: feminist thought body in favour of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Women will only be able to exist as women (as Major works opposed to the opposites of men, the mothers, virgins and whores assigned value in the masculine economy) when they have a place in the Irigaray, L. (1974) Speculum de l’autre femme, Symbolic and Imaginary Orders—when they Paris: Éditions de Minuit. Translated G.Gill have their own spiritual and aesthetic place, but (1985) Speculum of the Other Woman, also when the spiritual and cultural ceases to Ithaca: Cornell University Press. be cut off from the (maternal) body. ——(1977) Ce Sexe qui n’en est pas un, Paris: Irigaray publishes on a range of topics us- Éditions de Minuit. Translated C.Porter ing a range of styles. The articles in Je, tu, with C.Burke (1985) This Sex Which is Not nous, covering the role of the placenta, sexual One, Ithaca: Cornell University Press. practices in the time of AIDS, women and em- ——(1980) Amante marine de Friedrich ployment, are accessible to a wide audience. Nietzsche, Paris: Éditions de Minuit. Trans- Other texts, such as Elemental Passions (Pas- lated G.Gill (1991) Marine Lover of sions élémentaires), invite the reader to read Friedrich Nietzsche, New York: Columbia them over and over again, playing with the University Press. dense, polysemic and elliptical pronounce- ——(1982) Passions élémentaires, Paris: ments. Others again, such as her collaborative Éditions de Minuit. Translated J.Collie and work on sociolinguistics (see Sexes et genres), J.Still (1992) Elemental Passions, London: address an audience of specialists, and use Athlone Press. technical language and scholarly style. ——(1990a) Je, tu, nous pour une culture de Irigaray’s work can be conceptually divided la difference, Paris: Grasset. Translated A. into three strands: Martin (1993) Je, Tu, Nous: Towards a Culture of Difference, New York: • the critical strand, in particular her engage- Routledge. ment with great figures of philosophy and —(ed.) (1990b) Sexes et genres à travers les psychoanalysis; langues: éléments de communication • the positive, practical strand—detailed sug- sexuée, Paris: Grasset. gestions how women’s lives might be improved in the short and medium term; and Further reading • the poetic and utopian strand, for example her dreams of a feminine economy. Burke, C., Schor, N. and Whitford, M. (eds) The first strand has proved most generally (1994) Engaging with Irigaray, New York: palatable, although some feminists find as- Columbia University Press. Islam 299

Chanter, T. (1995) Ethics of Eros: Irigaray’s France (those who fought for the French dur- Rewriting of the Philosophers, New York ing the war of independence and had to be and London: Routledge (philosophical repatriated to France in 1962 for their own analysis). safety) is testimony to the profound ambiva- Fuss, D. (1990) Essentially Speaking, London: lence in France towards Algerian Muslims. Routledge (an interesting intervention into The politicization of immigration over the the essentialism debate although the oppo- last twenty-five years has had the effect of ex- sition set up between Irigaray and Monique tending this ambivalence to all North Africans Wittig is somewhat schematic). (Maghrébins) in France. The new discourse of Grosz, E. (1989) Sexual Subversions: Three the cultural difference of North Africans in French Feminists, Sydney: Allen and Unwin France (frequently based on the criterion of (an important survey). religious difference) is a powerful weapon for Whitford, M. (1991), Luce Irigaray: Philoso- those who argue for the incompatibility of phy in the Feminine, London: Routledge French and Muslim identities. Following what (essential reading for anyone who wishes is perceived as a crisis in integration of many to take Irigaray seriously). from immigrant families, Islam has become ——(ed.) (1991) The Irigaray Reader, Oxford: associated with the ‘problems of the suburbs’, Basil Blackwell (a clear, accessible introduc- disaffected and delinquent ‘second-generation’ tion to Irigaray’s work). youth, and uncivilized foreign practices (like ritual slaughter). Underlying the notion of a dichotomy between Frenchness and Islam is the powerful Islam French tradition of laïcité (secularism). With its roots in Republican universalism and Islam is often confused with islamisme. The Jacobin anti-clericalism, this tradition is cen- former refers to the religion and cultural prac- tral to the profound belief that the modern tices of Muslims; the latter to a political nation depends on the division between pub- project associated especially with fundamen- lic (political) and private (religious/cultural) talist movements in Iran, Algeria, Egypt and spheres. Islam, which does not recognize this elsewhere. The conflation of these two terms, division, is therefore interpreted by many as coupled with the negative historical image of incompatible with the modern French nation. the barbarous Islamic hordes of the Crusades, However, in today’s post-colonial, has led to the popular image of Islam as a postmodern and pluralist climate, not only threat to the secular and ‘modern’ foundations does this doctrinaire version of laïcité appear of the Republican nation-state. Yet new con- more and more like an intolerant fundamen- structions of Islam in France have challenged talism itself, but the separation of the public this image and, in the process, have reformu- and private spheres (and hence political and lated both Islam and Frenchness. sociocultural questions) is becoming increas- Negative images of Islam in France have ingly difficult to maintain. A number of com- been fuelled not only by the rise of Islamic mentators have suggested that the principles fundamentalism elsewhere in the world but by of laïcité need to be rethought in order to bring a number of other contributory factors. it into line with the contemporary national Amongst these we should mention the Alge- and international landscape, and to guarantee rian war and the debate around immigration. the possibility of a French Islam. The bitter war fought between 1954 and Many of the issues mentioned above were 1962, which ultimately led to Algerian inde- raised during the famous ‘headscarf affair’ of pendence, has left deep scars in the French 1989, in which three Muslim girls were excluded ‘psyche’. The uncertain position of about half from their school in Creil near Paris for wear- a million ‘French Muslims’, or Harkis, in ing their Islamic headscarves, hence breaching 300 Islam the code of laïcité in state education. Although The so-called ‘second’ or beur generation the event was often presented in the media as a has not only participated in political struggles struggle between the fundamentalist obscurant- to redefine rights and identities (for example, ism of a foreign-based Islam and the modern, through anti-racist organizations like SOS secular and enlightened French nation-state, the Racisme and France Plus, and movements for issues were far more complex (see Gaspard and new citizenship), but has also produced a vi- Khosrow-Khavar 1995). brant cultural output, frequently born from Unlike Christianity and Judaism, which (in the clash or mixing of traditions and identifi- their different ways and over the years) have cations. In literature (Hargreaves 1991), mu- reached compromises with the Republican sic, theatre and the other arts, the new voices secular tradition and have an institutional in the 1980s and 1990s of the beur generation presence recognized by the state, Islam has have presented a challenge to the frequently never been granted the same opportunity to ethnocentric nature of French cultural pro- find a similar space of its own. Hence, the duction and cultural theory, and rendered common perception that Islam functions as a problematic some of the unquestioned as- fifth column in France, manipulated by for- sumptions underlying concepts of the French eign regimes and outside influences (for ex- nation and national identity. The writers ample, the grand mosque in Paris is under Mehdi Charef and Azouz Begag, the pop Algerian control), is largely due to the inabil- group Carte de séjour and the popular music ity of the French state to establish the ground known as raï have all, in their different ways, rules for a French Islam. refashioned the terms ‘Muslim’ and ‘France’ However, just as Jews are not simply the to counter the notion of their mutual incom- product of anti-semitism, so too Muslims are patibility. not simply the product of anti-Muslim racism. Institutional rigidity and negative histori- Today, more than ever, Islam in France is far cal images are therefore being challenged by from an unproblematic faith, reducible to ex- two processes: the breakdown of the divisions tremist fundamentalist politics or the product between the political and the sociocultural of negative images. Kepel (1987) and Étienne spheres, and the everyday construction by (1989) have revealed the diversity of practices young French Muslims and cultural practi- which go under the name of Islam, and the tioners of a hybridized form of identification. heterogeneous nature of the so-called ‘Mus- Pluralism from above and below might yet lim community’. Less than 5 per cent of the lead to the erosion of monolithic stereotypes 2.5–3 million Muslims in France actually pray of Frenchness and Islam. in a mosque or other place of worship, and MAX SlLVERMAN most of them are of the older generation. For many young Muslims (for the most part born See also: beurs; Désir, Harlem, and SOS in France with French nationality, or eventu- Racisme; education, the state and the church; ally to acquire it at the age of 18), Islam has postmodernism; racism/anti-semitism been either rejected or reinterpreted in a variety of ways. A number of young people have Further reading used Islam strategically, for the purposes of socialization and identity construction. For most, a Muslim heritage today is only one part Cesari, J. (1994) Être musulman en France: of the wider process of socialization and iden- associations, militants et mosquées, Paris: tification; in conjunction with other forms of Karthala/IREMAM (comprehensive over- cultural and social identification, Islam con- view of Muslims in France). tributes towards a hybrid sense of identity Étienne, B. (1989) La France et l’Islam, Paris: which challenges all-embracing religious/cul- Hachette (historical account). tural stereotypes. Gaspard, F. and Khosrow-Khavar, F. (1995) Islam 301

Le Foulard et la République, Paris: Éditions Fiction, Oxford: Berg (discussion of beur du Seuil (account of the ‘Creil affair’). writing). Hargreaves, A.G. (1991) Voices from the Kepel, G. (1987) Les Banlieues de l’Islam: North African Immigrant Community in naissance d’une religion en France, Paris: France: Immigration and Identity in Beur Éditions du Seuil. J

Jabès, Edmond ressemblances); its specific significance lies in the fact that Jabès thinks of the persistence of b. 1912, Cairo, Egypt; Judaism as being informed and confirmed by d. 1991, Paris ‘the Book’. Thus, for him the act of writing has become in certain ways the most authen- Poet tic Jewish (and also human) act in the time of God’s eclipse: how to speak the unutterable. Edmond Jabès is the outstanding self-con- WALTER A.STRAUSS sciously Jewish poet writing in French during the second half of the twentieth century. Born See also: poetry in a French-speaking community, he began writing poetry in 1943, having cultivated friendships with Max Jacob and Gabriel Jakobson, Roman Bounoure. After the Suez crisis he left Egypt to settle in Paris and pursued his activity as a writer with renewed vigour. Deeply marked by b. 1896, Moscow, Russia; the trauma of the Holocaust, Jabès tried in his d. 1982, Boston, USA writings to come to terms with the silence and absence of the Hebrew God during the years Linguist of persecution and extermination. After an initial collection of poems published in 1959, Je Jakobson worked successively with the Mos- bâtis ma demeure (I Build My Dwelling), he cow, Prague and Copenhagen linguistic circles developed a poetic style comprising lyrical ex- before settling in the United States, and pub- pression, narrative, meditation, journal entries lished highly influential essays in a variety of and aphorisms. The first cycle of six books fields: phonology, language acquisition, gen- (1963–5) is called The Book of Questions/The eral linguistics and poetics. His model of the Book of Yukel/Return to the Book (Le Livre six functions of communication, and his bi- des questions/Le Livre de Yukel/Le Retour au nary analysis of the metaphoric and livre), followed by the anagrammatic series metonymic poles, have been widely quoted in Yaël/Elya/Aély (1967–72) and closed off by a France, particularly in connection with struc- seventh volume entitled El, ou le dernier livre turalism. (El, or the Last Book) (1973). ‘Livre’ occurs BÉATRICE DAMAMME-GILBERT consistently in these, as well as in Jabès’s later works, such as the three volumes of 1976–80, See also: Lévi-Strauss, Claude; linguistic/ dis- The Book of the Resemblances (Le Livre des course theory. 302 Jarre, Jean-Michel 303

Further reading was The Cage (1970), a piece of pure electronic music, followed in 1971 by the auda- Jefferson, A. and Robey, D. (eds) (1986) Mod- cious but eminently successful introduction of ern Literary Theory, London: B.T. Batsford his avant-garde music to the Paris Opera with (has several clear sections on Jakobson’s AOR. The experimental Deserted Palace fol- poetics and a bibliography). lowed in 1972. Jarre now diversified his activities by writing music for films, television, advertisements and other performers, not to mention compo- Jarre, Jean-Michel sitions for ballet and the theatre. His first recording intended for release, the revolution- b. 1948, Lyon ary Oxygène, dates from 1976 and became the best-selling French record of all time, topping Composer and musician the charts worldwide. This instant success brought with it prestigious accolades at home Jean-Michel Jarre is France’s most famous and and abroad (the Grand Prix de l’Académie commercially successful popular composer and Charles Cros in France, and ‘personality of the musician of the modern era. His unprecedented year’ awarded by People magazine in the USA), success—based on technical and technologi- while his achievements were recognized by the cal innovations with synthesizers, such as his world’s press (‘Jean-Michel Jarre Oxygenius’, semicircular ‘Magic Keyboard’ and his famous proclaimed Interview; ‘A French revolution to Laser Harp—has guaranteed him huge audi- rock the world’ announced the Daily Mirror). ences worldwide: for example, 1 million spec- The world of popular music had been intro- tators for his Bastille Day concert in the Place duced to new sounds—electronic in origin but de la Concorde in 1979, 150,000 spectators vibrant with emotion and rich in their powers at five concerts in Peking and Shanghai in 1982 of suggestion. (with 30 million watching on television and Jarre’s second album, Equinoxe (1978), 500 million listening on radio), and 1.3 mil- confirmed his international status and encour- lion people at his free concert in Houston in aged him to break new ground in the realm of 1986 (a feat which won him his second entry live performance. The result was the spectacu- in the Guinness Book of Records). Worldwide lar and highly innovative Bastille Day concert record, tape, CD and video sales are now al- of 1979 which, in addition to attracting the most impossible to calculate, but record sales (then) record-breaking number of spectators, alone were of the order of 32 million by 1986. was seen by a television audience of some 100 Jarre’s family contained a number of musi- million. On a personal level, this live concert cians and it was therefore not surprising that allowed Jarre to realize one of his ambitions: he began to learn the piano at the age of 5. the re-establishment of the free, ‘open-house’ While he was still at the Lycée Michelet, he musical festival. On a commercial level, it also took lessons in harmony, counterpoint and led to the production of France’s first ‘full- fugue with Jeannine Rueff of the Paris Con- length’ video featuring a popular concert servatory. He also learned to play the electric (though the duration—forty minutes—may guitar before gaining his degree and joining seem short by current standards). Further suc- the Groupe de Recherches Musicales (Musi- cesses have followed, such as Magnetic Fields, cal Research Group) in 1968. The direction Zoolooks, Rendez-Vous, Waiting for his career was to take was now clear: seeking Cousteau, and Jarre made a huge impact on to create something other than conventional the United Kingdom with his much-acclaimed or classical music, he experimented with a new Docklands Concerts (1988). Jarre continues acoustic world that went beyond traditional to produce innovative, emotionally charged scales and musical notation. The initial result music of the highest quality and to perform in 304 jazz multimedia concerts which exploit every form hot among others, until his premature death. of entertainment technology. Jazz, for him, was a way of life. Besides the richness of French critical dis- IAN PICKUP course in the 1960s and 1970s, jazz in France See also: concert music did not exist only in books. French musicians were particularly fertile in adopting this idiom and transforming it beyond its conventional Major works borders. At the beginning, the controversy about the orthodoxy of New Orleans sound, Jean-Michel Jarre Songbook (1989), Paris: compared to the new bebop closer to Charles Francis Dreyfus Music (Distribution ID Delaunay’s and Boris Vian’s hearts, was only Music) (contains English and French texts concerned with conforming to the American which look at Jarre’s career in addition to model. A considerable number of American the music of some of his compositions). jazzmen went on tour in France. Some liked it so much they stayed—Sydney Bechet, for example. But if imitation for some was enough to express their musical talents, others, such jazz as the pianist Bernard Peiffer and the saxo- phonist Jean Claude Fohrenbach, explored France is considered to be a special place for original paths. André Hodeir was to see his jazz, because of its extraordinary development own original compositions triumph abroad. there as the most popular form of ‘scholarly’ The end of the 1960s coincided with a new music since the 1950s. At the end of World page in the history of jazz worldwide in gen- War II, American troops entered France and eral, and France in particular. The younger gen- in their wake came the jazzmen. eration rejected the old purists; even the Before the war, jazz was already known in beboppers were in decline. Miles Davis and free France. It had inspired some authentic jazz were the new models. Jam sessions were jazzmen, like the orchestras of Jacques Hélian everywhere and some talented bands system- and Ray Ventura, and Django Reinhardt and atically explored improvisation, such as the Stéphane Grappelli formed the Quintette du Workshop de Lyon. In the absence of structured Hot Club de France. This was the beginning codes, and with the generalization of a variety of a French tradition of string jazz which is of practices, the improvisations took a new turn. still very much alive. Jazz had also inspired When they met, artists listened to each other, the critical and sometimes controversial writ- rather than initiating collective improvisation. ings of Hugues Panassié—for example, his Often this came through drama or scenic en- critical 1946 survey, Douze années de Jazz deavours, for example, La Compagnie Lubat. (Twelve Years of Jazz) and the influential re- The pendulum swung the other way at the view Jazz hot started in 1935 by Charles end of the 1970s, with a neoclassical revival. Delaunay. At the end of the 1940s, Panassié Some very talented musicians, still organically and Delaunay found themselves on opposite linked with the tradition of free jazz, expressed sides: the former defended pure jazz, the latter their private world through more independ- was open to new trends (such as swing and ent avenues. As a jazz intrument the violin was bebop). In Paris, it was the golden age of St- transformed, like the guitar, by becoming elec- Germain des Prés, with Boris Vian the soul tric; and there was a whole new generation of and mentor of the new musical wave. He jazz violinists whose talents would blossom in reigned at the Tabou and other caves of the the 1980s (Dominique Pifarély, Pierre Latin Quarter, where the cellars of some cafés Blanchard). The strings would swing again (D. were transformed into temples of jazz. He Levallet’s Swing Strings System). The regularly wrote his Chroniques de jazz, in Jazz Hammond organ and the accordion were Jospin, Lionel 305 brilliantly used and the best example of the See also: cultural topography (Paris); music creative virtue of mixing free improvisation venues; regional music with the rigorous code of old could be found with the associations of Henri Texier (double- Further reading bass) and François Jeanneau (saxophone). This was the period of a more intimist form of neoclassical jazz performance in duos and Anquetil, P. (1995) ‘Géographie du jazz en trios, without the drum kit because of the ille- France aujourd’hui’, Les Cahiers du jazz 6 gal level of decibels at night in urban areas. (an analytical and critical survey of the jazz In the 1980s the jazz scene saw the revival scene in Paris and the regions). of big bands, with a prolific number of new Bergerot, F. and Merlin, A. (1991) L’Épopée talents in this area. This phenomenon culmi- du jazz 2: au delà du bop, Paris: nated in 1986 with the creation of the National Découvertes Gallimard (a remarkably well- Jazz Orchestra (ONJ), proving that since 1981 illustrated and informative study of post- the cultural administration has been taking war jazz in general, with a relevant chapter music in general, and jazz in particular, very on jazz in France). seriously by providing generous subsidies for its development. It also provided the right context for an extraordinary increase in the number of music schools teaching jazz, as well Jonasz, Michel as for a singular development of associations b. 1947, Drancy whose main objective was the creation and diffusion of jazz music. Another sign of this Singer-songwriter revolution was the creation (in 1992) of a substantial jazz department within the respected This former member of the group King Set and scholarly Conservatoire National initially wrote songs for others (including Supérieur de Musique et de Danse in Paris. The Alain Souchon) before becoming a most suc- growth of the number of jazz musicians living cessful solo performer whose hits include Jean- or expecting to live off their trade in France is Claude Vannier’s Super nana (Fantastic Chick) significant too—currently estimated at about and his own J’veux pas qu’tu t’en allies (I 3,000. Unsuprisingly, half of them live in Paris, Don’t Want You to Go Away). The anguish a centre of excellence, with a friendly rivalry which his songs often express (and the influ- between home-grown talents and jazz perform- ence of blues is most pronounced) is some- ers from America, Europe and Africa. It is hap- times tinged with humour—a combination of pening within a fragile commercial world. Jazz mood also characteristic of Souchon’s work. counts for 3 per cent of record sales, of which 75 per cent are reissues—a stifling situation IAN PICKUP for creative artists who can only rely on a few See also: song/chanson independent producers to express their talents, within a market dominated by a handful of multinational concerns. The growth in the number of festivals is also significant—from 5 Jospin, Lionel in 1975 (e.g. Juan-les-Pins), to 180 musical events exclusively concerned with jazz in Paris b. 1937, Meudon and in all regions (e.g. Provence-Côte d’Azur). All this points to the extrordinary vitality of Politician jazz in the 1990s. A civil servant at Foreign Affairs and then a GÉRARD POULET university teacher, Jospin joined the Parti 306 Jouhandeau, Marcel

Socialiste (PS) in 1971. A protégé of sieur Godeau, Chronique d’une passion Mitterrand in the 1970s, he was First Secre- (Chronicle of a Passion), L’École des garçons tary of the PS between 1981 and 1988. (The School for Boys) and Du pur amour (On Elected to the National Assembly in 1981, Pure Love), Jouhandeau examines the moral 1986 and 1988, and to the European Parlia- crisis created by having simultaneously a ment in 1984, he was Minister of Education wife, a male lover and personal, spiritual from 1988 to 1992. In the absence of other needs. Accused of compromising himself with credible Socialist candidates, he emerged the Nazis during the war, and much criticized from the background to represent the PS in for his often overbearing candour and ego- the 1995 presidential election and turned a tism—as evidenced in his twenty-seven-vol- predicted electoral débâcle into an honour- ume collection of autobiographical chroni- able defeat (47.37 per cent of second-ballot cles-cum-reflections, Journaliers (1961– votes). His conviction and promise of an hon- 1981)—Jouhandeau only achieved popular est, ‘citizen’s’ (implicitly post-Mitterrand) ap- success with his early novels depicting the in- proach to government contributed to his vic- habitants of ‘Chaminadour’, an area drawn tory at the head of a Socialist-Communist- from his native town of Guéret. However, green coalition, which took him to the pre- with the recent republication of ‘secret’ texts miership following the 1997 elections. like Traité de l’abjection (Treatise on Abjection) and Tirésias (both eulogies of anal LAURENCE BELL sex) he can now be better appreciated for ex- See also: parties and movements ploring, with vivid and compassionate intensity, both the physical and the spiritual dimensions of male gay experience. Major works JAMES WILLIAMS Jospin, L. (1991) L’Invention du possible, See also: Catholicism and Protestantism; gay Paris: Flammarion (his vision of Socialism writing; Vichy and interpretation of the Socialists’ experience in power). ——(1995) 1995:2000 propositions pour la France, Paris: Stock (Jospin’s 1995 cam- Jourdheuil, Jean paign platform). b. 1944, St-Loup

Director and writer Jouhandeau, Marcel Co-founder of the Théâtre de l’Espérance in b. 1888, Guéret; 1968, Jourdheuil is noted for his Brechtian d. 1979, Rueil-Malmaison approach, written collaborations with Bernard Chartreux in the 1970s, and the dis- Novelist, essayist and memorialist, covery and translation of writer Heiner real name Marcel Provence Müller. In the 1980s he co-wrote many autobiographical spectacles with Peyret, and is Jouhandeau was a prolific, gay Catholic now professor at the University of Paris-X writer tortured by what Claude Mauriac (Nanterre). termed a ‘mystique de l’enfer’. In works such ANNIE SPARKS as Chroniques maritales (Chronicles of a Marriage), which features his alter ego Mon- See also: theatre Judaism 307

Major works Judaism

Jourdheuil, J. (1976) L’Artiste, la politique, la Judaism (judaïsme) and Jewishness (judéité) production, Paris: Union Générale are treated together here, although strictly d’Éditions (writings on theatre). speaking the first refers to the religion of Jews, while the second embraces the wider and less stable category of Jewish identity. Today, both Jouve, Pierre-Jean are subject to a number of different influences: traditional links between French Jewry and the b. 1887, Arras; ideas of French Republicanism; the fate of d. 1976, Paris Jews in France under German Occupation and the Vichy regime during World War II, and Poet, novelist, translator and critic the continuing repercussions of these events after the war; the centrality of the Holocaust; Jouve’s early formation was marked by traditional and contemporary forms of anti- Romain Rolland and the short-lived Unanimist semitism; the history and destiny of Israel; the movement. The next important event was his rise of ethnic particularisms and the reap- religious crisis in 1924, which caused him to praisal of monolithic concepts of identity. renounce his early works and enter a new phase Historically, the fate of Jews in France has of poetic activity (plus the composition of five been closely bound up with Republican ide- novels) in which spiritual and erotic sensibil- als. The emancipation of the Jews in 1791 be- ity predominates (the influence of Freudian came symbolic of the power of the revolution- psychoanalysis is also significant). His work ary ideal to free individuals from their par- during and after World War II continues along ticular ‘parochial’ backgrounds and bring that same vein—La Vierge de Paris (The Vir- them into the realm of ‘light’ as free and equal gin of Paris) of 1946, Hymne (Hymn) from citizens. Jews, therefore, came to be associated, 1947 and Diadème (Diadem) in 1949. The like no other group, with the revolutionary later poems, Ode and Langue (Language), Republican and Enlightenment project of as- from 1950 and 1954 respectively, make use of similation. This was a contract that both sides, the verset (versicle) introduced into French Jews and Republicans, entered willingly in the poetry by Claudel and Saint-John Perse. A name of freedom and equality. Hence, the strong theme in Jouve’s poetry is the spiritual Dreyfusards, in championing the falsely ac- anguish caused by the sense of nothingness (fre- cused Jewish army captain, Alfred Dreyfus, at quent reference to ‘Nada’). Somewhat in con- the end of the nineteenth century, were in- trast with most French poets, whose strongest spired more by pro-Republican than by affinities are with the plastic arts, Jouve main- philosemitic sentiment, and used Dreyfus as a tained a lively attachment to music, publish- symbol of the universalist and assimilationist ing important lengthy essays on Mozart’s Don Republican message. Jews themselves were far Giovanni in 1942 and on Berg’s Wozzeck in more comfortable fighting for universal hu- 1953. There is also a journal, En miroir (In man rights than in the name of ethnic differ- the Looking Glass), published in 1954, and ence. Until fairly recently, French Jewry has, translations from Hölderlin, Shakespeare and in general, been a fervent supporter of the St Theresa of Avila. The complete poems are Republican message, which has meant repress- published by Mercure de France (Poésies) in ing signs of difference in the public sphere (the four volumes (1964–7). neutral, egalitarian space of citizenship) and maintaining religious and cultural practices WALTER A.STRAUSS only discreetly in the private sphere. See also: poetry However, a number of factors have brought 308 Judaism about a reappraisal of the position of Judaism tory in France. Much cultural output by Jews and concepts of Jewishness, three of which are since the war (notably that of Paul Celan, considered here. First, the contemporary cri- Edmond Jabès, Claude Lanzmann, Emmanuel sis in Republican institutions and ideals, the Lévinas, Patrick Modiano and Elie Wiesel) has breakdown in traditional forms of political inevitably dealt with questions of survival and mobilization, and the re-emergence of ethnic loss, memory, history, identity and representa- identities, has led to new forms of Jewish self- tion deriving from the experience of the Holo- perception and new directions for political ac- caust. tion. Less and less reticent about expressing For a number of French writers and phi- their difference, Jews are now just as likely to losophers (Maurice Blanchot, Hélène Cixous, fight anti-semitism on ethnic lines (that is, as Jacques Derrida, Jean-François Lyotard) Jew- Jews) as on the traditional Republican lines of ish experience of the Holocaust has been de- the Rights of Man (that is, as human beings). veloped into a generalized critique of the The robust challenge to revisionist histories of project of modernity. The term ‘Jew’, inextri- the war and to the latent (and often overt) anti- cably linked to Auschwitz, is employed alle- semitism of the Front National demonstrates gorically to signify the failure of the modern a greater willingness, especially among the project of assimilation or eradication of the generation of Jews born after the war, to reaf- other, and the postmodern impossibility of the firm the Jewish presence in French history and representation of truth, presence and reality. in contemporary France. Hence, the infamous ‘Jew’ is therefore an affirmation of all that was statement by Jean-Marie Le Pen that the Holo- stigmatized in the age of modernity, including caust represented only a ‘detail’ in the history otherness, difference and a non-essentialist of the war and the desecration of Jewish graves concept of unrooted and diasporic identity. in Carpentras in 1990 were both met by high- Here the specificity of real Jews, Jewish his- profile campaigns to mobilize popular support tory and identity is replaced by the term ‘Jew’ behind opposition to anti-semitism. as a sign of ‘otherness’ and postmodern flux. Second, the betrayal of the Republican con- Hence, Judaism and Jewishness in France tract by the Vichy regime and the continuing today must be seen in the context of both wider refusal (until relatively recently) of political historical processes and contemporary devel- leaders to acknowledge the complicity be- opments. In today’s climate of a crisis of as- tween France and the Holocaust have contrib- similation and a decline in universal values, uted to a loss of faith in the universalist egali- Judaism and Jewishness are more overtly tarianism of Republicanism, and the desire to particularistic, fighting their corner to reaffirm be more assertive in protecting Jewish inter- their past and present existence. Like other ests. The issue of war crimes in the 1980s and ethnicized groups today, Jews are caught be- 1990s is, in part, a reflection of this desire: the tween two extremes: on the one hand, fixed pursuit (by the lawyer Serge Klarsfeld and oth- and monolithic versions of difference and his- ers) of the Nazi Klaus Barbie and the French tory; and on the other, more flexible and plu- collaborators Paul Touvier, René Bousquet ralistic notions of difference and history in and Maurice Papon not only sought to bring which Jewishness is not only itself seen as prob- to justice those who had committed crimes lematic (for example, the distinction within the against humanity, but also aimed to challenge Jewish community between Sephardi and established myths about French protection of Ashkenazi traditions), but constitutes only one Jews during the war. aspect of a multilayered identity. Although Third, the Holocaust itself has become, for poles apart in terms of identity-formation, both many, the major determinant of Jewish identity these positions have at least one thing in com- and has therefore replaced the connections be- mon: the view that Jews are not simply deter- tween Jews and the Enlightenment tradition of mined from the outside (through the look of modernity as the central definer of Jewish his- the non-Jew or the anti-semite, as Jean-Paul Juppé, Alain 309

Sartre famously argued in 1946 in Anti-Semite Politician and Jew (Réflexions sur la question juive), but play an active role in the construction and per- One of a generation of technocrats whose petuation of their own difference. political career was tied to that of Chirac from the late 1970s, Juppé was deputy mayor MAX SlLVERMAN of Paris (1983–95), Minister for the Budget See also: racism/anti-semitism and government spokesman (1986–8), and General Secretary of the neo-Gaullist RPR Further reading (1988–95). As Minister for Foreign Affairs in the 1993–5 Balladur government, his competence was generally appreciated. Elected Birnbaum, P. (1992) Anti-Semitism in France: mayor of Bordeaux and appointed as prime A Political History from Léon Blum to the minister by Chirac in 1995, he soon faced Present, Oxford: Blackwell (a translation protracted strike movements and became from the French of Birnbaum’s comprehen- deeply unpopular, owing to the apparent sive treatment of the subject). readiness of his government to sacrifice em- Hayoun, M.-R. (1991) Le Judaïsme moderne, ployment, welfare provision and public Paris: PUF, ‘Que sais-je?’ (general introduc- spending to the exigencies of preparing tion to modern Judaism). France for a single European currency. He Lyotard, J.-F. (1988) Heidegger et ‘les juifs’, was widely (but somewhat unjustly) blamed Paris: Galilée (postmodern philosophical for the Right’s resounding defeat in 1997, fol- use of the term ‘Jew’ to signify otherness). lowing President Chirac’s ill-advised calling of early elections. LAURENCE BELL Juppé, Alain See also: European economic integration; par- b. 1945, Mont-de-Marsan, Landes ties and movements K

Kaas, Patricia performer is becoming a legend in the French pop landscape. b. 1967, Forbach, Lorraine GÉRARD POULET

Singer See also: beur music; beurs; rock and pop; song/chanson A remarkably mature blues singer for someone of her age, Patricia Kaas is one of the rising stars of the world of French popular mu- Kalisky, René sic. Already a very successful stage performer (in France and abroad), whose successes include Mademoiselle chante le blues (The b. 1936, Brussels; Young Lady Sings the Blues) and I Wanna be d. 1981, Brussels Loved by You, Kaas has already been drawn to Hollywood and to a possible film career. Playwright IAN PICKUP Kalisky was a Belgian writer of structured See also: jazz; song/chanson texts during the 1970s, when the mood was generally against text-based theatre and towards collective creation. These include Skandalon, La Passion selon Pier Paolo Kacel, Karim Pasolini (Passion According to Pier Paolo Pasolini), and Dave au bord de mer (Dave at b. 1959, Paris the Seaside), directed by Vitez in 1979.

Singer ANNIE SPARKS See also: francophone performing arts: Bel- The pure product of beur culture, Kacel has gium; theatre created a singular synthesis of all the musical styles he has exposed himself to: jazz, classical, rock, funk and soul. Classified at first as the voice of the suburbs (banlieue), as in his Karina, Anna well-known song, Banlieues on his 1984 album, Gens qui rient, gens qui pleurent (Laugh- b. 1940, Copenhagen, Denmark ing People, Crying People), this charismatic 310 Kieslowski, Krzysztof 311

Actor de Véronique (1991) and the Trois Couleurs trilogy: Bleu, Blanc, and Rouge (1993–4) were Karina was Godard’s obsessive muse for six produced in France, Kieslowski first gained years (the time they were married) and seven international prominence in 1988 with films, in all of which she is the love object for Dekalog (The Decalogue), ten short television his camera in one of the great director-actor dramas, two of which were expanded and re- relationships. Pierrot le fou of 1965—among leased as feature films—A Short Film About other things a ‘documentary’ on the end of their Love and A Short Film About Killing, both marriage—features her most remarkable per- 1988. A graduate of the state-run Lodz film formance, though as the prostitute in 1962’s school in Poland, he spent the first part of his Vivre sa vie she is also deeply affecting. Her career making documentaries that were criti- non-Godardian career, with the possible ex- cal of the Communist-led government in his ception of Rivette’s La Religieuse (1966), was native country. His abandonment of documen- never so successful, and her one attempt at di- tary for feature films marked his disillusion- rection (Vivre ensemble of 1973) misfired. ment with political struggle and a turn inward to emotional and spiritual questions. KEITH READER The interlocking themes of freedom and See also: cinema responsibility, as well as a quasi-mystical sense of fate, subtend Kieslowski’s later films. In Dekalog, which is based on the Ten Com- Khaled, Cheb mandments, he depicted the crisis of morality in modern life, in which human passions are b. 1960, Oran thwarted by a highly rationalized—if not always rational—world. The Trois Couleurs tril- Singer ogy interprets the French ideals of liberté, égalité and fraternité respectively, in a context A paradox of the French pop scene, and that is more personal than political. In Bleu, a known as le king du raï, Cheb Khaled exports woman must face her new-found ‘freedom’ his rock version of modern raï to the rest of after suffering the loss of her husband and the world from France. His big band was in child in a car accident. She embarks on a new the USA and UK in 1994. He sings in Arabic, life steeped in sorrow, but free of the responsi- but his message is not fundamentalist and re- bility and restrictions brought by emotional flects a wider human experience of wine, attachments. The film seems to question the women and song. value of such freedom, which the protagonist GÉRARD POULET ultimately rejects as she comes to accept a new set of familial commitments. Blanc, set in both See also: beur music; francophone popular Poland and France (like La Double Vie de music: North Africa; rock and pop Véronique), depicts the corruption of egalitarian ideals in post-Communist Poland, where power differentials—once the privileged do- Kieslowski, Krzysztof main of politics—are expressed in terms of financial and personal relationships. The theme b. 1941, Warsaw; of imprisonment appears in parallel scenes, in d. 1996, Paris which the protagonist gazes up at his beloved from below. In one scene, it is scorn that de- Director nies him access to her bedroom, while in the later one, an emotional reversal has taken A Polish film director, whose last and most place, as the overwhelming attachment she has commercially successful films—La Double Vie developed for him leads her literally into 312 Klein, Yves prison. Rouge, the final film in the trilogy, ex- was a landscape artist and his mother a painter plores the idea of fraternity as it ponders where of the art informel school. In his own art work one life ends and another begins, and the ex- Klein could be said to have transcended the tent to which people’s lives affect one another. opposition between the abstract and the figu- As in Dekalog, many characters reappear rative his parents represented: his almost fa- briefly from one film to the next in the Trois natical devotion to Rosicrucianism and the Couleurs trilogy, undermining the conven- Christian mystical teachings of its sacred text, tional assumption that a film must depict a the Cosmogonie, played a crucial role in the self-contained diegetic universe. In a culmina- development of his artistic theories and prac- tion of this practice, the final scene in Rouge tice. These beliefs were complemented by his unites the protagonists from all three films, practice of the spiritual disciplines associated giving the sense of a larger community that with the art of judo, which he taught for much transcends the lives of individuals. of his adult life. In 1955, his monochrome painting Expres- ELIZABETH EZRA sion de l’univers de la couleur mine orange See also: cinema was rejected by the Salon des Réalités through a failure to understand Klein’s intentions. These were to awaken in the viewer, through Major works contemplation of the luminous intensity and immateriality of the single colour, the picto- Kieslowski, K. (1993) Kieslowski on rial sensibility (la sensibilité picturale), which Kieslowski, ed. D.Stok, London: Faber and seems to equate to some kind of cosmic con- Faber. sciousness. It was the critic Pierre Restany who Kieslowski, K. and Piesiewicz, K. (1991) took on the role of interpreting and promot- Decalogue: The Ten Commandments, ing Klein’s work, beginning with the 1959 ex- trans. P.Cavendish and S.Bluh, London: hibition ‘Yves: propositions monochromes’. Faber and Faber. The highly saturated luminous blue which Klein developed and patented as International Klein Blue (IKB) was used in his 1957 Milan Further reading exhibition in which eleven similar-sized blue monochromes were shown. Klein had priced Positif (1989) December (special section on each differently in an attempt to show that the Kieslowski). painting’s value resided not in its physical ap- Sight and Sound (1996) May (special section pearance but in its immateriality. It was an on Kieslowski). attempt to bring his art into line with the teachings of the Cosmogonie, which proph- esied that the end of the age of physical matter and ego consciousness would herald an era Klein, Yves of ‘pure spirit’, the immaterial. The spiritual quality Klein saw in the col- b. 1928, Nice; our blue was given further expression in his d. 1962, Paris exhibition ‘Pigment pur’, which displayed a variety of objects impregnated with blue pig- Artist ment, and an ‘aerostatic sculpture’ consisting of 1,001 blue balloons suspended over Paris As an artist, Yves Klein resists all classifica- could be regarded as an early Happening, pre- tion, despite his involvement with Nouveau figuring those of the 1960s. Réalisme. Without a formal art education him- Thanks to his 1958 exhibition ‘Le Vide’. self, he was raised among painters. His father Klein has been seen as a precursor of Kofman, Sarah 313

Minimalism. The empty interior and bare See also: sculpture white walls of Iris Clert’s gallery represented an attempt to raise cosmic awareness by presenting the immateriality of the void itself as Major works an object of contemplation. The void as a theme reappeared in 1965, when Klein pub- Klein, Y. (1983) Yves Klein, Paris: Centre lished a one-off newspaper featuring a photo- Georges Pompidou (articles by Pierre montage of himself flying in space with the Restany et al., with good reproductions of caption ‘Le peintre de l’espace se jette dans le Klein’s work). vide’ (‘The painter of space flings himself into the void’). This use of the media for artistic ends also identifies him as an early Pop artist. Further reading In 1959, he used the female body as a ‘living paintbrush’, orchestrating the application Stich, S. (1995) Yves Klein, London: Hayward of blue paint to the model and producing im- Gallery (gives useful and detailed documen- prints on paper fixed to a wall. Dubbed tation on the beliefs and values that inform Anthropométries de l’époque bleue by Pierre his art). Restany, these body prints represented for Weitemeier, H. (1995) Yves Klein 1928–1962, Klein a concentration of ‘vital energy’, while Cologne: Benedikt Taschen (a comprehen- others now see them merely as early examples sive account of his art and life). of body art or performance art. In 1960, Klein produced his triptych IKB, Monopink, Monogold, the triad of colours observable at the centre of a flame. Fire as a Kofman, Sarah symbol of the life force was celebrated in his fire-sculptures and tamed in the fire-paintings b. 1934, Paris; made by holding sheets of paper to the flames. d. 1995, Paris The process involved in creating these is comparable to that involved not only in his Philosopher Anthropométries but also in his Cosmogonies de la pluie, in which rain was allowed to leave A disciple of Derrida, Kofman wrote widely its mark on a painted blue canvas.This subor- on his work and that of Freud and Nietzsche. dination of the painter’s skills to the single Key thematic preoccupations of her work are creative act arguably prefigures conceptual art aesthetics as read by and within psychoana- of the 1970s. lytic theory, and female sexuality in the psy- Klein’s ability to anticipate so many later choanalytic context. The latter is the focus of trends is not confined to the field of art. Many Kofman’s 1980 publication, The Enigma of of the features of Rosicrucianism that in- Woman (L’Énigme de la femme: la femme formed his artistic production are reminiscent dans les textes de Freud). This work explores of the New Age thinking that arose in the dec- Freud’s accounts of female sexuality, and criti- ade following his premature death from a cally deconstructs their ambiguities, obscuri- heart attack. His eccentric and grandiose ties and contradications. Kofman also wrote plans for a provisional world government led two autobiographical texts, Rue Labat, rue by artists, scientists and the spiritually en- Ordener and Paroles suffoquées (Suffocated lightened were grounded in the same belief Words). system that fuelled his art. For Klein, art and life were one. ALEX HUGHES CAROL WILCOX See also: psychoanalysis 314 Kokkos, Yannis

Kokkos, Yannis gotiations symbolizing individual and ideological, class and cultural struggle. b. 1944, Athens Koltès was born to a Catholic family in Al- sace, although his soldier father was away for Stage designer much of the 1950s, fighting in Algeria a war which was to influence his later work. After A political exile in France since 1963, and de- studying journalism in Strasbourg, and reject- signer of sets for plays, operas and musicals. ing a career as a professional pianist, Koltès’s Kokkos’s numerous collaborations with Vitez eyes were opened to new possibilities by travel at the Théâtre National de Chaillot (1981–8) to the United States: New York became a key include the acclaimed The Satin Slipper (Le influence, appearing as the setting for his later Soulier de Satin) by Claudel. He also worked play, Quai ouest (Western Docks). While sub- on Lassalle’s productions of Vinaver’s work. sidizing his passion for cinema with funds from temporary jobs, Koltès also wrote six ANNIE SPARKS theatre plays in four years. He performed four See also: theatre of these in Strasbourg with friends, attracting the attention of Herbart Gignoux at the Stras- bourg National Drama School. Koltès took Major works the place offered to him there, while continuing to write: influential figures such as Lucien Kokkos, Y. (1989) Le Scénographe et le Léon, Attoun (who broadcast two of his plays on Paris: Actes Sud. national radio) and director Patrice Chéreau thus became aware of Koltès’s works. After a spell writing his first novel, The Flight on Horseback Far into the Town (La Fuite à Koltès, Bernard-Marie cheval très loin dans la ville)—the 1970s were notoriously difficult times for playwrights— b. 1948, Metz; Koltès returned to the theatre, writing Sallinger d. 1989, Paris and his dramatic monologue, The Night Just Before the Forests (La Nuit juste avant les Playwright forêts), performed in 1977. Travels in South America and Africa incited a particular interest Despite admitting that he detested theatre, in the plight of the oppressed—Struggle of the Koltès is nevertheless mostly remembered for Dogs and the Black (Combat de nègre et de his theatre works, and since his death from chiens) was one of the results of this. By now, AIDS in 1989 he has continued to be one of Patrice Chéreau (whom Koltès admired greatly) the most regularly performed contemporary was directing most of his work, and Chéreau playwrights in French theatre. His works deal directed all but one of his plays during Koltès’s with issues topical in modern-day France, rang- lifetime. This certainly helped to promote ing from homelessness to inter-family relation- Koltès’s career, but perhaps prevented him be- ships, with varied settings and an admirable ing performed as often as he might have been command of both language and structure. in France, for fear of comparison: abroad, his Koltès avoids political comment in general, work was more regularly staged. Koltès con- whatever his own views, and links personal tinued to work on famous Chéreau productions life to a series of social and political gestures. at Nanterre during the 1980s, including Genet’s All relationships are reduced to the idea of the The Screens (Les Paravents) in 1983, and his deal, epitomized in his play Dans la solitude translation of A Winter’s Tale. In the last year des champs de coton (In the Solitude of the of his life, Koltès also wrote the figuratively au- Cotton Fields), the tension in buyer-seller ne- tobiographical, anarchic (yet emotive) Roberta Kristeva, Julia 315

Zucco as a response to the incarceration im- and of the claim that the text (like the human posed by his illness. subject) is not structured (and therefore fixed), but always in a process of structuration. For ANNIE SPARKS Kristeva, intertextuality is a conflictual and dy- See also: Algerian war; collective creation; gay namic process—the clashing of different codes writing; theatre as they cross the text. Kristeva develops the Lacanian and structuralist emphasis on language and on the linguistic construction of the Further reading subject in her focus on the disruptive or trans- gressive elements in the work of writers such as Bradby, D (ed.) (1996) ‘Introduction’, in Three Lautréamont or Bataille, many of whom have Plays by B.-M.Koltès, London: Methuen (a become part of the new (largely male) canon of general introduction to Koltès’s drama in poststructuralism. She believes that no political English). revolution is possible without a transformation in the structure (or structuring) of the subject, that is to say in the structure of language—hence analyses of high cultural artefacts are not elitist Kraemer, Jacques but politically necessary. Since she trained as a psychoanalyst, her b. 1938, Metz work on literature (and on painting) has become ever more dependent on psychoanalysis, Actor, director and playwright and vice versa. For instance, in Black Sun: De- pression and Melancholia (Soleil noir: depres- The founder of the Théâtre Populaire de Lor- sion et mélancolie) she moves between case his- raine, and a proponent of the decentralization tories on the one hand and readings of Nerval movement there until 1984, Kraemer has di- or Holbein on the other. One of her major con- rected his own and others’ works in France tributions to psychoanalysis has been her em- and Germany. He is currently the director of phasis on the semiotic order, which she juxta- the Théâtre de Chartres. poses to a symbolic order. Kristeva’s symbolic ANNIE SPARKS cannot simply be mapped on to the Lacanian Symbolic, nor is her semiotic order to be under- See also: theatre stood as an order of signs (semes). For Kristeva, the semiotic may be developmentally described as a pre-Oedipal order dominated by the child’s Kristeva, Julia preverbal communion with the mother. How- ever, it is better understood structurally as a continuing stratum of interruptive rhythm, ges- b. 1941, Bulgaria ture or laughter which disturbs the ordered and logical symbolic order into which we enter at Psychoanalyst, literacy theorist and the time of the father’s interdiction (the Oedi- semiotician pus complex). That disturbance is evident, for example, in poetic writing. The mother’s Kristeva is known for her work in semiotics, unrepresentable (unsymbolizable) body is con- literary theory and psychoanalysis. Her work noted by the chora, the locus of the drives un- has received a mixed reception from feminists, derlying the semiotic. some regarding her analysis as useful and oth- Kristeva, Barthes’s ‘l’étrangère’, can be seen ers accusing her of betraying women. as marginal to the Parisian scene, as a woman With regard to literary theory, Kristeva is seen born and brought up in Bulgaria. (It must be as a founder of the analysis of intertextuality, remembered, however, that several figures in 316 Kristeva, Julia the Parisian intellectual landscape of the time with aspects of the universalism, often rewrite are ‘outsiders’ in some sense; for instance, both the theory creatively. Thus we find the argu- Hélène Cixous and Jacques Derrida are Jews ment that her theory of abjection applies only born in Algeria.) This marginality is a positive to the male subject. quality according to Barthes’s or Kristeva’s However, abjection is a revolt of being own perspective. She expands upon this in against an exorbitant ‘something’ (not an ob- About Chinese Women (Des Chinoises), in ject), which is neither quite inside nor outside which she suggests that the double marginal- the subject and which both fascinates and dis- ity of Chinese women enables her to get a gusts desire. Kristeva’s abstract formulation more distanced analytical purchase on the can be rewritten as the boy child’s simultane- dominant Western patriarchy. In the work, ously horrified and desiring response to his Kristeva advocates the adoption of a position mother’s body. However, this Anglo-Saxon of oscillation. The subject should oscillate be- concretization does not quite fit the detail of tween the Father and the Mother; between the Kristeva’s analyses. The abject may be symbolic, with its purchase on logic, on his- fantasmatically projected by an individual or torical time, and on political action, and the a society on to the female sex, but also on to semiotic which disturbs the rigidity and fri- the racial outsider. In Powers of Horror, gidity of the Word. For Kristeva, the domi- Kristeva focuses on anti-semitism, but in later nant position is oppressive, but immersion in works she analyses a range of nationalisms. wordless jouissance or in absolute union with JUDITH STILL the mother leads to insanity. One of the controversial aspects of Des Chinoises is the See also: Lacan, Jacques Orientalism detected therein by Gayatri Spivak, among others. It could be argued that Major works many left-wing Parisian intellectuals (not only the Tel Quel group who went on the trip to China with Kristeva) indulged in a kind of Kristeva, J. (1974a) Des chinoises, Paris: Des Orientalism, as Maoist China took over from femmes. Translated A.Barrows (1986) About the USSR (revealed as a locus of death camps Chinese Women, London: Marion Boyars. and show trials) as a utopic revolutionary ——(1974b) La Révolution du langage poétique: space. Admirers of Kristeva might respond l’avant-garde à la fin du XIXe siècle, that at least her book is highly self-conscious Lautréamont et Mallarmé, Paris: Éditions du about its inability to do much more than use Seuil. First part translated M.Waller (1984) the material on Chinese women to draw con- Revolution in Poetic Language, New York: clusions about the West. Kristeva’s later fasci- Columbia University Press. nation with the United States has also proved ——(1980) Pouvoirs de l’horreur: essai sur politically controversial—her status as out- l’abjection, Paris: Éditions du Seuil. Trans- sider which, from one perspective gives her a lated L.Roudiez (1982) Powers of Horror: positive vantage point, can equally be seen as An Essay on Abjection, New York: Colum- encouraging a rather naive, not to say igno- bia University Press. rant, enthusiasm. ——(1987) Soleil noir: dépression et One of the problems underlying much criti- mélancolie, Paris: Gallimard. Translated cism of Kristeva is that any theory deriving L.Roudiez (1989) Black Sun: Depression from psychoanalysis tends to have a drive to- and Melancholia, New York: Columbia wards the universal. Even where Kristeva University Press. makes statements allowing for a degree of his- ——(1988) Étrangers à nous-mêmes, Paris: torical change, her historical and geographi- Fayard. Translated L.S.Roudiez, Strangers cal sweep is vast. Those readers who do not to Ourselves, New York: Columbia Uni- reject her work utterly, but are uncomfortable versity Press. Kurys, Diane 317

Further reading Kurys, Diane b. 1948, Lyon Barthes, R. (1970) ‘L’étrangère‘, La Quinzaine littéraire 94. Director, screenwriter and producer Fletcher, J. and Benjamin, A. (eds) (1990) Abjection, Melancholia and Love: The Diane Kurys’s semi-autobiographical films use Work of Julia Kristeva, London and New period reconstructions and close social obser- York: Routledge. vation to evoke childhood, adolescence and fam- Lechte, J. (1990) Julia Kristeva, London and ily breakdown from a female point of view. After New York, Routledge (clear, accurate and eight years as an actress, in 1977 Kurys wrote interesting—focuses on Kristeva as and directed Peppermint Soda (Diabolo menthe) semiologist). about growing up in the 1960s. Coup de foudre Moi, T. (ed.) (1986) The Kristeva Reader, Ox- (1983) deals with ambivalent female friendship ford: Blackwell (a useful introduction). in postwar France, while 1990’s C’est la vie (La Spivak, G. (1988) ‘French Feminism in an In- Baule Les Pins) reconstructs a family summer ternational Frame’, in In Other Worlds: holiday. Although Kurys does not identify her- Essays in Cultural Politics, London and self as a woman director, her films problematize New York: Routledge (a hostile reading of women’s subjectivity through predominantly fe- About Chinese Women and work by male-centred narratives. Her study of the mod- H.Cixous). ern (bourgeois) woman, Après l’amour (1992) was followed by a less successful venture into psychodrama, A la folie (1994). CARRIE TARR See also: cinema: women directors

Lacan, Jacques personnalité’), which dutifully reproduces existing theories of paranoia and the requisite b. 1901, Paris; academic references, Lacan had none the less d. 1981, Paris presented the patient ‘Aimée’ less as the object of a psychotic condition than as the subject of Psychoanalyst a certain discourse (Lacan quotes her literary efforts, which aroused some interest in Surre- A traditional psychiatric training and an in- alist quarters). tense knowledge of Freud’s texts, combined In later papers, such as the 1953 ‘Function with an exposure to the avant-garde culture and Field of Speech and Language in Psychoa- of Surrealist circles and an absorption of struc- nalysis’ (‘Fonction et champ de la parole et du tural linguistics and anthropology, produced langage en psychanalyse’), or the 1957 ‘The in Jacques Lacan one of the most original of Agency of the Letter in the Unconscious’ all psychoanalysts since Freud. His increas- (‘L’Agence de la lettre dans l’inconscient’), ingly sophisticated speculations on the signi- Lacan identifies his clinical approaches with fying processes that compose subjectivity have the analysis of speech as the vehicle through hardened into a powerful school of analysis which the human being is brought into an al- whose influence notably reaches into many, if ready existing social order and thus as the not all, of the human sciences. The collection means and form of expression of the uncon- of his lectures, Écrits (1966), remains a key scious. This structural and linguistic vision of text of structuralist and poststructuralist the emergence of full subjectivity appropriates theory, in spite of (or sometimes because of) and transforms particular features of Lévi- its opacity. It manages to retain something of Strauss, Saussure and Jakobson. Subjectivity Lacan’s exploitation of the oral nature of for Lacan signifies not in the individual’s will, teaching and his linguistic subversion of the but only through the signifying chain to which position of master. What saves this from beit must belong, as well as in the unstable rela- ing merely irritatingly pretentious, wit and tion which it must negotiate between a erudition apart, is that the operations of lan- signifier (or term) and its signified (or con- guage are precisely central to Lacan’s preoc- cept). Lacanian analysis does not, then, oper- cupations; he thus sought to renew the con- ate with any sense of a final cure; the inevita- crete approach if not the clinical objective of ble immersion of the human in the Symbolic ‘the talking cure’. Already in his doctoral dis- order tends rather towards the point where sertation in 1932, ‘Paranoid Psychosis and Its the subject of a discourse may fully inhabit Relation to Personality’ (‘De la psychose the structure of meaning. This is in direct op- paranoïaque dans ses rapports avec la position to the aims of a psychology that 318 Lacroix, Christian 319 would wish to repair and fortify a battered able and at odds with the others, all the way ego, in the belief it is in the ego that personal from Politzer through Kojèvean Hegelianism identity is guarded and developed. and Heidegger to topological theory. At best, In contrast to such an instrumental ap- this approach was inspirational; at worst, op- proach—seemingly founded in Freud, who had portunistic. Certainly Lacan the sorcerer never presented the ego as pitted against the id (al- stopped being the precocious apprentice. beit in a renewable and reversible way)—Lacan This intellectual slippage was also played began as early as 1936 to emphasize the im- out over the years in his ritualized formation aginary identifications which take place prior and dissolution of the groups and circles bear- to full verbalization in the child and which are ing his message. This institutional dramatiza- crucial to the emergence of a first, ideal notion tion of hysteria, still evident in some academic of identity that anticipates the entry into the disciples, is one added level on which the phe- Symbolic order. This first ‘mirror phase’, where nomenon of Lacan is itself one of the most typically the child notices, celebrates and be- telling symptoms of French intellectual life in gins to play with his or her own reflection, for the twentieth century, and especially in the Lacan has the value of showing up the emerg- postwar period. ing ego as the result of an illusory identifica- SEÁN HAND tion and sense of wholeness, in contrast to the subject, which is a position arising out of the See also: poststructuralism; psychoanalysis; structural acknowledgement of otherness, al- structuralism ienation, lack and disintegration. This direct confrontation with ego psychol- Further reading ogy will permit Lacan henceforth to elaborate increasingly schematized relations between the Imaginary, the Symbolic and the Real—this last Benvenuto, B. and Kennedy, R. (1986) The category being a convenient structural Works of Jacques Lacan: An Introduction, conceptualization of whatever cannot be con- London: Free Association Books (clear guid- ceptualized—in place of the dualist clashes ance through major essays and themes). between ego and id, conscious and uncon- Bowie, M. (1991) Lacan, London: Fontana (an scious, in the more biological sections of Freud. accessible and authoritative introduction). It is this structural and linguistic revision which Mitchell, J. and Rose, J. (eds) (1982) Femi- accounts for the famous reformulations and nine Sexuality: Jacques Lacan and the redesignations in Lacan. It is logical, if spec- ‘École freudienne’, London: Macmillan (a tacular, for Lacan to call the unconscious ‘the good presentation of the Lacan seminars discourse of the other’; the Law, the ‘Name- [/ most important to feminists). No] of-the-Father’ (‘The Nom/non-du-Père’); Roudinesco, E. (1993) Jacques Lacan: esquisse or the phallus, ‘the signifier of desire’. For the d’une vie, histoire d’un système de pensée, same reason, his untranslatable neologisms— Paris: Fayard (the essential biography). méconnaissance, hainamouration, etc.—and ——(1997) Jacques Lacan: His Life and their later topological equivalents—knots, Work, New York: Columbia University chains and other schemata—are all attempts Press. to make manifest the essentially intricated nature of subjectivity. What the benefit of hindsight shows, finally, is the degree to which Lacan’s practice Lacroix, Christian both illustrates and tests the structurality it presents. His systematizations try to embed, b. 1951, Arles yet never fully control, his exploitation of a succession of word systems, each one fashion- Fashion designer 320 Lalonde, Brice

In 1987, Lacroix launched the first French Lang, Jack couture house for twenty-six years, with the backing of French textile conglomerate, b. 1939, Mirecourt Agache. His career in fashion began at Hermès and Guy Paulin, followed by a spell as a de- Politician and cultural activist signer for the house of Patou from 1981. Lacroix is best known for his spectacular One of Lang’s most remarkable traits, and shows and his exotic designs, inspired by a assets, is his talent for achieving notoriety. He wide range of influences. His most spectacu- first did so when, as a law student in his home lar effects are created with luxurious fabrics town of Nancy, he launched a student drama and surface treatments, such as intricate em- festival in 1963, which went professional in broideries. His creations attract sufficient pub- 1968. Influenced by Brecht and Artaud, it licity to support the sale of a range of subsidi- dedicated itself to daringly experimental work, ary products. becoming a jamboree of collective creations NICOLA WHITE and 1960s counterculture. In 1972, Lang was appointed director of the National Theatre of See also: fashion Chaillot in Paris. With Antoine Vitez, he furthered his avant-gardist reputation, but his costly alterations to the building led to his dis- Lalonde, Brice missal in 1974. Abandoning theatre for university teaching and politics, he was elected to b. 1946, Neuilly-sur-Seine the Paris Council in 1977 as a left-wing independent, but soon went over to the Socialist Environmental activist and politician Party. An ardent Mitterrandist, he became party spokesman and adviser on cultural af- In the 1970s Lalonde was a leader of the fairs and was a key figure in Mitterrand’s French environmental group Friends of the 1981 presidential victory. Earth. He became one of the best-known me- Twice Minister of Culture (1981–6 and dia personalities for the environmentalists and 1988–93), Lang’s greatest achievement was was chosen as the candidate for a loose green doubling the culture budget for 1982 and giv- coalition for the 1981 presidential election. He ing his neglected department a high political soon took a reformist view of environmental and media profile. Courting the young and issues, and rejected the radical positions of the fashionable, he gained further notoriety by his green party, Les Verts. In 1988, he took the flamboyant clothes and hairstyle, his dithy- position of Minister for the Environment in rambs to the president, and a provocative if both the Rocard Socialist government and the oblique reference to American ‘intellectual and following Cresson administration. He created financial imperialism’. He also scandalized tra- his own green party, Génération Écologie, in ditionalists by supporting unconventional 1990, contributing to the division of the green mass-cultural forms, from rock to rap, comic vote. This movement lacked grassroots sup- strips to graffiti. His life-long faith in culture’s port and mostly appeared as a vehicle for the capacity to energize societies also irritated political ambitions of its leader and founder. some. In 1995, Lalonde moved towards the right- After the Socialists’ defeat in the March wing liberal umbrella political group UDF. 1986 elections, when Lang himself became MP for Blois, he left the ministry but returned FRANÇOIS NECTOUX after Mitterrand’s re-election in 1988, resum- See also: green issues; green politics; parties ing his previous policies, though with more and movements; Waechter, Antoine restraint and a more classical emphasis on the language and the French regions 321 heritage. His second ministry was also distin- Langlois, Henri guished by his accumulation of political responsibilities: for the media, the presidential b. 1914, Izmir, Turkey; building projects, the Bicentenary (1988–9) d. 1977, Paris and education (1992–3). He was elected mayor of Blois in 1989 and a regional coun- cillor in 1992. Cultural figure His career then suffered two set-backs. In March 1993, he left the ministry again after Langlois was the co-founder and director of the the Socialists’ electoral disaster. The following Paris Cinémathèque, with which his name is December, he lost the parliamentary seat he imperishably associated. His undeniably disor- had regained in March, for exceeding cam- derly and financially imprudent management of paign costs. In 1994, he became a Euro MP the institution was more than offset by the pas- and in 1995 stood briefly for the Socialist sion with which he hoarded films and by his nomination for the presidency, but withdrew stimulating programming. The Cinémathèque in favour of Lionel Jospin. (housed first in the rue d’Ulm, then in the Palais de Chaillot) was the place where the Nouvelle DAVID LOOSELEY Vague and the Cahiers du cinéma critics received See also: architecture under Mitterrand; cul- their cinematic education. tural policy; parties and movements; rock and Criticism of Langlois’s methods led to pop; universities Malraux’s decision to dismiss him in Febru- ary 1968. This sparked off an immense wave of protest; major film-makers banned the Major works screening of their work at the Cinémathèque, outside which there were regular demonstra- Lang, J. (1995) Demain les femmes, Paris: tions, often brutally broken up by the police. Grasset (reflections on the situation of Langlois was finally reinstated at the end of women). April. The ‘Langlois affair’ clearly appears in Lang, J. and Bredin, J.-D. (1978) Éclats, Paris: retrospect to be a curtain-raiser for May 1968. Simoën (Lang’s recollections of Nancy and KEITH READER Chaillot). See also: cinema

Further reading Further reading

Bodineau, P. and Verpeaux, M. (1993) Delaunay, C. (1982) Django Reinhardt, New Histoire de la décentralisation, Paris: PUF York: Da Capo (biography). (a broad-ranging but useful summary). Fairweather, D. (1995) ‘Django Reinhardt’, in Scargill, I. (1995) ‘L’Aménagement du I.Carr, D.Fairweather and and B.Priestley territoire: the great debate’, Modern and (eds) Jazz: The Rough Guide, New York: Contemporary France, NS3, 1 (an analysis Penguin (contextualizing introduction). of the prospects for regional development until the end of the twentieth century and beyond). Renaud Schmidt, V.A. (1990) Democratizing France: The Political and Administrative History of b. 1952, Paris Decentralization, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (a meticulous assessment of the origins of the centralization/decen- Singer-songwriter and actor, tralization debate). real name Renaud Séchan Wagstaff, P. (1994) ‘Regionalism in France’, Europa, 1, 2/3 (a survey of the relationship In turn anarchistic, irreverent and amusing, between Paris and the provinces, and a con- this left-wing exponent of contemporary sideration of the impact of European Un- French slang—in songs which often espouse ion regional policy). the cause of the working class and the under- privileged—projects the image of a latter-day Aristide Bruant, of an urban hooligan who can also be considered to be the creator of an im- Reinhardt, Django ported form of song, the suburban western. Successes include Hexagone (France), Miss b. 1910, Charleroi, Belgium; Maggie (an attack on Margaret Thatcher) and d. 1953, Fontainebleau Morgane de toi (In Love with You). Renaud played the role of Lantier in Berri’s Germinal. Musician and composer, IAN PICKUP real name Jean-Baptiste Reinhardt See also: song/chanson Reinhardt, who led the Quintette du Hot Club de France (1934–9), devised his singular technique on guitar after losing two fingers of his Renaud, Madeleine left hand in a childhood accident. The success of the Quintette’s swing sound played off b. 1900, Paris; Reinhardt’s gypsy-prince charisma against the d. 1994, Paris lush melodics of Stéphane Grappelli’s violin, as in the classic Nuages. After touring the Actor United States in 1946 at the invitation of Duke Ellington, Reinhardt toured throughout Eu- Renaud left the Comédie-Française in 1946 to rope with a new Quintette until he died of a found the prestigious Renaud-Barrault com- stroke at the age of 43. pany with her husband Jean-Louis Barrault. STEVEN UNGAR She is most remembered for her 1960s interpretations of Winnie in Beckett’s Happy Days See also: jazz (Oh les beaux jours) and Maude in Harold renovation projects 463 and Maude, and appeared in Genet’s The A pacifist, humanist and man of the Left, Screens (Les Paravents) and many Duras pro- Renoir made what could be termed a moral ductions. cinema, one that asks us to examine our own sets of values and prejudices. His prewar films ANNIE SPARKS are especially enlightened in their observations See also: theatre of the working and proletarian classes. Toni (1934), Le Crime de M Lange (1935) and La Further reading Bête humaine (1938) are among some of his most sensitive treatments of the struggles and hardships of these classes and also reveal the Loriot, N. (1993) Madeleine Renaud, Paris: solidarity of the working classes in an Presse de la Renaissance. unheroized way. Sexuality, desire and love’s potential to exacerbate as well as heal divisions between the sexes are key issues in all Renoir, Jean his films. Renoir was also a great champion of Republican ideals and his films have con- b. 1894, Paris; sistently analysed human behaviour, particu- d. 1979, Beverly Hills, USA larly in relation to class and to individual as well as group aspirations, such as La Vie est a Director nous (1936) and La Marseillaise (1937). His most controversial films—La Grande Illusion Renoir’s great period in film-making predates (1937) and La Règle du jeu (1939)—examine World War II. However, in the 1950s, he was questions of class boundaries and the artifi- canonized by the Cahiers du cinema group as cial nature of national identities. Both were an auteur and his reputation as a reference condemned by the authorities in 1940 as de- point in contemporary cinema marks him out moralizing and pacifist and banned during the as an ongoing influence. Occupation. The son of Auguste Renoir (whose paint- Renoir went to Hollywood after the Occu- ings he sold in order to finance film projects pation of France by Germany. He became an he had difficulty funding), critics have per- American citizen in 1944, although he resisted in seeing the influence of the father in tained dual citizenship. Of the 37 films he his film images. In fact, Renoir is far more in made during his career, 13 were made post- the realist tradition and he has been hailed, war and of those only 5 were made in France. justifiably, as the precursor of neo-realism. In The most successful of these attest to his con- this respect, Renoir preferred location shoot- tinuing love of the theatre and group work— ing to studio wherever possible, and synchro- French Cancan (1954) and Le Petit Théâtre nized rather than post-synch sound. He mostly de Jean Renoir (1969). As a testimony to his avoided stars, and worked with professional international status among film-makers, he and non-professional actors with equal ease. was awarded an Oscar for life achievement In terms of production practices, he believed in 1975. in the principle of collective team work (thus, SUSAN HAYWARD for example, actors would learn to wield cameras, camera operators would have small acting parts, and so on). These hallmarks to his films and production practices are ones that readily identify his work as belonging to a renovation projects French tradition that still holds sway today and which has been particularly influential Architectural and urban conservation is an with Nouvelle Vague film-makers. area of cultural affairs in which France can 464 renovation projects claim to have established a ‘model and exem- most radically, provision for the integration plar’ for other European countries to follow of new buildings with the old where restora- (see Kain 1982, 1993). At the end of World tion was not practicable. Of fundamental sig- War II, France had already enjoyed almost nificance were attempts to introduce new eco- exactly a century of European supremacy in nomic activities to help retain populations and this field, during which one of the first Euro- provide some positive functional role for pean ‘lists’ of protected historic buildings was secteurs sauvegardés within the wider urban drawn up (1837) and the idea of extending context. It was certainly not the intention that protection to the buildings and streets which they become open-air museums of historic ar- surrounded a listed building was first enacted chitecture, but that their historic qualities be (Kain 1986). retained in a restructured functional context. In the immediate post-World War II period, From the perspective of today we can judge France, in common with most other European that the secteur sauvegardé approach to ur- countries, suffered chronic housing shortages ban and architectural conservation, while un- (due in part to the fact that about a quarter of doubtedly producing some spectacular indi- the total housing stock was either war-dam- vidual beauties, has not brought about the aged or destroyed). The 1950s solution was general renaissance of the French urban past ‘comprehensive redevelopment’ involving that André Malraux had planned. Designation slum removal and rehousing in the now noto- has been slow (only some 75 secteurs rious grands ensembles of high-rise apartments sauvegardés exist out of about 400 initially on the peripheries of cities (see Scargill 1983; envisaged), and the work of enhancement has Pariset 1991). Properties demolished could be progressed equally slowly and has been both slum housing in social amenity terms and dogged by political problems, not least the fact of significant historical and/or architectural that local communities had little say in what value, notwithstanding their run-down physi- the central, Paris-based authorities intended to cal condition. happen in each town. There has also been It was against this background of the mass equally powerful popular political protest at destruction of the historic quarters of French the social changes that conservation in secteurs cities in the name of housing improvement sauvegardés encouraged. However, any criti- that, in 1962—at precisely the time that this cism should take account of the fact that the activity was at its apogee—the French govern- political and economic worlds of the present ment once again enacted reforms which were and thirty years ago are very different, par- radical not only for France but for the whole ticularly in the sense that the threats to his- of Europe (see Kain 1981). An act, known toric quarters of towns today come less from since as the Malraux act after André Malraux the comprehensive redevelopers than from the (then Minister of Cultural Affairs, and its chief inexorable processes of physical decay fuelled sponsor), provided for the designation of by economic stagnation and decline in inner- secteurs sauvegardés (conservation zones) city areas. Nevertheless, the very limited pub- within historic towns and gave powers for lic participation and an equally low order of state intervention to enhance their historic local input to the decision-making process in qualities. secteurs sauvegardés are now politically un- The Malraux act involved much more than acceptable (Tuppen 1988). the mere repair and preservation of old build- In 1975, in what proved to be an analysis ings. It also envisaged the demolition of eye- of the first importance, Nora and Eveno sores within secteurs sauvegardés; the conver- (1976) reported to the French government sion of old buildings to adapt them to modern that, despite all the attempts in the thirty years uses; the upgrading of housing by providing since the end of World War II, 39 per cent of baths, sanitation and proper sewage disposal; the national housing stock was still substand- the management of traffic and parking; and, ard. Their report underlined the (perhaps not renovation projects 465 unexpected) fact that it was the lowest income work on their properties. In the three OPAH sector of the population, particularly the eld- of Bordeaux, for example, Michel Genty erly, who suffered the worst conditions and (1989) finds that all the restoration activity of who were effectively trapped. Nora and Eveno the 1980s has resulted in only a modest highlighted the scale of the reservoir of old, number of rehabilitations of low-rented dwell- and often ‘historic’ housing stock for rehabili- ings. By contrast, some 500 dwellings a year tation, and argued for rehabilitation rather for uncontrolled letting have been produced than renewal on social and economic grounds, and this process is bringing about substantial as well as for reasons of cultural heritage con- changes in the socioeconomic structure of servation. these historic areas. In place of low-income The indictment of the failings of postwar families, there is a temporary and transient housing improvement in France by the Nora- population of students, single people and Eveno report and the recognition of the politi- childless couples who value a city-centre liv- cal opposition and the social problems conse- ing environment, appreciate the historic aura quent on the secteur sauvegardé approach engendered by the old buildings and are pre- brought about a radical change of government pared and able to pay for it. Plus ça change? policy in the late 1970s. First, in 1976, a new ROGER KAIN single body, the Fonds d’Aménagement Urbain, was instituted to be responsible for See also: architecture the administration of all government funding of urban works; part of its brief was to estab- Further reading lish a socially just approach to restoration. Opérations Programmées d’Amélioration de l’Habitat (OPAH) introduced in 1977 were Genty, M. (1989) ‘Stratégies immobilières et designed both to avoid the local opposition mutations résidentielles dans les quartiers which was slowing down work so much in historiques de Bordeaux’, Revue the secteurs sauvegardés and to do something Géographique des Pyrénées et du Sud- more in quantitative terms to improve the Ouest 60 (detailed historical piece). poor housing stock of French towns. The aims Kain, R.J.P. (1982) ‘Europe’s Model and Ex- of OPAH are much more modest than those emplar Still?—The French Approach to of the secteurs sauvegardés, and the areas they Urban Conservation, 1962–1981’, Town cover much smaller—perhaps about 300 Planning Review 55. dwellings on average. Gone also is the sweep- ——(1986) ‘Développement des politiques de ing curetage of ‘alien’ structures built in re- restauration du patrimoine historique des cent times to return a secteur sauvegardé to a villes d’Europe occidentale’, in P.Claval ‘pure’ state in which it was known to have (or (ed.) Géographie Historique des Villes more likely imagined to have) existed at a par- d’Europe Occidentale, Paris: Université de ticular time in its past. Instead, the object with Paris-Sorbonne. OPAH is to upgrade existing buildings to ——(1993) ‘Conserving the cultural heritage statutory norms of amenity and effect neces- of historic buildings and towns in France sary structural repairs to buildings, providing since 1945’ in M.Cook (ed.) French Cul- that the continued survival of the indigenous ture since 1945, Exeter: University of Ex- population can be assured (see Kain 1993). eter Press, (a well-illustrated overview). In practice, however, reality does not match Nora, P. and Eveno, B. (1976) L’Amélioration up to these ideals. The voluntary principle de l’habitat ancien, Paris: La Documenta- which underpins them means that municipali- tion Française (a government publication ties can declare OPAH but are not obliged to that led to major social and policy discus- do so. Furthermore, even where an OPAH has sion.) been declared, owners are not required to do Pariset, J.-D. (1991) Reconstructions et 466 Resnais, Alain

modernisations: la France après les ruines the unforgettable performance of Delphine 1918…1945…, Paris: Archives Nationales. Seyrig to the film’s reputation. Scargill, I. (1983) Urban France, London: Resnais’s subsequent work has often had a Croom Helm (a study of urban France). more overtly political dimension, as with Tuppen, J. (1988) France Under Recession Muriel (1963), dealing with among other 1981–1986, Basingstoke: Macmillan (a things the aftermath of the Algerian war, or study of social conditions). La Guerre est finie (1966), in which Yves Montand plays a disabused Spanish Republi- can veteran. He has tackled the problems posed by accelerated social mobility in Giscard Resnais, Alain d’Estaing’s France (Mon oncle d’Amérique, with Depardieu, in 1980), the question of the b. 1922, Vannes boundary between life and death (L’Amour a mort in 1984) and latterly adaptations of Director bourgeois theatre (1986’s Mélo, after Henri Bernstein, and the Alan Ayckbourn-scripted Resnais’s use of close-ups, tracking shots and duo Smoking/No Smoking of 1993). His cur- subjective montage makes his style among the rent companion Sabine Azéma has prominent most distinctive in contemporary French cin- roles in the three last-named. ema. He has always worked from pre-written For all this wide range of subject matter, screenplays—a metteur-en-scène in the full Resnais’s films are generally instantly recog- sense of the word—in which the exploration nizable as his. No other film-maker is quite so of time, place, memory and imagination looms readily associated with the inescapability and large. Those factors, of course, are associated elusiveness of memory, a theme dominant in not only with the Nouvelle Vague, of whom contemporary French culture, as the obsession Resnais is a close cousin, but also with the with the Occupation and Resistance and the nouveau roman, and it is not surprising that centrality of psychoanalysis both show (in dif- his first two feature films, after a remarkable ferent ways). By turns solemn and humorous, series of documentaries including the harrow- his films almost always repay repeated ing concentration-camp record Nuit et viewings. Brouillard (1955), should have been scripted by nouveaux romanciers. Hiroshima man KEITH READER amour (1959) adapts a Marguerite Duras See also: cinema screenplay about a French actor whose love affair with a Japanese in Hiroshima rekindles the memory of her German lover, killed dur- Further reading ing the war. If the audacious equation of personal with historical trauma is Durassian, the Higgins, L.A. (1996) New Novel, New Wave, slow tempo of filming, and cuts back and forth New Politics, Lincoln and London: Univer- between remembered past and lived present, sity of Nebraska Press (this integrates became recognized as Resnais’s trademarks. Resnais’s earlier work suggestively with the Last Year in Marienbad (L’Année dernière a cultural and political climate of its period ). Marienbad) of 1961, from a Robbe-Grillet Monaco, J. (1978) Alain Resnais, London and script, carries the earlier film’s experimenta- New York: Secker and Warburg/Oxford tion with time several stages further, to the University Press (a well-documented study point where past, present and future, remem- of the role of imagination). bered and imagined, cease to be clearly distin- Oms, M. (1988) Alain Resnais, Paris and guishable. The flurry of possible interpreta- Marseille: Rivages (a handy guide with full tions this provoked contributed as much as cinematography and bibliography). Reverdy, Pierre 467 restaurant guides ty’s name and logo (a heart between a knife and fork) summarize the philosophy of appeal- The first and most famous of France’s restau- ing to public generosity, the food industry and rant guides was the red Guide Michelin, which government in order to make available sur- made its first appearance in 1900 and whose plus food supplies and to mobilize volunteers annual awarding of stars up to a maximum of in an annual, nationwide operation. After her three still causes much suspense and heart- husband’s death, Véronique Colucci main- searching. Michelin was long associated with tained the initiative; assistance now also in- the rich traditional style of la haute cuisine, to cludes hostel accommodation for the home- which the polemical embracing of nouvelle less. During the winter 1995–6, over 50 mil- cuisine by the Guide Gault-Millau (founded lion meals were provided. in 1972) represented something of a riposte. PAM MOORES Gault-Millau awards toques (chef’s hats) up to a maximum of four, along with marks out See also: street papers of twenty. Unlike Michelin, which contents itself with a brief list of the principal dishes of each listed restaurant, Gault-Millau provides Rétoré, Guy often lengthy discursive accounts of the specialities, atmosphere, decor and development of b. 1924, Paris its choices. A more recent wave of guides catering for the young and/or financially chal- Producer and director lenged includes the ‘Petit futé’ series, dealing not only with restaurants but also with shops, The founder of the Théâtre de l’Est de Paris accommodation and a variety of services on a (TEP) in 1950 with the Guilde, an amateur- town-by-town basis, and the ‘Guides du turned professional troupe, and an advocate routard’, whose Liberation-like use of lan- of théâtre populaire, Rétoré is famous for his guage and happy-go-lucky cover designs clearly 1970s production of classics, and contempo- target the discriminating backpacker market. rary writings from Bonal and Besnehard. The Other noteworthy guides include the Bottin Guilde became the TEP in 1963, and the TEP gourmand (founded in 1983), the Guide Kléber became a national theatre (Théâtre National (1954–82) and that produced by the motoring de la Colline) in 1987, under the direction of magazine, Auto-Journal, available from news- Jorge Lavelli. stands rather than booksellers. However, the unquestioned market leaders would appear to ANNIE SPARKS be Michelin, with a circulation of 500,000, and See also: theatre; theatres, national Gault-Millau (200,000). KEITH READER See also: gastronomy Reverdy, Pierre

b. 1889, Narbonne; restaurants du coeur d. 1960, Solesmes

These are soup kitchens, first established by Poet comedian Coluche in 1985 to provide free meals for the hungry over the winter months. Reverdy formed friendships with Apollinaire Friends in show business and politics joined and Jacob and with painters (particularly Cu- Coluche in a massive media appeal. The chari- bists) and founded the review Nord-Sud. His 468 revolutionary groups poetry was always private, centred on solitude, Révolutionnaire, led by Alain Krivine, were with strong emphasis on enclosures (‘Le monde much more critical of individual acts of vio- est ma prison’ is a line from the poem ‘Outre lence, advocating a Leninist strategy within an Mesure’) and spaces that separate and isolate. internationalist perspective that refused iden- There is in those poems a quiet anguish and a tification with any existent forms of Socialism. sense of dread, which point toward a continu- Less attention-attracting than the different va- ing spiritual crisis. After 1926, he lived in re- rieties of Maoism, they remain active and sub- tirement near the famous Abbey of Solesmes, stantially loyal to their earlier principles and as if to resolve a religious problem by living in programmes today. the vicinity of a monastery. His most famous KEITH READER collections are Ferraille (Scrap-iron) of 1937, Plupart du temps (Most of the Time) from See also: Marxism; parties and movements 1944, and 1949’s Main d’oeuvre (Workman- ship), along with prose works such as 1956’s Further reading En vrac (Loosely Packed).

WALTER A.STRAUSS Bourseiller, C. (1996) Les Maoistes, Paris: Plon (an absorbing narrative which concludes that Maoism meant so many different things in different places that it cannot re- revolutionary groups ally be said to have existed at all).

Increasing dissatisfaction with the French Com- munist Party, culminating in the events of May Reyes, Alina 1968, led to the emergence of a number of self- styled revolutionary groups on the Left. These b. 1956, Soulac rejected any suggestion of an electoral or parliamentary road to social change, seen as Writer doomed to neutralization or ‘recuperation’ by the bourgeois state and the class interests un- Alina Reyes’s first novel, the prizewinning The derlying it, and favoured direct action—fac- Butcher (Le Boucher), traces the sexual initia- tory occupations, general strikes, sometimes tion of a young woman with a lyrical and vis- even the taking of hostages. Groups of so-called ceral sensuality which Reyes later applies to Maoist inspiration fell into two categories: the other female voyages of self-discovery: for ex- unreconstructed Sinophile Stalinists of the Parti ample, Lucie/Mélusine in Lucie’s Long Voy- Communiste François (Marxiste-Léniniste) and age (Lucie au long cours) and Lucile/Alice in the anarcho-spontaneists in such groups as Au corset qui tue (At the Sign of the Corset Vive la Revolution or the Nouvelle Resistance That Kills). Women’s self-discovery creates life, Populaire, for whom France was occupied by future and freedom from initially unappealing the forces of capital much as she had been by flesh, from the remote past, from enclosed those of Germany in the war years. The mur- spaces or from a seemingly hostile natural en- der of Maoist militant Pierre Overney by a se- vironment. Openness is also suggested by mul- curity guard at the Renault factory near Paris tiple narratives within narratives and Reyes’s in 1972 led to the demise of the credibility of luminous style. Behind Closed Doors (Derrière such revolutionary rhetoric; it would now be la pone) uses the tropes of pornography to virtually impossible to describe oneself as a deconstruct the mechanisms of male and fe- ‘Maoist’ in France, or indeed anywhere in Eu- male desire. rope. The Trotskyist groups, the most enduring of which remains the Ligue Communiste OWEN HEATHCOTE Richard, Jean-Pierre 469

See also: erotic writing; women’s/lesbian Ecco, Le Palais d’hiver (The Winter Palace) writing and Le Camp du drap d’or (Camp of the Golden Flag). Les Années lumière (The Light Years), an autobiographical novel, is his Further reading bestknown work. ANNIE SPARKS Heathcote, O. (1994) ‘Is There Abuse in the Text? Legitimate and Illegitimate Violence See also: theatre in La Question, Les Chiens, Le Boucher and Mémoires d’une fouetteuse’, in R.Günther and J.Windebank (eds) Violence Ricardou, Jean and Conflict in French Culture, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press (a consideration of the gender-political implications of b. 1932, Cannes Reyes’s first novels). ICA audio cassette 736: Alina Reyes, Kate Writer and critic Campbell, 14 November 1991 (interview and discussion). Ricardou’s writings blend poetic fiction with guidelines to instruct the reader and theories of textual production showing how texts are generated from narrative and linguistic mecha- Reza, Yasmina nisms. As organizer of numerous colloquia, Ricardou brought novelists and critics to- birthdate unknown gether and made the nouveau roman more visible. Playwright LYNN A.HIGGINS

An actor graduate of Lecoq’s school, Reza has Further reading written film scripts, adaptations and plays, including Conversations après un enterrement (Conversations After a Funeral); La Traversée Higgins, L.A. (1984) Parables of Theory: Jean d’hiver (Getting Through the Winter), ‘Art’ Ricardou’s Metafiction, Birmingham, AL: [sic], her most successful theatre work to date, Summa (the first book on Ricardou’s fic- and L’Homme du hasard (Man of Fate). tion and theory). Patrice Kerbrat directs much of her work. Sirvent, M. (ed.) (1991) Studies in TwentiethCentury Literature 15, 2 (a clus- ANNIE SPARKS ter of articles including interview and bibliographies).

Rezvani, Serge Richard, Jean-Pierre b. 1928, place unknown b. 1922, Paris Playwright and writer Critic A writer of Persian and Russian origins, which influence his forty-plus works. His plays in- A literary critic of the so-called Geneva School clude the famous Capitaine Shell, Capitaine of criticism, Jean-Pierre Richard’s first major 470 Ricoeur, Paul publication, Poésie et profondeur (Poetry and and moved from the Sorbonne to become rec- Profundity), appeared in 1955. After this, he tor of Nanterre, but resigned after sustained went on to produce several more books on attacks from radical students and staff. There- poetry. His work is characterized principally after, he mainly taught in the United States, at by techniques of close reading, that is, of sub- Yale and Chicago, while still working in Paris jecting segments of text to particularly detailed as a CNRS director of research, and from interpretive scrutiny. This penetrating ap- 1974 as editor of the prestigious Moral and proach may be most readily appreciated in his Metaphysical Review (Revue de métaphysique Proust et le monde sensible (Proust and the et de morale). His three-volume Time and World of the Senses) of 1974, Microlectures Narrative (Temps et récit) published between (Microreadings) in 1979, and Onze études sur 1983 and 1985 examines how time and nar- la poésie moderne (Eleven Studies on Modern rative are interlinked in historical, literary and Poetry) in 1981. He has also published works philosophical writing, and has become the on the novelist Céline and the poet Mallarmé. most influential of Ricoeur’s works, which are widely read in the English-speaking world. MARTYN CORNICK MICHAEL KELLY Major works See also: Catholicism and Protestantism

Richard, J.-P. (1961) L’Univers imaginaire de Mallarmé, Paris: Éditions du Seuil. Rita Mitsouko, Les ——(1979) Microlectures, Paris: Éditions du Seuil. Musicians ——(1996) Terrains de lecture, Paris: Gallimard. A rock double act which began in the 1980s— Rita is the singer Catherine Ringer, and Mitsouko is Fred Chichin the musician—and Ricoeur, Paul was successful throughout the 1990s. Their whole repertory is definitely eclectic, they have b. 1913, France been iconoclastic on the world stage, and their musical style is baroque in the sense of being Philosopher grotesque, whimsical, imaginative and at times disturbing. Their videos earned them the Prix Euro MTV in 1994, when the album Système Paul Ricoeur is one of the most respected D was released. French philosophers. Trained at the Sorbonne, he blended Husserl’s phenomenology with his GERARD POULET Protestant faith, and developed an ethical phi- See also: pop video; rock and pop losophy much influenced by the Socialist ideas of André Philip. After the war, he incorporated elements of Freudian psychoanalyis into his thought and, during regular visits to the Rivette, Jacques United States, explored analytical philosophy, becoming a channel through which the ‘lin- b. 1928, Rouen guistic turn’ of English-speaking philosophers was introduced into French thought. He also Director joined Mounier’s review Esprit, for which he wrote the philosophy column. After the events Rivette followed the path from Cahiers du of May 1968, he supported university reform cinema criticism to direction in 1958, when Rocard, Michel 471 he began shooting Paris nous appartient, Robuchon, Joël whose length meant that it was not ready for release until 1961. The original version of Out b. 1945, France One (1974) lasted twelve hours and forty minutes; understandably, it was only ever screened Chef once. Rivette uses exceptional length to explore and distort the possibilities of narrative Perhaps the outstanding French chef to con- and the spectator’s sense of time within the centrate his activity in the kitchens of his cinema—a distortion mirrored in the relation- own restaurant (the Jamin, in Paris), ship between painter (Piccoli) and model Robuchon is famed for the rigour and preci- (Emmanuelle Béart) in La Belle Noiseuse of sion of his cooking. He obtained the coveted 1991. He attained perhaps unwanted notori- three Michelin stars only three years after ety when his 1966 Diderot adaptation La opening the restaurant in 1981, and repre- Religieuse was for a while banned by the sents the opposite tendency to the ‘galloping French censor. gourmet’ media stardom of such as Paul KEITH READER Bocuse. See also: cinema KEITH READER See also: gastronomy

Robbe-Grillet, Alain Rocard, Michel b. 1922, Brest b. 1930, Courbevoie, near Paris Writer and director Politician By generating fictions from linguistic play and from often sado-erotic fantasy, Robbe-Grillet’s A Socialist minister (1981–5) and prime min- self-reflecting novels and films show how im- ister (1988–91) and several times would-be agination is shaped by language and popular presidential candidate, Rocard was for many culture. He reveals subjective states through years a rival of Mitterrand and leader of a description of the visual world. As an editor minority tendency within the Parti Socialiste. at Minuit, he has influenced contemporary fic- Undoubtedly influenced by his Protestant tion. background and backed by intellectuals such LYNN A.HIGGINS as Jacques Julliard and Alain Touraine, and publications such as Le Nouvel Observateur, See also: nouveau roman Rocard sought to define Socialism as an ethic of responsibility and autonomy. His brief pe- Further reading riod as party leader (1993–4) and his presidential ambitions were brought to an end by the PS’s catastrophic defeat in the 1994 Euro- Leki, I. (1983) Alain Robbe-Grillet, Boston: pean elections. Twayne (introduction to Robbe-Grillet’s work; contains bibliography). LAURENCE BELL Morrissette, B. (1975) The Novels of See also: parties and movements RobbeGrillet, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univer- sity Press (a novel-by-novel study by Robbe-Grillet’s first exegete). 472 Rochefort, Christiane

Major works rock and pop

Rocard, M. (1987) Le Coeur à l’ouvrage, Since the late 1950s and early 1960s the Paris: Odile Jacob (an autobiography, fol- French pop scene has seen significant devel- lowed by Rocard’s political prescriptions). opments as well as the steamrolling invasion— as everywhere else—of Anglo-American pop music in its various, successive or overlapping Further reading forms: rock and roll, rockabilly, West Coast, progressive rock, decadent rock, punk rock, Schneider, R. (1987) Michel Rocard, Paris: hard rock, blues rock, indie pop, reggae, soul, Stock (a favourable biography by a politi- disco, rap. As consumers of pop music, the cal columnist). French listen to more ‘Anglo-Saxon’ music than their own, which could explain the lowly status of French rock and pop. The first French rock and roll number in Rochefort, Christiane France was written as a humorous parody of a genre with no apparent future by Boris Vian b. 1917, Paris and performed by Henri Salvador (Rock’n’Roll Mops). But in the 1960s Elvis Writer Presley had his followers; their temple was Le Golf Drouot in Paris. This venue saw the start Through play with language, genre and of the careers of Hallyday, Mitchell and parody, Rochefort demystifies institutions Dutronc. Rock and roll music represented a such as marriage and social services. Her femi- political stance for a young and largely work- nist, humorous, utopian and anarchic vision ing-class generation and a medium for indi- constitutes a passionate plea for an end to ex- vidual liberation; it was cleverly harnessed by ploitation of all kinds. Rochefort’s 1959 The managers and producers of show business and Warrior’s Rest (Le Repos du guerrier), her first generated the yé-yé phenomenon. The radio novel, made into a film by Roger Vadim in programme Salut les copains (Hello, buddies) 1962, shocked in its portrayal of eroticism. on Europe 1 was their rallying point. LYNN A.HIGGINS In the 1970s, rock music pervaded the sounds of the folk music revival. Pure French See also: feminism (movements/groups); wom- rock generated an extraordinary number of en’s/lesbian writing groups who came and went, producing endless carbon copies of British or American mod- Further reading els. At the end of the 1970s disco music reigned—but, with a few exceptions, French rock was in the doldrums. Constant, I. (1996) Les Mots étincelants Since the 1980s, authentic rock groups like de Christiane Rochefort: langages Telephone (highly popular at home and d’utopie, Amsterdam: Rodopi (the first abroad), Starshooter, Marquis de Sade, book on Rochefort, this studies her novels Indochine, Les Rita Mitsouko and Les in the context of utopias; contains bibliog- Négresses vertes have shown that French rock raphy). and pop is thriving, and have at last found international recognition even if in France itself it has generally been American and British artists who have attracted the biggest crowds. The cultural establishment gave the home Rohmer, Éric 473 product a helping hand. In 1984, Jack Lang, be) lovers predominate. His literary anteced- then Minister of Culture, officially inaugu- ents are such as Marivaux or Jane Austen; in rated the first Zenith, at the Porte de Bagnolet, the cinema, though he has posterity (Chris- a new venue for rock and pop concerts, with tian Vincent or the American Whit Stillman Jacques Higelin, the charismatic rock figure, both owe an obvious debt), ancestors are topping the bill. For a while, in 1989, there harder to find. was even a Chargé de mission pour le rock et His first feature, Le Signe du lion of 1959 les variétés (a rock and pop official representa- (but not released until 1962), is harsher than tive) within his ministry. Also significant is the his subsequent work. It tells of the agony of a huge contribution to the French pop scene Bohemian musician (a distant cousin of from multiple ethnic communities and their Renoir’s Octave in La Règle du jeu?) left musical hybrids (jazz, rock, funk, reggae, raï): stranded and impoverished in a pitiless Au- Carte de séjour, Karim Kacel, Cheb Khaled, gust Paris. Thereafter, his feature films fell gen- Mano Negra, Kassav’s and West Indian Zouk. erally into two series, Six contes moraux (Six French pop music’s success lies in the future Moral Tales) and Comédies et proverbes reconciliation of rhythms and sounds coming (Comedies and Proverbs). Best known in the from other continents and cultures. first series is My Night with Maud (Ma nuit chez Maud) of 1969, in which Jean-Louis GÉRARD POULET Trintignant’s sophistically Catholic engineer See also: beur music; music venues; video im- hesitates between the supposedly nice girl in ports the pew next door and the worldly wise divorcée Maud. Few other films have focused so closely on people talking themselves into Further reading love yet out of bed together; it is not surprising that Rohmer’s major critical work, in col- Poulet, G. (1993) ‘Popular Music’, in M.Cook laboration with Chabrol, was a study of that (ed.) French Culture Since 1945, London: arch-exponent of Catholic sexual guilt, Longman (an informative and serious at- Hitchcock. tempt to cover the various facets of rock, The talkiness and insecurity masquerading pop and variétés in postwar France). as sophistication of Rohmer’s characters is marked in more recent films, such as 1982’s Le Beau Mariage and 1984’s Les Nuits de la pleine lune, in both of which the bourgeois Rohmer, Éric institutions of marriage and monogamy prove more resistant to attacks upon them b. 1920, Nancy than might be imagined. His most recent series, Contes des quatre saisons (Tales of the Director, real name Maurice Schérer Four Seasons), displays, along with the somewhat prurient attitude towards young women The only Nouvelle Vague director whose films for which he has earned predictable feminist are still regularly distributed in English-speak- criticism, a turn towards belief—however ing countries, Rohmer has maintained remark- ironic—in destiny and the miraculous already able success through filming on often impos- foreshadowed in The Green Ray. Félicie’s sibly tight budgets, using 16 mm film stock or reuniting with the father of her child at the video—as for The Green Ray (Le Rayon vert) end of Conte d’hiver (1992) is among the of 1986, shown on French television before most moving moments in Rohmer’s entire its cinema premiere—and confining himself to oeuvre. a miniaturist canvas in which ambiguities and misunderstandings between (generally would- KEITH READER 474 romantic novels

Further reading ever, is more usefully seen as emerging in the mass market for literature that developed in the course of the nineteenth century, in the ro- Bonitzer, P. (1991) Éric Rohmer, Paris: Cahiers man-feuilleton (serial novel) appearing in the du Cinéma (a subtle philosophical and the- popular press, via Georges Ohnet’s Le Maître matic study). de forges (The Ironmaster) and continued into Magny, J. (1995) Éric Rohmer, Paris: Rivages this century by Delly, du Veuzit, Bernage, (includes a full and up-to-date filmography Magali and Anne and Serge Golon’s Angélique, and bibliography). writers whose books dominated the field till the arrival of Harlequin. Thereafter, the dominant model of the successful romantic novel romantic novels has been derived from the Anglo-Saxon world, originally based on the books of the UK publisher Mills and Boon. The bulk are based on Modern romantic novels (romans a l’eau de the contemporary workplace, though recently rose) comprise 15 per cent of all paperback sales the romantic novel publishers have added se- in France. They are produced on a monthly basis ries that evoke detective fiction. The central to a standard format and length, much like focus of the narrative, however, remains the magazines, and sell in supermarkets, railway love conflict of the two main characters, al- station kiosks and corner shops as well as by though the social profile and position of the mail order. Harlequin, owned by the Canadian heroine, as well as sub-themes, evolve to re- media group Torstar, is the market leader and flect the constantly changing expectations and accounts for well over 60 per cent of sales of aspirations of women in our times. romantic novels. It began publication in 1978 with four novels per month and its translations GEORGE PAIZIS of English-language contemporary romances were so successful that in six years it had reached Further reading a sales peak of 20 million books and a readership of 6 million. Harlequin’s success stimulated Bettinotti, J. (1990) La Corrida de l’amour, emulation and a number of French publishers Montreal: XYZ (a study of Harlequins in- followed with locally written contemporary tended to discover how the texts function). romances, notably J’Ai Lu (who also publish Coquillat, M. (1988) Romans d’amour, Paris: Barbara Cartland), Presses de la Cité, Jean- Odile Jacob (an attack on the contempo- Claude Lattès and Tallendier. rary romantic novel from a traditional The romantic novel is a love story, narrat- feminist point of view). ing the birth of an affective and sexual bond Péquignot, B. (1991) La Relation amoureuse, between a man and a woman. The narrative Paris: L’Harmattan (a sociological study of programme is organized by an initial meeting the modern genre). of the protagonists, usually producing a con- Le Roman sentimental, actes du colloque flict between attraction and repulsion. There (1990/1) 2 vols, Limoges: PULIM (a vari- then follows the overcoming of obstacles, both ety of articles on romantic fiction). internal and external, and a resolution which culminates in a happy ending. The roots of the theme can be traced back to Ancient Greek Ronis, Willy mythology, via medieval romances, the classics L’Astrée, La Princesse de Clèves, Manon b. 1910, Paris; Lescaut, The New Heloise (La Nouvelle Héloïse) and The Lady of the Camellias (La d. 1972, Paris Dame aux camélias). Its modern form, how- Photographer Roudy, Yvette 475

From the beginning of his career, Ronis was founders of the cinéma-vérité group of film- ideologically attracted by assignments of a so- makers. Lightweight 16 mm camera and re- cial nature, covering strikes and union activ- cording equipment for direct sound are the ity for the Parti Communiste and, like tools of his committed politicized cinema that Doisneau, charting the urbanization of the strives to record as close as possible the real. suburbs (in his case, those of Ménilmontant For Rouch, the personages on screen are the and Belleville). In the 1960s, he produced pho- authors of their own scripts and verbal testi- tographic illustrations for many news stories monies, and the footage must remain uncut on Algeria and eastern Europe. (see Moi, un Noir from 1957). If this documentary style has its limitations by dint of its MICHAEL WORTON lack of editing, Rouch was to discover with See also: photography Chronique d’un été (1961) that there are, equally, ideological problems inherent in any attempts at objectivity once the decision to edit footage has been made. Rouault, Georges SUSAN HAYWARD b. 1871, Paris; See also: cinema d. 1958, Paris

Artist Roudy, Yvette Considered one of the greatest spiritual painters of the twentieth century, Rouault was a b. 1929, Pessac, Gironde devout Christian and religious subjects dominate his work, particularly depictions of Politician Christ. As a boy he was apprenticed to a re- storer of stained glass and his paintings often Roudy will be best remembered as France’s resemble stained-glass windows with their first Minister for Women’s Rights (1981–6), simple shapes, outlined with thick black lines responsible for initiatives and reforms favour- filled with rich colours. He remained outside ing women. Of these, the 1982 law on state- the main currents of the art of the period. reimbursed abortion and that of 1983, establishing equality at work between the sexes, DEBRA KELLY were the most notable. See also: painting A mitterrandiste, her career has spanned a period of over thirty years, in which time she has occupied high offices, both within the So- cialist Party and those of deputy, MEP and Rouch, Jean mayor. b. 1917, Paris KHURSHEED WADIA See also: abortion/contraception; feminism Documentarist (movements/groups); parties and movements

An ethnographic documentarist who started his film career making documentaries in Ni- Major works geria (in the 1950s) and whose belief in filming only what he saw—what he initially called Roudy, Y. (1985) A cause d’elles, Paris: Albin cinema-direct—marks Rouch as one of the Michel (an autobiographical work). 476 Rouge

Rouge (When All’s Said and Done) in 1976—and in later years in his Livres de bord (Notebooks). Newspaper He has also produced children’s books and travel writing; his work reflects a penchant for Founded in September 1968 by militants from the lapidary phrase and a particular fascina- the ex-Jeunesse Communiste Révolutionnaire, tion for Chinese culture. Rouge was initially published fortnightly but MARTYN CORNICK became weekly while supporting Alain Krivine, the Trotskyist candidate in the 1969 See also: autobiography; parties and move- presidential election campaign. It has re- ments mained the newspaper of the French Section of the Fourth International through its vari- Major works ous name changes (currently the Ligue Communiste Révolutionnaire). It was published daily for twenty issues during Krivine’s Roy, C. (1970) Poésies, Paris: Gallimard. 1974 presidential campaign and was launched ——(1979) Sur la Chine, Paris: Gallimard. as a daily paper in March 1976, but financial problems forced it back to weekly publication. In 1996, Rouge had a weekly print run of RTL (Radio-Télévision 7,000. Luxembourg) DAVID DRAKE See also: left-wing press; May 1968; revolu- Radio station tionary groups Attracting nearly 18 per cent of the listening public, RTL enjoys the status of not only France’s most popular radio station, but also Roy, Claude its oldest radio périphérique. Created in 1933, its transmitters are in Luxembourg, although b. 1915, Paris; its studios are in Paris. Broadcasting on long d. 1997, Paris wave, the station is available to a large proportion of listeners in western Europe. Its pro- Writer grammes are wide-ranging: news, debates, interviews, documentaries, quizzes and variety A poet, novelist and critic, Roy began his ca- shows (hosted by such popular presenters as reer in right-wing circles, being attracted in Patrick Sabatier and Philippe Bouvard), and particular to Charles Maurras’s nationalist listener participation (by telephone) plays an Action Française movement and writing for important role. In 1995, a subsidiary popular the reviews and newspapers in its orbit. After music station, RTL 2 (FM), was created. being denounced in the collaborationist press, ALAN PEDLEY in 1942 Roy turned to the Resistance, joining the French Communist Party a year later. See also: radio (private/free) However, when the Soviets invaded Hungary in 1956, Roy entered a period of dissidence from Communism which culminated in his resignation from the party in 1958. His intel- rugby lectual itinerary is charted in a series of autobiographical memoirs—Moi je (Me, I) from With its stronghold in southwest France (Tou- 1969, Nous (Us) in 1972 and Somme toute louse, Agen, Béziers, Biarritz, and so on), Rykiel, Sonia 477 rugby has remained an important sport in Rykiel, Sonia France, with its national championship and the country’s participation in the Five Na- b. 1939 tions’ Tournament (which it dominated in the 1960s) and the World Cup. Only the Racing Fashion designer Club in Paris has been able to break the southwest’s stranglehold on the national Rykiel studied modelling and decorated the championship in recent times, but the country windows at La Grande Maison des Blancs as unites behind its national team which had an intern. She designed the famous pour girl unusually limited success in the 1990s until its sweater, an oversized sweater for women third place in the Rugby World Cup in South which launched her career as a designer when Africa (1995). Rugby League—le Rugby a it was featured on the cover of Elle. In 1968, XIII or le Jeu à XIII in French—is also at its she opened her boutique and started to design strongest in the southwest but consistently original sweaters. She invented the outside fails to reach the heights of its British counter- seams and still designs clothes for various for- part. Outstanding French players of the fif- eign fashion houses. She has created over teen-a-side game include Pierre Albaladejo, 4,000 knitwear designs and is among the most Serge Blanco, Jean-Pierre Rives and Jean- successful and popular French ready-to-wear Pierre Romeu. designers. IAN PICKUP JOËLLE VITIELLO See also: sport See also: fashion

Sagan, Françoise after being drafted by the French army for the French-Algerian conflict, he opened his fash- b. 1935, Cajarc, Lot ion house. After introducing successively the cowboy and the sailor look, Saint Laurent Writer and playwright turned to contemporary art and in 1965 launched his Mondrian dress. In 1966, he A popular novelist, Sagan has also written opened his first ready-to-wear boutique, Saint plays, short stories and volumes of autobiog- Laurent Rive Gauche. He mass-produced his raphy. Of her numerous fictions, which fre- clothes to make them accessible, and devel- quently focus on women’s experience of the oped accessories, a men’s line and perfumes. pleasures and pain of love, two early novels— JOËLLE VITIELLO Bonjour tristesse (1954) and A Certain Smile (Un certain sourire) from 1956—are the best See also: Algerian war; fashion known. The first, written when Sagan was in her teens, won the Prix des Critiques, and established Sagan’s international reputation. Saint-Phalle, Niki de Sagan’s work is usually considered as ‘light’; however, her novels offer, arguably, significant b. 1930, Paris insights into feminine psychology. ALEX HUGHES Artist See also: literary prizes; women’s/lesbian writ- Niki de Saint-Phalle first attracted attention ing with her ‘rifle-shot’ reliefs incorporating con- tainers of paint which, when shot at by the viewer, would stain the surface—a parody of Saint Laurent, Yves abstract art informel painting. A member of the Nouveau Réalisme group founded in b. 1936, Oran, Algeria 1960, she used objets trouvés to create playful reliefs and sculptures. The representation of Fashion designer women was the theme of her series of Brides and Nanas, huge, gaudily painted female fig- Saint Laurent studied fashion design in Paris. ures, which culminated in a monumental, hol- In 1953, he was hired by Christian Dior and low, reclining woman, 28 m long, containing developed the ‘trapeze’ silhouette. In 1962, ‘rooms’ which were entered via the vagina. 478 Sanson, Véronique 479

This collaboration with Jean Tinguely was semiotic innovation. However, her best- f1ollowed by others, notably the Stravinsky known novel, Les Portes de Gubbio (Gubbio’s fountain outside the Pompidou Centre. In Gateways), published in 1980 and awarded 1979, she began work on her Gaudi-inspired the Prix Renaudot, represents a return to a Tarrochi Garden in Tuscany. more traditional, less experimental form of novelistic practice. Sallenave has also worked CAROL WILCOX in the medium of the theatre. See also: sculpture ALEX HUGHES See also: literary prizes; women’s/lesbian writing Salacrou, Armand b. 1899, Rouen; d. 1989, Le Havre Salvador, Henri

Playwright b. 1917, Cayenne, French Guiana

Salacrou’s home town, Le Havre, provides the Singer-songwriter and musician focus for many of his plays. His works since 1940 are notable for their Sartrean outlook, Having gone to Paris at the age of 7, Henri such as Les Nuits de Colère (Nights of Anger) Salvador joined Ray Ventura’s big band, Les and Dieu le savait (God Knew), and for their Collégiens (The College Boys), touring with satire of the bourgeoisie, like Histoire de rire them in 1941 in South America, where he (History of Laughter) and Une femme trap stayed until 1945, having become a star in his honnête (The Over-Honest Woman). own right. Back in France, Salvador established himself as a singer (particularly in the ANNIE SPARKS 1960s), comic actor and parodist, though his See also: theatre first love was and remains jazz. This French version of Sammy Davis Junior was the highly respected guest of honour at the eleventh Further reading ‘Victoires de la Musique’ (French Pop Music Awards) in 1996. Ubersfeld, A. (1969) A.Salacrou, Paris: IAN PICKUP Seghers (thorough critique of his work). See also: song/chanson

Sallenave, Danièle Sanson, Véronique b. 1940, Angers b. 1949, Paris Writer, academic and literary theorist Singer-songwriter Sallenave’s early publications, including Paysage de ruines avec personnages (Ruined Adopting a style which blends jazz, blues and Landscape with Figures) and Le Voyage rock, Véronique Sanson has, from the early d’Amsterdam (Amsterdam Journey), bear wit- 1970s, remained in the forefront of French ness to her theoretical interest in narrative and popular music. Having benefited from the 480 Sardou, Miche guidance of Michel Berger on her first two Man Unknown (Portrait d’un inconnu), Sartre records, and having been married to the musi- situated Sarraute’s writing by observing that cian Stephen Stills, she successfully split her the novel genre, like postwar France itself, was time for a number of years between France and entering a period of self-reflection. Sarraute’s the United States. A distinctive (if ultimately work was well under way by the time the repetitive) style on the piano is allied to a voice nouveau roman emerged, and her approach influenced by the phrasing of American blues contributed to its development. Like others singers. One of her more unusual successes is among the new novelists, Sarraute sees the her album Symphonique Sanson (1989), with novel as a quest for (rather than a representa- the Prague Symphony Orchestra. tion of) reality; unlike them, the reality she seeks is that of psychological interiority. IAN PICKUP In her 1956 essay collection, The Age of See also: song/chanson Suspicion (L’Ère du soupçon), Sarraute outlines her goals for renewing the novel: she seeks to remove conventional narrative props Sardou, Michel that would construct a reassuringly familiar world. Her desire to establish unmediated en- b. 1947, Paris counters between the reader and another consciousness is the driving force behind her for- Singer-songwriter mal innovations. In Sarraute’s novels, the only plot consists A third-generation member of a family of of proto-events without label or description, French show-business artists, Michel Sardou devoid of distancing past tenses or narrative has scarcely been out of the limelight since viewpoint. Most significant are her reforms of 1970. He is often associated with right-wing characterization, introduced in her 1939 col- and unfashionable views—as in Les Ricains lection of texts, Tropisms (Tropismes), reis- (The Yanks), a song highlighting the French sued in 1957. The term ‘tropism’, borrowed debt to the USA during World War II, which from biology, refers to an organism’s instinc- was released when it was fashionable to decry tive turning towards light or heat. Sarraute’s American involvement in Vietnam. Sardou has tropisms chart the involuntary impulses, emo- regularly expressed controversial opinions, tions and perceptions below the surface of which have none the less won him a large and consciousness. She invented the techniques of faithful following. He had notable successes ‘subconversations’ and ‘predialogue’ in an at- at Bercy in 1991 and 1993 and at the Olym- tempt to capture these unarticulated and pia in 1995, and has written songs with uncodified movements of subjectivity. Recog- Jacques Revaux, Pierre Billon and Pierre nizing the inadequacy of traditional modes of Delanoë. writing to capture these fragmentary, interior IAN PICKUP voices, Sarraute explores the limits of intelli- gibility. She replaces names and descriptions See also: song/chanson with imagery and metaphors to evoke the li- quidity of laughter, for example, or the cutting edge of interpersonal hostility. Sarraute, Nathalie Sarraute’s career is unified by her search for techniques capable of communicating her con- b. 1902, Ivanovo-Voznessensk, Russia ception of subjectivity. After Tropisms, her Writer 1953 novel, Martereau (Martereau), and the 1959 The Planetarium (Le Planetarium) convey the inner experience of anonymous char- In his preface to her 1948 novel, Portrait of a acters in their familial and social interactions. Sartre, Jean-Paul 481

Her 1963 novel The Golden Fruits (Les Fruits French critics and readers when it began to d’or), the 1968 novel Between Life and Death appear in the mid-1960s. Best known for nov- (Entre la Vie et la mort), and her 1972 Do els telling of prison life and its aftermath— You Hear them? (Vous les entendez?) explore, Astragal (L’Astragale) in 1965, The Runaway from within, the creative process itself. Sev- (La Cavale) in 1969 and La Traversière (The eral radio and stage plays investigate the ca- Crossing) in 1966—Sarrazin was also a pro- pacity of spoken dialogue to incorporate the lific producer of diaries, poems and letters. voices hidden below conscious awareness. Fi- Many of these were published posthumously nally, her 1983 fictionalized autobiography, in the 1970s, after their author died prema- Childhood (Enfance), examines the tropisms turely. of a particular child. Sarraute here rejoins other ALEX HUGHES nouveaux romanciers such as Robbe-Grillet, Duras and Simon, who problematized and re- See also: autobiography; women’s/lesbian newed the autobiographical genre in the 1980s. writing. LYNN A.HIGGINS See also: women’s/lesbian writing Sarrazin, Maurice

Further reading b. 1925, Toulouse Actor, director and troupe leader Besser, G.R. (1979) Nathalie Sarraute, Boston: Twayne (an overview of Sarraute’s career, A pioneer of postwar theatre decentralization, its major themes and stages, in the context and a founder of the Grenier de Toulouse in of the experimental modern novel; contains 1945, which took numerous classical produc- bibliography). tions on tour and gave Gatti a stage for his L’Esprit créateur (1996) Nathalie Sarraute ou work. le texte du for intérieur, special issue 36, 2. Minogue, V. (1981) Nathalie Sarraute and the ANNIE SPARKS War of the Words: A Study of Five Novels, See also: theatre Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press (an analysis of Sarraute’s work with language). Major works

Sarrazin, Albertine Sarrazin, M. (1970) Comédien dans une troupe, Toulouse: Grenier de Toulouse (an b. 1937, Algiers; autobiographical account of his work). d. 1967, Montpellier

Writer Sartre, Jean-Paul

The author of a series of autobiographical fic- b. 1905, Paris; tions chronicling her disrupted and disruptive d. 1980, Paris life—she was a foundling child whose difficulties with her adoptive family led to a stint at Philosopher and writer reform school, followed by a series of sojourns in prison, punctuated by several escapes— Sartre ranks alongside André Malraux, Simone Sarrazin’s work captured the attention of de Beauvoir, Albert Camus and Marguerite 482 Sartre, Jean-Paul

Duras among writers born between 1900 and behalf of Les Temps modernes were only one 1915 whose experiences of war and revolu- aspect of a broad personal programme of writ- tion deeply affected French literature between ing that included essays, fiction, theatre, 1945 and 1970. More doggedly than these screenplays and biography. others, Sartre cultivated the role of the com- The cost of Sartre’s commitment to high mitted—also known as ‘engaged’—intellectual visibility in public was the inevitability of con- who spoke out on contemporary issues with- flict. When Albert Camus published The Rebel out acceding to party line, ideology, or doc- (L’Homme révolté) in 1951, Sartre could no trine. Between 1945 and 1980, the force of longer set aside the growing differences that Sartre’s public presence built in large part on placed his involvement with political revolu- his sustained explorations of formats and gen- tion increasingly at odds with what he per- res ranging from essay, letter and treatise to ceived as the disinterested and ahistorical no- theatre and film. It was no coincidence that tion of rebellion set forth in the book by his Sartre’s refusal of the 1964 Nobel prize ex- former colleague and friend. Sartre’s break tended the very oppositional position that the with Camus was acrimonious and—because award committee had sought to recognize. of Camus’s death in a January 1960 automo- Sartre emerged following the Liberation as bile accident—definitive. though on a mission to ensure that literature From 1945 through to the mid-1970s, in postwar France would be fashioned by in- Sartre was seemingly everywhere at the same tellectuals for whom culture was inextricably time, as though compelled to execute his deci- linked to concerns for social and political free- sion to act in and on history on the most pub- dom. In fact, this postwar vision evolved out lic of stages. On one front, he was a tireless of narrower conceptions of literature and the voice in debate on issues ranging from the writer that had propelled Sartre to prominence 1956 anti-Communist uprising in Hungary, to as a novelist and literary critic in the late torture and the violation of human rights by 1930s. Sartre was initially converted to activ- French soldiers, police and intelligence agents ism by his 1940 prisoner-of-war experience of during the Algerian war. When circumstances literature’s capacity to disclose the simultane- required it, Sartre was not above taking to the ous freedom and responsibility of all men and streets to picket, protest and gather signatures women. Four years later, Sartre sought the best in support of a chosen cause of the moment. possible format to convey this capacity to as On another front, he travelled to China, Po- wide a public as possible following the Lib- land, Yugoslavia and Cuba to meet with po- eration of France. litical leaders and local intellectuals. When the first issue of Les Temps modernes Most of all, Sartre continued to write: appeared on 15 October 1945 under the joint newspaper and magazine articles, prefaces and direction of Sartre, de Beauvoir and Maurice editorials, as well as plays and film scripts. Merleau-Ponty, it was less of a literary The thirty years that Sartre devoted on and monthly in the mould of the Nouvelle Revue off to his 3,000-page, three-volume study of française than a descendant of the left-wing Gustave Flaubert, The Family Idiot (L’Idiot weeklies Marianne and Vendredi. But, unlike de la famille), illustrate the extent to which its interwar predecessors, Les Temps modernes his desire to write as a witness (and historical inscribed essays on politics and literature conscience) of postwar France forced him to within a programme of committed literature postpone and even to abandon a number of (littérature engagée) that called for the writer long-term intellectual projects. Inevitably to disclose and correct the full range and vari- some of these projects resurfaced where Sartre ety of injustice he or she encountered. While and his readers least expected to find them. this double injunction to disclosure and cor- The appearance of Words (Les Mots) in rection made his monthly a forum for debate 1964, in the wake of the deaths of Camus and and consciousness-raising, Sartre’s efforts on Merleau-Ponty, marked a turn towards Sartre, Jean-Paul 483 introspection beyond self-critique. Driven Madame Bovary. For Sartre, The Family Idiot more by self-hatred than by self-centredness, was less an escape from the present than the Words was a kind of test case for the broad very contemporary project of a total biogra- analyses that Sartre soon applied at length phy that sought to link the immediate envi- with regard to the life of the nineteenth-cen- ronment represented by Flaubert’s family and tury novelist, Gustave Flaubert. The Family a literary generation marked by the failed Idiot combined Sartre’s interests in the irre- revolution of 1848. Sartre never completed the ducible specificity of Flaubert as an individual close reading of Madame Bovary that he had or, universel singulier, with what looked very planned as the fourth volume of his study. much like a Freudian enquiry into the effects After the fact, it is reasonable to wonder if the of early trauma on adult creativity. Moreover ambition of a total biography was an impos- it confirmed that the bitterness with which sibility whose failure Sartre foresaw from the Sartre had judged Flaubert in his What is Lit- start as a counterpart to the privilege and suc- erature? (Qu’est-ce que la littérature?) of 1948 cess that he had enjoyed as a product of the was part of his lifelong ambivalence toward a upper middle class that he came to loathe. tutor figure whom he admired but could not The shortcomings of The Family Idiot that but also condemn. derive from Sartre’s long-term obsession with Words recalled Sartre’s early literary and Flaubert are offset by placing this final project philosophical ambitions at least as much as of total understanding in the guise of biogra- his commitment to Marxism and politics over phy within a series of biographical studies that the previous twenty years. After the fact, even Sartre devoted to Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane the ponderous 1960 Critique of Dialectical Mallarmé and Jean Genet. In each case, and Reason (Critique de la raison dialectique) including The Family Idiot, Sartre attempted seemed less to resolve than to reconfigure the to trace the genesis of identity in a trauma that theoretical implications of Sartre’s evolution eventually turned the individual to rebel against from committed writing to the action in and the bourgeois environment into which he or on history that he referred to as praxis. By the she had been born. In retrospect, these biogra- time he wrote Words, Sartre was no longer phies can be read as attempts at self-analysis simply the good dialectician thinking against and self-understanding that evolved through himself in an exercise of auto-critique. Nor and beyond the ostensible mixture of autobi- was he an essayist in the mould of a ography and fiction visible in The Words. Montaigne reflecting on his mortality and the It is curious and fitting that ongoing inter- world around him. From the early 1960s un- est in Sartre is devoted to the full range of his til his death in April 1980, Sartre led a life of writings from The Transcendence of the Ego increasing contradiction between his efforts to (La Transcendance de l’égo) and Nausea (La resolve literary and philosophical issues that Nausée) published between the wars, to the had long preoccupied him and attempts to posthumous War Diaries (Carnets de la drôle assert militancy in social and political causes de guerre) and unfinished second volume of imposed by the force of circumstance. the Critique of Dialectical Reason. For beyond So while Sartre hawked La Cause du peuple the writings it is also very much the example on the streets of Paris in the hope that his ar- of Sartre’s life—and often that of decisions rest by police might bring mass-media expo- that he later regretted—that continues to draw sure to the newspaper he sought to sponsor readers to see in his personal itinerary a clear on behalf of young post-May 1968 militants, sense of what committed literature can (and his writing focused increasingly on the nine- cannot) accomplish. teenth century in order to understand how STEVEN UNGAR Flaubert’s progression through childhood, adolescence and young adulthood resulted in See also: existentialism; existentialist theatre an alienation that Sartre saw objectified in 484 Sautet, Claude

Further reading KEITH READER See also: cinema Cohen-Solal, A. (1986) Sartre: A Life, New York: Pantheon (a biography). Goldthorpe, R. (1984) Sartre: Literature and Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Savary, Jérôme Press (a good general study). Hollier, D. (1986) The Politics of Prose: Essay b. 1942, Buenos Aires, Argentina on Sartre, trans. J.Mehlman, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press (highly pro- Director, actor and writer vocative synthesis of Sartre’s corpus). Howells, C. (1988) Sartre: The Necessity of Noted since 1988 for his theatrical spectacles Freedom, Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- as director at the Théâtre de Chaillot, Savary sity Press (a philosophical study). is the founder of the famous Grand Magic LaCapra, D. (1978) A Preface to Sartre, Circus company in 1965, famed for its pro- Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press (a gen- vocative, experimental approach. eral introduction). ANNIE SPARKS Scriven, M. (1984) Sartre’s Existential Biog- raphies, London: Macmillan (illuminating See also: theatre study of the biographical works in particular). Major works Ungar,S. (1987) ‘Rebellion or Revolution?’, in D. Hollier (ed.) A New History of French Literature, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- Savary, J. (1985) La Vie privée d’un magicien versity Press (studies prehistory of Les ordinaire, Paris: Ramsay (an autobio- Temps modernes through Sartre’s evolution graphical account of his work). towards collective action between 1940 and 1953). science fiction

Sautet, Claude Science fiction, properly speaking, explores the limits and possibilities of scientific discoveries b. 1924, Montrouge and, as such, was born with the impact of modern science on life. The underlying theme Director of the genre is change and it projects mankind’s possible evolution on the basis of what Sautet is something of a ‘sleeper’: although he is now known. In contrast to previous works has been an important film-maker in France of fantasy or utopia—More’s Utopia, some for all but forty years, his work has only just pamphlets by Cyrano de Bergerac, Voltaire’s begun to become known in English-speaking Micromégas, works which were of a prima- countries. His dissection of bourgeois social rily philosophical preoccupation—modern sci- relations relied heavily on his work with ence fiction is based on contemporary scien- Montand, Piccoli and (above all) Romy Sch- tific and social theories and thus serves to ex- neider, who starred in five of his films. His plore new dimensions of human experiences, most recent work has featured Emmanuelle dreams and nightmares. The application of sci- Béart, who stars with Daniel Auteuil in Un ence to modern life meant that science fiction coeur en hiver (1992) and with Michel entered into the domain of mass preoccupation, Serrault in Nelly et Monsieur Arnaud (1995). sculpture 485 and the science fiction genre explored not only sculpture its beneficial possibilities but also its destructive powers. The pioneering founder of the The abstraction/figuration debate associated genre is the Frenchman Jules Verne, whose with postwar painting did not generate the fantastic adventures, written in the nineteenth same degree of antagonism within the field of century, introduced the excitement of science sculpture. Sculptural abstraction seemed to to a mass audience. His first major success Five have gone as far as it could with Weeks in a Balloon (Cinq semaines en ballon) Constructivism, and the ideals of progress as- of 1863, and his most famous Twenty Thou- sociated with it were unable to survive the sand Leagues Under the Sea (Vingt mille lieues horrors of war. Those who continued in this sous les mers) from 1870, brought together tradition tended to move into architecture. The traditional themes and fantasies, narrated most important figurative sculptors working within the boundaries of contemporary scien- in France in the immediate postwar years were tific probability. However, science fiction has Giacometti and, to a lesser extent, Germaine not attracted a mass audience in the modern Richier, but they expressed themselves in such postwar period. Popularity reached its peak a personal way that no ‘school’ of sculpture in the 1950s when the term science-fiction could develop from their work. While they may came to replace anticipation, under the influ- have had imitators, they had no successors. ence of Boris Vian, Gérard Klein and others, Giacometti’s postwar sculpture is rooted in and serious interest was paid to it in periodi- the prewar period. The opportunity for self- cals like Les Temps modernes and Esprit. Pub- examination that the war years offered him, lishers dedicated series to the genre—notably along with many other sculptors, resulted in a ‘Fleuve noir-Anticipation’, ‘Le Rayon transformation that allowed him to confront fantastique’ and Denoël’s ‘Présence du a changed world. In the aftermath of a war futur’—and this period saw the birth of the involving genocide, death camps and the work of writers such as Klein, Carsac and Holocaust, man’s humanity was called into Sternberg, but the enthusiasm of French read- question and only figuration that disturbed ers was and still is primarily inspired by the and questioned was henceforth credible. There quality of works of science fiction written by are resonances of the death camps and the eco- American writers. nomic deprivation of the postwar years in GEORGE PAIZIS Giacometti’s attenuated figures, but also reflected are the feelings of alienation and the See also: literary journals inability to communicate present in Sartre’s analysis of the human condition. Sartre’s criti- Further reading cal endorsement of Giacometti in the catalogue of his 1948 New York exhibition at the Pierre Matisse gallery helped him to become Europe (1977) La Science-Fiction, special is- one of the most celebrated of postwar sculp- sue, August/September. tors, not only in France but internationally. Gattégno, J. (1971) La Science-Fiction, Paris: These postwar sculptures were also about per- PUF ‘Que sais-je’ (essential reading). ception. Giacometti was seeking a sculptural Klein, G. (1966) En un autre pays: anthologie means of representing the figure as it is per- de la science-fiction française, Paris: ceived in reality, in space, as leaving or having Seghers (dated, but the classic in the field). left a much larger visual field. The Science-fiction (1984–5), Paris: Denoël (pub- phenomenological undertones here link him lished between January 1984 and Septem- to the philosopher Merleau-Ponty, with whom ber 1985, so relatively recent, but hard to Sartre was also associated. find). Germaine Richier’s postwar figurative 486 sculpture sculpture has often been compared to The first generation of entirely new names Giacometti’s. Like him, she was able to recon- in sculpture in postwar France were to be- sider her approach to sculpture during the come, for the most part, members of that war. She was aware of his work and, like him, (fairly disparate) group of artists dubbed by she had undergone the influence of prewar the critic Pierre Restany Nouveaux Réalistes. Surrealist discourse. In her Mante religieuse of César established his reputation in 1960 with 1946, the hybrid woman/insect figure, com- his series of Compressions, works consisting parable to Giacometti’s Femme égorgée, em- of scraps of multicoloured metal from old cars. bodies an existential nightmare evoking the This was followed in 1967 with his Expan- thirst for destruction which the war years had sions, for which he exploited the properties of witnessed. the new material polyurethane. The actual During this period, Picasso’s innovative pre- creation of these sculptures was turned into a war sculpture found a public for the first time, series of Happenings. not least thanks to Brassai’s book of photo- Nouveau Réalisme was, loosely speaking, graphs, Les Sculptures de Picasso (Picasso’s the French equivalent of British or American Sculptures), published in the late 1940s. His Pop Art of the 1960s, although the individual- application of collage techniques to three-dimen- ism of its main players ensured that it was a sional work had led him to break down the pre- short-lived movement. Apart from César, those vailing hierarchy of materials. This was to in- working in three dimensions included Arman, fluence much subsequent post-1945 sculpture. who is best known for his accumulations of Although the ground for this had already been everyday objects of the same type—echoes here broken by Duchamp and his ‘ready mades’, Pi- of Warhol—as well as for his assemblages of casso’s use of the objet trouvé was different. objects cut into strips. He has cast some pieces Duchamp’s true successors were the Surrealists, in bronze, a practice which recalls Jasper who exploited the associations triggered off by Johns’s beer cans as well as Picasso. the juxtapositions of disparate objects. Picasso, Niki de Saint-Phalle was also at work in on the other hand, was more interested in the the 1960s, creating her Nanas, figures made forms created by discarded objects, evident in of polystyrene painted in primary colours. The his practice of casting in bronze his final assem- use of this new material, associated with mass blage of found objects after covering them in production and a product of the industrial/ plaster. This division, between sculpture that consumer age, together with the sexual and demands a formal reading and that which works feminist overtones in her work, identifies her by association, still persists. with the issues of that decade and popular cul- Jean Arp’s postwar sculptures also worked ture in particular. But Saint-Phalle seems also as plastic statements rather than through as- to have been inspired by another artist whose sociation, despite his previous involvement roots go back to the prewar period, Jean with Surrealism. His biomorphic shapes can Dubuffet. His painted objects of expanded be read as distillations of natural forms, body polystyrene made in the 1960s were to develop parts, and so on. Here seemed to be an exam- into often monumental sculptures of steel and ple of sculpture that was arguably ‘abstract’ fibreglass. but not descended from Constructivism. The work of Daniel Spoerri and much of However, Arp’s very originality isolated him the creative output of Yves Klein, also one- and although, like Giacometti, he had imita- time Nouveaux Réalistes, can be loosely clas- tors, his postwar work produced no real suc- sified as sculpture whose idiom is that of Pop cessors, although its echoes can be found in Art. Spoerri’s tableaux pièges, debris ran- the sculpture of Anish Kapoor working in domly displayed in glass-sided boxes, and England and some of the more recent work of Yves Klein’s sponges and ‘aerostatic sculp- Claes Oldenburg in the United States. tures’, crossed the boundaries that traditionally separated high art from popular art. Seberg, Jean 487

Jean Tinguely, also a so-called Nouveau Further reading Réaliste, is usually regarded as a kineticist whose sculptures are descendants of Dada Cabanne, P. (1993) Arman, Paris: ELA (a good rather than Constructivism. His motorized as- account not only of Arman’s sculpture but semblages, often inviting public participation, that of other Nouveaux Réalistes). sometimes ‘self-destructing’, seem to be mock- Restany, P. (1975) César, Paris: Éditions André ing technology rather than honouring it. He is Sauret (Restany’s introduction to César’s one of the few kinetic sculptors to have sur- sculpture consists of a typically partisan vived that period. overview of postwar French sculpture, with Minimalism, which dominated sculpture special reference to the Nouveaux Réalistes internationally in the 1970s, like its Concep- he promoted). tualist offshoot, was largely an American/Brit- ish phenomenon, as is the ambiguously titled Land Art. Christo invented empaquetage (packaging) soon after arriving in France in Sebbar, Leïla 1958, and has been identified with the Land Art movement, but his interventions in the b. 1941, Aflou, Algeria landscape, unlike those of other Land Artists, take place not in a wilderness far from public Writer view but precisely where they can disturb. Through his temporary transformations he Brought up in Algeria where her French appears to be questioning and making us look mother and Algerian father taught French, and again at what we take for granted environ- educated at university in France, Leïla Sebbar mentally (for example, the Pont-Neuf for Pa- differs from beur writers in ethnic origin, class, risians). A similar motive seems to be behind education and age, but her influential novels, the work of the French sculptor Jean-Pierre short stories, journalism and letters also ex- Raynaud, whose most famous work is the plore questions of exile and identity in post- construction of his own house—a domestic colonial France. Her work particularly space conforming to none of the traditional foregrounds the perspectives of marginalized criteria, forcing one to move around, live and Algerian, beur and mixed-‘race’ female char- breathe differently. Through his cheap, white, acters, culminating in the emblematic heroine commonplace china tiles, he orders his space, of 1982’s Shérazade Missing: Aged 17, Dark showing the poetic side of untransformed ob- Hair, Green Eyes (Shérazade, 17 ans, brune, jects. frisée, les yeux verts), the nomadic beurette In the late 1970s and early 1980s, sculp- whose unconventional identity quest informs ture worldwide began to demonstrate a multi- a series of novels. plicity of styles. Within the context of French CARRIE TARR sculpture, this postmodern stylistic pluralism and love of pastiche is evident in the archaeo- See also: beur writing; beurs; francophone logical collages of Anne and Patrick Poirier. writing (fiction, poetry): North Africa Bernard Pagès also appears to be quoting from the past when he deals with the theme of the column, although this may also be seen as an Seberg, Jean attempt to rediscover the instinct of the first builders. Postmodern eclecticism, in France as b. 1938, Marshalltown, USA; elsewhere, subverts any attempt to map current sculptural trends. d. 1979, Paris CAROL WILCOX Actor 488 Séguin, Philippe

Famed above all else for her role opposite mime work with Decroux, cabaret and Jean-Paul Belmondo in Godard’s A bout de sketches, Serrault played in 1,700 perform- souffle (1959), Seberg had already appeared ances of La Cage aux Folles in the 1970s, and in Otto Preminger’s adaptation of the in Planchon’s famous 1986 L’Avare. He also Françoise Sagan novel, Bonjour tristesse in starred in Molinaro’s film of La Cage aux 1958. Her brand image as the young Ameri- folles (1980) and in Claude Sautet’s Nelly et can woman in France was further consolidated Monsieur Arnaud (1995). during her marriage to the novelist Remain ANNIE SPARKS Gary. Her career did not sustain its early momentum and her radical views earned her per- See also: cinema; theatre secution from the FBI—she committed suicide. KEITH READER Serreau, Coline See also: cinema; stars b. 1947, Paris

Director, screenwriter, actor and Séguin, Philippe playwright b. 1943, Tunis A trained musician, trapeze artist and actress, Coline Serreau achieved celebrity in 1985 with Politician the hilarious César-winning hit, Trois Hommes et un couffin, remade in Hollywood as Three The RPR’s leading Eurosceptic, but of a to- Men and a Baby, in which confirmed bachelors tally different stripe to the politicians on the develop maternal instincts. Her earliest films are British Right who bear that name. Séguin took indebted to the women’s movement, exploring control of the RPR after its defeat in the legis- women’s desires in Mais qu’est-ce qu’elles lative elections of 1997. Like de Gaulle, he is veulent? (1976) and utopian alternatives to the imbued with a belief in the importance of the nuclear family in Pourquoi pas! (1977). Subse- nation on the one hand, and the state on the quent films like Romuald et Juliette (1989) and other. His brand of what might be called ‘so- La Crise (1992) provide acute comic observa- cial Gaullism’ is thus a long way removed tions of contemporary bourgeois mores with- from the privatizing zeal of a Balladur or a out the earlier feminist edge. She has also writ- Madelin, and in many respects is more attuned ten and performed in successful stage comedies, to elements on the Left. including Quisaitout et Grosbêta, which re- KEITH READER ceived four Molières in 1994. See also: parties and movements CARRIE TARR See also: cinema; theatre; women directors

Serrault, Michel Serres, Michel b. 1928, Brunoy b. 1930 Actor Philosopher and science historian Noted for the precision of his acting, in many boulevard theatre productions as well as for Michel Serres’s voluminous writings bear four service industry 489 principal traits. First, the early articles on lit- Giscard d’Estaing and Michel Rocard bear the erature and science, published in five volumes trace of his influence. under the title of Hermes (Hermès), studied KEITH READER the dynamics of exchange in relation to language, place and subjects. Therein Serres de- See also: Gaulle, Charles de; parties and move- tected how the laws of thermodynamics that ments characterize scientific theory and practice in the nineteenth century have earlier literary ex- Further reading pression in the classical age but also inflect writings in human sciences. Second, his major two-volume and crowning study, Le Système Ross, K. (1995) Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, Cam- de Leibniz (Leibniz’s System), shows how the bridge, MA and London: MIT Press/Octo- monad co-ordinates the birth of an ‘inner ber Books (a fascinating reading of the pe- realm’ of subjective experience to the world at riod of modernization of which Servan- large: Leibniz breaks decisively with the rela- Schreiber and Giroud are shown to have tivism and reason in ways that open experi- been key proponents). ence to what is imponderable in language. Third, Serres has studied social, aesthetic and literary relations through the dynamics of parasitism, understood here as a productive service industry symbiosis. Most recently, his work has embraced ecology in its broadest sense. He ar- The service industry in France employs two- gues that human expression must embody re- thirds of the country’s workforce, in a wide lations of equilibrium and balance that serve range of activities. It is currently affected by a as models for human activity in the next cen- series of changes and conflicts. On the one tury. Serres’s work is both a great reflection hand, the concentration and ‘rationalization’ on the history of science in all disciplines and of activities oppose large-scale networks to tra- a history of a consciousness that moves from ditional, small-scale providers who fight for science to aesthetics and ethics at large. survival with little success. On the other, the considerable importance of ‘public services’ is TOM CONLEY now threatened by a process of liberalization and market deregulation. The service industry is a heterogeneous, Servan-Schreiber, Jean-Jacques unevenly developed sector, grouping activities with little in common. These range from per- b. 1924, Paris sonal services and traditional retail activities or religious organizations to large-scale ‘pub- Journalist and politician lic services’ such as health, education, public transport, police, and also fast-changing activities such as financial services, mass-retail- Co-founder (with Françoise Giroud) of ing hypermarchés (giant supermarkets), me- L’Express in 1953, he was successively gen- dia and telecommunications, transport and eral secretary of the Radical Socialist Party services to enterprises, increasingly integrated (1969) and a member of parliament (1970). or controlled in large corporate entities. All The author of The American Challenge (Le these activities have gone through an acceler- Défi américain) in 1967, he was on all fronts ated modernization process, which has a proponent of social change and moderniza- brought in its wake considerable social, eco- tion and a leading voice raised against Gaullist nomic and cultural upheaval. Trade has been anti-Americanism. Politicians as different as particularly affected. The dense network of 490 Seuil retail shops and associated support crafts (ar- sion, as shown particularly in areas such as tisans)—which, up to the 1960s, constituted telecommunications. the socioeconomic backbone of rural areas FRANÇOIS NECTOUX and generated a large proportion of urban employment—is now largely destroyed. The See also: dirigisme; economy continued urbanization of the country and industrial mass production coincided with Further reading changes in trade patterns: hypermarchés and shopping malls have now swamped the outskirts of urban areas. Hypermarchés, which Eck, J.-F. (1992) Histoire de l’économie sell anything from food to computers, are an française depuis 1945, Paris: Armand Colin established part of French culture, and groups (this covers the development of the service such as Mammouth, Leclerc, Continent and industries in not too complicated language) Intermarché have become household names. In 1993, they controlled 55 per cent of retail trade, including 74 per cent of all food sold— a considerable proportion for a country prid- Seuil ing itself on food traditions. The crisis affecting traditional service trades, Publishing house artisans and shopkeepers has given rise to a number of populist protest movements, always Éditions du Seuil was founded in 1935 by anti-state (their main target is usually tax of- Henri Sjöberg, who was joined by Jean fices) and conservative-leaning (sometimes be- Bardet and Paul Flamand later in 1937. In longing to the extreme Right). The Poujadiste 1945, it established itself by publishing the movement (from the name of its founder, work of several authors with reputations as Robert Poujade) in the 1950s, and the ‘left-wing catholics’. It gained further renown corporatist shopkeepers union CID-UNATI, during the 1960s and 1970s for publishing which organized violent protests in the late the work of literary and critical theorists such 1960s, are the best-known examples of such as Roland Barthes, Tzvetan Todorov and protest movements. These movements did not Gérard Genette in collections such as ‘Cri- significantly alter trends, and neither have the tique’. In 1971, Seuil launched a series of legal limits imposed since 1973 (the Royer act) cheap editions, ‘Points’, and it has interests in on the installation of hypermarchés. the reviews Communications, Esprit, La Re- Another important change concerns ‘pub- cherche and L’Histoire. lic services’. Many of these, such as health, MARTYN CORNICK education and social services, are controlled by central administrations, and their employ- See also: publishing/l’édition ees (such as teachers) have civil servant status. Other service industries (such as the post or Further reading telecommunications), although commercial in nature, are considered as ‘public services’. The concept of public service, which has been part Sur le Seuil, 1935–1979 (1979), Paris: Éditions of the political culture of the ordinary citizen, du Seuil. is losing its relevance: since the mid-1980s, Martin, H.-J., Chartier, R. and Vivet, J.-P. (eds) deregulation and competition rules, partly (1986) Histoire de l’édition française, vol. pushed by the European Union’s increasingly 4, Le Livre concurrencé 1900–1950, Paris: insistent free-market programme, are trans- Promodis (essential reading). forming the nature of these services and are enlarging the scope for market-based provi- short-story writing 491

Seyrig, Delphine est finie (School is Out), Ma première surprise- partie (My First Party) and C’est toi que j’aime b. 1932, Beirut, Lebanon; (You’re the One That I Love). d. 1990, Paris IAN PICKUP

Actor See also: song/chanson

Also known as Beltiane, Seyrig is one of France’s great but underestimated actors. Re- short-story writing nowned for her extraordinary voice and delivery, her stylized performance was both gra- Although a surprisingly high number of mod- cious and intense. An international star, she ern French writers have at some stage in their was at ease on both stage and screen. She took literary careers been drawn to short fiction, on primarily contemporary theatre roles (plays with the likes of Colette, Jean-Paul Sartre and by Beckett, Stoppard and Cixous) and equally Albert Camus achieving notable success, the challenging parts in auteur cinema (Resnais, nouvelle (short story) in the twentieth century Duras, Buñuel, Ottinger). Her film roles delve has generally been regarded (not least by the into questions of the unconscious and memory French themselves) as a disappointment, espe- (Resnais’s L’Année dernière à Marienbad of cially when compared to the ‘golden age’ of 1961), expose bourgeois hypocrisy—Buñuel’s French short-story writing in the nineteenth The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie (Le century. Yet there is much to savour in the Charme discret de la bourgeoisie) of 1972— realm of postwar short fiction, where a and speak out strongly for the feminist cause, number of key trends stand out in terms of which is a rare phenomenon among French both literary quality and cultural significance. screen stars (for example, Duras’s India Song Three such trends are highlighted here. of 1975, and Chantal Akerman’s Jeanne Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1960s, Dielman, 23 quai du commerce 1080 during the period dominated by the Bruxelles of 1975). deconstructive energies of the nouveau roman, SUSAN HAYWARD writers like Marguerite Duras, Nathalie Sarraute, Samuel Beckett and Alain Robbe- See also: cinema; francophone cinema: Belgium Grillet gave short fiction a new ‘point’—a new function, import and relevance—as an experimental form. That none of these writers chose Sheila to call their texts nouvelles reflects a core dissatisfaction with the very idea of genre, which b. 1946, Créteil has continued ever since to find one of its strongest expressions in the domain of short fiction. Singer, real name Annie Chancel Indeed, young writers in the 1980s and 1990s have tended increasingly to think of themselves The archetypal ‘manufactured’ pop star, Sheila as authors of récits brefs (short fictions) or even had her career carefully plotted for her by the textes courts (short texts). The contemporary impresario Claude Carrère. Marketed as the girl writer insists on being genetically as well as ideo- next door, a fashionable but respectable French logically ‘unprogrammable’. teenager, Sheila had a string of hit recordings in This principle of ‘unprogrammability’, of the 1960s when she mimed her records on tel- resistance to wholesale political, philosophi- evision (her first live concert appearance was at cal and artistic theories, has become a salient the Zénith over twenty years after her career feature of the French postmodern sensibility. was first launched). Hit songs include L’École The connection between this and short fiction 492 short-story writing was strongly suggested, in fact, at an early stage ure of the child, has been the mainstay of the in the emergence of French postmodernism, many volumes of nouvelles written by the most when in 1979 Jean-François Lyotard defined important short-story writer in France over the the postmodern attitude as one of incredulity 1980s and 1990s, male or female: Annie towards ‘grand narratives’ (grandiose theories Saumont. Drawing inspiration from modern claiming universal significance). Accordingly, American short fiction in particular, Saumont we are invited to enter the era of the petit récit, writes soberly and unsentimentally about mo- or ‘little narrative’. And, while it would be an ments of human disarray. Among other estab- oversimplification to draw too direct a link lished women writers who have specialized between the general politics of the petit récit with great success in the domain of short fic- and the more circumscribed poetics of the récit tion, the names of Christiane Baroche and bref, the gradual emergence of a postmodern Claude Pujade-Renaud immediately spring to sensibility has undoubtedly fostered a renewed mind. The range of exciting talent within the sense—not unlike that found during the mid- emerging generation of women writers makes 1950s—of the contemporary ‘point’ of short short-listing a far more difficult task, but the fiction. Besides remaining attractive as a site volumes of short fiction already published by of generic overlap (with the prose poem, the Régine Detambel, Liliane Giraudon, Linda Lê autobiographical fragment, the essay, and even and Catherine Lépront suggest that these are certain kinds of novel writing, for instance), among the most promising. short fiction in the late twentieth century comes The third significant trend which deserves helpfully fitted with a kind of default option to be reported concerns the popularity and vi- known as the nouvelle-instant. This is the tality of short fiction in the non-metropolitan French term for the main Modernist variant francophone world. Whereas French attitudes of the nouvelle, typically focused on a single towards short fiction veer predominantly be- event set within a limited time and space, and tween indifference and disdain, outside of frequently geared towards an ‘epiphany’, a France the genre has come to command levels moment of illumination or insight. Despite a of respect comparable with those found in decline of belief among writers in the depth most anglophone cultures. In Quebec, as in and power of the individual moment, the Ireland, short fiction tends to be regarded as a nouvelle-instant has proved readily adaptable co-ordinate of identity, a means of differenti- to embodying postmodern interest in the value ating a minority culture from its ‘big of the local, the provisional and the plural. brother(s)’. Thus, within a particular kind of The most well-known French short-story symbolic universe, ‘small’ or ‘short’ once more writers since the demise of the nouveau roman assumes a point, indeed a very political kind are probably Jean-Marie Le Clézio and Michel of pointedness. The situation is somewhat dif- Tournier, though it is significant that both ferent in Africa and the Caribbean, where the made their names primarily as novelists. Any- growth of interest in short fiction is explained one who bothers to look beyond the big names, partly by the genre’s perceived affinities with however, will soon discover that one of the indigenous oral traditions (as attested in the main trends in French short fiction during this work of Francis Bebey and Birago Diop in period has been the growing contribution of Africa, and of Gisèle Pineau and Sylviane women writers. Reasons for this development Telchid in Guadeloupe), and partly by the range from material constraints on women impact of short-story competitions promising writers who are also holding down full-time financial reward and eventual publication. jobs to identification with both the marginal In the age of the so-called ‘three-minute status of short fiction as genre and the mar- culture’, where, from sound bites to pop vid- ginal figures so often brought to life in the sto- eos, so many of the messages aimed at us are ries themselves. Indeed the theme of the out- designed to provide a quick fix, is short fic- cast, the misfit, frequently embodied in the fig- tion part of the problem or part of the Simon, Claude 493 solution? The very ‘point’ of the best short fic- her attractive to men and women alike. Her tion written in French since the 1960s has been incendiary eyes, long slim legs, heavy voice and to enhance rather than diminish our powers lisp were matched by her image of independ- of critical attention. ent womanhood. While her roles place her as victim—for example, Yves Allégret’s Dédée JOHNNIE GRATTON d’Anvers (1947) and Becker’s Casque d’Or See also: francophone writing (fiction, poetry): (1952)—in her performance style she acts as DOM-TOMs; women’s/lesbian writing agent of desire. One of the few women stars to sustain a film career into old age, she was still delivering stunning performances when blind Further reading and ravaged by the effects of cancer, as in Moshe Misrahi’s La Vie devant soi (1977). Cottenet-Hage, M. and Imbert, J.-P. (eds) SUSAN HAYWARD (1996) Parallèles: anthologie de la nouvelle féminine de langue française, Quebec: See also: cinema L’Instant même (seventeen stories by women writers from Colette to the present, each accompanied by a critical commentary). Simenon, Georges Gratton, J. and Le Juez, B. (eds) (1994) Mod- ern French Short Fiction, Manchester: Man- b. 1903, Liège, Belgium; chester University Press (an anthology of sto- d. 1989, Belgium ries from the 1830s to the present, with an informative introduction in English). Writer Grojnowski, D. (1993) Lire la nouvelle, Paris: Dunod (an accessible, reliable introductory Simenon is the prolific author of approxi- guide to the history, poetics and thematics mately 200 works. Between the early 1930s of short fiction). and 1970s, he wrote mainly detective fiction Pujade-Renaud, C. and Zimmermann, D. (eds) based on the adventures of his now famous (1993) 131 nouvellistes contemporains, detective Maigret. From the early 1970s, Levallois-Perret: Manya (the views of over Simenon’s production concentrated on auto- a hundred writers on the significance of biographical narratives—for example, his short fiction in the 1990s: invaluable 1981 publication Mémoires intimes (Intimate insights). Memoirs)—and testimonials of historical events taking place in the 1930s and 1940s, like Mes apprentissages (My Apprenticeship). Signoret, Simone Simenon’s novels have been adapted for the screen by Renoir, Duvivier and Leconte, and b. 1921, Wiesbaden, Germany; for television series. d. 1985, Paris JEAN MAINIL See also: francophone writing (fiction, poetry): Actor, real name Simone Henriette Belgium Kaminker

Signoret changed her name during the Occu- pation (1940–4). A committed woman of the Simon, Claude Left (which saw her banned from the United States in the 1950s), she had both star and anti- b. 1913, Tananarive, Madagascar star qualities. Her multifaceted nature made 494 situationism

Writer Further reading

Grounded in family legends, visual arts and Plant, S. (1992) The Most Radical Gesture: The personal experience of the Spanish Civil War Situationist International in a Post-Modern and the 1940 fall of France, Simon’s radically Age, London and New York: Routledge (the disrupted narratives problematize the notion only major study in English). of historical fiction. His protagonists struggle to know the world and the past against the unreliable meanings produced by language and memory. Simon’s 1985 Nobel prize for slang/argot/verlan literature honoured his broadly humanistic though despairing and pessimistic vision of the Argot or slang goes back to the secret language twentieth century. of the medieval underworld, the jargon of the LYNN A.HIGGINS criminal classes, for which documentation exists as early as the fifteenth century. By the See also: nouveau roman nineteenth century, argot had become widespread, confused with the spoken vernacular, Further reading particularly of the working classes. Essentially, argots are social dialects, usually belonging to an urbanized group: they in- Britton, C. (ed.) (1993) Claude Simon, Lon- clude the speech of trades and professions, stu- don: Longman (a collection of reprinted dent groups, the army, and in the late twenti- essays by leading Simon scholars; contains eth century, the younger inhabitants of certain bibliography). banlieues (suburbs). Argot is a parasitic development of language in so far as it consists in the substitu- situationism tion of parts of the spoken lexis according to predetermined rules: the basic phonic system, the syntax and morphology are not affected, The intellectual and political movement except for word formation. dubbed situationism, a descendant of Dada One attractive aspect of argot is the free and Surrealism, worked against the passivity development of metaphors, such as la cafetière of the ‘society of the spectacle’ (the title of Guy (coffee pot)=head (cf. ‘mug’ in English); le Debord’s 1967 text, La Société du spectacle), mouton (sheep)=police informer (cf. ‘grass’, and aimed at nothing less than the revolution- ‘snout’); les rosbifs (roast-beefs)=the Brits; se ary overthrow of bourgeois art, politics and poivrer (be peppered)=get drunk (cf. ‘get rat- society from within. The Situationist Interna- ted’, ‘tight’). Such metaphorical creation is tional, founded in 1957, lasted until 1969 and ongoing and subject to quite rapid attrition, was rent by expulsions and dissensions, not- so that the new vocabulary of one generation withstanding which the work of its best- may seem very dated to the next. It is note- known members, Debord and Raoul worthy that in the choice of metaphors, as in Vaneigem, had a major influence in May 1968 much of argot, there is a strong pejorative to- and has attracted renewed interest in the wake nality and often a coarse humour. of postmodernism and of Debord’s 1994 sui- Other typical devices in lexical creation are: cide.

KEITH READER • truncation, e.g. jar=jargon (slang); clandé= maison clandestine (brothel); charr=charriage See also: revolutionary groups (bluff, joke); ricain=américain; and soap 495

• parasitic suffixation, the addition of an Further reading unnecessary suffix, more to disguise a word than to modify it, e.g. fortiche=fort Guiraud, P. (1969) L’Argot, Paris: PUF (a use- (strong); raidillard=raide (1,000-franc ful introduction). note); matouser=mater (spy on). In many cases, other transformations take place, e.g. dodo—clochard (tramp, bum); perniflard= Pernod; rencard=rendez-vous; cinoche= soap cinema. Again, we may note a pejorative tonality in such suffixes, e.g. -ard, -aille, - Soap opera is not France’s forte. After the fail- oche,—-ouser. ure of two 1980 attempts, Châteauvallon and

En cas de bonheur, July 1991 witnessed the The best-known type of argot is verlan, dat- launch of a third attempt to get soap right— ing from the 1950s, although the feature of Riviera, a collaborative production between inverting syllables is found early in the nine- TF1 and an American company (EC Televi- teenth century: verlan is thus the inversion of sion). Due to run for a trial year, by January l’envers (reverse, back to front). This is sig- 1992 it had disappeared off the screen. The nificantly different from English back slang, only other attempts, though they are much dis- e.g. yob, kool. liked by their target teenage audience, are the Although verlan can seem to be easy to de- Americanized teen soaps produced by the ma- cipher (e.g. féca=café), some examples are less jor independent children’s TV production obvious—e.g. meuf=femme, and beur (born in company Club Dorothée. These programmes France of North African immigrant parents) are pastel-shaded versions of an imagined is explained as an inversion of Arabe but with French-Californian space (e.g. Hélène et les a change of vowel. Moreover, a major com- garçons, Les Filles d’à côté). Furthermore, municatory difficulty resides in the uncertainty because they are a hybrid between soap and as to which words are verlan forms; as a re- sitcom, they fail to satisfy the codes and consult such speech can retain something of the ventions of either genre and so cannot be taken secret code of argot. seriously as either. Other forms of argot exist: largonji=jargon The soap of the 1990s was the supposedly in which T replaces the initial consonant, French soap Riviera, which was in actuality a which is placed at the end of the word, e.g. multinational affair. A third of the mostly very lacsé =sac (bag); en loucedé=en douce (qui- rich ‘soap community’ were American; produc- etly); le loucherbem (butchers’ slang) is a par- tion practices were also American. To keep ticular form of largonji; le javanais uses the production costs down, and with an eye to parasitic infix -av-, e.g. baveau=beau (hand- English-speaking markets, the soap was shot some), javardin=jar din (garden). in English and dubbed in French. This mar- Argot words can achieve respectability, e.g. keting strategy did not pay off. If English au- cambrioleur (burglar) and rossignol (skeleton diences do not like dubbed products, French key), but most remain on the fringe of the sys- audiences like French soap masquerading as tem. Note, however, the many writers from an American product even less. Undoubtedly the nineteenth century onwards (Balzac, the overAmericanization of the product in Hugo, Zola, Céline, San Antonio) who make terms of its look and its consequent lack of regular use of argot. cultural specificity caused it to fail with French Jo REED audiences. However, Riviera did have strengths and should not be deemed a total failure. The See also: beurs; linguistic regulation strengths lay in its narrative strategies. The storyline focuses around the wealthy de 496 social policy

Courcey family (whose business is perfumery ards of income. Social policy is not, however, and whose name dominates Riviera society) a neutral or autonomous area of public policy. and their arch-rival, Diego Marquez (an Its parameters vary according to the ideology arriviste), a property speculator who plots the of the governments in power and their priori- family’s downfall (la vieille France clashes with ties, and they in turn cannot act independently the nouveaux riches). Meantime, Marquez’s of domestic and, increasingly, international wife strives to be accepted by the upper ech- pressures. Nor can social policy be properly elons of society, and both husband and wife understood in isolation from economic policy: fail in their ambitions. Woven into this fabric it may be constrained by economic forces, or are further intrigues: an illegitimate son, in- it may serve to modify or counteract the ad- cestuous love, orphaned twins with identity verse effects of the economic system. crises, sibling rivalry and, finally, Oedipal tri- France has long been recognized as a highly angles between father, son and daughter. Eve- centralized and bureaucratic state, with a con- ryone in Riviera has a secret, a past or an il- cern for social justice, equality and solidarity licit passion—true melodrama French-style. as a legacy of its Republican tradition. The Riviera succeeds also in achieving spectator social security institutions which developed identification, in so far as the various storylines over the postwar period as the main vehicle of crises, crime and mystery do intrigue the for the delivery of social policy are, however, viewer, thanks to a multiplicity of subjective characterized by their decentralization, au- points of view. Further practices to stitch the tonomy, pluralism and corporatism. Propos- audience into the plot are the representations als from ministers for social reform, whatever of gender in the form of stereotypes (including the political persuasion of the government in the battle of the sexes) and representations of power, rarely meet with consensus; strikes and sexuality (especially as taboo) which both re- protest movements have become common fea- pel and attract the viewer. Thus we see men as tures of the social landscape, signalling the wheeler-dealers and women as schemers— opposition to change by strong interest groups stereotypes we love to hate. That men are intent on defending their acquired social rights. morally and sexually weaker is a generic fic- In the phase of postwar reconstruction, the tion of soap, but one that pleases the female social security system was able to develop in a viewer, as must the representation of women climate of economic growth. Its primary aim in control of their own sexuality. Enigma is was to protect an expanding labour force and the soap of the masses. However, hybridity as to enable workers and their families to main- exemplified (culturally and linguistically) by tain their standard of living, rather than tack- Riviera counters too many generic codes to ling residual problems of poverty. The deci- permit the suspension of disbelief and, ulti- sion, taken after a long process of negotiation, mately, lack of familiarity breeds discontent. to opt for an employment-related insurance system meant that national solidarity and uni- SUSAN HAYWARD versality were not dominant guiding princi- See also: romantic fiction; television; video ples. Occupational groups were allowed to imports retain their own well-established insurance schemes. Although coverage was gradually extended to the whole of the non-working population and to socio-occupational groups social policy not initially entitled to protection under the general scheme or schemes operating for par- Social policy covers a broad field of analysis, ticular categories of employment, different con- from the formulation of policy objectives, and ditions and levels of benefits applied. Nor was measures to achieve them, through to the pro- unemployment integrated into the social secu- vision of social protection and minimum stand- rity system; a separate employment insurance social policy 497 scheme was instituted only in 1958 for work- employers still paid by far the largest share— ers in industry and commerce (associations over 50 per cent—as part of the wage pack- pour l’emploi dans l’industrie et le commerce, age. A number of the policies introduced to ASSEDIC). alleviate unemployment involved exempting Despite anomalies in coverage, by the late employers from social insurance contributions 1970s, it could be claimed, with some justifi- as an incentive to take on unemployed people. cation, that the French population was pro- A more innovative work-related scheme tected from the risks of ill-health, disability, (revenu minimum d’insertion, RMI) was in- old age, unemployment and family responsi- troduced in 1988, to lessen the impact of un- bilities. Social policy had been less successful employment: it provided a minimum income in reducing social inequalities, particularly with for unemployed people aged over 25 in return regard to old age, where income inequality was for an agreement to undertake some form of greater than among the working population. training or work placement to facilitate their From the mid-1970s, policy-makers were, re-entry into the labour market. however, facing new social problems, as the The growing awareness by governments of country went into economic recession. At the new sources of poverty and social exclusion, same time, the growing population in retire- combined with the need to meet the demand ment was imposing an increasing burden on for a high standard of social benefits and serv- the working population in the absence of fully ices, while containing spending, has led to a funded pension schemes. Rising unemployment shift in the focus of social policy towards a created a severe drain on resources, social se- more solidaristic approach, based on social curity slid into deficit, and new forms of pov- justice. This does not mean that retrenchment erty and social exclusion began to emerge. of social spending has disappeared from the The social policies pursued by the left-wing social policy agenda or that proposals for radi- governments of the early 1980s involved high cal reform of the social protection system will levels of spending: the Left had pledged them- receive unqualified support from the social selves to increase the minimum wage and partners, but it does imply that central gov- minimum income for older people, to raise ernment is exercising stronger control over the family allowances, housing and unemploy- policy-making process and seeking to instil a ment benefits, to lower retirement age and re- greater sense of social responsibility among the duce working hours. A period of sounder fi- population at large. nancial management followed in response to LINDA HANTRAIS the funding problems that ensued. By the end of the decade, additional sources of income See also: demographic developments; were, however, still needed to ease the ever- economy; women and social policy growing deficit without imposing a heavier burden on employers: one of the solutions was Further reading to raise a tax across all sources of income (contribution sociale généralisée, CSG), and this was followed in 1996 by an additional levy Ambler, J.S. (ed.) (1991) The French Welfare (rem-boursement de la dette sociale, RDS). State: Surviving Social and Ideological By the early 1990s, spending on benefits and Change, New York and London: New York social services had reached over 30 per cent of University Press (a collection of thoroughly gross domestic product (GDP), representing a argued chapters on various aspects of substantial increase since the early 1970s. The French social policy). share of the social budget devoted to old age Hantrais, L. (1996) ‘France: Squaring the Wel- accounted for nearly 43 per cent of the total, fare Triangle’, in V.George and P. Taylor- and health for almost 27 per cent. Despite at- Gooby (eds) European Welfare Policy: tempts to spread the burden of contributions, Squaring the Welfare Circle, London: 498 social security

Macmillan (a critical appraisal of social fact that the system resulted from a compro- policy developments in France since the mise in response to the pressures exerted by early 1980s). different interest groups, intent on preserving the advantages they derived from existing arrangements. Thus, although a general scheme was established for employees in commerce social security and industry, innumerable special and supplementary schemes (including mutuelles) were Although cover has been extended and provi- allowed to continue. The whole population is, sions have been improved since World War II, in theory, now protected, but the standard of the French social security system has not achieved cover and level of benefits are variable, par- the objectives set out by its founder, Pierre ticularly with regard to pensions. Laroque, in 1945. The system was to be based Since employers and employees were the on the principles of equality, solidarity and so- main contributors to the schemes, their repre- cial democracy, enabling universal access to ben- sentatives were made responsible for manag- efits and services, redistribution of income, and ing the funds. Between the 1950s and 1970s— participation by representatives of employers and when the population was growing rapidly, the employees in its management, without undue economy was thriving and unemployment was bureaucratic interference from the state. minimal—social security operated efficiently. The system was designed to protect work- Since the mid-1970s, deficits have become en- ers and their families against a number of con- demic, and the government has sought ways tingencies that might pose a threat to their to cut back spending and reduce the burden well-being. Three major areas of risk were on employers from high labour costs, while covered: sickness, maternity, invalidity, indus- also coping with the growing problems of un- trial accidents and diseases; old age; and fam- employment and social exclusion. ily responsibilities. Unemployment assistance LINDA HANTRAIS was not an integral part of social security in the 1940s, and separate schemes have since See also: social policy developed to cater for the growing number of unemployed people and for other population Further reading groups not adequately covered by employment-related insurance. Social security is funded largely by contri- Chatagner, F. (1993) La Protection sociale, butions from employers and employees, pro- Paris: Le Monde-Éditions (a lively account portional to income up to a ceiling, rather than of the issues surrounding social security from taxation. Access to benefits is related to provision in France). contributions in line with the insurance prin- Revue française des affaires sociales (1995) ciple, except in the case of health care, family Les 50 ans de la sécurité sociale: pourquoi allowances and other derived rights, which are une protection sociale?, special issue, 49, 4 paid, or reimbursed in the case of medical serv- (a collection of informative articles review- ices, at fixed rates. Non-contributory benefits ing the French social security system). are generally means-tested. The French system is difficult to classify in terms of welfare regimes: in some respects it is Sollers, Philippe universalistic, like the British system as conceived by Beveridge; in others it functions as a b. 1936, Bordeaux corporatist employment-insurance system, like that developed in Germany under Bismarck. The anomalies can be largely explained by the Writer and critic song/chanson 499

After the conventional and sentimental Une of expressing satirical or political views, it has curieuse solitude (1958), Sollers gained noto- always been an important form of popular riety as editor of Tel quel. The structurally entertainment. Song flourished, then, through austere late 1960s novels Drame (Drama) and the centuries and by the time of the Third Re- Nombres (Numbers) were followed by the public, the café-concert, or caf’conc’ as it was humorous and formally more anarchic Lois known familiarly, had become one of the most (Laws) in 1972 and the unpunctuated ‘epic’ popular forms of public entertainment and Paradis (Paradise) in 1981. In an apparent was to remain so until World War I. The next volte-face Sollers abandoned experimental notable development in the history of popular form with the 1983 work Femmes (Women), song was the advent of the music hall in Paris a vast roman-à-clé of the previous decade, and in the early years of this century and this pro- a critical meditation on society and sexuality. voked a trend still apparent today: the audi- Since then, as novelist and reviewer in Le ence now listens more than it sings along with Monde, Sollers articulates an increasingly the performer on stage. The music hall saw ironic perspective on all forms of orthodoxy, the rise to stardom of legendary names: social, literary and intellectual, while affirm- Mistinguett, Maurice Chevalier, Rose Amy, ing the transcendent value of art. Tino Rossi, Josephine Baker, Alibert and so on. However, with the advent of the cinema, PATRICK FFRENCH two-thirds of Parisian concert halls were con- See also: nouveau roman; poststructuralism; verted into cinemas between 1910 and 1920. structuralism Anglo-Saxon influences were by now bringing themselves to bear in the world of French popular music and of French popular entertainment in general. Not only in the cinema song/chanson but also in the music hall, American popular culture made its mark. In music, ragtime, jazz La chanson française (French song) is an im- and blues exerted a strong ongoing influence, portant element of French popular culture as did a whole succession of popular dances. which combines lyric expression, satirical, The world of music was now changing beyond political and social commentary with music recognition: the microphone, the silent cin- which is usually relatively simple, often link- ema, the talkies, television, long-playing ing verses to a repeated chorus or refrain. Al- records and, more recently, digitally recorded legedly in crisis today because of the high vol- CDs and video-clips, have all provoked a ume of anglophone music played on French metamorphosis in the French music industry. radio and television (though a minimum 40 The most striking result of technological per cent quota of songs in French was imposed innovations and inventions is that, by the end by legislation brought into force in January of World War II, the world is a shrinking place 1996), French song has none the less produced in which communication has improved be- a number of outstanding performers and yond recognition and in which the fashions of singer-song-writers since World War II. one continent are immediately accessible to the The origins of French song can be traced inhabitants of another. During the immediate back to the troubadours, medieval poets of aftermath of the big-band era, during and af- southern France, and to their northern equiva- ter the period which saw the birth and imme- lents, the trouvères. There has always been a diate explosion of rock and roll (the late 1950s strong oral tradition in France and song has and the early 1960s), during the period which been used since the medieval period as a vehi- saw the re-emergence of folk music and the cle for lyric expression. As a means of articu- vogue of the protest song (the 1960s in par- lating emotion, as a popular method of com- ticular), popular music became increasingly a memorating events of national importance or global phenomenon and French song was 500 song/chanson increasingly open to alluring Anglo-Saxon in- talents rejuvenated French, song from the late fluences at a time when American (and also 1950s: Georges Brassens and the adopted Bel- British) culture in its various manifestations gian singer-song-writer Jacques Brel wrote and became a real threat to the homogeneity of recorded songs of the highest quality and, in Gallic traditions. the case of Brel, took performance to new French song, though, was in good health heights. at the end of World War II. Charles Trenet French popular music has subsequently had already charmed the French public with undergone the influence of punk, heavy metal, an often poetic, more wholesome form of song reggae, rap, Afro-Caribbean and North Afri- which replaced the vulgar excesses of the songs can elements, and so on, but a distinctly Gal- which were characteristic of the heyday of the lic tradition has been maintained in the realm music hall. While Trenet’s career reached new of the politically committed or provocative heights in the 1950s, Édith Piaf followed in song (Ferrat, Renaud and Gainsbourg, for ex- his footsteps by helping to reverse the trend of ample), in the realm of lyric expression Anglo-Saxonization: she made a huge impact (Souchon and Cabrel, to name but two) and not only in France but also in America, where in the domain of live performance in venues she toured (initially with Les Compagnons de as big as Bercy (Sardou’s 1991 and 1993 con- la chanson) from the late 1940s. In her entou- certs providing examples to set alongside the rage at various points were several composers more Americanized, but technically brilliant who were later to become outstanding per- concerts of Hallyday). Although casual listen- formers in their own right (Montand, ing to French airways will not make it imme- Moustaki and Aznavour, for example). diately apparent, French song is still in good French song was soon to be transformed, health today, though the genuine article does however, particularly for young people, with have to be sought out with patience. the advent of rock and roll, which was to in- IAN PICKUP spire a new form of music in France, known— quite revealingly—as yé-yé (1960s pop). As- See also: music festivals; music venues; rock piring young French singers adopted Anglo- and pop Saxon names (Johnny Hallyday, Eddy Mitchell, Sheila, Richard Anthony) and ‘cover Further reading versions’ of American (and later British) songs became the vogue. The electric guitar (sometimes supplemented by the saxophone and oc- Brunschwig, C., Calvet, J.-L. and Klein, J.-C. casionally the trumpet, a legacy of jazz and (1981) Cent ans de chanson française, the big-band era) now became the most popu- Paris: Éditions du Seuil ‘Collection points’ lar instrument, and loud, catchy music with (an alphabetically arranged reference extremely simple lyrics captivated the young work). and horrified the old. Fléouter, C. (1988) Un siècle de chansons, Alongside the influx of Anglo-Saxon mu- Paris: PUF (a chronologically arranged ana- sic, French song was, none the less, enjoying lytical section is followed by an alphabeti- something of a new golden age: while caba- cally arranged reference section). rets on the Left Bank gave birth to a more Klein, J.-C. (1991) La Chanson française à intellectual form of song known as the l’affiche: histoire de la chanson française chanson rive gauche, performers such as du café-concert à nos jours, Paris: Éd. du Montand and later Bécaud were to maintain May (an illustrated history of chanson in French traditions (though they did allow jazz, the last century). swing and other imported influences to be in- Rioux, L. (1994) 50 ans de chanson française, corporated in their songs). Even more signifi- Paris: Archipel (a critical study organized cantly, however, two outstandingly original chronologically). spelling reform 501

Souchon, Alain ELZA ADAMOWICZ See also: painting b. 1945, Casablanca, Morocco

Singer-songwriter Soustelle, Jacques Having failed to make an impact for many years, Alain Souchon suddenly found fame in b. 1912, Montpellier, Hérault; the mid-1970s when he teamed up with d. 1990 Laurent Voulzy to write songs. Souchon’s somewhat elliptical texts, which juxtapose Ethnographer and politician what are often wistful images, are complemented perfectly by Voulzy’s music. His stage As a young graduate of the École Normale and recording persona is that of a perpetual Supérieure in the 1930s, Soustelle supported adolescent lost in an adult world and nostal- the left-wing Popular Front, but became a gic for times past. His successes include Bidon companion of de Gaulle in London during the (Phoney), Dix ans (Ten Years Old), Allô war. During the Fourth Republic, Soustelle maman bobo (Hello Mummy Hurt), Casa- supported Gaullism as an activist and député blanca and S’asseoir par terre (To Sit Down in Lyon, helping de Gaulle regain power in on the Ground). An original and enduring tal- 1958. Having served as governor-general in ent. Algeria and been won over by arguments for l’Algérie française, he subsequently bitterly IAN PICKUP opposed de Gaulle’s policy of abandonment. See also: song/chanson Tainted by contacts with the extreme Right, Soustelle fled France, returning only after the amnesty of 1968. In 1984, he was elected to Soulages, Pierre the Académie Française. Rising to intellectual and political distinction from humble Protes- b. 1919, Rodez tant origins, Soustelle exemplified the social mobility allowed by educational elitism, and his split with de Gaulle epitomized the divi- Artist sive effects of the Algerian war. Soulages was influenced by the ancient Gallic HUGH DAUNCEY megaliths and Romanesque buildings of his See also: decolonization; parties and move- native Rouergue. His palette is dominated by ments black and white, and his early figurative paintings present outlines of bare dark trees. In his first non-figurative compositions, black or brown shapes, painted with broad energetic spelling reform brush strokes, appear on a white ground; he was interested in calligraphic signs and rhyth- French spelling vies with English in terms of mic shapes. From 1950, bright colours were inconsistency and difficulty, for native speaker added, giving depth to the black and, in the and foreign learner alike. Contemporary 1960s, his compositions evolve from strong modifications in spelling are the product of a contrasts in light and shade to graded tones historical process which it is necessary to un- from deep black to pale grey. His latest com- derstand in order to get to grips with twenti- positions are large paintings in luminous black eth-century spelling reform. paint. 502 sport

Standard French is considered to have ai in many words, e.g. français (French), paraître thirty-six phonemes, whereas the written code (appear) and, more importantly, in all condi- possesses as many as forty-three signs (the tional and imperfect endings. The eighth edi- twenty-six letters of the alphabet together with tion (1932–5), replaces the apostrophe in nouns diacritic forms); in addition, through histori- such as grand’mère (grandmother) by a hyphen cal evolution, French contains numerous com- and modifies some 500 words in total. pound graphemes, e.g. ch, gn, au, eau, ain. In the twentieth century, there have been This means that a particular sound may have numerous projects for spelling reform— several written forms, e.g. [s] in sac, presse, Dauzat (1939), Beslais (1952), Thimonnier science, nation, six, leçon; likewise a written (1967), Conseil Supérieur de la Langue letter or letters can have several values, includ- Française (1990)—all of which have revealed ing zero, e.g. s in sac, rose, femmes. the inconsistencies of French but failed to pro- Ideas for spelling reform, or for making the vide acceptable solutions. Certain phenomena orthographic system consistent, began to flour- are regularly cited: double consonants, Greek ish with the development of printed texts and features (th, rh, ph, y), mute consonants, hy- the consequent evolution of an accepted liter- phen, circumflex and other diacritics, as well ary French. As early as the sixteenth century, as individual anomalies. printers and scholars engaged in debate and The failure of the Academy to adopt the experiment to establish a norm for texts in the limited programme of reforms in 1990 is tes- vernacular: until this time, Latin had been the timony to the stability of French spelling, how- language of scholars and the essential written ever eccentric, but this should not conceal the language, but French had many features alien fact that French has come to accept many to Latin. G.Tory, for example, recommends the changes and will continue to do so. use of the cedilla, apostrophe and accents, and Jo REED other sixteenth-century printers rapidly develop proposals for a modern orthographic See also: Academic Française; linguistic regu- system, including the separation of ‘i’ and ‘j’, lation ‘u’ and ‘v’. The seventeenth century recognized a traditional spelling lingering on with certain writers and officials, together with the new, re- sport formed orthography. However, the first edition of the Academy dictionary (1694) de- Modern sports, like the industrialization and clared that it wished to follow l’ancienne urbanization of which they were historically orthographe. Scholars such as Richelet, and an expression, came late to France, but have writers like Corneille, continued to argue for since been widely disseminated, developing in (and to use) a spelling code in which the writ- ways which reflect the demographic, economic ten form attempts to reproduce the spoken and even political character of French society. form as closely as possible, reducing double Having been introduced from Britain in the consonants, eliminating parasitic letters and 1880s, the first modern sports (rugby, foot- making full use of the diacritics. ball, athletics) were initially the preserve of The various editions of the Academy diction- fashionable Parisian society, as exemplified by aries have authorized various spelling reforms— Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the in particular the third edition (1740), which modern Olympic Games. However, as the ap- modified up to 6,000 words and gave French peal of these sporting imports spread, they its modern shape by eliminating some superflu- were democratized, commercialized, ever ous letters; one example is the replacement of more intensely mediated, and joined by indig- preconsonantal s by a circumflex on the pre- enous sports, such as France’s first and still ceding vowel. The 1835 edition replaces oi by most important sporting spectacle, sport 503 professional cycling, epitomized since 1903 by nation with top-level sport by regularly attend- the Tour de France, an event perfectly adapted ing the final of the French football knockout to the demographic reality of a nation of many cup. His re-establishment in 1991 of a full small rural or semi-rural communities as well ministry for youth and sport underlined the as a few major conurbations. renewed importance attached to sport under State involvement in the organization of his presidency, as did the doubling of the sport dates back to the 1901 law on associa- weighting attached to the physical education tions, which requires formal registration of component of the baccalauréat school-leaving sports (and all other) clubs. Such associations, examination in 1995. which may be single-sport but are more often De Gaulle’s own well publicized attachment multi-sport, must be affiliated to the appro- to rugby union—a sport rooted firmly in south- priate national federation(s), which in turn west France, where it has given rise to a unique, come under the umbrella of the Comité Na- and regularly applauded, style of play which tional Olympique et Sportif Français (CNOSF). is the source of considerable local (specifically Each governing body is authorized to admin- municipal) pride—was part of the transforma- ister its own sport, receiving significant fund- tion of a regional passion into a national pre- ing to enable it to carry out its responsibilities. occupation made possible by the massive ex- Such is the federations’ power that no sports- pansion of televised sports coverage from the man or sportswoman may participate in for- 1950s onwards. (Today’s TV highlights also mally constituted matches, leagues or champi- include particularly the Open tennis championships without previously having been onships at Roland Garros and the ‘the hell of granted a licence by the appropriate federa- the north’, the Paris-Roubaix cycle race). The tion. The numbers of such licenciés (licence- appointment, under Georges Pompidou’s presi- holders) indicate that football is the most popu- dency, of Jacques Chaban-Delmas (a former lar team sport in France, with tennis, skiing rugby and tennis international) to the post of and cycling being the major individual sports prime minister is likewise of significance as (both in competitive and leisure terms), fol- regards the process of national identification lowed by ‘minority’ interests like judo, bas- with sports stars, as is the massive coverage ketball, rugby, horse riding, sailing and golf. provided by both a specialist press (notably The democratization in the 1970s and 1980s L’Équipe and Le Miroir des sports) and the of hitherto socially exclusive sports like tennis general national (and especially regional) press. and skiing reflects a general rise in disposable Indeed, such is French sport’s sociological sig- incomes available for leisure expenditure, to- nificance that it has periodically attracted the gether with improvements in sports and travel attention of distinguished commentators from infrastructures. It also underlines the success Barthes to Bourdieu. of state initiatives such as the now firmly es- Such diverse factors as long-term structural tablished classes de neige (skiing classes for unemployment, the television-led emergence of schoolchildren), which began in the 1950s. the home as the primary cultural space, the Spectator sport similarly reflects a preoc- collapse of established social hierarchies includ- cupation with soccer, with the televised per- ing particularly traditional gender roles, the formances of the leading clubs and, especially, advent of le sport-business (typified, in spite of the national side in international competi- of recent set-backs, by Bernard Tapie) and even tions representing a regular high point for administrative decentralization can all be viewing figures. (Half of all French TV view- linked to changes in French leisure patterns. ers are believed to have watched Michel The rise of the so-called ‘Californian’ sports Platini’s team in the 1986 World Cup semi- (such as windsurfing and hang-gliding) and the final.) François Mitterrand, as president of the ‘informal’ use of new sporting spaces (such as Republic, maintained a tradition first estab- street basketball or skateboarding) reflect pro- lished by Charles de Gaulle of identifying the found changes in French society, as they do in 504 sport and education other developed industrial nations. The cen- and Leisure have strengthened considerably tralized and hierarchical model of sports ad- the role of sport in the lives of French youth ministration is increasingly challenged by the and have developed professional qualifications development of sporting activity outside the in sport and exercise science in universities formal structures of the federations (including (Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques jogging, aerobics and modern dance), as part et Sportives). Sporting facilities have been radi- of broader social changes often characterized cally improved in educational and municipal as the privatization of leisure. In these circum- establishments throughout the country. stances, the vexed question of whether (as has Historically, physical education in France sometimes been optimistically suggested) sport was associated with the military, although as may provide a privileged mechanism for the early as 1817 the government was supporting integration of alienated youth of ethnic minor- a mixed civil and military training centre (the ity origin remains undecided. Gymnase Normal Civil et Militaire). It was only in 1937, however, that the first Ministère PHILIP DINE des Sports (sports ministry) was created, along See also: horse racing; motor sport; pétanque; with sports diplomas. This new ministry was regional press in France; sport and education; responsible for sport and physical education sports funding; winter sports in educational establishments (gymnastics had been compulsory in secondary schools since a Further reading decree of 1869). The Vichy government reinforced the trend with a Commissariat for general education and sport and, in the aftermath Dine, P. (1995) ‘The Tradition of Violence in of the war, the Institut National du Sport (Na- French Sport’, in R.Günther and R. tional Institute for Sport) was created in 1945. Windebank (eds) Violence and Conflict in In 1958, the Fifth Republic formed the so- Modern French Culture, Sheffield: Sheffield called Commissariat à la Jeunesse et aux Academic Press (an examination of continui- Sports (Youth and Sports Commission) before ties and changes in French sporting practices). transforming it into a ministry in 1966. In Greaves, A. (1993) ‘Sport in France’, in M. 1968 it became a Secrétariat d’État (ministry Cook (ed.) French Culture Since 1945, Lon- of state). Sport was, then, being increasingly don: Longman (an overview of the topic recognized as an important element in the cur- which is particularly incisive on links with riculum (as witnessed, for example, in the of- the national education system ). ficial instructions issued to educational estab- Holt, R. (1981) Sport and Society in Modem lishments in 1967 which proclaimed the cru- France, London: Macmillan (the classic cial role of sport and competition in the pur- English-language account of the rise of suit of ‘material and spiritual progress’). French sport). Another highly significant development of Hubscher, R., Durry, J., Jeu, B. and Garrier, national importance was the merging in 1976 G. (1992) L’Histoire en mouvements: le of the Écoles Normales Supérieures sport dans la société française (XIXe–XXe d’Éducation Physique (the top-level teacher- siècle), Paris: Armand Colin (a major col- training establishments for physical education) laborative survey of the history and sociol- and the Institut National des Sports (National ogy of sport in France). Institute of Sport), which became the prestigious Institut National du Sport et de l’Éducation Physique, or INSEP (the National Institute of sport and education Sport and Physical Education). This institute now attracts the elite of French sportsmen and Since World War II, the French Ministry of sportswomen and has done much to improve Education and the Ministry of Youth, Sport France’s standing in the world of sport. sports funding 505

The Ministère des Sports oversees school, broader process of economic and social recon- university and civil sport from international struction which occurred after World War II. level down to that of the départements; it The present Ministère de la Jeunesse et des maintains close relations with the federations Sports administers the financial support given which control individual sports. Each federa- to the national federations responsible for over- tion has a national technical director (DTN) seeing individual sports. While seldom exceed- who is at the top of a pyramid which goes all ing 0.2 per cent of total government expendi- the way down to individual clubs. School ture, this funding has provided both a lifeline sport has its national ‘union’ at primary and for the weaker organizations and a means of secondary level (Union Sportive des Écoles exerting influence on sports development for Primaires, Union Nationale du Sport Scolaire), the government. At present, state support may while universities have their own sports fed- make up anything between 10 and 90 per cent eration (Fédération Nationale du Sport of the revenue of an individual federation, de- Universitaire). Despite the undoubted im- pending on its ability to generate additional provements in organization, training and income from subscriptions, sponsorship and sports facilities, France had limited success in television rights, with the average figure being competitive sport before the outstanding in the region of 40 per cent. (These and other achievements at the Atlanta Olympic Games statistics cited are derived from Miège 1993.) in 1996. The country has also made great Since the early 1960s, such aid has taken two strides in tennis, has maintained its high stand- main forms: personnel and grants. Some 1,700 ards in rugby and improved them significantly technical advisers are made available to indi- in football. vidual federations at both national and local levels. The salaries of these civil servants, like IAN PICKUP the awards made by the ministry to cover the See also: athletics; cycling; motor sport; federations’ operating costs and their support pétanque; sport; Tour de France; water sports; for top-level performers, are financed jointly winter sports through direct taxation and the Fonds National pour le Développement du Sport (FNDS), a specifically targeted levy on alcohol sales and Further reading gambling (principally horse racing and the national lottery, including its version of the foot- Dicosport 1996 (1996), Paris: Dicosport/ ball pools, the loto sportif). Since the adminis- Éditions Presse Audiovisuelle (a dictionary trative decentralization of 1983, the state has of French and world sport published annu- ceased to be directly involved in the financing ally). of capital projects, with the exception of ma- Thomas, R. (1981) L’Éducation physique, jor initiatives such as the loss-making Paris: PUF (an account of the history, de- Albertville Olympic Games in 1992 and the velopment and organization of physical new national stadium in the Paris suburbs. The education in France). regions and the départements have thus joined the communes in what has long been a privileged field of local government action, with an average 7 per cent of municipal funds cur- sports funding rently devoted to sport, and over one-third of the total sports budget coming from the mu- French sport relies upon both public and pri- nicipalities. The involvement of the regions and vate funding, with a central role played by lo- the départements, at under 4 per cent, remains cal government. The principle of state involve- modest, but is rapidly expanding. However, this ment in the organization and funding of sport apparently solid structure is under strain as a became firmly established as part of the result of a general crisis of commercialization, 506 Staël, Nicolas de with entrepreneurial attitudes replacing a tra- Delaunay. Their influence led him to abandon ditional associative ethos reliant upon volun- the figurative painting he had practised before tary involvement. The funding of professional the war in favour of abstraction. sport has similarly been subject to stress, as After settling in Paris in 1943, he began to evidenced by both regular administrative re- show his work in exhibitions alongside forms and the periodic financial crises of ma- abstractionists such Domela, Kandinsky and jor clubs (most notably Bernard Tapie’s Magnelli. His Compositions (1943/4) distin- Olympique de Marseille). guished him from the ‘geometric’ abstractionists represented by Mondrian’s successors— PHILIP DINE Magnelli and Vasarély, for example—and iden- See also: sport tified him with the expressive and lyrical form of abstraction that was evolving as an alternative. While these early, rather decorative, works Further reading lacked a certain assurance, from 1946 onwards Staël proved that abstract painting could ex- Conseil National de la Vie Associative (1993) press mood while remaining self-referential. His Les Associations à l’épreuve de la De la danse (1946) has been hailed as an ex- décentralisation: Bilan 1991–1992, Paris: pression of ‘pure painting’, with its subtle and La Documentation Française (a detailed sombre beiges and grey-blues translating his report on the impact of a decade of decen- subjective state at the time. The misery of these tralization on French associations, includ- early years, which had been marked by penury ing particularly sports clubs). and the death of Jeannine, began to dissipate Miège, C. (1993) Les Institutions sportives, with his marriage to Françoise Chapouton and Paris: PUF (an introductory survey of the growing artistic success. In 1948, he acquired administrative structures of French sport). French citizenship. The influence of his friend Georges Braque, and his admiration for the painterly qualities in the work of artists such as Rembrandt, may Staël, Nicolas de have led him to focus on colour and texture, while a fellow Russian émigré, André Lanskoy, b. 1914, St Petersburg, Russia; is said to have taught him, through example, d. 1955, Antibes the technique of applying thick paint with a palette knife to produce the rich, tactile sur- Artist faces that distinguish his work of the late 1940s. The expressive qualities of texture, also Nicolas de Staël’s painting helped to define seen in Jean Fautrier’s Otages of 1945, was to the lyrical and expressive form of abstraction become a recognizable characteristic of the lyri- that evolved in Paris and elsewhere in the post- cal form of abstraction with which Staël is as- war years. A Russian émigré, orphaned soon sociated. after his family was forced into exile, he was From 1952, figurative elements began to adopted by Russian expatriates living in Brus- appear in his paintings—still lifes, landscapes, sels, where he studied at the Academic Royale the human body. A floodlit football match at des Beaux-Arts. After serving in the Foreign the Parc des Princes in 1952 inspired his Legion, he moved to France in 1940, settling Footballeurs series, which provoked enthusiasm for a time in Nice, where, through his com- in the public and condemnation from the de- panion, Jeannine Guillou, he made the ac- fenders of abstract art. Yet his human figures quaintance of a group of abstract artists in- are treated as compact masses of colour, with- cluding Magnelli, Marie Raymond (Yves out a psychological or even an anatomical pres- Klein’s mother) and Sonia and Robert ence, and are analysable in purely formal terms, stars 507 while his seascapes Marine claire and Marine 1980s and since, Depardieu has topped the foncée (both 1955) also serve to show that the league as the main male French star, whose distinction between abstract and representa- appearance can ensure a film’s success, such tional art is, in many respects, meaningless. as in Dupeyron’s Drôle d’endroit pour une The last five years of Staël’s life were rencontre in 1988. A 1990 poll by Télérama, marked by international acclaim, with impor- however, placed Gabin at the top, followed by tant exhibitions in New York, London and Gérard Philipe, and included Montand in its other European cities. He committed suicide first six, suggesting that box office is not the in March 1955 while working on paintings only condition for stardom. The same poll for two exhibitions planned for the summer. listed the following women as stars, in rank Since his death, his paintings have continued order: Romy Schneider, Michèle Morgan, to be exhibited on a regular basis throughout Simone Signoret, Isabelle Adjani, Catherine Europe and America. Deneuve, Brigitte Bardot. While Schneider has always been popular with French audiences, CAROL WILCOX it is curious that Bardot should figure so low See also: painting (only 8 per cent voted her as their favourite), since she seems the epitome of the female star, her retirement patterned on Garbo’s. The 1990 Further reading poll also asked respondents who the stars of tomorrow might be, and these (including Chastel, A. (ed.) (1972) Staël, Paris: Maeght Sophie Marceau, Emmanuelle Béart and (this wide range of reproductions of Staël’s Juliette Binoche) seem more likely candidates work is prefaced by a leading French art for star status. Stardom might therefore seem historian). to be ephemeral, but this is contradicted by Dumur, G. (1989) Nicolas de Staël, Paris: the first list of stars given in the same poll, since Flammarion (an interesting evaluation of Schneider’s decade was the 1970s (she died in Staël’s life and work, even if the style is 1982), and Signoret’s decade straddled the rather flowery ). 1960s and 1970s (she died in 1985). Another criterion is international status. Those who might be considered major stars in 1996— Adjani, Binoche and Depardieu—have all been stars in Hollywood films (although Depardieu was a star before Green Card). Conversely, Ardant Star studies have been an important part of has been in a number of European films since film studies since the late 1970s, but tend to Swann in Love, often by well-known directors: focus on Hollywood stars. There are therefore Tato’s Desiderio (1984, in Italy), Scola’s La problems of definition in relation to French Famiglia (1987, in Italy/France), Von Trotta’s stars, who do not work in a studio system, and adaptation of Chekhov’s Three Sisters, Paura who cross over popular genres (comedies, po- e amore (1988, in Italy/Germany/France), lice thrillers) and auteurist art films. If box of- Peploe’s Afraid of the Dark (1991, in France/ fice is used to justify star status, then the French Great Britain) and Bellocchio’s Il Sogno della star system is overwhelmingly masculine and Farfalla (1992, in Italy/France/Switzerland); dominated by popular genres, with an empha- but despite this, and despite her association sis on comedy. In the postwar period, Louis de with Truffaut, Ardant is not seen as a star. It Funès and Bourvil, whose greatest joint suc- would therefore seem that to be a star in the cess was Oury’s comedy La Grande Vadrouille French system, you have to act in Hollywood (1966), dominated the 1960s, just as Belmondo films. The second major point to emerge is that and Delon dominated the 1970s in a mixture stars, like the desires which give rise to them, of comic action films and thrillers. During the fade, although at different speeds of light. 508 street papers

PHIL POWRIE Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the Course in General Linguistics (Cours de See also: cinema linguistique générale), published in 1916. Saussure distinguished between two aspects or Further reading levels of language, langue and parole. Parole refers to the external and contingent aspect of language production in activities such as speech Morin, E. (1961) The Stars, New York: Grove and writing, while langue—the principal ob- Press (a standard introduction; originally ject of linguistic science—is the set of patterns published in French in 1957). or rules which precedes and makes possible the realization of language in parole. For Saussure, langue is a system, in which it is the street papers relations between elements, and not the elements themselves, that are responsible for Macadam Journal, Le Réverbère, La Rue and meaning. On the semantic level, an individual Faim de siècle, launched in rapid succession word (e.g. ‘horse’) only makes sense in terms in 1993, followed by Le Lampadaire in 1994, of its difference from other, related concepts are the main French street papers, commonly (e.g. donkey, ass, unicorn, automobile, etc.). referred to as la presse SDF. SDF means peo- On the phonetic level, difference of meaning is ple sans domicile fixe (of no fixed abode). generated by the substitution of minimally dis- These alternative newspapers, championing tinct units of sound: ‘horse’, ‘Norse’, ‘course’, the cause of the homeless, are sold in the etc. From this differential explanation of sig- streets by homeless vendors in return for a per- nification follows the central postulate of centage of the cover price, normally 60 per Saussure’s linguistic theory, the arbitrariness cent. Their aim is to provide a source of rev- of the sign. Word and concept (or ‘signifier’ enue, and act as an instrument of social inte- and ‘signified’) have no essential connection gration for vendors, giving them self-respect other than their habitual association within the and facilitating contacts with the public. system of langue. An important aspect of Saussure’s distinction between langue and pa- PAM MOORES role is that it also implies a distinction between See also: restaurants du coeur the individual and the collective. Saussure re- iterates that langue is by nature a social construct, whereas parole, the exercise or execu- tion of langue, is individual and variable. structuralism Probably the most important mediation of Saussurean linguistics in postwar French An influential intellectual movement dominant thought came from the anthropologist Claude in France from the late 1950s to the early Lévi-Strauss. Inspired by the phonological 1970s. The origins of structuralism are multi- theory of the Russian linguist Roman ple, and some commentators (such as Piaget Jakobson, in his first book, The Elementary and Serres) rightly insist on its transdisciplinary Structures of Kinship (Les Structures basis (e.g. in physics, mathematics and biology). élémentaires de la parenté), Lévi-Strauss argued However, the main path of assimilation of that it is possible to isolate a small number of structuralism into the human sciences in France elementary and invariant structures from which was via linguistic theory, and in this version at the diversity of observable kinship structures least it could more precisely be called linguistic might be derived. He then went on to extend structuralism. his application of the linguistic model to other The basic elements of linguistic structural- areas of social life. Already in the Cours ism can be found in the pioneering work of the Saussure had indicated that linguistics dealt structuralism 509 with only one of a number of sign systems used of the language. As Lévi-Strauss asserted, it is in human society, and for this reason he sug- not individuals that speak through myths but gested that the study of language should ulti- myths that speak through individuals. mately be part of a more general science of Lévi-Strauss’s application of linguistic signs—semiology. Lévi-Strauss developed this theory to social and cultural formations caught idea in his inaugural lecture at the Collège de the imagination of a new generation of think- France in 1960, where he defined social an- ers in search of new models and more rigor- thropology as a semiology, that is, the study ous methods of analysis. This was in a context of signs in social life. The different social prac- where the human sciences, and anthropology tices and institutions studied by anthropolo- in particular, were increasingly seen as a more gists are homologous in that, like language, scientific alternative to the old humanism. Few they are symbolic systems with their own in- disciplines were left untouched by structural- herent significations, ensuring communication ist theory. In psychoanalysis, Jacques Lacan’s between members of the group. Social phenom- proposed return to Freud was combined with ena as diverse as kinship structures, totemism a theory of the unconscious based on or myth could therefore be analysed in the same Saussurean linguistics. In history, Fernand way as a language. Lévi-Strauss’s most elabo- Braudel described his analysis of long-term rate application of the linguistic model can be social and economic trends as ‘structural his- found in his extensive work on myth, most tory’. For the philosopher and historian Michel remarkably in the four-volume cycle Foucault, structuralism announced the disso- Mythologiques, published between 1964 and lution of ‘man’, a comparatively recent con- 1971. According to Lévi-Strauss, traditional struct of Western philosophy and science. In interpretations of myth concentrated on the the field of literary studies, Roland Barthes meaning of isolated elements or themes, proposed a semiology of contemporary social whereas each myth should be considered as and cultural forms, applying structural analy- an integrated system. Just as linguists isolated sis to items of popular culture such as fashion the minimal constitutive units of language writing. Related to the linguistic turn in liter- (phonemes, morphemes, etc.), so the mytholo- ary studies was a revival of interest in theories gist could isolate the most basic elements of a of rhetoric and narrative discourse, which also myth (mythemes). As a system, the significa- drew on the earlier work of the Russian For- tion of the myth came not from any individual malists; this trend was evident in the work of element or mytheme, but from the differential Genette, Greimas and Todorov. relations between these elements, more pre- The differences between thinkers catego- cisely their mode of combination. As in lan- rized as ‘structuralist’ were often very great, guage, this combination of elements was not and many of these thinkers themselves resisted arbitrary, and followed certain definite rules. such assimilation and categorization. Signifi- The aim of structural analysis was therefore cantly, Lévi-Strauss was doubtful of the valid- to determine the rules of combination that ity of applications of structural analysis to lit- would constitute the structure of the myth. erature, considering this an inappropriate ex- An important feature of Lévi-Strauss’s defi- tension of methods specific to the object of his nition of structure is that, like Saussure’s own discipline, anthropology. Yet, despite such langue, it is independent of the conscious in- restrictions, and despite the heterogeneity of tentions and interpretations of the individual the thinkers involved, it can be said that dur- member of the social group. This does not ing the period in question structuralism became mean that structure is unconscious in the the dominant paradigm in French intellectual Freudian sense, that is, the subject of censor- life. This success cannot be attributed solely to ship or repression; rather, it is unconscious in the intrinsic merits of structuralist theory it- the same way that the implicit rules of a lan- self, which was open to criticism on a number guage are not conscious to the average speaker of levels, even in its original, Lévi-Straussian 510 structuralism interpretation; it was equally a function of the essential about society or humanity, but is sim- context in which structuralism first came to ply a dramatization of the individual. A few prominence. As a movement, it participated years later, in The Savage Mind (La Pensée in the climate of reaction against the philo- sauvage), he questioned the obsession of phi- sophical humanism which had dominated in- losophers like Sartre with history, arguing that tellectual discussion in France since the war. their conception of the historical process was After the war, Jean-Paul Sartre’s version of purely relative. The societies studied by ethnolo- existentialism had emerged as the philosophy gists also possessed a history, but chose to rep- most suited to the urgent moral questions— resent it differently, constructing their social questions of individual choice, responsibility identity around the repetition of archetypal situ- and commitment—which the experience of war ations rather than in relation to a linear sequence had rendered so immediate. However, as these of events. Sartre’s response to structuralism, conflicts receded into the past and France pro- both in this local debate and more generally, ceeded along the path of postwar reconstruc- was to criticize the abstraction of structural tion, to many the solutions offered by existen- analysis, which ignored the dialectical realities tialism seemed less relevant and even inad- of concrete relations and of the historical proc- equate to the moral, political and economic ess. In his view, the priority structuralism gave complexities of the post-colonial world. In- to autonomous and unconscious structures de- creasingly, intellectuals turned to the special- humanized the subject and excluded the possi- ized knowledge of the human and social sci- bility of individual agency. On a more general ences for answers which philosophy itself could level, he saw structuralism as a symptom of the not provide. This was also a period of major political stasis of France under de Gaulle’s Fifth advances in the natural sciences, in new disci- Republic and as the intellectual incarnation of plines such as cybernetics, information theory modern technocratic ideology. and molecular biology. The Sartrean version Sartre’s resistance was by no means isolated. of existentialism was primarily concerned with He was joined by French intellectuals of diverse the immediate experience of the individual sub- persuasions (Marxist, Christian and others), ject in-the-world, rather than with scientific who saw in structuralism a philosophy inimi- objectifications of the world, the subject or the cal to the interests of an authentic humanism. society inhabited by the subject. As Lévi-Strauss Despite their often valid criticisms, it was evi- pointed out some years later, one of the sig- dent that the tide had turned in favour of the nificant weaknesses of Sartre’s thought was his human sciences as exemplified in the anthro- failure to engage with contemporary science, pology of Lévi-Strauss. The events of May 1968 which is precisely what structuralism had done. seemed to offer momentary vindication of In addition to its assimilation of the methods Sartre’s position, as for many structuralism had of structural linguistics, structuralism also drew become synonymous with the conservative ele- its inspiration from the recent achievements of ments of the discredited regime: one commen- the new sciences mentioned above. Whatever tator memorably remarked that les structures the ultimate limitations of this kind of ne descendent pas dans la rue (‘structures do interdisciplinarity, it at least gave the impres- not take to the streets’). The triumph was short- sion of a ferment of ideas which appeared to lived, however, and by the late 1960s the posi- be absent in existentialism. tion of structuralism seemed assured as it finally Inevitably, a polemic developed between the received academic consecration in the post-1968 two movements, crystallizing around the figures expansion of the university system. of Sartre and Lévi-Strauss. In Tristes tropiques, To an extent it could be said that the de- Lévi-Strauss had already attacked the cline of structuralism came from within: that subjectivist bias of phenomenology and exis- is, it came from those who had enthusiasti- tentialism. A philosophy based on personal ex- cally assimilated its lessons and had come to perience, he claimed, can never tell us anything recognize its inherent limitations. The diverse student revolt of 1986 511 applications of linguistic structuralism could R.Needham (1969) The Elementary Struc- often be reductive and in the worse cases de- tures of Kinship, Boston: Beacon Press. generated into the mechanical repetition of a ——(1973) Anthropologie structural deux, preset formula. While Lévi-Strauss continued Paris: Plon. Translated M.Layton (1978) to refine his own version of structural analysis Structural Anthropology 2, Harmondsworth: in the relatively specialized domain of mythol- Penguin. ogy, by the early 1970s thinkers such as Saussure, F.de (1986) Cours de linguistique Barthes had abandoned structuralism. It re- générale, Paris: Payot. Translated R.Harris mains that structuralism represented a crucial (1983) Course in General Linguistics, Lon- phase in postwar French thought, and it is a don: Duckworth. measure of its historical importance that the Sturrock, J. (ed.) (1979) Structuralism and heterogeneous movement which succeeded it Since: From Lévi-Strauss to Derrida, Ox- is commonly referred to as poststructuralism. ford: Oxford University Press (an authoritative collection of essays on the main lu- CHRISTOPHER JOHNSON minaries of structuralist thought). See also: anthropology and ethnology; Derrida; linguistic/discourse theory student revolt of 1986 Further reading In late 1986, a bill before parliament (con- Descombes, V. (1979) Le Même et l’autre: taining proposals that might have significantly quarante-cinq ans de philosophic française increased university registration fees and in- (1933–1978), Paris: Éditions de Minuit. troduced measures of selective entry) pro- Translated L.Scott-Fox and J.M.Harding voked widespread strikes in educational insti- (1980) Modern French Philosophy, Cam- tutions, and brought students from universi- bridge: Cambridge University Press (essen- ties and lycées alike on to the streets in their tial for an understanding of the philosophi- hundreds of thousands, in the common cause cal debates surrounding structuralism). of protest at the infringement of the Republi- Dosse, F. (1991/2) Histoire du structuralisme, can constitutional right to free access to non- 2 vols, Paris: Éditions la Découverte (an fee-paying higher education. It was the largest exhaustive if sometimes rather anecdotal and best co-ordinated student protest since the survey of the personalities, issues and de- events of May 1968, to which some commen- bates of the structuralist period). tators began to liken it. When clashes between Lévi-Strauss, C. (1955) Tristes tropiques, demonstrators and police in Paris led to the Paris: Plon. Translated J. and D.Weightman death of a student, the legislation was with- (1984) Tristes tropiques, Harmondsworth: drawn. The Junior Minister for Research and Penguin. Higher Education responsible, Alain ——(1962) La Pensée sauvage, Paris: Plon. Devaquet, resigned. Translated R.Needham (1966) The Savage RON HALLMARK Mind, Chicago: Chicago University Press. ——(1964–71) Mythologiques, 4 vols, Paris: See also: education ministry; education, sec- Plon. Translated J. and D.Weightman (1970– ondary: collèges, lycées 81) Mythologiques: Introduction to a Science of Mythology, 4 vols, London: Cape. Further reading ——(1967) Les Structures élémentaires de la parenté, Paris and La Haye: Mouton & Co/ Maison des Sciences de l’Homme. Trans- Various (1987) ‘Université: le séisme: les dos- lated J.H.Bell, J.R.von Sturmer and siers complets de la crise’, Le Monde de 512 suburbs

l’éducation 134 (January): 3–20 (a full ex- ating a new urbanism. The projects in the ploration of the issues). ‘Banlieue’ programme, of which 200 had been undertaken in the 1980s, combined design, sociability and cultural activities; they sought to recentre places which had been peripheral suburbs and connect them together. However, the ‘Banlieue 89’ programme exuded an unwar- The banlieue, as the urban periphery outside ranted optimism in the power of improve- the urban core is called, has a history going ments in the built environment to provide an back to the redevelopment of city centres and answer to inequalities and economic and so- influx of rural migrants in the second half of cial exclusion. the nineteenth century. Later, in the interwar Not only has the banlieue come to occupy period, urban peripheries expanded haphaz- centre stage politically, but it has also gained ardly with little planning. The term ‘red belt’, prominence cinematically in the 1990s. referring to the Communist-voting suburbs to Whereas in the 1960s the banlieue was an unu- the northeast of Paris, dates from this period. sual setting, with the exception of a few films It was coined by Paul-Vaillant Couturier in such as Deux ou trois choses que je sais d’elle articles that appeared in the Communist news- directed by Jean-Luc Godard (1966), which paper L’Humanité in 1924–6 and eventually examined women’s prostitution, and La became a reality after the 1935 municipal elec- Dernière Femme (1976) by Marco Ferreri, in tions. Today, the tight network of Communist the mid-1990s a new wave of French film associations and culture has come to an end adopted the themes of life in the banlieue— as the banlieue becomes truly part of urban youth in their dealings with parents and the civilization, an integral extension rather than law, and relationships between different eth- an appendage of the city. nic minorities—as central concerns. Kassovitz’s It was at the beginning of the 1960s that La Haine (1995) highlighted the lives of youths Sarcelles, then a dormitory suburb in the Paris from different ethnic backgrounds who, bored agglomeration, gave its name to sarcellite, an and hassled on their estate, escape to the bright illness equated with the concrete gigantism lights of Paris, for which they do not possess and poor living conditions of the HLM (habi- the necessary savoir faire. Other accounts, such tat à loyer modéré). ‘Banlieue’ has increasingly as the voyage undertaken by François Maspero operated, as the inner city has done in Britain, and Anaik Frantz through the Parisian as the simplified shorthand for a cluster of banlieue, follow the route of the RER (express social ills and problematic inhabitants. The metro), presenting portraits of landscape coupling of security and foreigner, delinquency which, though sometimes very desolate, are and immigration, violence and suburbs, has always peopled with real figures. reinforced the sense of the suburb as being ELEONORE KOFMAN outside of normal society, a place of exclusion for the dangerous classes. Thus banlieue See also: cinéma de banlieue; parties and merges seamlessly into cités (estates), ghettos movements and quartiers difficiles (problem areas). Disturbances in Vénissieux (1981) and Further reading Vaulx-en-Velin (1990)—both suburbs of Lyon—and in Sartrouville (1991) and Man- tes-la-Jolie (1991) maintained the suburb in Jazouli, A. (1992) Années de banlieue, Paris: the forefront of media attention and public Éditions du Seuil (polemical sociological policy. From 1983, the ‘Banlieue 89’ pro- analysis) gramme, launched by Roland Castro and Maspero, F. and Frantz A. (1993) Roissy Ex- Michel Cantal-Dupart, began its work on cre- press: A Journey Through the Paris Supports/Surfaces 513

Suburbs, London: Verso (French edition The Supports/Surfaces artists made two [1990] Les Passagers du Roissy Express, important contributions to art practice: they Paris: Seuil) (a lively and thoughtful narra- attacked the Greenbergian Modernist para- tive account). digm (which insists upon abstraction and the sublime as qualitative measures of ‘Modern’ art) by revealing the extent to which the surface picture plane is itself constructed (falsify- Supervielle, Jules ing); and insisted upon the semantic value of plastic practice. These projects were wrapped b. 1884, Montevideo, Uruguay; up in Far Left political rhetoric by the group’s d. 1960, Paris journal, Peinture, cahiers théoriques. That the plastic works resemble American minimal art Poet, writer and dramatist of the preceding decade has made it difficult to assimilate them within an international art Supervielle was educated in France and lived market which demands aesthetic innovation, in France after World War II. In his poetry as while rejecting politics and philosophy as de- well as in his fiction, he is noted for his gra- terminants for value in art practice. cious intimacy, his ability to link himself to Bioulès’s Sans titre of 1971 (a diptych in nature and the universe with fresh eyes, and which each panel is divided in two, coloured without grandiloquence. His friendships with white, blue/white, red) would provide an ex- Gide, Valéry and Rilke were crucial in his for- ample in which the refusal of the écran pictural mation, yet he maintained a fine balance be- is achieved through the use of acrylic washes, tween his Uruguayan and French cultural lega- absorbed by the fine linen surface, emphasiz- cies. Primarily his works win readers by their ing ‘objecthood’, and denying the assumption charm and simplicity. There are many volumes of colour as transcendent surface. of poetry, from Gravitations (1926) to 1959’s Bioulès ultimately resigned over the strict Le Corps tragique (The Tragic Body), plus sev- imposition of a posited ‘dialectical material- eral collections of fiction, notably the appro- ism’, which he felt limited Freudian interpre- priately entitled Premiers pas de l’univers (First tations of his pulsion towards colour. Steps in the Universe) from 1950. Louis Cane’s Toiles découpées from 1970 (large felt squares, with the centre cut to form WALTER A.STRAUSS a protrusion on the floor and a ‘frame’ on the wall) negotiate the Matisse inheritance and its Freudian corollary through ‘cutting’, as well as invoking Stella’s shaped canvases (and Supports/Surfaces thereby asserting the ‘objecthood’ of the work, its material reality as opposed to its transcend- The Supports/Surfaces group, which existed ent aesthetic value). They question through as a coherent avant-garde between 1971 and their three-dimensional quality not only the 1972, was associated with the structuralist re- Renaissance Véduta (window on the world) view Tel quel and its pro-Maoist faction, the as structure in painting but also the Modern- Mouvement de Juin ’71. Marcelin Pleynet ist critical intolerance of sculpture’s acted as ‘bridge’ between art and literature physicality. For a political interpretation to be through his position as art critic and editor of defended, it is necessary to see Cane’s earlier Tel quel. Pleynet’s Painting and System Tampons (rubber stamp marks which read (Système de la Peinture), which provides a ‘Louis Cane, artiste peintre’) of 1967 as posit- model for interpreting the history of art with ing the artist as artisan-worker: the repetitive reference to Marx and Freud, was applauded manual operation is seen as analogous to the by the artists of the Supports/Surfaces group. ‘skilled ouvrier’ emergent under Pompidou, 514 Supports/Surfaces their identity disappearing in the almost infi- his repetitive non-referential form, but also nite repetition of their ‘Fordist’ mechanized with the notion of an acquired material narra- gesture. tive, liberated through this series of refusals. Dezeuze was already a long way into his His Pochoir de filet sur toile métis of 1972 systematic investigations by the time he made cross-references his rope/knot pieces with his his Échelle de bois verte et brune (Brown and ‘disparition’ pieces by using the trace of an Green Wooden Ladder) in 1971. The disrup- absent knotted rope net to indicate the absence tion of the categories painting/sculpture/archi- of his non-referential forms (the marks form- tectural space may once again be seen as a re- ing in effect the tessellated outline of the usual fusal of Modernist critical preoccupations with pattern). His recuperation of materials and lib- transcendence and its analogous exclusion of eration of their narrative value uses a non-codified genres. The concern with relocat- Derridean displacement to effect a structural ing the stretcher as structurally meaningful is revelation of semantic excess usually covered clearer here than in almost any Supports/Sur- by painting. faces work: the absorption of wood dyes for Viallat never made any specific claims for colour, affirming the rejection of the primacy the political value of his work, and this proved of the surface screen (which is absent), the to be a stumbling block for his participation rolled-up part of the piece insisting upon a rein the group. It should be noted that it was a fusal of narrative closure, a refusal of mastery, political commitment to a culturally distinct the undetermined presence of excess. Midi, rather than an absence of political Valensi’s tressages (weavings) and objet stance, which was at stake. This ‘other’ politi- d’analyses (analytical objects) of 1970 engage cal domain is expressed most clearly not in his strongly with questions of language, text(ile), painted/theoretical works but rather in his intertextuality and refusal of narrative closure. drawings, where the representation of bull- Particularly, this artist may be seen to take on fighting is central. Viallat’s separation of poli- board the notion of ‘system’ as a scientific ap- tics from art is reflected in his separation of proach to a research-based art, seeking to ex- art and drawing, where the former is deemed plore the effects of stitching, knotting, weav- intellectual and theoretical, and the latter an ing and layering materials traditionally asso- expression of reality as lived by the artist. ciated with painting. There is no place here These examples of the Supports/Surfaces for ‘bourgeois’ aesthetic bliss. This work is group’s practice are intended to be representa- functional, not in the propagandizing manner tive rather than exhaustive. It should be noted of socialist realism, but rather after the fash- that, while the group formally existed only ion of science ameliorating understanding in between 1971 and 1972, its impact on French the domain of the arts, a position very much art practice was dominant throughout the at one with the contradictory French cultural 1970s. Its significance may be measured by context of its moment. the strength of its legacy, a legacy of Viallat’s Disparitions multiples (Multiple postmodern art practice which works freely Disappearances) of 1970 engages with not with shattered cultural narrative, as if its pre- only a refusal of the surface through the use vious seeming coherence had never needed to of absorbed colours, not only with the refusal be questioned. of closure which is implicit in the multilay- SIMEON HUNTER ered recto-verso work, not only with the refusal of surface narrative through the use of See also: Derrida; painting T

Tapie, Bernard Playwright and poet b. 1945, Paris Tardieu is known for his translation of Hölderlin’s poetry in the 1930s, and after the Businessman and politician war for short absurdist plays, experimenting with language and form. These include Le Tapie was the archetypal ‘Socialist’ million- Guichet (The Ticket Office), La Serrure (The aire, at least until his fall from grace in 1994. Lock) and Le Sonate et les trots messieurs (The The owner (among other things) of France’s Sonata and the Three Gentlemen). biggest manufacturer of sporting footwear, his ANNIE SPARKS support for Mitterrand (who appointed him minister with special responsibility for cities) See also: theatre; Theatre of the Absurd and demolition of Jean-Marie Le Pen in a televised debate made him one of the Left’s lead- Further reading ing standard-bearers in Marseille, one of whose constituencies he represented in parliament and whose football team he owned. Dis- Esslin, M. (1968) The Theatre of the Absurd, graced successively by his involvement in London: Pelican (Chapter 5 discusses match-rigging and by a spectacular bank- Tardieu’s drama in relation to this move- ruptcy, he began serving a prison sentence in ment). 1997. He embarked upon a screen acting career in Claude Lelouch’s Hommes, femmes: mode d’emploi (1996), for which he agreed to Tati, Jacques accept a percentage of the takings by way of payment. b. 1908, Le Pecq, Yvelines; KEITH READER d. 1982, Paris See also: parties and movements; sport Director and actor

Tati is one of the great French comedians, with Tardieu, Jean an original comic style close to mime. He made only nine films, and is best remembered for b. 1903, Ain; his incarnation of the accident-prone Hulot, d. 1995, Paris first in the anthology of gags Mr Hulot’s 515 516 Tavernier, Bertrand

Holiday (Les Vacances de M.Hulot) in 1953, ‘A man of taste and culture rather than the crea- followed by a critique of the gadgets in mod- tor of a universe’ (according to the Larousse ern life in Mon Oncle (1958), which received Dictionnaire du cinéma), Téchiné remains one a Special Jury prize at Cannes and an Oscar. of contemporary French cinema’s outstanding His greatest film is Playtime (1967), a power- directors of female actors, and it was for him ful portrait of Americanized France. that Catherine Deneuve gave two of her best performances in Hôtel des Amériques (1981) PHIL POWRIE and Ma saison préférée (1993). He used Jeanne See also: cinema Moreau to good effect in the Brechtian Souve- nirs d’en France (1975), and showed a sensitivity to adolescent—especially homosexual— anxieties in the autobiographically based Les Tavernier, Bertrand Roseaux sauvages (1994). b. 1941, Lyon KEITH READER See also: cinema; gay cinema Director

Tavernier’s films, many of them scripted by the key scriptwriters of the 1950s, Aurenche Tel Quel group and Bost, hark back to the French quality tradition. His career took off with L’Horloger de This group of writers and critics associated with Saint-Paul (1973), starring Noiret, which the review Tel quel was particularly influential won the Prix Delluc. Subsequent films were in the late 1960s and early 1970s and proposed either similar social analyses, e.g. the drug a radical theory and practice of writing. squads in L627 (1991), or historical films, The review Tel quel was created in 1960 at such as his nostalgic Un dimanche à la Éditions du Seuil as a rival to the Nouvelle campagne (1984) set in 1912, which won a Revue française, but soon began, under the César, or 1989’s Life and Nothing Else But dominance of Philippe Sollers, to celebrate the (La Vie et rien d’autre), set in World War I, (then) literary avant-garde nouveau roman. By again starring Noiret. 1966, Tel quel had divested itself of this influ- PHIL POWRIE ence, developed its own experimental literary practice in the novel (Sollers, Jean-Louis See also: cinema; cinéma de qualité Baudry, Jacques Henric) and in poetry (Marcelin Pleynet, Denis Roche), and become Further reading a vital context for innovative critical practices such as those of structuralist critics Genette and Barthes (who would remain a close ally of the Douin, J.-L (1988) Tavernier, Paris: Édilig group until his death). A key moment was the (analysis of the films). 1965 publication, in the ‘Tel quel’ series, of translations of the Russian Formalists, affirming the autonomy of literary practice. The limi- Téchiné, André tations of structuralism and Formalism were soon bypassed, however, when in 1968 the review radicalized itself, articulating a complex b. 1943, Valence-d’Agen theoretical ‘programme’, which appealed to the burgeoning theoretical apparatuses of Director Althusser, Lacan, Derrida and Kristeva (who became one the principal forces of the group television 517 with Sollers and Pleynet). Linking textual revo- Tel quel (1960–82) Paris: Éditions du Seuil lution to social revolution, also in 1968 the (quarterly review). group engaged in an uneasy alliance with the ——(1968) Théorie d’ensemble, Paris: Communist Party, only to move away from Éditions du Seuil. this position, in a spectacular and somewhat hysterical manner, and towards Maoism in 1971 (culminating in a trip to China in 1974 which was to puncture the ideological fantasy television of China as revolutionary utopia). After 1971, the group’s rhetoric became increasingly an- For most of the postwar period French televi- archic and terroristic, as if under the delayed sion was organized as a state monopoly which pressure of the events of May 1968. A symp- in practice was closely controlled by the gov- tom of this was the more Rabelaisian or ernment. From the middle of the 1980s, pri- Joycean style of the group’s fiction, and a criti- vate sector competition was introduced, new cal focus on writers such as Joyce and Céline channels were established and the balance of in the 1970s. With the growing importance of the system tilted towards commercial players. psychoanalysis and of the work of Lacan, the French television increasingly operates as part review became more and more critical of po- of a European audiovisual market, which litical systems, and emphasized the subjective opens up commercial opportunities for some dimension in literature and thought. This im- companies but also poses problems for the plied the abandonment of the group’s politi- defence of French content and culture. cal positions and a focus on forms of subjec- French television was officially established tive excess or jouissance, notably in relation in 1935, though regular broadcasts did not to sexuality and religion. This focus on the take place until after the end of World War II. subject as exception also resulted in the dis- The medium was slow to make an impact on persal of the group. In 1983, the review French society and it was not until the late changed name and publisher to L’Infini at 1950s that a television set began to be per- Gallimard, and is still published at present, ceived as an essential household item. By the with Sollers in overall control, affirming lit- end of the 1960s, television viewing had be- erature as an exceptional force resistant to cul- come a routinized part of leisure activity. tural or social homogeneity. Its hold on the nation’s attention has increased ever since, with the result that, in line PATRICK FFRENCH with other western European countries, France See also: literary journals; Marxism and has fully embraced the audiovisual era. The Marxian thought; poststructuralism number of households with at least one television set has attained saturation level (over 95 per cent), while about 65 per cent also possess Further reading a video cassette recorder. The provision of national terrestrial networks has increased from ffrench, P. (1995) The Time of Theory: A His- 1 in the early 1960s to 6 by the mid-1990s, tory of ‘Tel quel’, Oxford: Oxford Univer- while cable offers its subscribers at least an- sity Press (a critical analysis of the literary other 20 channels. The amount of television theory proposed by the Tel Quel group in programming available on terrestrial televi- its context). sion alone has jumped from 2,760 hours per Forest, P. (1995) Histoire de ‘Tel quel’, Paris: year in 1960 to over 50,000 hours in 1993. In Éditions du Seuil (a highly detailed account return, by the mid-1990s a French adult of the history of Tel quel). watched television for an average of more than Sollers, P. (1983) Théorie des exceptions, three hours per day. Paris: Gallimard. During its formative years, French television 518 television was organized as a state monopoly. The state channels came on stream in the 1980s and broadcasting corporation, the ORTF, grew 1990s, though their impact on the audience incrementally to manage three television chan- was limited, as many viewers seemed content nels by the early 1970s. After the Giscardian with the output of the terrestrial channels and reform of 1974 these channels became sepa- disinclined to pay additional subscription rately constituted programme companies— costs. TF1, Antenne 2 and FR3—competing against By the mid-1990s, the French television sys- each other for audiences within the state sec- tem was highly diverse. Programming was de- tor. The monopoly was finally abolished in livered through the new technologies of cable 1982 by the Socialist government of Pierre and satellite as well as via traditional terres- Mauroy. This opened up the broadcasting sys- trial transmission, while digital television was tem to private competition. In 1984 a new ter- beginning to make an impact by 1996. There restrial pay-TV channel, Canal Plus, was was a mix of public and private channels, with launched under the control of Havas, which the privatized TF1 securing the highest audi- at that time still enjoyed close links with the ence ratings. Different regulatory regimes were state. In 1986 two new privately run commer- in force, ranging from detailed public service cial channels, La Cinq and TV6 (later renamed obligations in the case of France 2 and France M6), came into existence. In the same year the 3, to a much lighter set of provisions for Ca- conservative government of Jacques Chirac nal Plus and the cable channels. A variety of took the controversial step of privatizing the funding mechanisms existed (licence revenue, main national channel, TF1, which thus be- advertising, viewer subscription and sponsor- came the first public channel in Europe to be ship), with many channels being financed from hived off to the private sector. Only a few years a mix of sources. Niche channels on cable after the abolition of the state monopoly, (film, music, sport, news) complemented the therefore, the balance in programme supply mixed programme output of the terrestrial net- between private and public sector channels works, while subscribers to Canal Plus en- had shifted overwhelmingly to the benefit of joyed a programme diet based largely on re- the former. cently released feature films and ‘live’ sport. During the 1990s, however, public sector For a long part of its history French televi- provision has been strengthened, while that of sion was subject to a high degree of political the private sector has been reduced. In 1992, interference. During the Fourth Republic (1946– La Cinq went into liquidation and ceased 58), this had little effect on the public since tel- transmission. The privatization of TF1 had re- evision had not yet become a mass medium. sulted in too many channels competing for ad- However, during de Gaulle’s presidency (1958– vertising revenue and La Cinq suffered accord- 69) television news was censored and control- ingly, failing to secure either a mass public or led to further the interests of the Gaullist re- a sufficiently upmarket audience to attract ad- gime, with considerable success in the early vertisers. In 1989, Antenne 2 and FR3, since years. Government censorship and direct con- renamed France 2 and France 3, were linked trol were relaxed during the post-de Gaulle at the top under a single chairperson to im- presidencies, largely because they were increas- prove the running of public sector television. ingly ineffective as a means of audience persua- In 1992 the Franco-German cultural channel sion. The expansion of the system also made ARTE was launched with state support on the detailed control of news output impractical. terrestrial network vacated by La Cinq. Fi- However, the tradition of a close relation- nally, in 1994 a public sector educational and ship between the state and television, espe- training channel, La Cinquième, was estab- cially the public sector channels, has never been lished. It broadcast during the day on the same wholly relinquished. Appointments to top posts network used by ARTE in the evening. In ad- in public television are still made in part on the dition, private cable and satellite television basis of political criteria. Moreover, the rapid television 519 turnover in the composition and powers of l’Audiovisuel (Higher Audiovisual Council), has regulatory authorities in the 1980s was a stark survived the conservative parliamentary victory reminder of the continuing partisan of 1993 and Chirac’s accession to the presiden- politicization of the audiovisual system despite tial office in 1995. Composed of nine mem- its economic liberalization. bers—three appointed by the president of the In contrast, there is some evidence of a less Republic, three by the president of the National deferential attitude on the part of broadcast- Assembly and three by the president of the Sen- ers towards politicians than was the case in ate—the Council ensures that regulations on the past. Satirical programmes such as the ownership, financing and programme content Bébête-Show and Les Guignols de l’info, are respected by the television companies, par- which use puppet characters to poke fun at ticularly those in the public sector. political figures, demonstrate a change in jour- It is impossible to generalize about the pro- nalistic culture. This in turn reflects a more gramme output of French television. The cynical public attitude towards politicans, growth in the number of channels and the fuelled by several corruption scandals in the banalization of television viewing have cer- 1980s and 1990s. tainly amplified the role of the medium as a Up until the abolition of the monopoly, the vehicle for popular culture. In its early years programme output of French television was French television sought to elevate audience strictly regulated to conform with obligations tastes with a programme diet which contained laid down by the state and included in the op- many worthy, serious and culturally demand- erating conditions (cahiers des charges) of the ing programmes. During the early years of de programme companies. Since 1982, regulation Gaulle’s presidency, for example, television has been a key issue on the media policy was intended to disseminate the best of French agenda, with the powers and composition of high culture to the growing nationwide audi- the regulatory authority at the heart of the ence. In the 1990s, much of the output is political debate. geared to mass taste, with the viewer regarded One of the innovations of the Socialists’ as a consumer to be satisfied rather than a 1982 statute (loi Fillioud) was the creation of pupil to be educated. Game shows, light en- a High Authority for Audiovisual Communi- tertainment programmes, soap operas and cation. Headed by the well-known former films fill the screen. journalist, Michèle Cotta, the High Authority Yet, while a contrast is evident between the symbolized the desire of the government to mission of the television system in the 1990s attenuate its links with broadcasting. How- and that of the 1960s, it should not be over- ever, the role of the High Authority was lim- drawn. Game shows and low-quality pro- ited and on certain key decisions, such as the gramming existed in the era of Malraux, allocation of licences to La Cinq and TV6, it while government backing for ARTE shows was not consulted in advance. When the con- the commitment of the French state in the servative government came to power in 1986 1990s to serious cultural programming. The it introduced new legislation (loi Léotard) essential difference between the formative which among other things abolished the High years and the present day is that in a Authority and replaced it with a National multichannel system there is bound to be Commission for Communication and Liber- more programming catering for popular ties. tastes than in the early elitist years of a single- Sullied in the eyes of the Socialists because channel state monopoly. The increasing con- of its overtly partisan decisions, this commis- finement of high cultural programming to sion was scrapped in 1989 following specialist channels or the fringes of the public Mitterrand’s second presidential victory and the sector networks is the consequence of a mar- subsequent election of a Socialist government. ket-oriented system replacing a paternalistic Its replacement, the Conseil Supérieur de state-dominated one. 520 television/spectacle guides

Increasingly, French television is becoming Further reading part of a wider European and even global audiovisual market. Technology has played a Barbrook, R. (1995) Media Freedom, London: part in this, with satellite transmission open- Pluto (a history of the French media which ing up the French system to foreign channels uses different explanatory models based on and vice versa. New patterns of media owner- the concept of media freedom). ship have reinforced this internationalization Bourdon, J. (1990) Histoire de la télévision sous of the medium. Canal Plus, for example, has de Gaulle, Paris: Anthropos/INA (an excel- successfully exported its pay-TV format to lent detailed study of the relationship be- other countries where it has taken a stake in tween television and the Gaullist presidency). subscription television. Pursuing a corporate Franceschini, L. (1995) La Régulation strategy based on vertical integration, Canal audiovisuelle en France, Paris: PUF (a short Plus has built up a powerful domestic base in legal study of broadcasting regulation). the technological and production sectors from Kuhn, R. (1995) The Media in France, Lon- which to move out and conquer foreign mar- don: Routledge (the first full-length study kets. In particular, Canal Plus is at the fore- of the French media in English). front of the development of digital television Michel, H. (1995) Les Grandes Dates de la in France and this experience will allow it to télévision française, Paris: PUF (a short his- be a major player at the European level in this torical overview of the medium). new form of broadcasting. Thomas, R. (1976) Broadcasting and Democ- As national boundaries in Europe become racy in France, London: Crosby Lockwood more permeable and major national actors are Staples (a part-historical, part-thematic ac- transformed into transnational and global count of the multifaceted relationship be- media players, French television faces prob- tween broadcasting and democracy in lems as well as opportunities. The growth of France up until the 1974 Giscardian re- television within France and elsewhere in Eu- form). rope gives French production and programme companies the chance to expand and promote French output. But because of the size of the domestic (and European francophone) audi- television/spectacle guides ence, of necessity French television has to rely on imports and the reproduction of foreign Television guides are France’s most popular programme formats for some of its content. and profitable publications, with a dozen ti- Regulatory quotas on programming may help tles selling a total of 15 million copies per offset some of the undesirable consequences week. The leading title, Télé 7 jours, created of a free market in audiovisual goods and serv- in 1960, accounts for 3 million copies, with ices in the eyes of French elites. Yet the objec- Télé star, Télé Z, Télé poche and Télé loisirs tives of greater consumer choice, high quality close on its heels. Télérama has a distinctive output and the defence of French culture are upmarket reputation: in addition to the full increasingly difficult to reconcile in a system range of radio and television programmes, it where an optimal relationship between state, covers music, literature and especially cinema, television and audience has never been satis- providing critical reviews for a discriminating factorily achieved. public. Weekly spectacle guides, primarily L’Officiel des spectacles and Pariscope for the RAYMOND KUHN capital, and provincial titles such as Lyon See also: francophone television: DOM- poche, also devote large sections to cinema list- TOMs; francophone television: Europe; ings, in addition to providing information on Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry theatre, concerts, exhibitions, museums, cabaret, festivals, restaurants, etc. TF1 521

PAM MOORES Open championships, where Noah became the first French postwar champion in 1983. See also: television IAN PICKUP See also: sport Temps modernes, Les

Journal Terzieff, Laurent Launched in 1944 by Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone b. 1935, Toulouse de Beauvoir and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, this independent left-wing monthly sought to promote in peacetime the spirit of unity among Actor and director, opponents of Nazi forces and those who had real name Laurent Tchermerzine collaborated with them during the Occupation. Taking its name from Charlie Chaplin’s 1936 A director of international avant-garde works, film, Les Temps modernes’s programme of and discoverer of many new plays, Terzieff has committed literature (littérature engagée) spoke also interpreted many powerful roles for di- to and for a generation of activist-intellectuals rectors such as Barrault, Serreau and Brook. whose experience of world war spawned a His acting style, stage and screen, is noted for desire to act in and on history. Under Sartre’s its physicality and characterization skills. editorship through the late 1970s, it advocated ANNIE SPARKS decolonization in Vietnam and Algeria, a just peace in the Middle East and the emergent See also: theatre feminist movement in France. STEVEN UNGAR Further reading See also: Algerian war Mauriac, C. (1980) Laurent Terzieff, Paris: Stock (biography). Further reading

Boschetti, A. (1988) The Intellectual Enter- TF1 prise: Sartre and ‘Les Temps modernes’, Evanston: Northwestern University Press Television channel (essential reading). The national television company Télévision Française 1 (TF1) came into existence in 1975 tennis as a result of the break-up of the state broadcasting organization, the ORTF. The channel French tennis improved its world ranking remained part of the public sector until its pri- quite dramatically in the 1980s, with the emer- vatization by the conservative government in gence of players such as Yannick Noah and 1987. Since then, it has established itself as Henri Leconte. Indoor facilities in France are the leading mass-audience channel in France, vastly superior to those of the United King- with an emphasis on entertainment program- dom, and outdoors clay and hard courts are ming and news. Its principal shareholder is the the order of the day. The revamped Roland Bouygues construction group. The company Garros stadium in Paris stages the French has diversified into programme production 522 theatre and thematic channels, including ownership tres) were set up regionally, to be financed with of the rolling news channel on cable, La a combination of state and local money. Jeanne Chaîne d’Information (LCI). Laurent made funds available to the first of these in 1946, the Centre Dramatique National RAYMOND KUHN de l’Est in Colmar, and, a year later, to Jean See also: cable and satellite television; televi- Dasté’s company the Comédie de St Étienne, sion which moved to St Étienne, since Grenoble (its home town) refused to help fund it as a regional centre. It toured in its region with a lively selection of fun, ‘popular’ theatre productions theatre intended both to encourage new audiences to theatre and to return to popular performance Theatre in France has always been renowned traditions. It became a model for other new as providing a home and encouragement for CDNs, such as the Centre Dramatique de the avant-garde, and continues to do so to- l’Ouest and the Grenier de Toulouse, both of day, whether it be for Peter Brook’s experi- which became CDNs in 1949, and the Comédie mental theatre at the Bouffes du Nord in Paris de Provence. or in the new forms of writing evident in con- During this period, when public theatre temporary productions. Traditions and the was mainly preoccupied with politicizing state attitude to theatre in twentieth-century theatre (such as the work of Vilar) by taking it France have been markedly different from to the people, often to new, working-class au- those seen in English-speaking countries, with diences, the result was that on the whole di- active encouragement of the avant-garde in rectors stuck mainly with well-known clas- recent decades, especially in terms of the de- sics, in an attempt to attract these audiences velopment of the director’s and actor’s input and to appeal to their theatrical tastes, with into theatrical creation. little opportunity for experimentation with From the nineteenth century’s Parisian boul- new ideas or contemporary texts. It was there- evard theatres, with their melodramas and light fore in the small theatres of Paris’s Left Bank (usually romantic) comedies, it might seem as that avant-garde authors such as Beckett, if nothing has changed much to this day, if one Ionesco and Adamov were given their first takes into consideration the capital’s private performances, which, while viewed at first theatres, which advertise their star-laden en- very much as avant-garde, quickly achieved tertainment across town. However, in France, worldwide renown. By the 1960s, they had they are under increasing threat from well- been accepted as modern classics, and were funded public theatre, developed in France performed in Paris at theatres such as the since World War II. While theatres such as the Odéon, under the direction of Barrault, as Comédie-Française date back much further well as worldwide. Their effect on French the- than the postwar period, it is during this time atrical writing was profound in the decades to that the nature of publicly funded theatre in follow, and they continue to influence many France has changed dramatically. Following a contemporary writers, such as Philippe markedly different line from the private thea- Minyana, who freely acknowledges his fasci- tres, its brief today is to make theatre a public nation with Beckett’s work. service, providing France not only with a sta- Meanwhile in the public theatre world, as ple diet of well-produced classics, but also with the number of CDNs grew, so did the power a home for experimental and contemporary of the directors running them, who were not work. As part of the wave of decentralization only in financial charge of running these thea- which swept France during the 1950s, there- tres, but also controlled creative decision-mak- fore, a number of Centres Dramatiques ing and practice. This factor is certainly one Nationaux (or CDNs; National Drama Cen- of the main reasons for the extreme theatre 523 importance the director has developed in the the increased interest in actor, scene and non- postwar French theatre world. spoken means of communication, the power Following on from the practices of Copeau of director’s theatre resulted in a severe lack and the Cartel before the war, through to the of contemporary texts being produced, par- influence of Brechtian theatre upon the in- ticularly from the late 1960s to the end of the creased importance of the director, and the 1970s. With some exceptions, the 1970s were ideas of avant-garde theorists such as Artaud, a desert as far as playwrights were concerned: the role of director became an intrinsic one if they wanted to see their plays produced, of- not only in terms of choreographing the work ten the only way to do so was to mount them of the author, but also for his or her own ar- personally. tistic input. Today this role is considered in It was only in the 1980s that theatre found many ways equal to, if not more important itself returning to texts as a basis for produc- than, that of the author: talk of Mnouchkine’s tion. Many theatre companies had become dis- Tartuffe or Chéreau’s Dans la solitude des illusioned with the impracticalities of collec- champs de coton (In the Solitude of the Cot- tive creation, but, having learned valuable les- ton Fields) is still common practice, referring sons about staging, the role of the actor and to the director as creator in much the same nontext-based performance from their experi- way as in the cinema world. ments, their renewed work on text was in Thus, from the 1950s onwards, the fact many ways enriched. Good examples of this that directors of CDNs were usually also re- include Ariane Mnouchkine’s Shakespearean sponsible for directing artistic projects meant cycle and her collaboration with feminist play- that they had free rein to decide exactly how wright Hélène Cixous, both projects relying state money should be spent creatively, and on influences from Eastern theatre tradition. used this position to mount productions on During the 1970s, despite the predominant which they were able to impose their personal lack of interest in text, a new generation of mark. As a result of state funding, they were playwrights had nevertheless emerged, loosely also more free to experiment with the bounda- banded together under the umbrella term the ries of theatre practice alongside the staple diet Théâtre du Quotidien, although each adopted of classics they presented, experimenting with a very individual approach. Influenced in some staging non-theatrical texts, adapted from ways by the playwrights of the Theatre of the novels or other art forms, or simply mounting Absurd, works such as Wenzel’s Loin classics upon which it was easy to impose their d’Hagondange (Far from Hagondange) and own ideas and make their own mark. Some Michel Deutsch’s Convoi (Convoy) returned directors such as Planchon, for example, were the emphasis to language, using it to highlight criticized for using state money to fund pro- the alienation of the protagonists, and using ductions of their own plays. fragmented structure to pinpoint the confu- The tradition of non-text productions was sion of the world in which they were forced to further enhanced during the 1970s by prac- forge their existence. However, at the same tices such as collective creation, of which the time, inheriting in some part the tradition of Théâtre du Soleil was one of the main propo- performance-led work, the plays of the nents. The company became renowned for its Quotidien also relied heavily on performance revolutionary approach to performance, turn- to convey their message, leaving plenty of ing away from the text, experimenting with scope for actors and directors to interpret the performance traditions worked on collectively language and fragmented structure. by the entire company and focusing on the Michel Vinaver is perhaps the most famous actor and scene as much as on the spoken playwright of the 1970s, and continues to word. The result was legendary productions write today. Like the playwrights of the such as 1789 and L’Age d’or (The Golden Quotidien, Vinaver also experimented with Age). Combined with collective creation and structure and particularly viewpoint in works 524 Théâtre du Quotidien such as Overboard (Par-dessus bord) and Por- the state, 20 per cent by local government and trait d’une femme (Portrait of a Woman), and the rest (36 per cent) engendered by the thea- his plays have proved influential to many tres themselves through either sponsorship or young writers. revenue, according to 1994 Ministry of Cul- During the 1980s, the works of Bernard- ture statistics (Direction du theatre et des spec- Marie Koltès, perhaps the best-known play- tacles 1994). In addition to the CDNs, there wright in the contemporary repertoire, became are also 9 Centres Dramatiques Régionaux known through their stagings by star director (Regional Drama Centres) with specific local Patrice Chéreau. Koltès, who died in 1989, missions, and 61 scènes nationales, formerly could be considered (alongside Vinaver) to be maisons de la culture, which have a wide, the best-known contemporary playwright in multidisciplined brief aimed at cultural devel- the 1990s and his plays enjoy regular perform- opment and the search for new audiences, and ance in France today. prioritizing contemporary works. These are The theatre-going public as a whole, espe- financed half by the Ministry of Culture and cially in Paris, is not a purely bourgeois and half by local government. conservative one; there exists today a divide ANNIE SPARKS in the theatre world between the boulevard theatres of the private theatre sector, still ca- See also: arts funding; Avignon and summer tering to this bourgeois ‘market’ as they did in arts festivals; circus; mime; Theatre of Cru- the nineteenth century, and the audiences of elty; theatres, national; theatres, private publicly funded theatre, which, thanks to generous subsidies during the Mitterrand years, Further reading has been able to experiment and explore the possibilities of theatre as a medium, attracting an intellectual audience in the process. Bradby, D. (1991) Modern French Drama Despite spending cuts by the Chirac regime 1940–1990, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- in 1996, the extent of funding in France makes versity Press (a detailed history of postwar the French theatre scene a markedly different theatre practices, traditions and expo- one from that of the United Kingdom. In France, nents). public theatre has, during a period of substan- Corvin, M. (ed.) (1995) Le Dictionnaire du tial financial support, found itself the home to théâtre, 2 vols, Paris: Bordas (an encyclo- huge, spectacular (but frequently loss-making) pedia of French theatre in French). productions, and with the resources to house Couty, D. and Rey, A. (eds) (1995) Le Théâtre, experimental and contemporary works. Thus Paris: Bordas (a general history of practices the avant-garde in some ways could be consid- and traditions, with particularly textual ered now to have moved into the very estab- and pictorial material on twentieth-century lishment which it once sought to undermine: practitioners such as the Théâtre du Soleil). the private theatres today are under such finan- Whitton D. (1987) Stage Directors in Modern cial constraints that it is they who resort to sure- France, Manchester: Manchester University fire successes, often with stars in their line-up, Press (a useful English-language introduc- in a bid to cover their costs at least. tion to individual directors). Public theatre, at least for the time being, is well resourced, and continues to stage a varied mixture of productions, both text- and nontext-based. Today in France there are 33 Théâtre du Quotidien Centres Dramatiques Nationaux, 6 of these devoted to youth theatre. Each consists of a This name signifies a genre of theatre pro- theatre venue with a permanent troupe at- duced by a significant number of playwrights tached to it, with 44 per cent of costs met by in the 1970s in France. Their plays dealt with Théâtre du Soleil 525 everyday life on stage, as the word quotidien Further reading suggests, relying on everyday language and events to make more general, often violent Bradby, D. (1991) Modern French Drama statements about aspects of society. The 1940–1990, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- movement was inspired by German and Aus- versity Press (includes a chapter on play- trian theatre and cinema of the time, and by wrights of the 1970s). the numerous German translations appearing Sarrazac, J.-P. (1981) L’Avenir du drame, in French theatres which told of the lives of Paris: L’Aire (a discussion of tendencies in everyday people in ordinary situations, usu- plays during this period). ally in fragmented form. The same fragmented form and departure from linear plot was evident in many French plays of the 1970s, which explored the way everyday lan- Théâtre du Soleil guage can often be imprisoning to the people who use it. Nonlinear structure was also a Founded in 1963 by Ariane Mnouchkine and feature of these texts, suspending emotional friends from the Sorbonne, the Théâtre du engagement, and allowing the permeation of Soleil has become one of the most influential larger, more violent messages told through the theatre groups in France, famous for innova- relationship between characters and their en- tions in theatrical tradition, structure, form vironment. Notable playwrights of the move- and working methods. Christened ‘Soleil’ at a ment were René Kalisky, Michel Deutsch and time when state-run, decentralized theatre was Jean-Paul Wenzel. The sociopolitical content full of heavy and bureaucratically named com- of their work, often violently exposed in their panies, the Théâtre du Soleil set out to seek tales of heightened everyday reality, appealed new ways of presenting political and aesthetic to directors of the day, who continued to seek messages to a mass audience made up of the to politicize theatre and reach out to ordinary working class as well as the bourgeoisie. It was people through their productions, while also keen to explore uncharted means of theatrical searching for works leaving them room to representation, drawing on existing European imprint their own creative voice. Using frag- theatre traditions such as the commedia dell’ mentary structure, playwrights of the move- arte, old French farce, even Roman and medi- ment experimented with time and space—in eval theatre, for inspiration. Physical, exuber- plays such as Deutsch’s Convoi (Convoy), ant performances dominated its versions of and many of Vinaver’s works. Well-rounded Gautier’s Fracasse and Wesker’s The Kitchen, characters in the Théâtre du Quotidien were in which the actors added an expressionist, to some extent abandoned, as was linear plot, physical interpretation of their characters to inasmuch as the characters in these plays are an otherwise naturalistic play, which appealed often trapped by the language of the every- to packed audiences in occupied factories dur- day, which leaves them unable to articulate ing revolutionary 1968. The company also emotions. Their existence, in dramatic terms, produced an acclaimed production of Shake- is rooted in the message or theme they em- speare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream, com- body and epitomize, rather than in their es- bining physical and emotional vibrancy. Les sence as naturalistic characters: the plays of Clowns in 1969 was a further attempt to ex- the Théâtre du Quotidien were plore the role of the performer—a series of sociopolitically motivated, evoking emotion autobiographical pieces based on individual or sympathy only while exposing wider social and group improvisations, the first of the com- issues. pany’s celebrated collective creations. ANNIE SPARKS Now including designer Guy-Claude François in the team, the Théâtre du Soleil set See also: theatre; director’s theatre 526 Theatre of Cruelty up in the Cartoucherie in 1970, a disused car- proved memorable epic productions, dealing tridge factory in Vincennes, where they experi- with contemporary social and political issues. mented further with theatre space and actor- The latter, for example, took on the contro- audience relations. The result was the hugely versial issue of blood contamination and con- successful 1789, combining historical research sequent infection with AIDS; Cixous set the with exuberant theatrical spectacle, plural play, however, in an undefined time scale, be- viewpoints of individual events with multi- tween ancient times and the modern day, em- staging and audience involvement. Many were ploying the Furies (the Érinyes of the play’s so excited by it that they would remain after title from Greek myth) to seek revenge on be- the performance to discuss the ideas it raised. half of the victims. The trial before society 1793, which followed, also combined his- which ensues in the play is fruitless: no one torical documentation with political comment will take responsibility. This two-part epic was and multiple viewpoints, while L’Age d’or (The performed the following year in alternation Golden Age), which came next, turned to con- with Tartuffe at the 1995 Avignon festival. temporary reality for inspiration, which meant Mnouchkine’s new production, and her first extra efforts were needed to prevent the piece full-scale production of a Molière play, took from becoming social documentary. Using on the issue of contemporary war-ridden Al- masks and gesture, the company told stories geria, endowing Molière’s classic with a bit- based around real events, showing capitalism ing relevance to the present day. at work using essentially theatrical means. ANNIE SPARKS By 1975, the now state-subsidized company still found that its lengthy rehearsal and See also: Algerian war; Avignon and summer research periods were leading to financial arts festivals; theatre problems. Jean-Claude Penchenat left to form the Théâtre du Campagnol, while remaining Further reading members moved on to play in Mnouchkine’s film venture, Molière. The company returned to theatre with Mephisto, Mnouchkine’s ad- Kiernander, A. (1995) Ariane Mnouchkine aptation of Mann’s novel in 1979, exploring and the Théâtre du Soleil, Cambridge: the political role of a theatre company, inter- Cambridge University Press. spersing ‘rehearsal’ scenes with political discussion. Reversible seats allowed the audience to watch Nazi Germany from a dual perspective, to highlight the gulf between personal and Theatre of Cruelty official viewpoints and culture. The company cleared its debts with sub- Antonin Artaud’s notion of a ‘theatre of cru- sidy from the new Socialist government in elty’ is central to his collection of essays enti- 1981, embarking on a Shakespearean cycle tled The Theatre and Its Double (Le Théâtre inspired by theatrical traditions from India et son double), first published in 1938. and Japan, followed by the four-play cycle Les Artaud’s overall aim in these essays was to Atrides in the early 1990s, experimenting with rewrite the conventions of theatre. He sought Greek tragedy. Both cycles sought to find con- to subvert the classical conception of drama, temporary relevance for the classics while ex- which gave priority to the playwright, the text perimenting with performance traditions. Dur- and the dramatic canon, and to develop in- ing the 1980s and 1990s, Mnouchkine has stead a theatre which pushed the audience to- also worked extensively with feminist author wards the painful collective release of their Hélène Cixous, whose epic Sihanouk in 1985, subconscious, through cruelty. Cruelty in the L’Indiade in 1987 and La Ville parjure ou les theatre, for Artaud, did not refer simply to the Érinyes (Treacherous City) in 1994 have staging of criminal or violent acts, but Theatre of the Absurd 527 involved exposing the audience to the contra- sociated with writers such as Beckett. Ionesco dictory thrills and dangers of existence. As a and Genet, and practitioners like Blin and result, the audience would be forced to con- Barrault. Artaud’s theatre also influenced the front the dark side of their own cultural inher- development of film. For instance, Claudel itance, and ultimately the eroticism and vio- wrote in 1930 in his essay Le Drame et la lence which lay repressed within their own musique (Drama and Music) that the screen, subconscious. Artaud drew a close parallel rather like the stage, could unlock the door to between cruelty on stage and the Plague, both the troubled world of the human unconscious, of which were able to subvert and destroy and that cinema and theatre would establish conventional social hierarchies, and thereby an alliance firmly based within America. allow actor and spectator a privileged insight Artaud’s theatre, equally, encouraged the de- into their essential complexity. velopment of a new director’s theatre. One In an attempt to rewrite stage conventions, exponent of this kind of theatre, Roger Artaud proposed a new theatrical ‘language’ Planchon, follows Artaud in suggesting that which sought to bypass the spoken word or the modern director is no longer subservient ‘logocentrism’ of the Aristotelian theatre. to the playwright. In his preface to the 1986 Artaud’s theatre was to depend on the synthe- edition of Molière’s L’Avare, he suggests that sis of music, dance, mime and set, which to- the director resembles a museum curator, who gether would form a concrete theatrical lan- by restoring and displaying relics from the past guage able to penetrate the spectator’s subcon- instils in them an essential ambiguity, such that scious through the senses. Following his obser- it is no longer clear who is responsible for the vation of the sharp, angular movements of the ‘relic’ as it is now perceived. Balinese actors in Paris in 1931, movements GERARD PAUL SHARPLING which provided an economy of direct, unmediated communication between actor and See also: theatre spectator, Artaud developed an interest in the dramatic possibilities of gesture. Despite Further reading Artaud’s detailed specifications, however, the Theatre of Cruelty failed to achieve the impact or success which Artaud had hoped for during Barber, S. (1993) Antonin Artaud: Blows and his lifetime. Indeed, his only full-length play, The Bombs, London: Faber (an authoritative Cenci (Les Cenci), written in 1935, was plagued account of Artaud’s life and works, with a by financial difficulties and derided by a number chapter on the emergence and the demise of critics as a failure, before being withdrawn of the Theatre of Cruelty). after only two weeks. Derrida, in Writing and Difference (L’Écriture et la difference) sees in Artaud’s writing an implicit critique of West- ern metaphysics as a whole. Artaud, says Theatre of the Absurd Derrida, attempted to destroy the legacy of God the Father, who was the originator of all lan- ‘Theatre of the Absurd’ is a term used to refer guage and ‘logocentrism’. This attempted par- to the work of a collection of individual play- ricide led to the closure of all representation, wrights writing in the 1950s and 1960s, whose and the impossibility of all repetition, within radical approach to drama intrinsically ques- Artaud’s theatre. tioned the nature of theatre. Leading propo- It was only after the posthumous publica- nents of the movement were Beckett, Ionesco, tion of Artaud’s essays in English in 1958 that Adamov and Genet, all of whose works were Artaud’s reputation eventually grew. There are produced in the 1950s in small, Parisian avant- clear thematic links between Artaud’s theatre garde theatres. They were by no means part of and the French New Theatre of the 1950s, as- a self-acknowledged group. The various 528 theatres, national writers of the Theatre of the Absurd can be response. Ionesco’s unpublished alternative said. however, to be linked by their philoso- endings for The Bald Primadonna (La phy of pessimism and despair, and their iden- Cantatrice Chauve), for example, required ei- tification of the absurdity of the human condi- ther the author to come on stage and harangue tion. Unlike Giraudoux and existentialist play- the audience verbally, or extras placed in the wrights such as Sartre and Camus, who used audience to get up and cause disruption. the accepted framework of theatre practice as By the 1960s, the plays of authors such as a vehicle for their intellectual ideas, dramatists Beckett and Ionesco, which had caused a stir of the Absurd were united by their successful, from their beginnings on Paris’s Left Bank, revolutionary attempts to make both their the- had achieved international recognition. By atrical methods and their subject matter ab- 1960, Barrault was able to stage Ionesco’s surd. Hence the plays of the Theatre of the Rhinocéros at the Théâtre de l’Odéon in Paris, Absurd do not discuss the futility of the hu- and schedule Blin’s revival of Beckett’s Wait- man condition: they show it, using a complex ing for Godot in 1961. The plays of the Ab- web of stage imagery and poetry. Rejecting surd are now considered contemporary clas- standard theatrical devices such as linear plot sics worldwide and part of the established and straightforward characterization, the plays modern repertoire. of the Absurd encapsulate their philosophy in ANNIE SPARKS their approach to staging and text as much as in theme. Working on a more primal, psycho- See also: existentialism; existentialist theatre; logical level than their existentialist forebears, theatre playwrights such as Beckett and Ionesco un- dermined conventions, experimenting with structure to such an extent that at first their plays may appear to have no cohesive struc- theatres, national ture at all. In Waiting for Godot (En attendant Godot), for example, it appears that noth- Of the five national theatres run on state sub- ing happens. There is no development of ac- sidy in France, four are in Paris: the Comédie- tion. The characters are clown-like figures Française, the Théâtre National de l’Odéon— rather than psychologically rounded charac- Théâtre de l’Europe, the Théâtre de la Colline ters acting according to their own reason— and the Théâtre National de Chaillot. The fifth, there is no reason in their world. in Strasbourg, is the Théâtre National de Stras- It is by virtue of their ability to transfer the bourg. As well as these five institutions, the néant of their philosophy into concrete stage state also funds forty-two regional theatre cen- images that the playwrights of the Absurd can tres, known as Centres Dramatiques be seen to be particularly distinguished. Struc- Nationaux et Régionaux (National or Regional ture, character and language are used to em- Drama Centres), which consist of a permanent body their ideas, rather than to act as a vehi- venue and team, and run themselves along the cle for them. Unlike the works of the poetic lines of commercial theatre, each as its own avant-garde also operating in Paris in the 1950s business seeking funding outside the state as and 1960s, the playwrights of the Absurd regu- well as receiving an average of 44 per cent of larly used language to offend or shock in a income from the state. way which often appeared nonsensical (hence The joint mission of all the national thea- reflecting their general Weltanschauung). As tres is threefold: to present major works from well as manifesting black humour, many the accepted repertoire in new and interesting Absurdist plays aim also to confuse and con- ways; to promote contemporary creation (in- front expectations and concepts of form. This cluding non-text-based theatre as well as new aggressive desire to shock was intended to authors); and to try to appeal to as wide a evoke an emotional rather than a reasoned public as possible, with ticket prices fixed by theatres, national 529 the state to keep prices down. They often man- Georges Lavaudant in 1996. The theatre’s age to accomplish the latter through produc- brief, to produce itself and to welcome com- tions and national and international exchanges. panies from all over the world, has led to some Each national theatre is headed by a director memorable productions over the years from chosen by the Ministry of Culture. Although (among others) the Deutsche Schaubühne, the sharing a common mission, the repertoire of Royal Shakespeare Company, the Théâtre du the various national theatres differs slightly. Soleil, the Théâtre National Populaire (TNP) Of the five national theatres, the Comédie- and the Théâtre de Nanterre-Amandiers. Prior Française is the most famous and certainly the to 1990, it also hosted productions by the oldest institution. It is obliged to show a mini- Comédie-Française’s Jeune Théâtre National mum of four different works per week, and (National Youth Theatre). The Petit Odéon, often even two plays a day. It is the only insti- the smaller of its two auditoria, has been home tution to have a permanent troupe of actors to numerous contemporary works from play- (pensionnaires and sociétaires): all the other wrights including Heiner Müller. national theatres maintain a permanent admin- Following in the wake of the Théâtre de istrative staff, but hire actors according to their L’Est de Paris (East Paris Theatre), and needs. Recent directors have been Jean-Pierre founded in 1988, the Colline is the newest of Vincent (1983–6), Antoine Vitez (1988–90), the national theatres. Its two auditoria, the Jacques Lassalle (1990–3) and Jean-Pierre main theatre and the studio, stage twentieth- Miquel (1993–). The theatre under their lead- century French and international classics, ership has witnessed the growing importance ranging from Audiberti to Tony Kushner in of modern authors such as Genet, Sartre, the 1996–7 season, for example. In 1996, Camus and Césaire, in addition to the classic Alain Françon took over from Argentinian repertoire. The Vieux Colombier, the revived director Jorge Lavelli as director. theatre of Copeau fame, operating under the The Théâtre National de Chaillot was also direction of the Comédie-Française since 1993, founded in 1968 in the Chaillot palace in aims to mix more contemporary works with Paris, taking over from Vilar’s (1951–63) and the classics. In October 1996, the Comédie- Georges Wilson’s (1963–8) Théâtre National Française also opened another smaller per- Populaire. The label of Théâtre National formance space, the Carrousel du Louvre, in Populaire passed on to Planchon’s theatre in the gallery beneath the Louvre’s pyramid, Villeurbanne three years later, while the which concentrates on small-scale classic and Théâtre National de Chaillot, under the direc- modern productions, and incorporates literary tion of Wilson, began to work towards the discussion nights, a video theatre run in con- requirements of its new national theatrical nection with ARTE showing recordings of his- mission. This was, essentially, to provide a toric productions, and a video archive. home for the popular theatre repertoire in Functioning as a subsidiary under the um- Paris, with a wide-ranging programme de- brella of the Comédie-Française since 1968, signed to appeal to the widest public possible. the Théâtre de l’Odéon provides the home for In 1973, Jack Lang nominated Vitez and Du a wide-ranging national and international Pavilion as co-directors to undertake a radical classic and contemporary repertoire. In 1983, revamp of the main auditorium, although the the Théâtre de l’Europe company arrived at following year Michel Guy, the Secretary of the Odéon to perform for six months of the State for Culture, vetoed the nomination. year, under the direction of Giorgio Strehler: Perinetti became director, until 1981, when in 1990, the company took up permanent resi- Jack Lang was able to reinstate Vitez until his dence at the Odéon (and it was renamed Le move to the Comédie-Française in 1988. Théâtre National de l’Odéon—Théâtre de Jérôme Savary was elected in his place. l’Europe to reflect this), with the Catalan Lluis The Théâtre National de Strasbourg di- Pasqual at the helm. He was replaced by vides its energies between performing the 530 theatres, private established repertoire and research and crea- ers in private theatre productions, important tion, part of which involves the work of its in drawing the crowds. Many famous film ac- renowned theatre school, L’École Nationale tors return occasionally to the stage, bringing Supérieure d’Art Dramatique. Its director is an audience to the theatre to see them as much Jean-Louis Martinelli, who has been in the as the play. For example, contemporary play- position since 1993: well-known predecessors wright Éric Emmanuel Schmitt’s philosophi- include Vincent (1975–83) and Lassalle cal play Variations énigmatiques, staged at the (1985–90), both of whom went on to become Théâtre Marigny in the autumn of 1996, be- the director (administrateur général) of the came the success of the season, due in no small Comédie-Française. part to the fact that it starred Alain Delon in his great theatrical comeback after twenty ANNIE SPARKS years off the stage, and fellow film actor See also: arts funding; theatres, private Francis Huster. According to 1994 figures, private theatres numbered 48 in France, 47 of which were in Further reading Paris (the other being the Théâtre du VIIIème in Lyon). Private theatres are self-governing, Abirached, R. (1992) Le Théâtre et le prince usually with a theatre practitioner at the helm, 1981–1991, Paris: Plon (see the chapter on even if the building itself is let by a third party public theatres). (insurance companies are often the landlords La Mode d’emploi (1994), Paris: Direction du of private theatres). Few private theatres are Théâtre et des Spectacles (a booklet pub- actually owned by the people who run them— lished by the Ministère de la Culture et de the Poche, Variétés and Palais Royal theatres la Francophonie, detailing national thea- being the best-known exceptions. Most theatres, their mission, and factual information tres pay rent to the landlord, calculated ac- about the National Drama Centres). cording to the number of seats in the venue. Temkine, R. (1992) Le Théâtre en l’état, Paris: Seat prices in private theatre are usually higher Éditions Théâtrales (deals with public thea- than in state-run theatres, due to the dual com- tre’s historical and contemporary context mercial pressures of higher rates of VAT on and role). private theatre seats and the lack of subsidy. However, it would be wrong to suggest that private theatre receives no subsidy at all. That said, there is very little money allocated to theatres, private them in comparison with the national theatres and Centres Dramatiques Nationaux The private theatre tradition in France—thea- (CDNs). In 1994, for example, the Direction tres that operate independently and are not du Théâtre et des Spectacles, the government reliant to any significant degree on state fund- department responsible for distributing money ing or governorship—owes its origins to the to theatres, gave only 47.3 million francs to popular boulevard theatres of the Parisian private theatre (including street theatre and Right Bank during the nineteenth century, circus companies), while the five national thea- home to a genre of light, romantic comedy tres received 316.6 million francs and the which continues to this day to be the staple CDNs a similar figure (Direction du Théâtre diet of Parisian ‘boulevard’ theatre-goers. et des Spectacles 1994). Government money While the private theatres of Paris are certainly also partly funds the Fonds du Soutien (Sup- responsible for a more varied selection of port Fund) to which many private theatres works than this, it is this kind of play which subscribe. It aims to support private theatres draws large audiences. For this reason there is needing to redress the balance between outgo- also a longstanding tradition of ‘star’ perform- ings and receipts on a particular production. theme parks 531

To qualify for membership and support from Further reading this fund, theatres must have over 200 seats: those with between 200 and 500 seats usually La Mode d’emploi (1994) Paris: Direction du receive the most help. The amount of aid given Théâtre et des Spectacles (a government de- also varies according to the play: new French partment booklet on theatre expenditure). creations attract more help than classics or Temkine, R. (1992) Le Théâtre en l’état, Paris: one-person shows. The fund also allocates Éditions Théâtrales (see the chapter on pri- money for renovation of theatre buildings, as vate theatre). well as to help support a production which has been slow to be successful, but which is succeeding at last, and to mount any of the first three plays written by a new French au- theme parks thor. The City of Paris also helps subsidize a number of theatres and productions, and aims There are around sixty theme parks in France, to encourage theatre-going with its annual many of which were built in the 1980s and early two-for-the-price-of-one ticket deal for many 1990s, as their popularity soared. The most productions in the capital. In recent years, the successful parks include the Schtroumpf private theatre sector, which accounts for half (Smurf)-themed park near the German border, the total theatre-going in France, has faced and Futuroscope, a science park opened in 1987 increasing competition from the public sector, near Poitiers, which includes an Imax 3D cin- which (thanks to government funding) can ema (600 sq m) that projects 70 mm films de- produce often elaborate creations while still picting the wonders of the natural world (be- being able to keep ticket prices at reasonable tween 1993 and 1995, attendance at this park levels. Private theatre, on the other hand, has more than doubled, from 1.3 million to 2.8 suffered from inflationary costs and thus has million visitors). The ever-popular Parc Astérix, to be especially careful in its choice of play, located in the Ermenoville forest 60 km from taking into account production costs and the Paris, is based on the Belgian comic strip of the need for long runs. Many more private thea- same name. But, like the ancient Gauls depicted tres are also turning to the Fonds du Soutien in the Astérix comics, it must contend with fierce for aid. Whereas the 1950s and 1960s saw competition from a formidable invading force: the small private theatres of the Left Bank in- the American Disney Corporation. novating with the launch of Beckett, Ionesco The biggest and best known of France’s and other avant-garde work, in the 1990s pri- theme parks, Disneyland Paris was originally vate theatres are less able to experiment, need- called EuroDisney. The name change, effected ing to rely on classics, a star performer or a in 1995, signalled an attempt to reverse ini- show with low costs, such as a one-person tially disappointing attendance figures both by show, often even to come close to break-even linking the park to its successful Californian point. Private theatre is, however, fighting predecessor and by invoking the romantic ap- back against the competition from state- peal of Paris (though the park is actually situ- funded theatre by attempting to save money ated in Marne-la-Vallée, 32 km away). The on productions and make itself competitive new name, at once more American and more once more. Increasingly, theatres are working French, suggests the conflict inherent in its on co-productions together, pooling resources, dual identity. risks and potential profits, with the hope of From its inception, the park was viewed by redeveloping an arena for innovation and ex- French intellectuals (such as Ariane perimentation in the future. Mnouchkine, who likened it to un Chernobyl ANNIE SPARKS culturel) as an emblem of American cultural imperialism. Many of the employees, and the See also: theatres, national 532 Thorez, Maurice intellectuals who championed their cause, ob- France. He was a senior minister in the period jected to the imposition of a regimented 1944–7. Known as ‘the son of the people’, he American work ethic, manifested in the strict was the object of a personality cult in PCF dress code and grooming guidelines, the en- ranks and was a combative proponent of PCF forced cheerfulness and the corporate environ- Cold War isolationism. ment. Equally unpopular was the park’s ban LAURENCE BELL on alcohol, which followed the company policy in the American parks, but which was See also: Marchais, Georges; parties and not appreciated by the French, who were ac- movements customed to drinking wine or beer with meals. This ban was eventually lifted. Further reading Theme parks have often been compared to world fairs. Although the comparison may be justified to a certain extent, theme parks and Robrieux, P. (1978) Maurice Thorez: vie world fairs adhere to different temporal and secrète et vie publique, Paris: Fayard (a bi- spatial logics. Whereas world fairs literally ography by the author of a four-volume occupy a city for their duration, they are history of the PCF). ephemeral by design: when their time is up, they are razed to the ground, leaving few traces of their existence. On the other hand, theme parks, as self-contained artificial cities, are Tinguely, Jean pushed outside the borders of the real city, but they are permanent (for as long as they are b. 1925, Fribourg, Switzerland; profitable). A fixture of leisure time, periph- d. 1991, Berne eral to the city and peripheral to work, theme parks serve as a constant reminder of both. Sculptor ELIZABETH EZRA Tinguely was the creator of both static sculp- See also: comic strips/cartoonists ture and motorized constructions, including machines designed to produce paintings, self- destroying machines (one of the most famous of which, Homage to New York, self-de- Thorez, Maurice structed in the gardens of the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1960) and large b. 1900, Noyelles-Godault, percussion sculptures known as ‘sound reliefs’. Pas-de-Calais; Tinguely was interested from his student days d. 1964 en route to Russia in movement as an artistic medium, and in 1955 he participated in an important exhibi- Politician tion of kinetic and mobile art in Paris. The same year he met Yves Klein, with whom he Originally a miner, Thorez joined the Parti collaborated in 1958. His friendship with Communiste Français (PCF) at an early age. Klein and other artists led to the founding of As party leader from 1930 and a member of New Realism (Nouveau Réalisme) which parliament from 1932 onwards, he played an sought to reassess artistic form and material. important role in preventing the PCF from In the 1960s, he produced sculptures made of becoming a marginal revolutionary sect and scrap metal and junk material, especially in backed the 1936 Front Populaire anti-Fascist the Baluba series. In 1983, the Stravinsky alliance. He spent most of World War II in the Fountain, on which he collaborated with Niki Soviet Union and advocated resistance in de Saint-Phalle, was inaugurated beside the Touraine, Alain 533

Pompidou Centre, on the roof of the Institute manufacturers and other sponsors work as a for Acoustic and Musical Research (IRCAM) unit protecting their leader) and an overall directed by Pierre Boulez. winner based on the aggregated times of all the stages. The leader at any one point and at DEBRA KELLY the end—when the race finishes on the See also: sculpture Champs Élysées—wears the coveted ‘yellow jersey’ (le maillot jaune). It is an annual sporting spectacle of huge proportions, which has entrants from throughout the world. Toubon law IAN PICKUP Passed in August 1994 and named after See also: cycling; sport Jacques Toubon, Minister of Culture and Francophonie in the Balladur government of 1993–5, this law replaced the Bas-Lauriol law of 1975, which had proved difficult to apply Touraine, Alain and which had few effective sanctions. Both laws represent official policy towards the sta- b. 1925, Hermanville-sur-Mer tus of the French language, insisting on its use by public servants in five domains: official Sociologist government documents, media, commerce, advertising and education. Condemned by the After entering the École Normale Supérieure Socialist Party as dictatorial, the law’s provi- in 1945, Touraine left temporarily to work as sions were modified by the Constitutional a miner in northeast France (1947–8). Finish- Council to enable ordinary citizens to continue ing his studies under the influence of the soci- using terms like le hot-dog and le Shuttle, al- ologist Georges Friedmann, Touraine’s early though the main target had been franglais: work analysed the stagnation of the industrial advertising slogans like Just roule cool. working class. As his fieldwork and analyses evolved, he pointed successively to develop- DENNIS ACER ments in socioeconomic activity, which indi- See also: anglomanie/franglais cated that in a post-industrial society social organization would respond to the expanding ‘tertiary’ (or service) sector which would gradually replace the traditional industrial Tour de France landscape. Especially after May 1968, he traced the emergence of new social movements The Tour de France is the most famous and which would shape a new society: these in- the most lucrative road race in world cycling. clude the women’s movement, regionalists, Held annually since 1903 (apart from inter- autonomists and ecologists. ruptions during World Wars I and II), the Tour MARTYN CORNICK has become increasingly commercialized and politicized as towns, regions and even neigh- See also: educational elitism; green issues bouring countries vie for the right to be included in the route and offer large sums of Major works money to be selected as the finishing point of one of the stages. The Tour includes mountain stages (some of which are in the Alps and the Touraine, A. (1967) La Conscience ouvrière, Pyrenees) and time trials; it has a points and Paris: Éditions du Seuil. team classification (teams representing cycle ——(1971a) The May Movement: Revolt and 534 Tournier, Michel

Reform, New York: Random House trade (French edition [1972] Le Mouvement de mai, ou le communisme utopique, Paris: Trade is a feature of all societies and all econo- Éditions du Seuil). mies. However, during the postwar period, the ——(1971b) The Post-Industrial Society: To- term ‘trade’ for Western countries such as morrow’s Social History, Classes, Conflicts France has become synonymous with ‘foreign and Culture in the Programmed Society, New trade’. The increase in importance of foreign York: Random House (French edition [1971] trade is one of the main features of the post- La Société post-industrielle, Paris: Denoël). war economic development of France, and ——(1983) L’Après socialisme, Paris: France is one of the top five exporting econo- Hachette. mies in the world. ——(1992) Critique de la modernité, Paris: From the moment that France accepted Fayard. Marshall Aid after World War II, the country ——(1993) Towards a New Economic Order, was drawn into the process of globalization Cambridge: Polity. of trade led by the United States. This was to have dramatic consequences for the French economy and economic policy-making. France Tournier, Michel has traditionally had a reputation for being protectionist. Particularly in the 1950s and b. 1924, Paris 1960s, the state saw it as its duty to protect fledgling industries from foreign competition. Writer This was possible because much French production was for the home market and there- Tournier is one of the most important modern fore France did not need to open the doors of European novelists. While writing within the its economy to foreign competition in order tradition of the realist novel, he constantly to be allowed to enter foreign markets itself. engages in intertextual play, each of his novels However, with the corning of the European being a rewriting of previous texts or crucial Economic Community (EEC) and the lower- myths. As befits a writer who was trained as a ing of protectionist barriers for manufactured philosopher, his subjects are always vast ones: goods between member-states in 1968, the the human couple, the problem of solitude, ability of French governments to protect deviant sexuality, Nazism, religious belief, the French industry was eroded. Consequently, purpose of art. In his fiction and journalism, trade increased between member-states. he constantly intervenes forcefully into debates Furthermore, with the increase in oil prices on politics, sexuality and immigration, as well brought about by the 1974 oil crisis, France had as writing extensively on painting and pho- to offset the high costs of its imported energy tography. His best-known novel is the needs with exports of manufactured goods and Goncourt prizewinner The Erl King (Le Roi services. Indeed, from the 1970s onwards, the des Aulnes). balance of trade has been a major preoccupation of French governments, since the French MICHAEL WORTON economy has more often been in the red than in See also: gay writing; literary prizes the black. The French have attempted to reduce their dependence on imported energy by developing the nuclear industry. None the less, the Further reading main problem for France concerning foreign trade now comes from the competition which Worton, M. (ed.) (1995), Michel Tournier, the country faces from the newly industrializ- London: Longman (a collection of essays). ing nations of the Pacific Rim. Unfortunately, transport 535

French industry specializes in the production of now covers nearly 9,000 km (nearly three the same kind of goods as are produced by these times the length of motorways in Great Brit- countries, but costs in France are much higher. ain). Most motorways were built by part-pub- France therefore aspires to be an economy spe- lic, part-private consortia, which collect tolls cializing in high-technology products, like Ger- from motorway users. many and Japan. The car has become a way of life for most of the French population, deeply affecting so- JAN WINDEBANK ciocultural behaviour. From the beginnings of See also: European Union; manufacturing in- the car era, the mythology of speed and indi- dustry; multinational companies vidual freedom associated with the possession and control of a vehicle have become major cultural themes. The novelist Paul Morand, in L’Homme pressé (Man in a Hurry), extolled transport the virtues of speed at any price. More recently, Françoise Sagan, in Avec mon Meilleur Transport networks in France have been shaped Souvenir (With my Best Memory), wrote to respond to the central role of Paris. How- about racing cars and the excitement of speed- ever, since the 1970s, the need for better con- ing. The car itself is seen as a highly symboli- nections with the rest of Europe, as well as re- cally charged object, the epitome of modern gional development policies, have helped to values; this was particularly well expressed by develop more balanced networks. Road is in- Roland Barthes’s Mythologies in the analysis creasingly France’s favoured mode of transport, of the Citroën DS19, a car which appeared in but rail has maintained a strong presence. 1955 with a striking ‘designer’ shape. Until very recently, railway and road net- The cost of a car civilization has been con- works had a striking shape: organized as a siderable, with France having one of the high- ‘star’ structure, centring on Paris and radiat- est road accident rates in Europe (13,787 peo- ing across France, this illustrated the concen- ple were killed in 1975, the worst year). Since tration of population and power in the Île-de- then, the toll has fallen (around 8,500 deaths France. Before the 1980s, it was sometimes in 1994, against 1,700 in Great Britain). Traf- easier when travelling by train from the west fic jams hit car commuters day after day, as of France to the Rhône valley to go to Paris do the mass departures for summer or week- first, and then down again, avoiding the badly end holidays for which France is famous. Traf- served Massif Central. fic jams and accidents are also now part of the However, France has a very high density of culture—as is evidenced by the themes of films, small départementales (county roads) and nar- such as Jean-Luc Godard’s Week-End or rower chemins communaux (parish lanes) Claude Sautet’s Les Choses de la vie. which spread through some 36,500 munici- Other means of transport also took their palities. The wider Routes Nationales consti- place in the culture of modernity, when, just tute the primary road network and became a before World War I, it transpired for the first symbol of the growth of travel by car when, time that the whole world was accessible. in the 1950s, the first cheap models, such as Since then, the romantic appeal of transconti- the Citroën 2CV or the Renault 4, became nental rail travel and ocean liners has died popular. Some of these roads have now be- out—the French merchant fleet has dwindled. come part of popular culture. Charles Trenet’s Apart from ferries in the Channel and Medi- hit song, Nationale 7, celebrated the national terranean Sea, only some holiday cruise ships road that follows the Rhone valley towards have upheld the tradition of the great liners the Côte d’Azur, and is the emblem of holi- such as the series of Normandie and France days and freedom. The French motorway net- which competed with the Queen Mary and work was developed from the mid-1960s; it Queen Elizabeth for the Blue Ribbon across 536 Trenet, Charles the Atlantic Ocean. Similarly, rail had consid- FRANÇOIS NECTOUX erable appeal before losing out to the car. It See also: green issues; motor sport became the most powerful means of transport between the two world wars, hence the use of railway sabotage by the French Resistance Further reading during World War II, reconstituted in René Clément’s film La Bataille du rail (1946). Baleste, M. (1992) L’Économie française, Steam engines now inspire nostalgia rather Paris: Masson (regularly re-edited, this work than awe, despite the fact that the trainspotter describes the various transport networks). does not exist in French popular culture. Many local and regional railway lines disappeared in the 1960s and 1970s. However, the train has survived as an efficient interregional Trenet, Charles and international passenger transport system, through the train à grande vitesse (TGV) pro- b. 1913, Narbonne gramme. Launched in 1981 on the Paris-Lyon line, the TGV regained the world rail-speed Singer-songwriter record in 1990, with over 500 kph, which is faster than passenger aeroplanes in 1960. The most influential French singer-songwriter TGV lines have now spread across most re- of the prewar and postwar periods, Charles gions and compete with internal air flights— Trenet enjoyed a seemingly never-ending ca- indeed, Paris is now 110 minutes away from reer which stretched from 1933 to 1992 and Lyon, instead of 240 minutes, as in 1960. The includes some 350 compositions, excluding his Eurostar services between London, Paris, Lille musical settings of works by Verlaine, and Brussels have also been immensely suc- Rimbaud and others. Having started as a du- cessful despite early problems. ettist with Johnny Hess (as Charles et Johnny, France has been one of the pioneer coun- 1933–7), and characteristically singing songs tries for air flight. The first winged device to lift which offer an escape in time and in space, up in the air with a helix and propeller was built Trenet was forced to interrupt his career in and flown by Clément Ader near Paris in 1890, order to do his military service. Relaunched and Louis Blériot first flew over the Channel in as a solo performer in 1938 and nicknamed le 1909. It inspired many dreams, and Antoine de fou chantant (the singing madman), Trenet Saint-Exupéry wrote novels imagining the new incorporated swing, jazz, the waltz and tango, professional pilot as modern knight. not to mention tropical rhythms, in a reper- A last major component of the transport sys- toire which rejuvenated French song after its tem comprises the urban transport systems (tube, decline into the vulgar innuendo of the café- trains, buses and tramways). The most impor- concert and later cabarets. tant covers the Paris region, an integrated sys- A wordsmith of unusual talent whose songs tem of underground railways (the Métro) and a captivated the imagination of the French pre- fast regional transit system, the RER (Réseau war generation, Trenet was sung by Maurice Express Régional), feeding on each other and Chevalier as early as 1937—as in Y’a d’la joie on the SNCF commuter network. Urban trans- (There is Joy), a song performed much later port in Paris is relatively cheap, with popular by Georges Brassens, who enthusiastically ac- season tickets (the Carte Orange). The system is knowledged the immense formative influence heavily subsidized by the state, and a special tax of the composer of this piece. Writing often is imposed upon the employers to fund the trans- poetic texts which sometimes bear the imprint port system. However, this does not prevent the of Surrealism, or which sketch an everyday car from being an urban nuisance, with air pol- scene or the portrait of a woman, Trenet lution and loss of time becoming real problems. Trintignant, Jean-Louis 537 created sounds (onomatopoeia being a favour- See also: music venues; song/chanson ite device) which merge seamlessly with his music. A prolific composer whose output was Major works scarcely diminished during the war years, Trenet continued to record and to undertake stage performances, refusing to abandon the Trenet, C. (1993) Le Jardin extraordinaire, Americanized rhythms which were scarcely Paris: Livre de Poche (this contains all the designed to please the German forces of the songs written by Trenet; edited by Pierre Occupation. With an ever-broadening reper- Saka). toire (tender love songs and parodies co-existing alongside swing numbers), Trenet increased Further reading his popularity in France significantly before reaching international stardom with arguably his most famous composition, (Somewhere) Pérez, M. (1964) Charles Trenet, Paris: Beyond the Sea (La Mer), in 1945. Seghers (an account of Trenet’s career until Sung by an ever-increasing number of stars the 1960s). (including Yves Montand, Les Compagnons de la chanson, Juliette Gréco and Tino Rossi), Trenet continued to enjoy huge success in France until the end of the 1950s, when his output of Trintignant, Jean-Louis songs declined as he travelled extensively abroad. If foreign tours diminished to some b. 1930, Pont St-Esprit extent his creative verve during the 1960s, Trenet reacquainted himself with a French au- Actor dience at the Olympia in 1971 and 1975 (the latter allegedly being his farewell performance) Primarily a screen actor, his career took off, before triumphing at the ‘Printemps de Bourges’ curiously given his timid persona, in two no- (Bourges Spring Festival)—an annual music fes- torious Roger Vadim films—And God Created tival staged at Easter from 1977 where, despite Woman (Et Dieu area la femme) in 1956 and the increasing melancholy which characterized Les Liaisons dangereuses (1959). Trintignant his later work, he captivated a new, young au- is the master of the understated virtual non- dience. Persuaded to come out of retirement in performance, yet the roles he has most con- 1988 (for a concert at the Châtelet) and in 1989 sistently played are ones of extremes in terms (for a final recital at the Palais des Congrès), of emotions or issues of political or personal Trenet made his last impact on record sales in power, such as Costa-Gavras’s Z (1969) and 1992 when he released thirteen songs. It would Bertolucci’s The Conformist (1970). The be almost impossible fully to assess the impor- larger and more impassioned the character he tance of Trenet in the field of French song in is to inhabit, the greater the minimalist per- the twentieth century. In addition to his influ- formance and the wider the range of modula- ence as indicated above, it would be necessary tion of his voice—he can exude terror or ha- to add the names of Aznavour, Bécaud, Jonasz, tred, love or seduction through an almost si- Souchon and many more to the list of distin- lent enunciation. guished performers and singer-songwriters who SUSAN HAYWARD are clearly indebted to him. Suffice it to say that, without him, French song as we know it today See also: cinema would never have existed. IAN PICKUP 538 Truffaut, François

Truffaut, François rience—made it an instant success. Doinel/ Léaud was to return in three subsequent fea- b. 1932, Paris; tures—Stolen Kisses (Baisers Volés) in 1968, d. 1984, Paris Domicile conjugal (1970) and L’Amour en fuite (1979)—which take him through a failed Director marriage and much career hesitation before he realizes his vocation as a writer. The tone of these films is mellower, and the use of cinematic One of the key figures of the Nouvelle Vague technique less adventurous, than in Les quatre (New Wave), Truffaut is almost certainly the cents coups, and Truffaut’s work from the late postwar French film director whose work is 1960s is often thought less important than his most widely known in English-speaking coun- earlier films. tries. He had an unhappy and neglected Paris- Shoot the Pianist (Tirez sur le pianiste), from ian childhood against which he reacted by 1960, combines the iconography of the gang- continually playing truant from school to go ster movie with a use of cinematic techniques to the cinema; unlike most of his New Wave from the silent age to tell the melancholy tale contemporaries, he received virtually no for- of a pianist (Charles Aznavour) haunted by a mal education. The ciné-clubs of the Libera- secret from his past. Charlie Kohler/Aznavour’s tion were his ‘university’, and it was there that move from concert pianist to piano player in he met the critic André Bazin, who rescued an underworld café parallels the film’s amal- him from the French equivalent of borstal and gam of high and popular culture, which is became an educator and father figure to him taken yet further in Jules et Jim (1962). Jeanne much as Truffaut himself was later to become Moreau here gives the most memorable per- to Jean-Pierre Léaud. formance of her career, as the woman loved Truffaut first made his mark with his film by two men—one French, one German— criticism, above all for Cahiers du cinema. whose friendship is thereby strengthened rather Abrasive, often abusive, his favourite target than destroyed. The film received a standing was the high-budget, studio-filmed cinema de ovation at the Cannes festival, and became, qualité that had been dominant in France since along with the de Beauvoir-Sartre couple, a the end of the war, with such figures as Autant- founding myth of the desire for emotional and Lara or Jean Delannoy. For Truffaut, this was sexual independence from bourgeois conven- tired, lacklustre film-making, which he con- tion that preceded the impact of feminism. trasted unfavourably to the work of the major The brio and exhilaration with which Hollywood auteurs like Fuller, Hawks and Truffaut uses the camera in these earlier Hitchcock. His own work as a director was to works gives place with his most Chabrolian bear the twofold hallmark of concise vivacity, film, La Peau douce (1964), to a more sober often with an improvised feel, and a strongly and restrained style, which highlights the pre- personal thematic vision characteristic of those occupation with friendship, love, and above film-makers. all death, so characteristic of his work. Those These qualities are in evidence from his first who know him primarily through the bitter- feature, The Four Hundred Blows (Les quatre sweet playfulness of Baisers volés or the com- cents coups) of 1959, autobiographical in in- edy of La Nuit américaine (1973), which spiration and starring the young Léaud as takes place on a film set, may find this last Truffaut’s alter ego, Antoine Doinel. The natu- assertion surprising, but it is not prompted ralness and verve of Léaud’s performance and merely by Truffaut’s own early death from a the location shooting in the streets of Paris (of- brain tumour. La Mariée était en noir (1968), ten reminiscent of the Italian neo-realists)— La Sirène du Mississippi (1969) and Une belle and, above all else, the film’s at once plangent fille comme moi (1972) all centre on actually and humorous evocation of adolescent expe- or potentially homicidal women. L’Homme TV5 539 qui aimait les femmes (1977) ends with the See also: cinema death—literally caused by his pursuit of women—of its central character. La Chambre Major works verte (1978) has Truffaut himself in the lead role, as a journalist who specializes in obitu- aries and has set up the room of the title as a Truffaut, F. (1975) Les Films de ma vie, Paris: shrine to the memory of his dead wife. Flammarion (Truffaut’s autobiographical This is not to suggest that Truffaut was in cinematic testament). any sense a purely introspective or egotistical film-maker, for history plays a more important role in his work than may at first appear. The Further reading love triangle in Jules et Jim is also an allegory of Franco-German cultural and political rela- Bonnafons, É. (1981) François Truffaut, tionships from the beginning of the century Lausanne: L’Age d’Homme (a thorough through World War I to the early days of the thematic account). Nazi regime. The Last Metro (Le Dernier Métro) Insdorf, A. (1978) François Truffaut, Boston: from 1980—his most commercially successful Twayne (particularly good on the impor- film—takes place in a Paris theatre under the tance of women and the influence of Occupation. The theatricality of the setting, Hitchcock). abetted by the much-touted pairing of Catherine Deneuve and Gérard Depardieu, often seems to relegate the deadly seriousness of the period to second place, for which the film was much TV5 criticized. Truffaut was also involved with the two major French political crises of his own life- Television channel time, as opponent of the Algerian war and as supporter of the May 1968 movement. The TV5 was established in 1983 by a consortium credits of Baisers volés are superimposed on a of five francophone public service broadcast- view of the Paris Cinémathèque, and the film is ers from France, Belgium and Switzerland. In dedicated, in a clear allusion to the ‘Langlois 1986, a Quebec television company joined the affair’ of February, to Henri Langlois. consortium. Renamed TV5-Europe in 1988, Nevertheless, it seems true to say that the venture is the first pan-European Truffaut’s later work periodically suffers from francophone channel. It is broadcast on cable a frivolity and lack of substance far removed and satellite with the aim of promoting from the gracefully deadly seriousness of the francophone culture in all its aspects. Its pro- early masterpieces. For these, for his always gramming is based on the output of the mem- sensitive direction of actors, for his seminal bers of the consortium, supplemented by its work as critic and campaigning figure of the own production and co-productions. Its New Wave, for the manner in which he (more round-the-clock output can be received in Af- than any other film-maker) came to represent rica as well as Europe. French cinema throughout the world, he re- RAYMOND KUHN mains one of the key figures in the French culture of his time. See also: cable and satellite television; francophone television: Europe KEITH READER

unions States, with the CGT increasingly under Com- munist influence. This was not the only split. In 1964, a majority of the CFTC, now a large France is one of the industrialized countries ‘confederation’, decided to shed the religious with the lowest level of unionization, and the dimension of the union, and became the CFDT unions are divided, particularly at political (Confédération Française Démocratique du level. Nevertheless, their influence is consider- Travail), with a minority continuing the able and they play a far more important po- CFTC. Therefore, there are four main ‘con- litical and social role than the low number of federations’: CGT, CFDT, FO and CFTC. But cardholders would seem to indicate. if that is not complicated enough, there is also The first trade union ‘confederation’ was a ‘confederation’ for middle management, the the CGT (Confédération Générale du Travail), CGC (Confédération Générale des Cadres), launched in 1895. Since then, unions have be- and a number of independent, professionally come embedded in the institutional framework based unions, for instance in education (FEN as a ‘social partner’ to employers’ associations and FSU), in the police, etc. and government, and they are one of the main This fragmentation appears disastrous, channels for the resolution of conflicts in soci- given that less than 8 per cent of the workforce ety. The right to belong to a union is written hold a union card. Some sectors are well un- into the Preamble to the French Constitution, ionized (such as education and public trans- as is the right to strike. It is a long way from port), but others have only a residual mem- the past: during the nineteenth century, at- bership (like trade and tourism). Membership tempts to form workers’ associations were se- has fallen steadily since the 1970s, as tradi- verely repressed, and it was only after a long tionally unionized industries suffered from the struggle that limited rights to form associa- economic crisis, and the sociopolitical climate tions were won in 1864, and full rights recog- of France changed. Resort to strike action has nized in 1884. In the late nineteenth and early become less frequent: between 3 million and 5 twentieth centuries, the CGT was the only million work days were lost through strike in ‘confederation’ (except the far smaller Chris- the 1970s every year, under 1 million since the tian CFTC), but it divided after the break-up late 1980s, and just under half a million in between Communists and Socialists in 1920. 1994. However, some national conflicts, such In 1936, the two CGTs re-merged, but in as those which occurred at the end of 1996 in 1947, with the Cold War starting, a strong protest against social security reforms and minority split up to form the social democratic threats to public sector employment, still at- CGT-FO (later the FO, the Force Ouvrière) tract strong support. supported and funded at first by the United The main ‘confederations’ also achieve

540 universities 541 much power and influence through meant that these institutions have been asked organismes paritaires (public bodies managed to expand dramatically, both in number and by both employers and employees), such as in size, since the 1960s: in 1995–6 they were social security funds, the participation in many struggling to cope with over 1.5 million regis- consultative bodies, and official recognition of tered students. Since funding and staffing have sectorial agreements, obtained through collec- failed to keep pace with such increases, con- tive bargaining. Elected shop stewards and siderable strains have been imposed on the union representatives are protected by law and system, and a constant series of reforms has have paid time off work for union business, as been tried in an endeavour to alleviate them. the elected members of consultative workers’ For its part, the student body, in the spirit of councils (comités d’entreprise). Nevertheless, May 1968, has been active and vocal in its all these institutional arrangements cannot denunciation of inadequate study conditions hide the gradual disaffection of employees, al- and state neglect. though periodic crises show that unions still Universities in France boast a proud tradi- have an important role to play in the French tion, stretching back to medieval times when sociopolitical framework. Paris (1211), Toulouse (1229) and Montpellier (1289) were among the earliest and most pres- FRANÇOIS NECTOUX tigious institutions in Europe. Since World War See also: economy; parties and movements; II, however, they have been propelled into the social policy role of purveyors of mass higher education. To all intents and purposes, the universities in their modern form date from the legislation Further reading which came out of the events of May 1968. The loi d’orientation sur l’enseignement Rand Smith, W.R. (1987) Crisis in the French supérieur (Higher Education Reform Act), Labour Movement, London: Macmillan passed later that year, abolished the seventeen (this presents an interesting analysis of existing university groupings, founded for the long-term causes of disaffection with un- most part at the end of the nineteenth century ions). on the basis of no more than one per academic Szarka, J. (1992) Business in France: An In- out of the remaining imperial faculties. In their troduction to the Economic and Social place, more than seventy new pluridisciplinary Context, London: Pitman (Chapter 6 as- institutions were created, with greater au- sesses industrial relations and the role of tonomy (especially financial and administra- trade unions). tive) and governed by bodies which guaranteed a voice to all categories of staff and students. Divided no longer into faculties, but into self-administering Unités d’Enseignement et de universities Recherche (UER), these new universities were designed to break down traditional academic Entrusted with the dual role of teaching and barriers and overcome vested interests. Degree research, and cast as the agents of mass state programmes were organized into three succes- higher education in France, the universities are sive tiers (cycles), of which the first two lasted open to all holders of the baccalauréat, or an for two years; the third was more open-ended. equivalent qualification, and charge only mini- The first tier was conceived as a broadly based mal registration fees. They are the providers introduction to an area of study and to work- in higher education terms of the ‘free state edu- ing methods, and led to the award of the cation’ which is guaranteed at all levels as a Diplôme d’Études Universitaires Générales basic human right by the constitution. Gov- (DEUG). The second tier developed more spe- ernment policy and increasing demand has cialized study, and led to a first degree (licence) 542 universities after one year and a Master’s (maîtrise), in- entry having been repeatedly ruled out, various cluding some initiation to research method, alternative formulae have been tried, often with after a second year. The third tier covered high some short-term success, within the limits of the specialization and doctoral research. Univer- resources available: better briefing on courses sities were given some control over the design and careers before registration; reformed proof their curricula, but only within agreed lim- grammes which introduce greater measures of its, imposed to protect the national character subject and career counselling and possibilities of the awards. Teaching was dispensed via lec- of change of direction early in the course; the tures, seminars or practical classes, as appro- employment of senior students to act as ‘tutors’ priate, in units of about ninety minutes per to newcomers; the creation of antennes (out- week (unités de valeur—UV). posts) in local towns, where the transition be- These structures are still broadly speaking tween the more protective environment of the in place, despite some changes in emphasis and lycée and the disorientating, impersonal cam- terminology introduced by subsequent re- pus might be made more easily by those with- forms. In 1984, the UER were redesignated out university experience in the family. UFR (Unités de Formation et de Recherche), The second preoccupation is linked to the in keeping with the emphasis on career prepa- first, in so far as clear definition of career pos- ration in the Savary act, and in 1992 the units sibilities is perceived as enhancing motivation, were replaced, theoretically, by more broadly and thereby reducing failure. It has repeatedly based modules, to introduce measures of com- been stated that the extended programmes of pensation between individual course units. university study are too long and too abstract However, despite its apparent centrally inspired for a significant (and increasing) proportion uniformity, in practice the system remains of those embarking upon them. Hence, major somewhat diverse; since being granted au- attempts have been made to adapt. Firstly this tonomy, some universities have in the past used has involved the development of shorter, pro- it to delay, even to avoid applying, the various fessionally orientated alternatives, both inside reforms urged upon them by government. In and outside the universities, whether it be two- administrative terms, however, they come year intensive courses in technical subjects lead- within the direct purview of the education min- ing to a Diplôme Universitaire de Technologie, istry, which controls staff appointments, pays in the Instituts Universitaires de Technologic salaries (generally speaking, all permanent or expansion of advanced post-baccalauréat teachers are civil servants), sanctions the na- technical education at the lycée (Sections de tional diplomas the institutions are entitled to Techniciens Supérieurs). More significantly, award, and provides the majority of their re- perhaps, professionally orientated diplomas current funding. These matters are incorpo- have been introduced into the second and third rated in the four-year contracts signed with the cycles. These range from the specialist com- ministry. In addition, the Recteur d’Académie mercial qualification, the Maîtrise de Sciences acts as chancellor of the universities within his de Gestion, first introduced in 1970, to the or her administrative district. diploma of ingénieur-maître awarded by the Reforms over the last twenty years have Instituts Universitaires Professionalises estab- been dominated by two overriding concerns: lished by Lionel Jospin in 1991. What these the need to combat the high failure rate, in the prestigious programmes have in common, the first cycle in particular, and the desire to however—apart, that is, from purporting to make syllabuses and qualifications more rel- be in the mould of the grandes écoles, with evant to subsequent employment. input from industrialists and compulsory prac- The first of these concerns derives from fig- tical placements—is the fact that they select ures which suggest that up to 40 per cent of the best applicants from among those already university entrants fail to achieve even the first- embarked upon higher education. By virtue of level qualification, the DEUG. With selective the selective process, they do not of course Utrillo, Maurice 543 recruit the intellectually weaker students, who che (1996) Après le BAC: réussir ses études. are therefore obliged to fall back upon nonse- Le guide des études supérieures 1996, Paris: lective, traditional abstract studies to which Les Dossiers ONISEP (an up-to-date offi- they are least suited. In this way, such devel- cial guide to courses, choices, institutions opments have, ironically, helped to defeat the and careers). objective of adapting the universities’ offering Vasconcellos, M. (1993) Le Système éducatif, to a more diverse audience. Paris: Éditions La Découverte (includes a Given the government’s aim of ensuring that good chapter on higher education, viewed 80 per cent of the age group achieve the in critical perspective). baccalauréat by the year 2000, with consequent effects upon demand for university places, the problems of the university system seem destined to last well into the twenty-first century— Utrillo, Maurice especially in a climate of government austerity policies designed to cut public spending. b. 1883, Paris; d. 1955, Dax RON HALLMARK See also: education, secondary: collèges, Artist lycées, etc.; educational elitism; student revolt of 1986 Born in Montmartre, Utrillo is celebrated as the painter of Parisian street scenes. His life was disrupted by acute alcoholism, and his Further reading mother, the painter Suzanne Valadon, first encouraged him to paint to distract him from Firth, K (1989) ‘French Universities: The Dif- drinking. His work is also notorious because ficult Road to Reform’, Modern Languages of the number of fakes which appeared on the 70, 1 (March) (this article reviews the prob- market from 1918 onwards, with a whole lems at the beginning of Jospin’s term as flood in 1955, mainly in America. minister). DEBRA KELLY Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale, de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recher- See also: painting

Vadim, Roger proach that makes producers reluctant to finance her. Yet she is known as the mother of b. 1928, Paris the Nouvelle Vague (New Wave). More significantly, five of her feature films have re- Director ceived international prizes. Varda places her work at the interface be- Vadim rose to fame overnight in 1956, when tween factual fiction and fictional fact, and he directed Brigitte Bardot in And God Cre- speaks of filming the subjectivity of the indi- ated Woman (Et Dieu créa la femme). This vidual as it relates to the objectivity of the en- film’s sexual frankness and use of a young and vironment—the individual is placed and (then) little-known lead female actor caused viewed in the context of society. This means Vadim briefly to be assimilated to the Nouvelle that her films are generally exceptionally topi- Vague. His modern-day adaptation of Laclos’s cal (for example, in the 1960s she covered can- Les Liaisons dangereuses (1959), with Gérard cer; the 1970s feminism; and the 1980s social Philipe and Jeanne Moreau, however, was seen decline). as a retrograde step, and his more recent work Varda may never repeat, but there are sev- (in the United States as well as in France) has eral distinctive features to her film-making: use done more for his reputation as a womanizer of counterpoint, distanciation, and what she than as a leading cinematic auteur. terms cinécriture (cine-writing). Varda was the first to understand how to transcribe counter- KEITH READER point (in the Faulknerian sense of sustaining two See also: cinema narratives side by side) into the cinematic form that would express, simultaneously, individual and social problems. Her contrapuntal editing style is unique and one that the Nouvelle Vague Varda, Agnès film-makers adapted to their own work (Resnais and Godard). Her detachment from the story b. 1928, Brussels, Belgium in favour of an attachment to film technique is crucial to her use of counterpoint. Both the sub- Director jective/individual and the objective/social must be observed impassively for a realism to emerge A naturalized French citizen, Varda is a film- out of the collision of the two narratives. Hence maker who describes herself as an auteur and Varda’s frequent references to her cinema in her work as artisanale. She never repeats the terms of violence. same style nor the same narrative—an ap- Ever since her first film, La Pointe courte 544 Vauthier, Jean 545

(1954), Varda has deliberately chosen to Singer distanciate, to make what she calls cold films. She achieves this distanciation through trun- One of the manufactured stars of the yé-yé cation of space, time and narration. She sub- (1960s pop) generation, whose first hit Quand verts the codes and conventions of classical le film est triste (When the Film is Sad) dates cinema, deconstructs genres to reconstruct from 1961, Sylvie Vartan enjoyed popular suc- them as other, for example, One Sings, the cess before she had mastered the rudiments of Other Doesn’t (L’Une chante, l’autre pas) of her profession. A national celebrity whose 1977, a musical on women’s reproductive hairstyle and dresses were copied by a whole rights, and Vagabond (Sans toit ni loi) of 1985, generation, she achieved even greater fame as a woman’s road movie. Her film practices func- the wife of Johnny Hallyday (who married for tion to counter spectator identification. Held the fifth time in 1996). Subsequent dedicated at a distance, it is for the spectator to evaluate training in the art of live performance trans- the film. formed her into a more traditional ballad Similarly, her cinécriture draws attention to singer and star of spectacular revues. the process of film-making. Varda sees it as IAN PICKUP closely allied to the technique of painting in its structural composition, texture and tonal- See also: song/chanson ity—for example, she talks of cinepainting the texture of solitude in Vagabond. Thus film language itself counterpoints the narratives at the Vasarély, Victor same time as film language is counterpointed within itself through its textures (use of col- b. 1908, Pécs, Hungary our, textural references to photography, sculpture) and intertexts. Artist Varda is a feminist and most of her films address the way in which women are fixed in Through his work and theory Vasarély is con- traditional cinema as eternal, unchanging, as sidered to be one of the fathers of the 1960s object of and for the male gaze—therefore as Op Art movement. Significantly, his art stud- ahistoric and other. In her film-making prac- ies in Budapest were Bauhaus-influenced. tices, Varda counters this naturalization of Upon settling in France in 1930, he worked in women by cine-writing the process of their the field of graphic art until his rediscovery of invisibilization, as in Le Bonheur (1965). painting in 1943. From 1947, his focus was Varda speaks of her film work in terms of ask- geometrical abstraction. His carefully calcu- ing questions and of doing so in disturbing lated paintings explore optical ambiguities ways. To this effect she uses cinematic lan- such as figure-ground alternations which pro- guage disruptively, intent on denaturalizing duce illusory movement. The Fondation dominant male ideology and opening up insti- Vasarély, which he designed himself as a cen- tutional myths. tre for research and creativity, was opened in 1976 in Aix-en-Provence. SUSAN HAYWARD CAROL WILCOX See also: feminism (movements/groups); women directors See also: painting

Vartan, Sylvie Vauthier, Jean b. 1944, Iskretz, Bulgaria b. 1910, Grâce-Hollogne; 546 Veil, Simone d. 1992, Paris d. 1959, Paris

Playwright Singer-songwriter, musician and Part of the 1950s poetic avant-garde move- writer ment, Vauthier’s works—such as Captain Something of an artistic all-rounder, Boris Bada of 1949 (famously directed by Maréchal Vian was a dedicated member of the Collège in 1966) and The New Madragore, his adap- de Pataphysique (Pataphysics College), jazz tation of a Machiavelli text—are notable for critic and musician, (pornographic) novelist, their use of language and sense of adventure. translator, playwright, poet, (unsuccessful) ANNIE SPARKS singer and (successful) songwriter (writing 400–500 songs). See also: theatre A lifelong jazz enthusiast, Vian played the trumpet at the Tabou club and wrote for the Further reading revue Jazz-Hot but in order to make ends meet he translated James Cain, August Strindberg and the memoirs of Omar Bradley. His songwriting Abirached, R. (1973) Jean Vauthier, Paris: activity included collaboration with Henri Sal- Seghers (a biography). vador, with whom he wrote some eighty humorous songs, many of which are parodies of rock songs—these include Le Blues du dentiste Veil, Simone (The Dentist’s Blues), Frock and Roll and Rock and Rollmops. Many of his personal phobias b. 1927, Nice surfaced in his songs: the snobbery he associated with St-Germain-des Prés, as in J’suis snob Politician (I’m a Snob), taxation, in Complainte des contribuables (The Taxpayers’ Lament) and A concentration-camp survivor prominently also, for example, the military, in Les Joyeux associated with the left wing of the RPR. As Bouchers (The Joyful Butchers). Health Minister under Giscard, she piloted Despite his prodigious output, Vian did not through parliament the loi Veil which legal- have great success as a singer himself (though ized abortion in 1975—a measure that along he did appear at Les Trois Baudets in the mid- with her Jewishness has attracted to her par- 1950s and he did go on a tour organized by ticularly vicious opprobrium from Le Pen and the impresario Jacques Canetti). To compound the extreme right in general. She became a his problems, when the most famous contem- member of the European Parliament in 1979 porary performer of his songs, Marcel and subsequently its speaker (1979–82) but Mouloudji, recorded what was to become ar- her domestic political ambitions would seem guably Vian’s most famous song, the anti-mili- to have been curtailed by her support for tarist Le Déserteur (1954), the record was Balladur for the 1995 Gaullist presidential banned from broadcasting and withdrawn nomination. from sale as a result of its controversial nature (it was hardly designed to meet with the ap- KEITH READER proval of the authorities, as it advocated a refusal of military service at a time when the Algerian war was raging). Vian, Boris As is the case with so many non-conformist figures, Boris Vian did not find fame until after his death in 1959. His novels began to sell well b. 1920, Ville-d’Avray; Vichy 547 by the mid-1960s and he found posthumous which the French state during World War II is recognition in the world of song when Serge known. It was formed after the German mili- Reggiani began his singing career with a record tary victory over combined French, Belgian dedicated to him—Arthur, où t’as mis le corps? and British forces in May/June 1940, coming (Arthur, Where Have You Put the Body?)—and into being on 10 July 1940 when the National when Jean Ferrat paid tribute to him in his 1967 Assembly voted to place Marshal Philippe composition Pauvre Boris (Poor Boris). Cover Pétain at the head of the French state. The versions of Le Déserteur were made by Rich- Franco-German armistice of 22 June divided ard Anthony and, in a more anodine English France into several zones, the largest two of version, by Peter, Paul and Mary (Renaud wrote which were the northern, occupied zone, and his own slang, more vulgar version in his 1983 the southern (or so-called ‘free’) zone, whose song, entitled simply Déserteur). The career of government was based at the spa town of Vi- the previously ill-fated Mouloudji was given chy in central France, chosen for the quality new impetus with the release of yet another anti- of its facilities. To all intents and purposes militarist Vian song, Allons z’enfants (Go on, Vichy was a sovereign state, with a legally Children), as late as 1971. constituted government and state apparatus A key importer, with Queneau, of science fic- whose ministries were lodged in the town’s tion into France, Vian was also an important hotels. It even appointed an ambassador to novelist: L’Écume des jours (1947), L’Automne represent its interests to the German occupy- à Pékin (1947), L’Herbe rouge (1950) and ing authorities in Paris. L’Arrache-coeur (1953) are works of consider- Vichy was authoritarian and reactionary, able complexity and intertextual resonance. yet (despite appearances) it was not a Fascist Boris Vian will be best remembered as the regime in the same sense as Nazism or Italian author of J’irai cracker sur vos tombes (I Will Fascism (this aspect of Vichy continues to be Go and Spit on Your Graves) from 1946, a debated among historians). Because of the ar- novel attributed to Vernon Sullivan, and as mistice conditions as they applied specifically the author and composer of Le Déserteur. to France, the Vichy regime was unique. Its character was reflected in the person and cult IAN PICKUP/NICK HEWITT of its leader, Marshal Pétain, known as the See also: cultural topography (Paris); song/ ‘hero of Verdun’ (in honour of the fact that, chanson; Theatre of the Absurd during World War I, under Pétain’s command the French army stubbornly resisted a fero- cious German offensive at a terrible cost in Major works lives). Aged 84 in 1940, Pétain, who was greeted initially as a saviour by the majority Vian, B. (1966) Textes et chansons, Paris: of the French population, reinforced the spe- Julliard. cifically French identity of the regime. In the ——(1966) En avant la zizique, Paris: Albin aftermath of humiliating defeat, the figure of Michel (the title of this work, which con- Pétain was seized upon by Vichy apologists tains Vian’s thoughts on song, was also and propagandists as representing the very used for Eve Grilliquez’s prizewinning essence of France, as the antithesis of all that show which was produced at the Gaîté- had been supposedly corrupt in the Third Re- Montparnasse in 1970). public in general, and the left-wing Popular Front government of 1936–8 in particular. The presence of Pétain conferred a semblance of unity on a country which in reality was physi- Vichy cally divided up into ‘zones’, some of which were ‘forbidden’ to the French people, and one ‘Vichy’ or the ‘Vichy regime’ are names by of which became a Nazi Gau. Vichy drew 548 Vichy heavily on right-wing, reactionary and (some- less certain. Particularly after the return to power times extreme) nationalist and counter-revo- of Pierre Laval, Pétain’s prime minister, in April lutionary traditions (e.g. the Action Française), 1942, and after the occupation of the southern but by no means exclusively; in the words of zone by the Germans in November 1942, Vi- Stanley Hoffmann (1974), Vichy was a ‘plu- chy was increasingly and irreversibly drawn into ralist dictatorship’ which also attracted per- the machinery of the Nazi war effort. This ex- sonalities and influences from other groupings tended well beyond the economic domain. In such as veterans’ organizations, political ‘non- particular, the two sets of anti-Jewish statutes conformists’ of the 1930s, and even former put into place by Vichy in October 1940 and radicals and renegade left-wingers. June 1941, laws which drew on a specifically From the very beginning it was made ex- French anti-semitic tradition dating back to the plicit that under Pétain’s paternalistic author- Dreyfus affair of 1894–9 and beyond, and ity the regime intended to effect a ‘National which predated the measures introduced by the Revolution’ which would strive to expunge Germans, eventually eased the implementation from France the allegedly corrupt Republican of the Nazis’ Final Solution in France. It was heritage. Using the slogan ‘Travail, Famille, French authorities which carried out censuses Patrie’ (used by the veterans’ leader Colonel of the Jewish population, and French police (code La Rocque in his book Service public in ordinated with the Nazis by police chief René 1934) to replace the Republican motto of Bousquet) who co-operated in many of the ‘Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité’, the government round-ups of Jews, the most infamous of which introduced measures to transform the struc- was the rafle du Vélodrome d’hiver (a Paris tures of French society which extended beyond sports stadium) on 16–17 July 1942. In total, institutional domains into everyday socioeco- some 76,000 Jews (of whom 24,000 were nomic activities, religion and culture. In addi- French) were deported from French railheads tion to its wish to promote a ‘return to the to the Nazi death camps in eastern Europe: only earth’ (symbolic of the regime’s preference for 3 per cent survived. traditional values and rejection of all that was For a long time after the war, this complicity cosmopolitan and therefore decadent), efforts in Nazi genocide was masked by what Henry were made to eradicate elements of what was Rousso (1991) has called ‘the Vichy syndrome’, considered to be ‘anti-France’: in constructing according to which painful memories of the dif- this new French identity, not only were ties to ficult choices arising from the Occupation, and be cut with the immediate past regarding both especially the memory of the fate inflicted on domestic and international politics, but those the Jews, were pushed to the back of the collec- influences deemed to be most damaging to the tive conscious. However, the path-breaking ‘real’ France were to be expunged. Thus the work of historians such as Robert Paxton (1972) enemies of the regime were clearly identified opened the way towards a reappraisal of by Vichyite propaganda: Anglo-Saxons, Com- France’s role in the Occupation, and work un- munists, freemasons and Jews. dertaken by researchers at the CNRS Institut In October 1940, after Pétain met Hitler at d’Histoire du Temps Présent began to present Montoire, the strategy of ‘Collaboration’ was the realities of the war in France in a clearer formally adopted by the Vichy government. As light. Public and press reaction to revelations official texts show, this policy was followed that President Mitterrand began his political because during the first year of the Occupation career under Vichy, and that he had connec- the regime was convinced that eventually the tions with René Bousquet after the war (Péan Germans would defeat Britain and dominate the 1994), suggests that the ‘dark years’ of the Vi- continent. The policy of Collaboration was de- chy period in France continue to trouble no- signed to ensure a leading place for France in tions of contemporary French identity. the ‘new Europe’. As the war went on, how- MARTYN CORNICK ever, German victory against the Allies became Vilar, Jean 549

See also: Judaism; racism/anti-semitism (brief summary of the character of Vichy’s ‘National Revolution’). ——(1991) The Vichy Syndrome: History and Further reading Memory in France Since 1944 (Le Syn- drome de Vichy Paris: Seuil [1987]), Cam- Amouroux, H. (1976–93) La Grande Histoire bridge, MA: Harvard University Press des Français sous l‘Occupation, 10 vols, (translation of Rousso’s path-breaking Paris: Laffont (a great fresco investigating book published in French in 1987 on the everyday life under the Occupation). legacies of Vichy). Azéma, J.-P. and Bédarida, F. (eds) (1993) La Weisberg, R.H. (1996) Vichy France and the France des années noires, 2 vols, Paris: Holocaust in France, Amsterdam: Éditions du Seuil (a thorough and illus- Harwood Academic Publishers (a thorough trated collection of essays summarizing re- account of the complicity of Vichy’s legal cent research on the ‘dark years’ of the Oc- system in the Holocaust). cupation). Wieviorka, A. (1992) Déportation et génocide: Burrin, P. (1996) Living with Defeat: France entre la mémoire et l’oubli, Paris: Plon (de- Under German Occupation 1940–1944 tailed synthesis of research on the French (La France à l’heure allemande [1995]), contribution to the Final Solution). London: Arnold (using the concept of accommodation, this examines how the French coped with the Nazi Occupation). Hoffmann, S. (1974) Decline and Renewal? video imports France Since the 1930s, New York: Viking Press (contains path-breaking analyses of Anglo-American pop video represents a very the composition of the Vichy regime). small part of total audiovisual output in France, Kedward, H.R. (1985) Occupied France, Ox- most notably in evidence on the cable music ford: Blackwell (the best brief introduc- channels MCM and MTV. However, it forms tion). an important part of the media consumption of Laborie, P. (1990) L’Opinion française sous many young people. Though listening to Vichy, Paris: Éditions du Seuil (study of anglophone music is scarcely a new phenom- opinion and how it reacted to policy and enon in France, in 1994 the sensitivity of French events in the context of the unfolding war). elites to perceived Anglo-American domination Marrus, M. and Paxton, R.O. (1981) Vichy in the audiovisual field and the alleged weak- France and the Jews, New York: Basic ening of French cultural identity led the con- Books (classic study of how Vichy’s anti- servative government to include a minimum semitic attitudes and policies affected the quota of 40 per cent francophone production Jews in France and contributed to the Final in music output on radio (la loi Carignon). Solution). RAYMOND KUHN Paxton, R.O. (1972) Vichy France: Old Guard, New Order 1940–44, New York: See also: rock and pop; television Knopf (based on German archives, the classic study on the nature of the Vichy regime). Péan, P. (1994) Une jeunesse française: François Mitterrand, 1934–1947, Paris: Vilar, Jean Fayard (revelations on Mitterrand’s early political career under Vichy). b. 1912, Sète; Rousso, H. (1990) ‘Qu’est-ce que la d. 1971, Sète Révolution nationale?’, L’Histoire January Director and actor 550 Vilar, Jean

Jean Vilar is one of the most influential fig- class or falsify them’—see Bradby 1991). He ures in twentieth-century French theatre, attracted new, working-class audiences for his thanks not only to his abilities as an artist, plays by organizing theatre trips through fac- but also to his vision of a ‘popular’ theatre, tories and unions, keeping ticket prices low or theatre of the people, and his founding of and rejecting traditional Parisian theatre-go- the acclaimed Avignon theatre festival, ing rituals (evening dress and late-starting which celebrated its fiftieth birthday in July performances, for example) By the early 1997. 1960s, he had staged contemporary works by A student with Dullin in the 1930s, he acted such as Brecht, Calderón and Bolt alongside with and co-directed the touring company La those of Sophocles and Aristophanes. How- Roulotte after the war, launching his directing ever, it proved difficult to make a financial career with Strindberg’s Dance of Death in success of new works in such a large theatre. 1942, and keenly supporting dramatists of the In 1963, he resigned from Chaillot, moving so-called New Theatre such as Adamov in the on to stage operas in Venice and Milan, com- small avant-garde theatres of Paris. In 1943 pleting a study for Malraux on the possibili- he set up his own professional company, the ties of popular opera, and reorganizing the Compagnie de Sept at the Théâtre de Poche, Opéra and Opéra-Comique in 1967. He also Paris, where he enjoyed recognition for his staged plays in Geneva and Paris, including productions of Molière’s Dom Juan in 1945, his own play The Oppenheimer File (Le Dos- T.S.Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral the follow- sier d’Oppenheimer) at the Théâtre de ing year, as well as works by, among others, l’Athénée in 1965, in which he played the Koestler and Adamov. He also acted in Carné’s lead. Vilar also worked hard to expand the and Prévert’s 1946 film Les Portes de la nuit, Avignon festival, with a series of debates and for Jouvet’s theatre productions of (Rencontres d’Avignon), in 1966 extending Claudel and Sartre. the festival to a fortnight. By 1969, it had ex- In 1947, he founded the Avignon festival. panded to include music, cinema and other Vilar was notable for his political commit- arts. The fringe ‘Off’ festival was created in ment to the social role of theatre and to the 1970, a year before his death. necessity of taking theatre to the provinces. ANNIE SPARKS The open air performances in the Cour d’Honneur of the Palais des Papes were a See also: Avignon and summer arts festivals; huge success, the lack of scenic devices on of- theatre fer only adding to the drama of the spectacle. Indeed, when Vilar was installed at the Major works Théâtre National Populaire at Chaillot in 1951, thanks to the success of his work in Avignon and Paris, he was to introduce the Vilar, J. (1975) Le Théâtre, service public, same open staging there, doing away with a Paris: Gallimard (Vilar’s theatrical testa- traditional proscenium arch, re-evoking the ment). open expanse of the Avignon stage in the 3,000-seat theatre. Further reading Here he mounted numerous productions of the classics, employing his belief in minimalist staging in an open space, stating Bradby, D. (1991) Modern French Drama his objectives as ‘un public de masse, un 1940–1990, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- répertoire de haute culture, une régie qui versity Press. n’embourgeoise pas, ne falsifie pas les Wehle, P. (1991) Le Théâtre Populaire selon oeuvres’ (‘a mass public, a repertoire of pro- Jean Vilar, Paris: Actes Sud (a major study). duction which does not render works middle- Vinaver, Michel 551

Vinaver, Michel gramme (L’émission de télévision), written in 1988, the destructive role of the televisual b. 1927, Paris medium. Vinaver does not, however, intend his works to be taken as realism, but rather to Playwright, novelist and critic question the bigger issues arising from situation and dialogue. An element of strangeness One of the most frequently performed con- is lent to the ‘reality’ he presents by experi- temporary playwrights in France today, ments with time, structure and language; by Michel Vinaver has enjoyed a career as a deliberately layering and juxtaposing these el- writer spanning five decades, as well as rising ements to create dramatic tension, he aims to to the top of his commercial profession as make the audience question the unrolling managing director of the French wing of a events, and by throwing together opposing el- multinational company, a position he gave up ements of ‘reality’, he raises questions about at the beginning of the 1980s in order to pur- its very nature. sue his career as a playwright. His writings There is also a rich layering of themes in have many points in common with the Théâtre Vinaver’s work. The problems facing workers du Quotidien, in terms of language, subject in France are certainly a main theme in many matter and experimentation with different of his plays. However, the multitude of preoc- structures, time and form. cupations present in everyday life, expressed He began writing in the 1950s: after a se- through everyday language, are just as impor- ries of novels, his first play, Today or the Ko- tant. reans (Aujourd’hui ou les Caréens), was staged Aside from his playwriting, Vinaver has by Planchon in 1956 to critical acclaim, deal- also taken an active role as a critic and cam- ing with a group of soldiers and a group of paigner on behalf of the playwright. In 1987, villagers in the Korean war. His subsequent he published a report commissioned by the plays, Les Huissiers (The Ushers) in 1958 and Ministry of Culture entitled Le Compte rendu Iphigénie Hôtel a year later, dealt with the sen- d’Avignon (The Avignon Report), which de- sitive issue of the Algerian war, but Iphigénie tailed the plight of writers in the theatre world Hôtel was only finally staged by Vitez in 1977, and the need for more theatre texts to be pub- and Les Huissiers three years later by lished. Chevassieux. During the 1960s, he withdrew ANNIE SPARKS from writing to concentrate on his work in French business, experiences which fuelled his fascination with economic, political and social Major works realities and how they affect the lives of everyday people. Overboard (Pardessus-Bord) was his next work (1969), staged by Planchon in Vinaver, M. (1986) Théâtre complet, 2 vols, 1973, followed by Situation Vacant (La Arles: L’Aire/Actes Sud. Demande d’emploi), staged in 1973, Smile on the End of a Line (Les Travaux et les jours) in Further reading 1977, and Bending Over Backwards (A la renverse) three years later. They, like all Vinaver’s plays, explore these themes through Bradby, D. (1993) The Theatre of Michel everyday settings, dialogue and situations, pre- Vinaver, Michigan: University of Michigan sented often using various overlapping time Press (key reading on Vinaver’s work). scales: in Pardessus-Bord, for example, he Ubersfeld, A. (1989) Vinaver dramaturge, analyses the effect on everyday people of mod- Paris: Librairie Théâtrale (sociological ap- ernizing industry, and in The Television Pro- proach). 552 Vincent, Jean-Pierre

Vincent, Jean-Pierre Virilio studies how articulations of space and language plot out subjectivity. He appeals to b. 1942, Paris the architectural theories and practice of Fas- cist Italy, to the military practices (what he Actor and director calls ‘bunker archaeologies’) of Nazi Germany, and to the history of air power (and its inno- Vincent was a collaborator of Chéreau and vations in cartography) to show how humans Jourdheuil in the 1960s, famed for his politi- can no longer think of the relation of space cal, contemporary approach, and a director and language—a ground for philosophy and of the Théâtre National de Strasbourg (1975– religion—in ways that preceded modernism. 83) and the Comédie-Française (1983–6). He His writings are salubriously chilling in their now teaches and directs, and became director outlook. of the Théâtre des Amandiers-Nanterre in TOM CONLEY 1990. ANNIE SPARKS See also: theatre; theatres, national Vitez, Antoine

Further reading b. 1930, Paris; d. 1990, Paris Gunthert, A. (1983) Le Voyage du TNS, Paris: Solin (account of his time at the Théâtre Director, translator and teacher National de Strasbourg). An influential theatre director, Vitez is noted for his attempts to find new ways of staging language and text, for his Communist beliefs, Virilio, Paul and for his belief in ‘un theatre élitaire pour tous’ (‘an elitist theatre for all’). His directing b. 1932 career began in 1966, at the Maison de la Cul- ture in Caen. In 1972, he became well-known Epistemologist and media analyst for his productions at the Quartiers d’Ivry theatre in the Communist Parisian suburb of Paul Virilio’s crucial 1984 study War and Cin- Ivry-sur-Seine, where he staged famous classic ema (Logistique de la perception) stands un- productions alongside contemporary works, paralleled in its implications for philosophy, notably by Vinaver, Kalisky and Pommeret. It history and aesthetics. He argues that at the was here too, in 1976, that Catherine, his fa- time of its birth the international film indus- mous adaptation of Aragon’s novel, Les try (in France and the United States) quickly Cloches de Bâle (The Bells of Basle), demon- realized that, once mobilized, its images could strated his interest in experimenting with the determine collective perception and experi- staging of non-dramatic texts. Alongside these ence. Film and publicity would provide the productions, he also staged other forms of model for what would soon become history. theatre, including puppet shows and political The two determining events of the twentieth farce. In 1981, he became director of the century, World Wars I and II, were mapped Théâtre de Chaillot. Celebrated productions out by a cinematic institution that shaped their such as Hamlet (in 1982), the complete ver- advent. International collusions were built in sion of Claudel’s The Satin Slipper (Le Soulier the development of the media. In all of his de Satin) in 1987, and contemporary works writing—visionary, delphic, speculative— such as Kalisky’s Falsch (1983) were the Vogue 553 result of his work with the team of stage de- begin until 1921 (the first few issues were printed signer Kokkos, composer Georges Aperghis in London), under its first French editor, Cosette and lighting director Patrice Trotter. In 1988, Vogel. From the beginning, the magazine delib- he became general administrator of the erately segregated itself and an elite clientele Comédie-Française, where his last production from the producers and consumers of women’s was Brecht’s Life of Galileo in 1990, the year magazines, and offered its readers the highest of his death. He is also noted for his teaching standards (in magazine publishing) of art, pho- of acting, both at Jacques Lecoq’s school tography, illustration, typography and writing. (1966–70) and the Conservatoire National Hence, its pages have over the years presented d’Art Dramatique (1968–81), where he en- or discussed the works of Cecil Beaton, Picasso, couraged a destructured rather than psycho- Sartre, de Beauvoir, Godard, Duras and others. logical approach to interpretation. He is also One of the magazine’s enduring claims has remembered for his regard for Russian and been that fashion in Vogue represents the drama Greek theatre repertoires, and was responsi- of contemporary life, and in this respect it has ble for numerous translations and productions aimed to reflect, through its images and text, from these throughout his career. The national social, political and economic changes which centre for translation, the Maison Antoine have occurred in France through the magazine’s Vitez, was named in his honour. history. Thus, for example, while working women and a futuristic but practical look be- ANNIE SPARKS came preoccupying themes in the 1960s, the See also: director’s theatre; theatre 1970s brought ideas of liberation and casual fashion to the magazine’s pages. Since the 1980s, it has been more schizophrenic, in that fashion Further reading has been both aggressive and whimsical, unin- terested in women as real people (witness the Ubersfeld, A. (1995) Vitez, metteur en scène techno-styles of designers such as Jean-Paul et poète, Paris: Les Quatre Vents (a very Gaultier and purely ornamental, ‘baby-doll’ useful guide). designs of Christian Lacroix) while, through its textual content, the magazine has subscribed to a certain post/anti-feminist thinking but has wel- comed AIDS awareness, environmental concern Vogue and other progressive issues which do not challenge its own raison d’être. Magazine Today, Vogue continues to target an exclusive clientele of sophisticated women, although Possibly the most influential of exclusive, ‘pure since the 1960s there has been a gradual move fashion’ magazines of this century, Vogue has away from older readers with established devoted itself to fashion, art and design and wealth to a younger, more active set of women society. It refuses to place itself in the category aspiring to a certain affluence and culture. This of ‘women’s magazines’. approach appears to have borne success: It was originally founded in the United States, Vogue’s annual circulation figure has increased in 1892, as a fashion weekly for society women. from 24,508 in 1950 to 84,826 in 1994 and, In 1909, it was taken over by William Condé unlike the periodical press in general, the maga- Nast, who transformed it into the high-quality zine appears not to have suffered greatly from publication it is today. The internationalization the economic austerity of the late 1970s and of the fashion industry after 1918 saw the es- 1980s. Vogue Paris appears ten times yearly. tablishment of Vogue in west European capi- tals. Vogue Paris was founded in June 1920, KHURSHEED WADIA although the magazine’s Paris operation did not See also: fashion; women’s magazines 554 Vogue

Further reading fabuleux album des 75 ans, special issue 763 (seventy-fifth anniversary edition Presse et statistiques (1994), Paris: SJTI (sta- which charts, nostalgically, the history of tistical information relating to the press). French Vogue through text and the ex- Train, S. (1995) ‘Ils ont fait Vogue’, Vogue, Le pected high-quality visuals).

Waechter, Antoine (sailing and windsurfing), Water-Polo. Sailing is particularly popular and France has pro- b. 1949, Mulhouse duced sailors of world stature such as Alain Colas and the incomparable Éric Tabarly. Environmental activist and politician IAN PICKUP

A founder of the main French Green Party, Les Verts, in 1984 and its main leader and speaker for the following ten years, Waechter became Wenzel, Jean-Paul known for his uncompromising, earnest views. He represents a radical, fundamentalist ap- b. 1947, St Étienne proach to green politics, refusing alliances with other political groups. He was the Green can- Playwright, actor and director didate in the 1988 presidential elections, and an MEP from 1989 to 1991. His views were After national theatre school in Strasbourg, defeated within the Green Party in 1994, by Wenzel acted for Brook, and helped create the an alliance of less ‘fundamentalist’ activists, company Théâtre du Quotidien in 1975, be- and he left to create his own movement, the fore writing plays such as Loin d’Hagondange Mouvement Écologiste Indépendant, which (Far from Hagondange) and La Fin des has not been successful in attracting support. Monstres (End of the Monsters). A supporter FRANÇOIS NECTOUX of decentralization, Wenzel often collaborates with the Théâtre Ouvert and directs the Cen- See also: green issues; Lalonde, Brice; parties tre Dramatique National at Montluçon, Les and movements Fédérés. ANNIE SPARKS water sports See also: Attoun, Lucien; theatre

A variety of water sports are popular in France and each has its national federation wine (Fédération Française de…): Canoë-Kayak (canoeing), Natation (swimming), Ski Nautique (waterskiing), Surf et Skate (surfing It is commonly said that France is the home and skateboarding), Voile et Planche à Voile of the best food and drink—particularly 555 556 wine wine—in the world. With a tradition which Viognier, and Roussanne and Marsanne grapes goes back to the Gauls and an unrivalled repu- for white wine, are to be found in the north of tation which goes back many centuries, in the the region, while in the south there is a mix- last century the French wine industry had to ture including Syrah, Grenache, Mourvèdre recover from a devastating blow caused by the and Cinsaut for reds. The Nantes area culti- phylloxera louse. A native of America, the vates Muscadet and (for its lesser wines) Gros Phylloxera vastatrix crossed the Atlantic in the Plant grapes for its distinctive whites, while mid- to late nineteenth century (probably further south in the Loire region (around An- through the ignorance or negligence of an un- jou and Saumur) Cabernet grapes produce the suspecting botanist) and found the roots of well-known rosé wines—Groslot and Gamay European vines much to its liking. The result grapes (for the reds) and the Chenin Blanc va- was the almost total devastation of France’s riety (for whites). The Pinot Noir variety is also (and ultimately Europe’s) vineyards. The so- the source of red wines in Alsace and of white lution eventually adopted in France as else- wines in the Champagne region. Other varie- where, after the failure of different chemical ties of grapes cultivated in France include Pinot treatments, was the grafting of European vines Gris, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Meunier, Riesling, on to American root stock unaffected by Muscat and Sylvaner. phylloxera (a practice still followed today). In The two most prestigious regions of France France, only Bollinger’s Vieilles Vignes cham- for still wine are the Bordeaux region (which pagne is produced from pre-phylloxera, stretches from Saint Estèphe in the north to ungrafted vines. Sauternes and the area which produces Graves Although the development of the global wines in the south), and Burgundy, which goes market has meant greater competition for the from Chablis in the north to the Beaujolais French wine industry abroad (and the coun- vineyards in the south. Both of these regions try imports twice the quantity of wine it ex- illustrate well the prestigious French wine clas- ports; something in excess of 800 million li- sification system which is based on what is tres per year), Germany, the United Kingdom, known as the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée the Benelux countries and the United States (AOC, the label of origin which is also some- remain its best customers and France retains a thing of a guarantee of quality and of a spe- tight grip on the top end of the market (claret cific method of cultivation and production; it or Bordeaux, Burgundy and Champagne, for is reserved for a tiny fraction of the national example, are recognized words across the production). The hierarchy of wine in the Bor- world). Some 1.5 million hectares (3.35 per deaux region moves upwards from the straight- cent of France’s arable land) are planted with forward Appellation Bordeaux Contrôlée vines, and some 6 million French people work through the various crus bourgeois (bourgeois in (or make direct or indirect profit from) the growths or vintages) to the so-called crus wine industry. classes (classed growths) which relate to a par- The varieties of vines grown in France vary ticular chateau or commune. These, in ascend- significantly from region to region: while the ing order, are bans crus (good vintages), crus Bordeaux region is planted with Cabernet supérieurs (superior or higher growths), grands Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Merlot for its crus (great growths), the crus exceptionnels red wine, and Sauvignon (dry) and Sémillon (exceptional growths) and, at the very pinna- (sweet) for its white wines, Burgundy cultivates cle, the crus hors classe (the most exceptional Pinot Noir and (for its lesser wines) Gamay growths, which in the 1978 classification grapes for reds and Chardonnay, and (for its number only eight chateau wines, four from lesser wines) Aligoté grapes for its whites. the Haut-Médoc, one from the Graves area, Whereas the red Beaujolais wines are produced two from St Émilion and one Pomerol). The very from Gamay grapes, the Rhône area shows mention of a wine from the highest category (the greater variety: Syrah grapes for red wine and incomparable Château Lafite-Rothschild from winter sports 557 the Haut Médoc, for example) is guaranteed IAN PICKUP to capture the attention of any oenologist. See also: gastronomy Bordeaux produces twice as much red wine as white and it is on the former that its reputation is primarily founded. Further reading: Burgundy, second in importance only to Bordeaux as a wine-producing area, is com- Lichine, A. (1980) Encyclopédie des vins et posed of five different zones—if we include des alcools de tous les pays, Paris: Laffont Beaujolais in the south with the Mâcon vine- ‘Bouquins’ (an alphabetically arranged en- yards, those of the Côte Chalonnaise (or Re- cyclopedia of wines and spirits by a well- gion de Mercurey), the Côte d’Or (composed known oenologist and wine merchant). of the Côte de Beaune and the Côte de Nuit) Plessis, L. (1979) Le Vin à la maison, Paris: and finally Chablis. If a typical claret is light, Flammarion (an introductory guide to dry, not too heavy in alcohol and redolent of French wines). the oak casks in which it is matured, then the Rainbird, G. (1984) Le Vin dans le monde, red and white wines of Burgundy show tremen- Paris: Compagnie Internationale du Livre dous variety, from dark, often full-bodied, vel- (an illustrated guide to wine, almost half of vety reds which do not have the dryness of a which is devoted to France). claret, to crisp, dry white wines which are, none Robinson, J. (1979) The Wine Book, London: the less, full-bodied and (at their best) full of A & C Black/Fontana (an English-language ageing potential. Burgundy wine may be pur- guide to ‘better buying and drinking for less chased, at the bottom end of the market, as money’). Bourgogne Grand Ordinaire, while a slightly superior wine is the so-called Bourgogne Passe- Tout Grains, followed by the plainer-sounding AC Bourgogne. Further up the market are the winter sports Bourgogne Hautes Côtes de Beaune, the Bourgogne Hautes Côtes de Nuit, Côtes de The French Alps attract countless French and Beaune Villages, Côtes de Nuit Villages and the foreign skiers every year, and the facilities of- commune wines which bear the name of a vil- fered are probably second to none (if some- lage on the AC (Appellation Contrôlée) label. what expensive). France has hosted the Win- Burgundy also has its own list of grands crus. ter Olympics (Chamonix in 1924, Grenoble Although this account has focused on the in 1968 and Albertville in 1992) and pro- two great wine-growing areas of France, it duced world and Olympic champions, of must not be forgotten that Épernay and Reims whom the best known are Jean-Claude Killy are the major towns of the prestigious Cham- and Marielle Goitschel. France has also had pagne region, known throughout the world world champions in figure skating—includ- for its sparkling whites, while vins de pays ing Alain Calmat, who went on to become (country wines) of very acceptable quality are Minister of Sport (the first former top-level produced in such areas as the Rhone, sportsman to do so). Another popular winter Roussillon, Minervois and the Gard, for ex- sport in France is ice hockey: there is a na- ample. Add the Appellation Contrôlée wines tional championship which in the 1950s and of Alsace, Lorraine, the Jura and Touraine 1960s was dominated by the Chamonix (among others) and it becomes clear that, in Hockey Club. addition to the huge amount of ‘plonk’ or table wine (vin ordinaire or vin de table) which IAN PICKUP it produces, France retains its reputation for See also: sport quality and variety unrivalled by any other country in the world. 558 Wittig, Monique

Wittig, Monique Wittig’s other works. Across the Acheron (Virgile, non), a subversive reworking of Dan- b. 1935, Alsace te’s The Divine Comedy, is set in contemporary San Francisco and stages Wittig’s journey Novelist, playwright and feminist through the hell of women’s oppression, her theorist excursions to the limbo of the lesbian bar scene and her arrival in a paradise of freedom. The Constant Journey (Le Voyage sans fin), a play The work of Monique Wittig is widely known written and produced with Sande Zeig, is based for its original combination of literary inno- on Cervantes’ Don Quixote. It presents an all- vations and radical lesbian politics. A promi- female cast, with Quichotte as a feminist strug- nent figure in the French feminist movement gling against patriarchal society. The striking of the early 1970s, Wittig emigrated to the dissociation between action and dialogue dem- United States in 1976. As a writer, her main onstrates the originality of Wittig’s technical concern is to dismantle language in its patriar- experimentation. Her work has inspired femi- chal forms and to reconstruct it from a lesbian nists and lesbians worldwide and has influ- perspective. To this end, she appropriates and enced contemporary writers like Michèle transforms works by male authors, conven- Causse and Nicole Brossard. tional genres and patriarchal mythologies. Unlike the practitioners of écriture féminine, RENATE GÜNTHER however, Wittig does not celebrate ‘the femi- See also: feminism (movements/groups); feminine’, but aims to abolish sex and gender cat- nist thought; literary prizes; women’s/lesbian egories, as discussed in her theoretical work writing The Straight Mind and Other Essays. Her first novel, The Opoponax (L’Opoponax), for which Wittig won the Prix Further reading Médicis, describes the experiences of a group of girls and the love between two of the pro- Crowder, D.G. (1983) ‘Amazons and Mothers? tagonists. Apparent in this text are themes cen- Monique Wittig, Hélène Cixous and Theo- tral in Wittig, such as the obliteration of lesbi- ries of Women’s Writing’, Contemporary ans from patriarchal culture and the conflict Literature 24, 2 (a lucid study of Wittig’s between feminine socialization and female sub- work in its French feminist context). jectivity. In the modern epic Les Guérillères, Duffy, J.H. (1990) ‘Monique Wittig’, in M. female warriors wage a guerrilla war against Tilby (ed.) Beyond the Nouveau Roman, the patriarchal order. The text charts different Oxford: Berg (a comprehensive account of stages in feminism, representing the female Wittig’s literary and theoretical texts). culture which emerges after the destruction of Ostrovsky, E. (1991) A Constant Journey: The patriarchy as a transitional phase, superseded Fiction of Monique Wittig, Carbondale: by a genderless society. The Lesbian Body (Le Southern Illinois University Press (an in- Corps lesbien) is an incantation of lesbian pas- depth study of themes and literary tech- sion, reminiscent of the poetry of Sappho. Here niques with an excellent bibliography). Wittig breaks down heterosexual constructs of the female body and recreates it as the subject of desire for another woman. Co-authored with Sande Zeig, Lesbian Peoples: Material for Wols a Dictionary (Brouillon pour un dictionnaire des amantes) rewrites history from a lesbian b. 1913, Berlin; perspective through redefinitions of words and d. 1951, Champigny-sur-Marne, provides a key to the terminology used in (near Paris) women and employment 559

Artist and photographer, ticularly for women in the 25–49 age group, real name Alfred Otto Wolfgang when they are also likely to be engaged in rear- Schulze ing children. In the mid-1990s, after the Nor- dic countries, France showed the highest ac- Of German nationality, Wols (his pseudonym tivity rates in the European Union for women taken from a torn fragment of a telegramme in this age group, with over 76 per cent of sent to him) was a student at the Berlin French women participating in the labour Bauhaus and went to Paris in 1933, where he force, almost regardless of the presence of was influenced by Surrealism. In 1937 he had young children. a one-man exhibition of his photographs in The postwar constitution of 1946 en- Paris and was commissioned to photograph shrined the principle of equal rights in France, the fashion pavilion at the International Exhi- but women’s incorporation into the labour bition. His career as a photographer ended force has continued to be on different terms when he was interned in 1939 as an enemy from those for men. More girls than boys gain alien, although he was freed a year later. In school-leaving qualifications and a university the early 1940s, he began to draw and paint education, but they experience greater diffi- in a style described by Sartre (who much ad- culty in finding jobs. Despite the strong com- mired the unease his works provoked) as ‘au- mitment of French women to employment, tomatism’. His first exhibition in December they tend to be segregated into less secure and 1945 showed tiny drawings and watercolours less well-paid jobs, and they are more likely displayed in illuminated boxes which appear than men to be unemployed. to the viewer like microscopic forms or far- By the mid-1990s, over 80 per cent of away worlds. He was admired by the artist women in employment were working in the George Mathieu, and he helped pioneer L’Art service sector, where they had benefited from Informel and Tachism in the 1950s. the expansion of jobs in retailing, education, health and welfare, but they continued to be DEBRA KELLY concentrated in a relatively small number of See also: painting; photography low-status positions, particularly in clerical work and direct services to clients. A higher proportion of women than men (14.8 per cent compared with 12.6 per cent) were employed women and employment in the public sector—where more flexible working conditions and greater security of By the mid-1990s, over 11 million French employment generally compensated for lower women were economically active, represent- salaries—than in the private sector. ing almost 45 per cent of the labour force. Part-time work is less widespread in The real take-off for the growth of women’s France than in the United Kingdom, account- labour market participation is generally situ- ing for 28 per cent of female economic activ- ated in the early 1970s, when the economy ity in 1995 (compared to the United King- was about to enter a period of restructuring. dom’s 44 per cent). Although part-time work- Since then, while male economic activity rates ers are entitled, pro rata, to the same rights as have declined, women have continued to in- full-time workers, the attitude towards part- crease their share of the labour force and have time work is ambiguous. While offering a benefited from the overall shift in employment convenient solution to the problem of com- from the industrial to the service sector. bining paid and unpaid work, it is not infre- In relation to its European neighbours, quently imposed by employers requiring a France displays relatively high levels of full- flexible labour force. time continuous female economic activity, par- LINDA HANTRAIS 560 women and politics

See also: demographic developments; women This traditional model of the female voter and social policy began to fragment in the 1970s as, progressively, more women left the private sphere of home and family to enter the workforce or Further reading higher education, and the gap between male and female participation decreased. By the leg- Hantrais, L. (1990) Managing Professional islative elections of 1993 the difference in ab- and Family Life: A Comparative Study of stention rates was negligible, with 24 per cent British and French Women, Aldershot and of women abstaining compared with 23 per Vermont: Dartmouth (a comparison of cent of men. The early 1970s also marked the women’s employment patterns in relation radicalization of the female electorate. By the to family life). 1986 legislative elections, women and men INSEE (1995) Les Femmes, Paris: INSEE, voted equally for the Left, while by the second ‘Collection Contours et Caractères’ (a use- round of the 1988 presidential elections, ful analysis of characteristics of women’s women had overtaken men, for the first time, employment). in voting for the Left. While women accounted for 53 per cent of the electorate and nearly 45 per cent of the workforce in 1994, they only represented 6 women and politics per cent of députés and 5.5 per cent of sénateurs in parliament, placing France near Since French women won the right to vote and the bottom of the league of European Union to stand for election (in October 1944), their countries. Women’s exclusion from political participation in politics has evolved consider- power has been put down to historical prec- ably. If a principal indicator of political par- edents such as property-based suffrage which ticipation is voting, then in the 1990s French (from 1789) prevented women from voting women participate at the same rate as men. and representing others, to Catholicism’s However, as far as participation in political view of women’s role and responsibilities, to decision-making is concerned, little has the refusal of political parties to promote changed since 1944. women and to the rules of the electoral sys- Traditionally, women voters have been as- tem itself. sociated with abstentionism and conservatism. Since 1994, the fiftieth anniversary of wom- Until 1969, female abstention rates were 7– en’s political rights, a feminist campaign for 12 percentage points higher than male absten- political ‘parity’ (the equal representation of tion rates. Women’s participation was also women and men in all elected assemblies) has distinct from that of men in that they voted, in gathered momentum. The argument that par- greater numbers, for the Right. For instance, ity is the only way to renew French democ- this gender gap was at its greatest in the first racy has gained favour in a large section of round of the presidential elections of 1965, the political class. when the Left’s candidate, François KHURSHEED WADIA Mitterrand, obtained 39 per cent of the women’s vote compared with 51 per cent of the See also: Catholicism and Protestantism; femi- men’s vote. The explanations for these early nism (movements/groups); parties and move- differences between male and female voting ments; women and employment are that women were political beginners and were apprehensive about exercising their Further reading newly won rights and that they were more easily influenced in their choice of conservative candidates by the Catholic church. Allwood, G. (1995) ‘The Campaign for Parity women and social policy 561

in Political Institutions in France’ in D. women were already entitled to social secu- Knight and J.Still (eds) Women and Repre- rity cover in their own right, and they had long sentation, Nottingham: WIF Publications been eligible to receive maternity pay. Innova- (an account of the campaign for gender tive schemes were introduced, particularly in parity in French political institutions). the public sector, to improve work-time or- Mossuz-Lavau, J. (1995) ‘Les Françaises aux ganization and working conditions. Under the urnes (1945–1994)’, Modern and Contem- Socialist government, the 1983 loi Roudy re- porary France 3, 2 (an overview of the vot- inforced and extended women’s rights. French ing patterns and political behaviour of women are legally protected against unfair French women over fifty years). dismissal and loss of status due to pregnancy. They are guaranteed reinstatement after paid maternity leave, which is taken into account in calculating pensionable service. Part-time women and social policy workers are eligible to receive pro rata benefits. In France, women have gained access to wel- Increasingly, policy has been adapted to fare, both indirectly as the dependants of male take account of women’s dual roles as work- breadwinners and as mothers, and directly as ers and mothers, and to encourage them to workers in their own right. Since the 1970s, combine paid and unpaid work. State provi- the focus has been on policies to help women sion for child care and nursery schooling is reconcile family life and employment. extensive in France, and allowances are paid The social security system which devel- towards child-minding costs. Parental leave, oped in France in the postwar period was with pay for parents of two or more children, premised on the principle of employment-reis available for up to three years and can be lated insurance rights, implying that regular shared between men and women. Take-up of employment should be rewarded by access to leave has, however, remained low, and sickness benefits, occupational pensions and French women in the 25–49 age bracket seem other forms of social protection. Since few to prefer to pursue continuous full-time em- women were gainfully employed outside the ployment careers, which give them full enti- home, their access to welfare depended essen- tlement to welfare in their own right. tially on derived rights in their capacity as LINDA HANTRAIS wives and mothers. The origins of family allowances at the turn of the century lay in the See also: demographic developments; Roudy, wage supplements paid to workers in indus- Yvette; women and employment try to compensate fathers for their family responsibilities. The model of the family sup- Further reading ported in social policy was centred on the mother as home-maker. More generous provision was made for mothers of three or more Hantrais, L. (1993) ‘Women, Work and Wel- children, with the pro-natalist aim of increas- fare in France’, in J.Lewis (ed.) Women and ing family size. Social Policies in Europe, Aldershot: By the 1970s, women’s rights had moved Edward Elgar (a survey of the postwar de- on to the political agenda. Married women velopment of women and welfare). and women with children were joining the la- Hantrais, L. and Letablier, M.-T. (1996) Fami- bour force in large numbers. Governments lies and Family Policies in Europe, London therefore came under increasing pressure to and New York: Longman (an international respond to the demands of women for protec- comparison of welfare provision for tion as paid workers. Economically active women). 562 women directors women directors in a continuum. Thus, in One Sings, the Other Doesn’t (L’Une chante, l’autre pas) in 1977, an overtly feminist companion-piece to Cléo, Women have found it difficult to succeed as the highly coloured and deliberately escapist directors in the French film industry and, typi- world of the spectacle, similar to that imag- cally, begin their careers in some other branch. ined by Varda’s husband Jacques Demy in Jacqueline Audry (1908–77) was a script-girl musicals such as Les Parapluies de Cherbourg and editor before making her first feature, Les and Les Demoiselles de Rochefort, is con- Malheurs de Sophie, in 1946. Her adaptations trasted with the grainy, black-and-white world of Colette’s Gigi (1948), Minne, l’ingénue lib- of documentary photography, while her 1985 ertine (1950) and Mitsou (1956) rework ear- masterpiece, Vagabonds (Sans toit ni loi), is a lier literary genres but with La Garçonne radical questioning of the nature of ‘woman’, (1957) and Le Secret du chevalier d’éon (1960), part road movie, part film noir and part TV and her masterpiece Olivia (1951), are also documentary. Similar concerns underpin her protofeminist questionings of gender roles. brilliant series of documentaries dating from Yannick Bellon edited films and directed a large the 1970s and 1980s—Daguerréotypes (1975), number of shorts, but did not make her first Réponse de femmes (1975), Mur murs (1982), feature, Quelque part, quelqu’un, until 1972. Les Dites cariatides (1984), all of which bear Thereafter, she specialized in ‘women’s inter- the marks of her encounter with the American est’ films which considered topics such as rape, women’s movement in the late 1960s, as does breast cancer and adultery in fictions which Jane B par Agnès V (1988) which is simulta- were often inspired by true stories: La Femme neously a self-portrait, a portrait of a celebrated de Jean (1974), L’Amour violé (1978), female icon, and a documentary about the ac- L’Amour nu (1981). Nadine Trintignant (Mon tress Jane Birkin. amour, mon amour, in 1967) and Nina Like Varda, but to an even greater extent, Companeez (Faustine et le bel été, 1971) were Marguerite Duras questioned the values of a both editors, while many other women have male-dominated film industry by means of a come to film directing via acting: Juliet Berto, thoroughgoing minimalism based on extremely with Neige (1981), Cap Canaille (1983) and low budgets, actors who worked without fees, Havre (1986); Anna Karina, with Vivre ensem- and very limited crews. Indeed, Duras’s most ble (1973); and Jeanne Moreau, with Lumière radical film Le Camion (1979), in some re- (1976) and L’Adolescente (1978). spects a post-1968 reworking of Godard’s La Agnès Varda, who trained as a photogra- Chinoise as ‘un film en train de se faire’, is pher, was the only woman to emerge to promi- principally composed of a conversation be- nence in the late 1950s, despite the emphasis tween herself and Gérard Depardieu, in the liv- placed by the Nouvelle Vague on independent ing room of her own house, about what the film-making and low budgets. Her shorts—La film was ‘supposed to be’ (the conversation Pointe courte (1954), Opéra-Mouffe (1958)— takes place in the conditional), intercut from were followed by three feature films Cléo de 5 time to time with shots of an articulated lorry à 7 (1962), Le Bonheur (1965) and Les at an unidentified crossroads in the Paris sub- Créatures (1966). Cléo was praised as a tech- urbs. Duras came to film directing after a long nical tour de force matching ‘real time’ with and successful career as a novelist and play- ‘diegetic time’ (both two hours), but all were wright and having written the screenplay for subsequently criticized for depicting women as Alain Resnais’s first feature film Hiroshima narcissistic and overdependent on men, and mon amour (1959). The orientalism of Duras’s the two latter films for using a palette reminis- novels, and the lyricism of her compositions, cent of soap-powder commercials. However, are magisterially incorporated into her film after 1968 it became clear that Varda’s strength masterpiece India Song (1975), which evokes, was to place two different visions of the world in an extraordinary montage of theatrical women’s magazines 563 gesture and music, the life of Anne-Marie Je, tu, il, elle (1974) to a thoroughgoing cri- Stretter (Delphine Seyrig) and her lovers in pre- tique of the role of women in society, Jeanne independence India (in fact, a chateau in the Dielman, 23, quai du Commerce 1080 Paris outskirts). But the film is also radically Bruxelles (1975), and her own relationship, challenged by its companion piece and diptych, as Belgian Jew, to metropolitan French cul- Son nom de Venise dans Calcutta désert (1976), ture in News from Home (1976) and Les which deploys the same soundtrack as India Rendez-Vous d’Anna (1978). Song, edited over different images. Despite mainstream successes, however, the In investigating the relationship between precarious professional and artistic position of sound and image, between the body and its women in the film industry continues to be representation, and between silence and reflected in their interest in the socially mar- speech, the films of Varda and Duras show ginal and to inspire some of their most inter- the influence of feminist theory in the 1970s. esting contemporary film-making. Thus Claire More recently, women directors such as Coline Denis’s three key films are oblique essays on Serreau, Diane Kurys and Josiane Balasko race and sex in the context of the French colo- have been less concerned with the thematics nial heritage: Chocolat (1988), in which a of feminism than to make their mark in main- white French girl revisits and recalls the stream or popular genres, especially in com- Cameroon of her colonial upbringing; S’en fout edy. After a documentary about women, Mais la mort (1990), set in the immigrant milieux qu’est-ce qu’elles veulent? (1976), Serreau of the Paris suburbs; and the magnificent J’ai shifted to comic mode (albeit with a radical pas sommeil (1993), in which a young girl from edge) with Pourquoi pas? (1977), before the the Baltic states encounters the cosmopolitan immense successes of Trois hommes et un world of the 18th arrondissement in Paris. couffin (1985) and Romuald et Juliette (1989), JILL FORBES both of which reveal her talent for acute social observation and her brilliant direction of See also: cinema; feminism (movements/ actors, and to harder-hitting social commen- groups); francophone cinema: Belgium; gay tary in La Crise (1992). Kurys has likewise cinema made a name as a witty observer of social mores, from the autobiographical Peppermint Soda (Diabolo menthe) in 1977 and C’est la vie (La Baule les Pins) in 1990, to the more women’s magazines romanticized Coup de foudre (1983) or Après l’amour (1992). Balasko was a star of the café- Women’s magazines represent a unique cultural theatre and remains an impressive theatrical space for women. Within this space, women writer and performer. Her first film as direc- express themselves publicly but also encounter tor, Sac de noeuds (1985), casting herself and the values and beliefs of femininity which influ- Isabelle Huppert as a couple infernal, did not ence the way they think, speak and act. meet with the success it deserved, whereas the Women’s magazines fall within two main more saccharine French Twist (Gazon maudit) categories: the haut de gamme (luxury) maga- of 1995 dressed up lesbian themes for a mass zines such as Marie-Claire and Elle; and maga- audience and was extravagantly praised. zines populaires, such as Femme actuelle and Balasko’s great originality, evident in her con- 7 jours madame, at the cheaper end of the mar- tribution to Blier’s Trop belle pour toi (1989), ket. is to challenge typecasting, especially as re- The luxury magazines consider themselves gards gender roles. In this she contrasts forward-looking publications, responding to strongly with Chantal Akerman, a Belgian a desire on the part of modern, professional who worked mainly in France in the 1970s women for luxury, new lifestyles and informa- and 1980s, who linked the lesbian themes of tion upon which they can make free choices. 564 women’s/lesbian writing

Hence, their glossy pages contain articles on readers are important consumers of beauty, prominent personalities (politicians, artists, fashion, household and other products. This entrepreneurs), reports on topical issues, high- makes women’s magazines the highest earn- quality photographs and illustrations on fash- ers of advertising revenue within the French ion, beauty and home decoration. In the 1960s magazine market. and 1970s, in particular, these magazines pro- KHURSHEED WADIA claimed themselves a vanguard for change, by discussing and campaigning around feminist See also: feminist press; national press in issues such as abortion/contraception, wom- France en’s rights and equal opportunities in the workplace. Since the economically austere Further reading years of the 1980s, they have become less keen to protest in favour of collective women’s rights and have instead focused attention upon the Bonvoisin, S.-M. and Maignien, M. (1986) La successes of individual women, especially those presse féminine, Paris: PUF (a useful intro- who have managed to combine the ideals of duction to the women’s periodical press). femininity with public prominence. New ad- Presse et statistiques (1994), Paris: SJTI (sta- ditions to this category in the 1980s, such as tistical information relating to the press). Madame Figaro, have been particularly aggressive in marketing the ‘new feminine woman’. On the other hand, the magazines populaires have never attempted to relay progressive think- women’s/lesbian writing ing. They have traditionally targeted a provincial readership of full-time mothers and house- In postwar France, no single model of female- wives, or women working in manual or less well- authored writing has predominated. Different paid white-collar occupations, giving practical sociohistorical moments have generated differ- advice on beauty, fashion, home crafts and per- ent types of writing, confirming the point made sonal relationships, with the aim of showing read- by Irma Garcia that women’s literary creativ- ers how an often humdrum existence can be made ity is bound up, inextricably, with history and more fulfilling. They have offered their readers a with women’s place within it (see Garcia 1981). more intimate, if not introverted world in which The discussion that follows covers some of an exchange of information takes place between the variant forms and styles of women’s writ- women. The 1980s brought a downturn in the ing produced at different points within the fortunes of the magazines populaires as they faced postwar era, and also addresses two specific competition from technically advanced media (if, in the French context, marginal) modes of which offered the public wider perspectives on women’s writing: that produced by women French society and the world outside it. This within the North African community in France forced them to make the first changes: for in- and writing by lesbians. stance, the use of quadrochromatic colour, var- In 1944, women in France belatedly obtained ied format and page layout and a livelier jour- the vote. By 1946, thirty-nine women MPs held nalistic style. While these measures stopped fur- seats in the National Assembly. In the late 1940s, ther decline, they were not innovative enough to therefore, it seemed as if the Liberation France promote growth, except in the case of new titles had recently won might be being extended to such as Femme actuelle and Prima. her citoyennes. In fact, legal/political emanci- In spite of the fact that women’s magazines pation did not, in the course of the 1950s and in both categories have suffered a decline in early 1960s, bring with it the autonomy and the 1980s, they remain the jewel in the crown independence many Françaises craved. For one of the French periodical press; not only be- thing, the financial affairs of married women cause of their high sales but also because their remained under their husbands’ control. Until women’s/lesbian writing 565

1965, French women required their spouse’s ‘feminist’. However, their ‘political’ impact is permission to hold down a job, open a bank limited, by virtue of the fact that they tend sim- account and dispose of property. Additionally, ply to signal the negative aspects of women’s and perhaps more importantly, because contra- lives (in order implicitly to highlight and cri- ception did not become legally available until tique their sources/causes), and generally hesi- 1967 and the right to abortion was only ac- tate to offer radical solutions or imagine alter- corded in 1975, French women of the postwar native ways of female being. era had little control over their sexuality and In the wake of May 1968, the French femi- their reproductive processes. nist movement—largely quiescent during the The 1950s and 1960s saw the publication 1940s and 1950s, in spite of the publication of a good many female-authored works of in 1949 of de Beauvoir’s Second Sex—received French literature. A number of these texts, writ- a new lease of life. One of the consequences of ten by authors such as Françoise Mallet-Joris its renascence, and of the sociosexual upheav- and Benoîte and Flora Groult and intended for als that hit France in the 1970s, was a kind of an exclusively feminine readership, offer a some- feminine re-entry into, or remoulding of, the what tame account of the realities of French sociosymbolic champ culturel (cultural arena). women’s lives. Others, however— This phenomenon, argues Marcelle Marini, unsurprisingly, given the sociosexual climate was made possible by the supportive, creative, within which they came into being—envision female-centred ‘space’ the Mouvement de la the feminine condition in a more honest, and Libération des Femmes allowed women writ- less positive, fashion. This latter category of texts ers and artists to access in the post-1968 pe- includes works by women authors such as riod (Marini 1992). Simone de Beauvoir, Marguerite Duras, Claire During the 1970s, a new generation of Etcherelli, Violette Leduc, Christiane Rochefort, écrivaines, inspired by the revolutionary times Albertine Sarrazin and Françoise Sagan. In their in which they were writing and also, in certain writings—which range from the exclusively fic- cases, by a burgeoning body of French femi- tional to the directly autobiographical, and pre- nist theoretical work, brought into being a dominantly belong to the realist genre—these corpus of literary texts which tended to the écrivaines represent the condition féminine ei- experimental, the poetic and/or the highly per- ther as resting on a desperate chasse à l’amour sonal, and within which their own preoccupa- that brings dependency in its wake and/or is tions as women subjects were manifestly—and rarely permanently satisfied (see the prose fic- courageously—on display. Produced by the tions of Beauvoir and Sagan, and the autobio- likes of Hélène Cixous, Chantal Chawaf, graphical writings of Leduc), or as a deeply ac- Jeanne Hyvrard, Christiane Rochefort, Emma culturated mode of being that offers little chance Santos, Monique Wittig and Marie Cardinal, of escape from pre-ordained roles (see Sagan, these texts addressed themes such as desire, Beauvoir, Rochefort and Duras’s Moderato eroticism, sexuality, sexual difference, bodily Cantabile), or as a form of second-class citizen- being, feminine relationships, madness, and the ship equivalent, or even inferior, to that enjoyed alliance of language and patriarchy. Often, in by the socially marginal (cf. Etcherelli’s Elise, terms of their stylistic and linguistic composi- or the Real Life (Élise, ou la vraie vie), or as a tion, they departed from traditional or con- state that is so generally unsatisfactory that it ventional literary forms—a phenomenon impels the female subject into various forms of which has encouraged contemporary (feminist) revolt (see the autobiographical works of literary critics to categorize the works of Sarrazin and Leduc). It is certainly the case that Cixous, Chawaf, Hyvrard and even Cardinal the more insightful female-authored literary as exercises in, and affirmations of, a kind of creations of the 1950s and the early to mid- écriture féminine (an avant-garde writing mode 1960s offer depictions of the feminine condi- deemed to be feminine-gendered, and to relate tion that can be categorized as more or less in some way to the female body). In addition, 566 women’s/lesbian writing many of the female-authored literary produc- raries and, by virtue of this fact, stands in some tions of the 1970s bore witness either to the kind of relation to those literary texts born out anger French women of the period felt at their of 1970s French neo-feminism. It does not, how- oppression by and within patriarchy and its ever, display the lyrical, experimental qualities linguistic order (see the work of Cardinal, or the affirmation d’une écriture spécifiquement Santos and Hyvrard), or to a desire to imagine féminine that characterized French women’s new worlds/realities wherein sexual politics, writing in the post-1968 era. Ernaux’s autobio- human relationships and language might be graphical fictions, especially those in which her remoulded, to the detriment of the patriarchal family history constitutes a key focus, fore- hegemony (see the writings of Wittig and ground a realist, documentary, almost anthro- Rochefort’s Archaos). In this particular liter- pological style, which leaves her reader with the ary era, then, textual experimentation, and an sense that he or she is being offered insights not imagination that was not only gynocentric but only into the personal trajectory of Ernaux her- was often also distinctly utopian in its tenor, self but also into diverse aspects of French soci- were the hallmarks of French women’s incur- ety and its social mores. sions into the literary domain. A not insignificant body of texts has been Latterly, in an era that is conceivably ‘post- produced in the 1980s by women writers who feminist’ and is certainly significantly less domi- either are beurs or who, born in North Africa, nated by issues of gender politics than the 1970s, live and work in France. Authors belonging French women’s writing seems to have changed to this category include Leïla Sebbar (who is course or, at least, to have diversified. Many of not herself a beur but has written several texts the feminist écrivaines whose literary careers in which the fate of second-generation North began in the late 1960s and early 1970s and African women is a central focus), Farida who were associated for one reason or another Belghoul, Sakina Boukhedenna, Djura, Leïla with écriture féminine have continued to pub- Houari, Tassadit Imache, Antoinette Ben lish in the 1980s and 1990s; however—as is Kerroum, Soraya Nini and Ferrudja Kessas. evidenced by the work of other key women Like the writings of contemporaries such as writers of the contemporary period, such as Ernaux, their highly personal, autobiographi- Marguerite Duras, Danièle Sallenave, Florence cally inflected literary creations often display Delay and Annie Ernaux—the post-1980 pub- a distinctly documentary quality. Themes and lications of Cixous, Chawaf and Wittig are by topics addressed within them include: no means representative of women’s literary creativity in the late twentieth century. Duras’s • the experience of cultural alienation/schizo- 1980s publications certainly address ‘the femi- phrenia (an experience encountered by the nine’ in so far as they regularly focus on female heroines of beur novels not only in France desire/eroticism, but, with the possible excep- but also in their so-called pays d’origine; tion of The Lover (L’Amant), they eschew in so • the need for and pursuit of freedom, access doing the celebratory style associated with to which is often associated with education écriture féminine. Neither Sallenave nor Delay and with the literary act; and appears particularly preoccupied with represent- • the relation to her body of the female beur ing the condition féminine; the work of both subject (the body being the symbolic focus women has on the other hand been linked with par excellence of a parental, especially pa- a retour au romanesque (i.e. with a move to- ternal, authority that is generally repre- wards a kind of writing which is manifestly less sented as oppressive and resented). experimental and self-referential than that of the nouveau romanciers). For all that she refuses to In postwar France, a manifest lesbian politi- accept that gender issues play a dominant role co-theoretical and literary culture has been within her literary oeuvre, Ernaux’s work is largely lacking. The reasons for this are three- more gynocentric than that of her contempo- fold. First, with the exception of the essays women’s/lesbian writing 567

Monique Wittig published in the 1970s and temporary French Fiction by Women: early 1980s, little theoretico-analytical, con- Feminist Perspectives, Manchester: Man- ceptual French feminist work has displayed a chester University Press (an accessible vol- strong lesbian dimension. Second, lesbian po- ume of essays on a range of modern women litical activism—partly because, historically, the writers). lesbian movement has existed within the wom- Bonn, C. (1994) ‘Romans féminins de en’s movement rather than as a separate en- l’immigration d’origine maghrébine’, tity—has not enjoyed the visibility of gay poli- Nouvelles Écritures féminines 118 (a use- tics. Third, those texts within France’s literary ful survey of the forms and themes of fe- ‘canon’ in which lesbianism is an issue/theme male-authored beur literature). have in the main been male-authored, date Fallaize, E. (1993) French Women’s Writing, back to the nineteenth and early twentieth cen- Basingstoke and London: Macmillan (a turies, and lack the ‘authentic’ perspective on useful survey of contemporary writers such female homosexuality present, arguably, in the as Chawaf, Hyvrard and Cardinal). work of Colette (see Marks 1979). It is highly Garcia, I. (1981) Promenade femmilière, Paris: probable that these phenomena have adversely Des femmes (a useful survey of key themes affected lesbian creativity in the modern era. and styles in French écriture féminine). It is certainly true that in the 1960s and 1970s Holmes, D. (1996) French Women’s Writing fictional and autobiographical accounts of les- 1848–1994, London: The Athlone Press (a bian love were written by Leduc, Wittig and historically organized study, with interest- Rochefort. The writings of these authors, ing essays focused on key women writers). whether or not they bear witness to a political Marini, M. (1992) ‘La Place des femmes dans consciousness inspired by the feminist revolu- la production culturelle’, in G.Duby and M. tion of the early 1970s, have engendered the Perrot, (eds) Histoire des femmes, vol. 5, existence of a powerful corpus of texts wherein Paris: Plon (an excellent essay focusing on lesbian eroticism and desire are given a female- the effect that May 1968 and the feminist authored voice and gender positions are ad- revolution emergent from it had upon dressed and reworked in an increasingly radi- women’s creativity in France). cal way. Newer additions to this corpus include Marks, E. (1979) ‘Lesbian Intertextuality’, in the novels of Jocelyne François, Hélène de G.Stambolian and E.Marks (eds) Monferrand and Mireille Best. However, as Homosexualities and French Literature, Elula Perrin argues, in the late twentieth cen- Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University tury French lesbian literary artefacts are some- Press (a stimulating examination of the ‘les- thing of a rarity (see Perrin 1995), a fact which bian continuum’ within French literature). suggests that in today’s France the lesbian crea- Perrin, E. (1995) Coup de gueule pour l’amour tive voice which emerges from the work of the des femmes, Paris: Ramsay (a highly per- women cited above is being stifled by and sonal account of the state of lesbian poli- within a (deeply misogynistic) cultural climate tics and lesbian cultural activity in modern that has failed to accommodate it. and contemporary France). Sartori, E. and Zimmerman, D. (eds) (1991) ALEX HUGHES French Women Writers: A Bio-Biblio- See also: abortion/contraception; autobiogra- graphical Source Book, New York: Green- phy; beur writing; beurs; feminism (movements/ wood Press (a collection of well-referenced groups); feminist thought; nouveau roman essays on French women authors through the ages). Sellers, S. (1991) Writing and Sexual Differ- Further reading ence, Basingstoke and London: Macmillan (particularly useful for understanding Attack, M.. and Powrie, P. (eds) (1990) Con- écriture féminine). X

Xenakis, Iannis whom Xenakis shares a predilection for per- cussive sonorities and a fascination with the b. 1922, Brãila, Romania spatial deployment of music—for example, musicians placed within the audience, and Composer electronic techniques. Xenakis’s work requires of its audience a different attitude towards lis- Educated at the Athens Polytechnic, Xenakis tening. His works range from chamber to or- settled in France in 1947, working as an ar- chestral and choral works: Herma (piano), chitect with Le Corbusier until 1959. He is Eonta (piano and brass), Pithoprakta (orches- best known for his ‘stochastic’ music, an ap- tra) and incidental music for the Oresteia. plication of probability theory to structure WALTER A.STRAUSS rather than to the actual production of sounds. He was strongly influenced by Varèse, with See also: concert music

568 Y

Yacine, Kateb b. 1903, Belgium; d. 1987, Maine, USA b. 1929, Constantine, Algeria; d. 1989, Grenoble Writer

Playwright and director Yourcenar was a half-Belgian, half-French writer, who in 1980 became the first woman to be elected to the Academic Française; she A well-known North African playwright and had been elected to its Belgian counterpart director, Yacine has worked in French since nine years before. Her best-known work, pub- the 1950s. His texts in French, noted for their lished in 1951, Memoirs of Hadrian liveliness, movement and flexibility, and for (Mémoires d’Hadrien), is a first person fic- dealing with Algeria, revolutions, national tional portrait of the Roman emperor. Since identity, etc., include Polygone étoilé (Starry 1939, she had lived in the United States with Zone) and L’Homme aux sandales de her long-term partner, Grace Frick, but lesbi- caoutchouc (The Man in Rubber Sandals). anism is less prominent in her writing than He has also written many plays in Arab dia- male homosexuality, an important theme in lect. Mémoires d’Hadrien and Alexis (1929), ANNIE SPARKS whose central character reveals his sexual problems in a long letter to his wife. See also: francophone performing arts: North Yourcenar’s geographical marginality to Africa; theatre French culture was mirrored by her distance from its dominant intellectual movements, Further reading most notably the nouveau roman. She was at work on the third and final volume of her autobiography at the time of her death. Arnaud, J. (1986) La Littérature maghrébine de langue française, Paris: Publisud, vol. 2 KEITH READER (study of Arabic literature, including a sec- See also: women’s/lesbian writing tion on Yacine).

youth culture Yourcenar, Marguerite La culture jeune is a somewhat slippery term, usually denoting the leisure practices or (more 569 570 youth culture broadly) the references, icons and values velopment of new technologies such as video deemed to be specific to the 12–25 age group. and the Walkman, and the universalization of As in other Western societies, youth culture in the post-1960s values of youthfulness, plural- France is closely associated with the audio- ism and pleasure, transformed Western youth visual media and leisure technologies. culture generally into a multinational, The democratization of postwar secondary multimillion-dollar industry. Punk notwith- education in France and the raising of the standing, adolescent dissent was packaged and school-leaving age to 16 in 1959 had the ef- marketed during the 1970s, while disillusion- fect of extending the period of adolescence. ment and recession steadily defused 1960s radi- This, together with France’s ‘baby boom’ and calism. In France as elsewhere, once immuta- economic recovery, opened a new teenage con- ble cultural hierarchies began shifting, so that sumer market in the late 1950s increasingly by the 1980s even the government, under centred on pop music, which the transistor Mitterrand, had set about legitimizing youth radio and vinyl record made easily available cultural practices previously considered unwor- to the young person with more disposable in- thy or positively antisocial, such as fashion, come and leisure than the average adult. These comic strips, pop video, rock and pop, rap and developments benefited a new generation of graffiti. Concurrently, the pop market was be- French singer-songwriters such as Brel and coming segmented, embracing an ever wider Brassens, but their chief impact was to facili- variety of styles. tate the emergence of a French form of Ameri- During the 1980s, the rise of racism and can rock and roll known as yé-yé, performed AIDS, ongoing dissatisfaction with educa- by teen idols like Johnny Hallyday and tional reform and the popularity of worldwide Françoise Hardy and disseminated by the ra- humanitarian causes all helped generate a new dio programme and magazine, Salut les social awareness in French youth, variously copains. Although yé-yé seemed little more exemplified in the student protests of Novem- than a derivative and trivial commodity, as ber-December 1986, SOS Racisme, new ‘al- early as 1963 the sociologist Edgar Morin ternative’ entertainers like the singer Renaud noted its deeper significance as mirror and and the comedian Coluche, and an enthusi- stimulant of a new sense of youth identity. Yé- asm for world music. Such phenomena testi- yé, he argued, was the voice of a virtually ho- fied to a reinvented sense of youth solidarity, mogeneous ‘class’ founded not on socioeco- coupled with a new, multicultural sensibility nomic status but on a community of age, taste, which generated various musical innovations, ritual and language. It was also profoundly such as the French rap of MC Solaar or the ambivalent: while it helped prepare French fusion of rock with languages and rhythms youth for life in the consumer society, its vali- from the Maghreb and elsewhere. dation of gratuitous pleasure and play also As a result of these changes, and of the pro- contained the seeds of rebellion against the gressive domestication and commodification adult world. of cultural life in the multimedia age, the ex- Although the homogeneity argument was istence of a homogeneous youth culture today questionable, Morin’s detection of revolt at the is less widely accepted than it was in the heart of French youth culture proved prophetic, 1960s, though some argue that even then what as youth protests against Gaullist society, was perceived as a common culture was fanned by Anglo-American counterculture, merely that of a privileged minority. Never- culminated in the ‘cultural revolution’ of May theless, surveys published in 1990 and 1995 1968, whose polymorphous values impreg- still suggest a degree of commonality in French nated the music, comic strips, fashions and life- adolescents’ cultural practices. One finding is styles of many young people in France. How- the decline of reading, despite a rise in the level ever, the very forces which had generated the of educational attainment. When young peo- youth phenomenon soon changed it. The de- ple do read, it is most often comic strips. youth culture 571

Correspondingly, audiovisual practices have tion. Although a certain homogeneity is pro- risen. In 1994, 92 per cent of the 12–25 age duced by the shared experiences of schooling, group had access to a hi-fi system; 79 per cent cultural practices soon diverge once education a personal stereo and a VCR; and 39 per cent ends. a TV-linked video game. DAVID LOOSELEY This does not, however, mean the complete domestication of young people’s cultural ex- See also: beur music; concert music; Désir, perience, since sociability—going to cafés, Harlem, and SOS Racisme; education, second- roaming the streets, seeing friends—remains ary: collèges, lycées, etc.; racism/anti-semitism crucial. By far the most popular outing for the 12–25 age group in 1994 was to the cinema Further reading (90 per cent), while other favourites were fun fairs (60 per cent), nightclubs (57 per cent) and amusement parks (41 per cent). Opera Donnat, O. and Cogneau, D. (1990) Les productions, however, attracted only 3 per Pratiques culturelles des Français 1973– cent and classical music concerts 7 per cent. 1989, Paris: La Découverte/Documentation ‘Rock’, in fact, remains the preferred music of Française (survey sponsored by the govern- 54 per cent of the young. Here, too, there is ment). evidence of increasing sociability: 24 per cent Guy, J.-M. (ed.) (1995) Les Jeunes et les sor- of 15–25s attended a rock concert in 1988, ties culturelles, Paris: Ministry of Culture and 41 per cent in 1994. Yet it is far from (another government-sponsored survey). certain that rock constitutes the homogeneous Nouvelle Enquête sur les pratiques culturelles culture Morin had found in yé-yé. First, ‘rock’ des Français (1990), Paris: Documentation is a deceptively singular term which masks a Française (another government survey). plurality of tastes and, second, young people’s Yonnet, P. (1985) Jeux, modes et masses: la cultural consumption is differentiated by their société française et le moderne, Paris: cultural inheritance, gender and social posi- Gallimard (a useful sociological study). Index

Page numbers in bold indicate references to the main entry.

Aba, Noureddine 229 Ahmed, Ahihi Moulay 235 abortion and contraception 1–2, 56, 93, 108, AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) 184, 208, 475, 546, 564, 565 1, 8–10, 12, 93, 284, 553 Académic Française 2, 79, 167, 213, 334, activism 261, 264, 272, 570 342–3, 355, 382, 501, 569 cinema 263 Acquart, André 2 deaths from 103, 114, 140, 242, 314, 393 ACT-UP (AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power) television 9–10, 265 261, 264 theatre 526 Actes Sud 3 writings on 27, 151, 211, 264, 266, 281–2, Action Française movement 476, 548 298, 314–15 Action (newspaper) 328 Aimée, Anouk 10, 150 Adamo, Salvatore 234 Air France 392 Adamov, Arthur 3, 363, 427, 522, 527, 550 Aït-Menguellet 236 Ader, Clément 536 Aix-en-Provence Adia 202 Fondation Vasarély 545 Adjani, Isabelle 3, 454, 507 music festival 43, 384 adult education 112 Akerman, Chantal 221, 263, 491, 563 advertising 3–7, 5, 9, 192, 213, 436, 533 Akika, Ali 223 cultural studies 49 Al Liamm 458 iconography 291–2 Alaïa, Azzedine 200, 201 newspapers 336, 389, 398, 457 Alain-Fournier (Henri-Alban Fournier) 348 radio 237, 451, 452 Albaladejo, Pierre 477 television 239, 240, 350 Albany, Jean 245 women’s magazines 564 Albiach, Anne-Marie 429, 431 Afghanistan: alcohol 5, 10–11 Soviet invasion 356 Alembert, Jean le Rond d’ 277 Africa Alès: festival of Jeune Théâtre 43 changing societies 18 Algeria cultural influences 82, 425 anti-government demonstrations 68, 69, 108 decolonization 141, 144 cinema 222–3 ethnography 331 culture 60 French dependencies 141, 142, 193, 216, 378 and de Gaulle 258, 259, 374, 501 music 233, 500 decolonization 143–4, 145, 521 revolutionary ideas 199 French colonial rule 69, 120, 199, 216 short fiction 492 human rights violations 336 television 539 independence 216, 222, 227, 247, 299, 376 agriculture 7–8 independence movement 12, 27, 56, 108, and economy 455 193 199, 346, 380 employment 185 Islamic fundamentalism 143, 249, 299, 300 and European integration 7–8, 190, 191 music 67, 68, 236 modernization 168 performing arts 226, 227, 228–30 572 Index 573

photography 475 television 350, 495 present civil war 143 Amiens: Ballet Théâtre Contemporain 137, 139 theatre about 379, 526, 569 Amnesty International 248 writers 77, 88, 90, 98, 109, 156–7, 248, 269, Amont, Marcel 14, 395 348, 487, 569 anarchist movement 212, 328, 365 Algerian war 12–13, 56, 228, 271, 299, 340, 397 Andalusian music 67, 235, 236 armed forces 12–13, 26, 124–5, 141, 143 Andorra 452 and colonial policy 141, 143, 144 Andrien, Jean-Jacques 221 and de Gaulle 12–13, 125, 143–4, 216, 258, Anglade, Jean-Hugues 263 501 Anglo-Saxon culture 404, 452, 548, 570 fiction 136, 157, 189 art 486 films 223, 273, 351, 466 audiovisual media 549 French use of torture 108, 195, 397, 482 popular music 472, 499, 500 Harkis 293 romantic novels 474 and Mitterrand 143, 376 anglomanie 14–15 opponents to 104, 193, 195, 383, 539, 546 anglophone culture 64, 162, 499 plays 551 animation 222 writers’ and intellectuals’ involvement 77, Annales 15, 79, 210, 325, 347 248, 360, 482 Annaud, Jean-Jacques 166 Algiers 142, 236, 291, 366 Anouilh, Jean 15–16, 76, 86, 194 Allam, Idir and Djamel 67 Anquetil, Jacques 134 Alleg, Henri 195 Anthony, Richard 500, 547 Allégret, Marc 345 anthropology 16–18, 27, 38, 318, 326, 333–4 Allégret, Yves 106, 421, 493 anti-abortion groups 2 Alliance Ethnic 67 anti-racism 60, 154–5, 189, 293, 300, 336 Allouache, Merzak 222, 223 anti-semitism 108, 109, 300, 308, 316, 370, Almodóvar, Pedro 262 382, 450–1, 546, 548 Alps: agriculture 7 anti-war activism: artists 425, 426 Alsace 93, 461, 556 Antoinette 206 Alsation language 322 Antonioni, Michelangelo 147 Althusser, Louis 13–14, 83, 359, 360, 397, 444, Anzieu, Didier 444 516–17 Aperghis, Georges 552 Alvard, Julien 29 Apollinaire, Guillaume 30, 96, 121, 132, 212, Amar, Denis 73 425, 467 Amaury, Émilien 409 Apostrophes 18, 166, 281 American cultural influences 11, 104, 273, Apothéloz, Charles 231 489, 570 Arab countries: architecture 21 relations 295 art 407, 486, 513 Arab culture and language 22, 66, 68–9, 227, audiovisual media 549 228, 229, 311, 343, 569 dance 132, 136 Arab-Israeli war 193 distributionalism 340–1 Arafat, Yasser 269 feminism 204 Aragon, Louis 112, 158, 211, 212, 359, 405 film 53–4, 87, 104, 105, 106, 114, 273 Arc, L’ 347 modernism and modernity 404, 437 Arcadie 263 music 37, 283, 480, 499, 500, 537, 570 Archaos circus company 108 postmodernism 436 Arche de la Défense 23, 130, 378, 446 resistance to 116, 130, 131 architecture 18–22, 124, 324–5, 353, 434 science fiction 485 and sculpture 408, 485 574 Index

under Mitterrand 21, 22–6, 30–1, 62, 130, Atlan. Liliane 35 296, 378, 446 Attali, Jacques 35–6 see also renovation projects Attoun, Lucien 36, 314 Architecture d’aujourd’hui 73 Attoun, Micheline 36 archives 34, 41 Aubret, Isabelle 191 Ardant, Fanny 26, 151, 507 Aubry, Gilbert 245 Aristophanes 550 Audiberti, Jacques 36, 82, 356, 529 Arland, Marcel 418 audiovisual media 131, 241, 549, 570, 570–1 Arles: École Nationale de la Photographie 422 Audry, Jacqueline 562 Arman 29, 407, 486 Aufray, Hugues 36–7, 146, 214, 386 armed forces 26–7, 144–5 Aulenti, Gae 31 Algeria 12–13, 26, 124–5, 141 Aurenche, Jean 37–8, 104, 106, 344, 516 Foreign Legion 141 Auriol, Vincent 37 Aron, Jean-Paul 27 Aurore, L’ 37 Aron, Raymond 27–8, 193, 195, 212, 272, Auschwitz 40, 202, 308, 405, 436 394 Austen, Jane: influence 473 Arp, Jean 28, 486 Austrian cinema and theatre: influence 525 Arrabal, Fernando 28, 86, 255, 324 Autant-Lara, Claude 37–8, 104, 106, 251, 538 Arsan, Emmanuelle 345 Auteuil, Daniel 38, 55, 484 art see arts; collage; painting; sculpture; see Autissier, Anne-Marie 223 under names of artists and movements Auto-Journal, L’ 285, 467 art brut 28, 162–3, 193, 406 autobiography 38–41, 88, 89, 167, 331, 333, art criticism 28–9, 83, 164, 217, 404, 431 383, 396 Art d’aujourd’hui 73 beur writing 69, 98 art galleries and museums 30–1, 112, 350–1, feminisis 38, 39, 56, 120, 208, 326 402 gay writing 393, 567 art informel 29, 31–2, 82, 312, 404, 406, 478, integration with fiction 59, 90, 98, 164, 186, 559 211, 246, 469, 481, 483, 492, 566 Artaud, Antonin 29, 32–3, 47, 81, 158, 193, intellectuals 28, 40, 50, 52–3, 56, 161, 281, 217, 373, 406, 523, 526–7 331, 476 influence 255, 320, 347, 427 lesbian writing 569 ARTE (Association Relative aux Télévisions and plays 314–15 Européenes) 33–4, 239, 240, 518, 519, 529 women’s writing 39, 327, 478, 567 arts avance sur recettes 3, 41–2, 104, 129, 388 festivals 42–3 avant-garde 111–12, 132, 163, 394, 425 funding 34–5, 103 cinema 59, 262, 426 training 128 journals 82 see also cultural policy; Maghrebin drama 227 performing arts; and Marxism 327 visual arts music 121, 303 Arts (magazine) 273, 289 painting 362, 408, 424 Asgarally, René 246 photography 422 Asia press 195, 346–7 dance 137–8 theatre 81, 224, 320, 426, 522, 523, 531, music 123 546 Asso, Raymond 423 writers 58, 173, 297, 516 Astérix 117, 222, 531 see also Surrealism; see under names of Atget, Eugène 421 movements athletics 35, 502 Avignon: summer arts festival 42–3, 85, 86, Atlan, Jean-Michel 35 137 229, 526, 550 Index 575

Ayache, Alain 390 Barre, Raymond 48, 169, 271 Ayckbourn, Alan 466 Barrière, Alain 48 Aymé, Marcel 132, 344, 345 Barsacq, André 15, 48–9, 250, 355, 401 Azama, Michel 43 Barthes, Roland 27, 49–50, 315–16, 503 Azéma, Jean-Henri 245 art criticism 29 Azéma, Sabine 466 autobiography 40, 50 Aznavour, Charles 43, 46, 277, 418, 500, 537, discourse theory 341, 342 538 ethnography 397 and gay writing 264, 267 Babillée, Jean 136 influence 52, 89, 207, 208, 342, 438 Bach, Johann Sebastien 274 and literary journals 346, 347, 490 Bachelard, Gaston 13, 360 literary theory and semiotics 109, 200, 280 Bacon, Francis 29, 147 Mythologies 5, 49, 422, 535 Badinter, Élisabeth 44, 210 structuralism 438, 439, 509, 511, 516 Badinter, Robert 44 Bartók, Béla 121, 370 Baez, Joan 37, 214 Basque country: Catholicism 92, 214, 215, Bagnolet: choreographic festival 137 322, 456, 461 Bagouet, Dominique 103 Bataille, Georges 51, 52, 109, 187, 265, 315, Baker, Josephine 44, 499 346, 347, 427 Bakhtin, Mikhail 208 Bataille, Nicolas 52, 296 Balandier, Georges 17, 18 Baude, Jeannine 431 Balasko, Josiane 45, 72, 262, 432, 563 Baudelaire, Charles 362, 421 Balavoine, Daniel 63 influence 153, 161, 193, 431 Balenciaga, fashion house 200–1, 201 and music 122, 212 Balissat, Jean 231 studies 39, 153, 341, 483 Balladur, Édouard 23, 45, 101, 126, 130, 294, Baudrillard, Jean 29, 52–3, 436, 437 309, 331, 378, 412, 417, 433, 488, 533, 546 Baudry, Jean-Louis 516 Ballard, J.G. 52, 437 Bauhaus: influence 545, 559 Balmain, fashion house 200–1 Bausch, Pina 136 Balthus 45, 249, 405 Bayard (press group) 128 Balzac, Honoré de 49–50, 111, 155, 344, 495 Baye, Nathalie 53, 151, 424 Bamboche, La 215 Bayrou, François 179 Bancquart, Marie-Claire 429, 431 Bazaine, Jean 53 banks 46, 170, 340, 392 Bazin, André 53–4, 87, 538 Barbara 46 BCBG (bon chic bon genre) 54, 202 Barbie, Klaus 308, 402 Béart, Emmanuelle 38, 54–5, 471, 484, 507 Barbier 118 Béart, Guy 54, 55, 277, 384, 418 Barclay, Eddie 46, 385 Beaton, Cecil 553 Bardèche, Maurice 46 Beaubourg see Pompidou Centre Bardet, Jean 490 Beaucarne, Jules 234 Bardot, Brigitte 47, 104, 150, 252, 273, 291, Beauregard, Georges de 273 507, 544 Beauvoir, Simone de 55–7, 187, 425, 481, 538, Baroche, Christiane 492 565 Barraqué, Jean 122, 370 autobiography and memoirs 39, 56, 120, 208 Barrault, Jean-Louis 47–8, 75, 91, 144, 158, existentialism 208 462, 527 influence 148, 210 acting and mime 32, 47, 372, 373 and journals 482, 521, 553 theatre productions 15, 59, 213, 296, 521, political activism 119, 208, 329 522, 528 The Second Sex 188, 193, 208 576 Index

studies of 327 Bercy Beauvois, Xavier 263 music venue 386–7, 500 Bebel-Gisler, Dany 243, 244 redevelopment 23, 62 Bébête-Show 57, 282, 519 Bérégovoy, Pierre 62–3, 378 Bebey, Francis 492 Berg, Alban 99, 121, 307 Bécaud, Gilbert 57, 146, 500, 537 Berger, Michel 63, 253, 284, 480 Bechet, Sydney 304 Bergson, Henri 146, 147 Becker, Jacques 57–8, 104, 160, 493 Berlin: Wrapped Reichstag (Christo) 103 Beckett, Samuel 58–9, 340, 374, 454, 522, 527, Berlin Wall: fall of 103 528 Berlioz, Hector 370 and existentialism 193 Berlusconi, Silvio 107 fiction 491 Bernanos, Georges 121, 344 influence 102, 127, 522 Bernedetto, André 115 plays 32, 47, 73, 194, 463, 491, 528, 531 Bernier, Georges 98 Beethoven, Ludwig van 84, 274 Bernstein, Henri 466 Begag, Azouz 59–60, 69, 300 Berri, Claude 38, 54, 63, 104, 105, 115 Béguin, Albert 250 Germinal 111, 345, 375, 462 Beineix, Jean-Jacques 60, 105 Jean de Florette 112, 151, 345 Béjart, Maurice 102 Manon des sources 112, 345 school of dance 231 Berry: music 456 Belfond (publisher) 429 Berto, Juliet 562 Belghoul, Farida 60, 65, 69, 566 Bertolucci, Bernardo 537 Belgium Besnehard, Daniel 63, 201, 467 cinema 221–2 Besset, Jean-Marie 63–4 comic strips 116 Besson, Colette 35 performing arts 224–5 Besson, Luc 64, 73, 105, 260 popular music 233–4 Best, Mireille 567 radio 237, 238 beur cinema 60, 64–6, 70, 98, 105, 106, 160, television channels 9, 240 223 writing 241–3 beur comics and cartoonists 66–7 Bellmer, Hans 421 Beur FM radio 68 Bellon, Lolleh 60 beur music 67, 70, 91, 310, 393–4, 454 Bellon, Yannick 60–1, 262, 562 beur radio 67–8 Belmondo, Jean-Paul 11, 61, 151, 273, 344, 454, beur writing 59–60, 68–70, 70, 98, 300, 487, 488, 506 566 Ben (Vautrier) 408 beurs 64, 66, 67, 70–1 Ben Ammar, Abdellatif 222 argot 494–5 Ben Barka, Souhel 223 political activism and movements 60, 66, Ben Bella, Ahmed 143 70, 71, 300 Ben Jelloun, Tahar 61, 228, 248 Beuve-Méry, Hubert 380–1 Ben Kerroum, Antoinette 566 Bialek, André 234 Ben Mahmoud, Mahmoud 223 Bibliothèque Nationale de France 62, 340, 422 Ben Rahhal, M’Hammed 247 architectural project 23–4, 25, 130, 340, 378 Benaïcha, Brahim 69 446 Benda, Julien 120 Bienvenue 55 Benmussa, Simone 61–2 Big Brother Hakim 67 Bennett, Alan 64 Bilal 118 Benoit, Pierre 348 Billetdoux, François 71 Benveniste, Émile 62, 341 Billon, Pierre 480 Index 577

Binoche, Juliette 71, 90, 454, 507 Boudjellal 66 Birkin, Jane 71–2, 252, 562 Boudou, Jean 459–60 Birtwistle, Harrison 122 Bouffes du Nord theatre, Les 82, 133 black culture 95 Boughedir, Ferid 223 cinema 106, 160 Boukhedenna, Sakina 69, 566 see also négritude Boulanger, Pascal 429 Blanc, Michel 72, 151, 375 Boularès, Habib 228 Blanchard, Pierre 304 Boulez, Pierre 75–6, 122, 123–4, 370, 533 Blanchot, Maurice 58, 72, 187, 308 Bounoure, Gabriel 302 Blanco, Serge 477 Boupacha, Djamila 56 Blériot, Louis 536 Bouquet, Carole 72 Blier, Bertrand 45, 53, 72, 72, 147, 151, 156, Bouquet, Michel 76 262, 288, 375, 563 Bouraoui, Nina 68, 249 Blin, Roger 2, 47, 58, 72–3, 91, 353, 527, 528 Bourdet, Gildas 76 Bloc, André 73 Bourdieu, Pierre 76–7, 79, 422, 503 Bloch, Marc 15 Bourges: Spring Festival 384–5, 456, 537 Blondin, Antoine 288, 288–9 Bourvil 63, 251, 507 Blum, Léon 37 Bousquet, René 308, 548 Bober, Robert 419 Boussac, Marcel 37, 157 Bobet, Louis 134 Bouteille, Romain 86 Bobigny Bouvard, Philippe 476 festival 67 Bouvier, Joelle 103, 140 trial 1 Bouzid, Nouri 223 Bobino 132, 133 bovine spongiform encephalopathy Bocuse, Paul 73, 203, 256, 471 (Mad Cow Disease) 8 Boddaert, François 429, 431 Bowie, Malcolm 443 Bofa, Gus 132 Bradley, Omar 546 Bofill, Ricardo 21 Brancusi, Constantin 270 Bohringer, Richard 73 Braque, Georges 77–8, 97, 351, 420, 425, 434, Bohringer, Romane 73, 114 506 Bolt, Robert 550 Brasillach, Robert 46, 338 Boltanski, Christian 405 Brassaï (Gyula Halesz) 421, 486 Bonal, Denise 73–4, 467 Brassens, Georges 46, 78–9, 132, 211, 212, 234, Bonaparte, Marie 444 418, 451, 500, 536, 570 Bondy, Luc 74, 418 Braudeau, Michel 265 Bonmariage, Manu 221 Braudel, Fernand 17, 79, 326, 509 Bonnaire, Sandrine 72, 74, 424 Brazzaville (Congo) 142 Bonnefoy, Yves 74–5, 164, 429, 430–1 Brecht, Bertolt book illustration 97, 163, 362, 420, 424, 429 discovery of 161, 228 bookshops 447–8 influence 99, 158, 228–9, 274, 306, 320, Bopp, Léon 250 427, 516 Bordeaux 456, 556–7 plays 2, 427, 550, 553 Bosnia: war 26, 336, 378 Brécourt-Villars, Claudine 187 Bost, Pierre 37–8, 104, 106, 344, 516 Brel, Jacques 46, 78, 79–80, 212, 233, 234, 277, Bouchaala, Ahmed 65 451, 500, 570 Bouchareb, Rachid 64–5 Bresson, Robert 80–1, 91, 104 Bouchenak, Lofti 236 Brétécher, Claire 116, 398 Bouchnak, brothers 235 Breton, André 28, 95, 162, 245, 276, 347, Boudjedra, Rachid 248 425, 428, 429 578 Index

Breton language 322 Cahiers du féminisme, Les 205, 206 Brialy, Jean-Claude 81 Cahiers du grif, Les 332 Briand, Aristide 420 Caillois, Roger 51 Brinon, Fernand de 338 Cain, James 546 Brisson, Pierre 212 Calder, Alexander 29 British culture see Anglo-Saxon culture Calderón de la Barca, Pedro 395, 427, 550 Brittany 92, 214, 215, 278, 455, 456, 461 Calouches 415–16 see also Breton language; regional writing, Calvez, Jean-Yves 359 Breton Calvino, Italo 403 broadcasting 131, 402 Cambodia: colonialism 379 see also radio; television Cameroon: writings on 151 Broch, Hermann 123 Camus, Albert 87–9, 97, 228, 425, 447, 481, Brook, Peter 81–2, 91, 133, 158, 372, 373, 491 521, 522 existentialism 15, 192, 193 theatre productions 42, 43, 47, 81–2, 91, 555 fiction 491 Brossard, Nicole 558 journalism 195 Bruant, Aristide 462 plays 76, 194, 194–5, 528, 529 Bruller, Jean 374 quarrel with Sartre 88, 89, 193, 482 Brumachon, Claude 103 studies of 49 Brussels: MUDRA dance school 102 Camus, Renaud 89, 188, 264, 265, 266, 267 Bryen, Camille 32, 82 Canal Plus 57, 89, 239, 240, 282, 518, 520 BSE see bovine spongiform encephalopathy Canard enhaîné, Le 89–90 Büchner, Georg 427 Cane, Louis 513 Buffet, Bernard 82–3, 405 Canetti, Jacques 546 buildings see architecture Canguilhem, George 360 Bulgaria 315 Cannes Film Festival 3, 43, 114, 222 Bülher, Michel 234 Cantal-Dupart, Michel 512 Buñuel, Luis 81, 91, 111, 150, 491 Capa, Robert 421 Buraglio, Pierre 407 Capogrossi, Giuseppe 32 Buren, Daniel 29, 83 Capri, Agnès 441 Burgundy: wine 7, 556, 557 Carax, Léos 71, 90, 105, 275 Butor, Michel 83–4, 374, 396 Carco, Francis 132 Buttes-Chaumont Studios 107 Cardin, Pierre 90, 200–1 Buyens, Frans 221 Cardinal, Marie 90–1, 326, 565–6 Caribbean cable and satellite television 85, 183, 240, 518, ethnography 331 519–20, 522, 539, 549 music 500 Cabrel, Francis 85, 385, 456, 500 short fiction 492 Caen: jazz centre 456 writing 243–4 café theatre 45, 85–6, 151, 432, 563 Carlos and his band 234 café-concert 86, 384, 386, 499, 536 Carné, Marcel 47, 91, 104, 144, 262, 373, 550 Cage, John 75, 123 Carpentras: desecration of Jewish graves 450 Cahiers de mai 328 Carrère, Claude 491 Cahiers du cinéma 53, 86–7, 104, 321, 347, 398 Carrière, Jean-Claude 82, 91 and auterism 54, 463 cars: travel 535–6 criticism of cinéma de qualité 38, 104, 106, Carson, Rachel 277 113, 538 Carte de séjour 67, 91, 300, 473 and Truffaut 38, 106, 538 Cartel directors 47, 158, 522 writers 140, 273, 470 Carter, Elliott 122 Index 579

Cartier-Bresson, Henri 91, 201, 421, 422 Certeau, Michel de 39, 95 Cartland, Barbara 474 Césaire, Aimé 95–6, 142, 199, 244, 415, 417, cartoons and cartoonists 66–7, 98, 116–19, 428–9, 430, 529 292, 348 Cévennes region: Protestantism 93 see also animation Cézanne, Paul 425 Cartoucherie, Vincennes 115, 525–6 Chabal, Pierre 262 Casadesus, Jean-Claude 456 Chaban-Delmas, Jacques 96, 100, 147, 433, 503 Casarès, Maria 91 Chabrol, Claude 55, 81, 87, 96, 104, 113, Cassavetes, John 105 288, 344, 398, 473, 538 Castermann (publisher) 116 Chad: intervention in conflict (1984) 145 Castro, Fidel 120, 193 Chagall, Marc 96, 351 Castro, Roland 512 Chalem, Denise 97 Cathelat, Bernard 4 Chamoiseau, Patrick 243, 244 Catholicism 92–3, 94–5 Champagne cultural movements 112 agriculture 7 and Marxist thought 359, 360 wine 556, 557 and music 122, 370 Chandler, Raymond 155 new philosophers 394 Chanel, Coco 97 newspapers 128, 389 fashion house 200–1, 201 opponents to Church 212, 261 Change 347 politicians 375, 376, 377, 560 Chaplin, Charlie 521 schools 178, 179 Chaplin, Geraldine 107 and women 560 Char, René 75, 97, 123, 164, 193, 428–9, 430 writers 254, 306, 429 Chardonne, Jacques 289 Caubère, Philippe 95 Charef, Mehdi 64–5, 68, 69, 97–8, 300 Cause du Peuple, La 328 Charlie Hebdo 98 Causse, Michèle 558 Charpentier, Pascal 234 Caute, David 199, 364 Chartreux, Bernard 98, 306 Cavaillès, Jean 360 Chatiliez, Étienne 111 Cavanna, François 98 Chawaf, Chantal 97–8, 172–3, 382, 565–6 Celan, Paul 308 Chazal, Malcolm de 245, 247 Céline, Louis Ferdinand (Louis Destouches) 132, Chechnick, Jeremiah 114 344, 470, 495, 517 Chedid, Andrée 429, 431 Cendrars, Blaise 249, 250 Chekhov, Anton: Platonov 99 censorship Chemetov, Paul 21, 23, 62 journalism 345 Chéreau, Patrice 99, 262, 314, 418, 428, 552 laws 187, 345–6 films 3, 38, 105, 263 libraries 339 theatre 42, 91, 154, 158, 159, 227, 314, 523, pornography 435 524 stands against 90, 119, 340 Chérie FM 451 see also film, censorship; literary censorship Chernobyl disaster 278 Centre D’Études Féminines 209 Chessex, Jacques 250 Centre National de la Bande Dessinée et de Chevalier, Maurice 99–100, 375, 381, 417, 499, l’Image 116 536 Centres Dramatiques Nationaux et Régionaux Chevènement, Jean-Pierre 191, 413 53, 522, 528, 555 Cheynet, Anne 246 ceramics 163, 424, 426 Chibane, Malik 65 Cerdan, Marcel 423 child care 100, 184, 561 Cerruti, fashion house 201 Child, Loudolf 137 580 Index

China 208, 482 and fashion 200, 201 Cultural Revolution 347 Forum des Halles genre 105 Maoism 316, 360, 517 funding 34, 103, 104 Chirac, Jacques 96, 100–1, 126, 203, 213, 331, Hollywood 344, 463, 538 410, 413, 433 influence on choreography 102 building projects 23, 24, 62 mime 47 comments on the electronic revolution 181, psychological realism 106 182 silent film 499 cultural policy 34, 518, 524 Surrealism 32, 103 and French dependencies 415, 416 and television 105, 219 governments 45, 130, 169–70, 191, 216, 309, theory and aesthetics 53–4, 87, 147, 272–5, 350, 392–3, 411–12, 417 371, 383 immigration policy 293–4 see also beur cinema; cinéma de banlieue; and Mitterrand 271, 378 cinéma de qualité; film; francophone choreographers 42, 101–3, 137–8, 138–9, 140 cinema; gay cinema; Nouvelle Vague; stars Chotard, Loïc 265 cinéma de banlieue 64, 65–6, 105, 106, 512 Chraïbi, Driss 247, 248 cinéma de qualité 41, 104, 105, 106–7, 273, 538 Chrétien, Jean-Louis 429 cinéma vérité 160, 475 Christian CFTC 540 cinemas: access to 112 Christianity Cinémathèque criticism of 88 Belgium 221 and existentialism 193 Paris 87, 112, 273, 321 painting 475 Cinq, La 33, 107, 240, 518, 519 poetry 458 Cirque du Soleil 108 radio 452 CIRT (Centre International de Recherches Rosicrucianism 312, 313 Théâtrales) 81, 82 and secularism 300 civil rights 108–9, 356, 365, 399 and structuralism 510 Cixous, Hélène 109–11, 297, 308, 316, 326 see also Catholicism; Protestantism feminist thought 39, 113, 171, 172, 207, Christie, Agatha 155 209, 210, 439–40, 565–6 Christin 118 The Laugh of the Medusa 206, 209 Christo 30, 103, 407, 487 lesbian writing 188 churches plays 62, 159, 379, 491, 523, 526 architecture 19 Clair, René 104 see also religion class 6, 54, 111–13 cigarettes 5, 10–11 and film 274, 463, 550 cinema 103–6, 372, 388 portrayal in arts and literature 111–12 advertising 4 sociology 533 attendance 571 struggle 14, 106, 111, 468 awards 38, 53, 55, 61, 71, 72, 73, 113, 115, theory 77, 276 151, 222, 274, 275, 351, 355, 463, 488, Claudel, Paul 47, 133, 307, 420, 527, 550, 552 516 Claveau, André 191 comic strips 117 Clavel, Maurice 394 documentaries 61, 64, 159–60, 192, 221, Clavier, Christian 432 273, 311, 401–2, 466, 475, 562 Clément, Catherine 113, 210, 445 effect on music halls 386 Clément, René 104, 106, 113, 536 effect on press and publishing 447 Clergue, Lucien 422 effects of Occupation 104, 160, 463 Clio: histoire, femmes et société 206 experimental and avant-garde 59, 262, 426 Clos, Max 213 Index 581

Clouzot, Henri-Georges 47, 113–14, 344, 426 divisions 216 Cocteau, Jean 268, 289, 423 and feminism 206 films 201, 262 iconography 290–1 music and theatre 102, 121 international movement 358–9 writing 264, 430 and Marxism 358–9, 360, 361 cohabitation see marriage/cohabitation and nationalization 392 Cohen, Albert 249 newspapers 389 Cohen, Leonard 214 opponents 27, 394, 548 Cohn-Bendit, Daniel 114, 268, 365 Soviet Union 193, 359, 360 Colas, Alain 555 unions 540 Cold War 26, 56, 143, 216, 254, 327, 390–1, see also Eurocommunism 394, 409, 410, 426 Communist Party, France (PCF) 114, 116, 169, Colette 344, 491, 567 258, 358, 360, 409, 411, 413 Colin, Paul 291 artists, writers and intellectuals 13, 14, 38, Collard, Cyril 114, 262, 267 95, 164, 251, 254, 325–6, 327, 330, 347, Savage Nights (Les Nuits fauves) 114, 263, 359, 362, 380, 383, 405, 426, 475, 476 266 decline 361, 414 Collard-Bovy, Pierre 234 and European Union 191 collective creation 76, 114–15, 135, 158–9, 310, government policy 169 320, 379, 418, 523, 525 and May 1968 328, 349, 468 Collège de Pataphysique 403, 546 newspapers 287–8 Colling, Daniel 384 politicians 356, 532 Colombani, Jean-Marie 381 and socialist realism 112 colonialism 120, 141, 193, 376 Comolli, Jean-Louis 87 Algeria 69, 109, 141, 199 Comores: writing 247 Indochina 120, 142–3, 157, 193 Compagnons de la chanson, Les 120–1, 423, Colonna (fashion house) 202 500, 537 Colucci, Véronique 467 Companeez, Nina 562 Coluche 63, 86, 112, 115–16, 120, 398, 467, companies see multinational companies 570 computers Combat 49 effect on press and publishing 447 Combat Syndicaliste, Le 328 games 130 Comédie de Caen 63 Internet 182 Comédie-Française 15, 47, 91, 116, 286, 323, see also electronic revolution 419, 462, 522, 528, 529, 530, 552, 553 concerts 42, 303–4 comedy 43, 112, 115–16 North African music 67–8 comic strips (bandes dessinées) 66–7, 112, orchestral 75, 121–4 116–19, 130, 320, 570 radio 219–20 committed literature 119–20, 193, 346, 482, 521 songs 78–9 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 7, 8, 190 see also café-concert Communications 49, 347 Condé, Maryse 243, 244 communications Condé Nast, William 553 service industry 489 Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) 540 technology 131 Confiant, Raphaël 243, 243–4 Communism Conort, Benoit 429 cultural movements and supporters 112, 193, Conseil Supérieur de l’Audiovisuel (CSA) 5, 68 211, 517, 552–3 conservation decline and collapse 28, 251, 288, 356, 361, training 128, 129 391, 411 zones 124, 129, 352, 355, 464 582 Index

Constantine, Eddie 43 Critique 49, 51, 346, 374 constitution Croix, La 128, 389 Fifth Republic 108, 124–6, 258, 370, 376 Crozier, Michel 128, 366 Fourth Republic 37, 108, 258 Cuba 120, 193, 353, 482 Constructivism: sculpture 485, 486 Cubism 132, 330, 407, 428 consumerism 4, 52, 64, 436, 570 painting 77, 184–5, 353, 424, 425, 467 contraception see abortion and contraception sculpture 270, 344 Contre-Attaque movement 51 cuisine 130 Copeau theatre 47, 48, 140, 158, 373, 523, 529 North African 256–7 Copi 126 see also gastronomy Cordières, Jules 107 Culioli, Antoine 341 Córdoba: music 235 cultural policy 128–131 Cormann, Enzo 126–7 dance 137 Corneau, Alain 355 Gaullist regime 6, 87, 129 Corneille, Pierre 161, 502 Mitterrand 33, 34, 105, 112, 130, 339, 340 Corsica 108, 455, 461 378, 456 Corsican language 322 cultural studies 77, 109, 110, 113, 214 Costa-Gavras 537 cultural topography: Paris 131–3 Cotta, Michèle 195, 519 Cuneo, Anne 231, 249 Coubertin, Pierre de 502 Cunningham, Merce 136, 137 Coudray, Jean-Daniel 231 Cuny, Alain 133 Cour d’Honneur: Palais des Papes 42 Curie, Marie and Pierre 399 Courbet, Gustave 45 cycling 133–4, 502–3, 533 Courtine, Robert 256 Czechoslovakia Cousin, Gabriel 127 student protests 365 The Cousins 234 see also Prague Spring Cousse, Raymond 127 Cousteau, Jacques 160 Da Costa, Bernard 86 Coutard, Raoul 273 Da Silva, Eric 135 Couturier, Paul-Vaillant 512 Dada movement 28, 82, 352, 429, 486–7, 494 Couve de Murville, Maurice 367 Daeninckx, Didier 135, 155 CPNT (Chasse, Pêche, Nature, Traditions) 278, Dahmani, Arezki 70 279 Dakar-Djibouti expedition 16 Craddock, Fanny 401 dance 44, 135–8, 276 Crédit Lyonnais 392, 393 ballet 101, 102–3, 135–6, 138 Creole contemporary 101–2, 136–7, 138 language and culture 225, 232–3, 245, 416 danse d’auteur 102 literature 243, 244, 245, 246 festivals 42, 43 theatre 226 funding 34 Crépax, Guido 117 Indian Ocean islands 225, 226 Cresson, Édith 127–8, 320, 378 popular 499 Créteil: film festival 43 prizes 103 Crevel, René 267 and Theatre of Cruelty 527 Creys-Malville: nuclear reactor 399 see also choreographers; dance troupes; criticism and critical theory 38, 49–50, 72, 74, francophone performing arts 83–4, 161, 270–1, 469, 566–7 dance troupes 138–40, 226 art 28–9, 164, 217, 404, 431 Daney, Serge 87, 140, 275 film 53–4, 87, 104, 140, 272–5 Daniel, Jean 195, 397, 398 see also literary criticism; literary theory Dante Alighieri 420 Index 583

Daquin, Louis 107 Demeny, Georges 373 Dardigna, Anne-Marie 187–8 demographic developments 148–50, 365, 460–1 Dargaud (publisher) 116, 117 Demy, Jacques 10, 104, 150, 150, 562 Darnand, Joseph 338 Deneuve, Catherine 71, 150, 150, 291, 507, 516, Dasté, Jean 47, 48, 140, 158, 373, 522 539 Davis, Miles 304 Denez, Per 458–9 De Broca, Philippe 355 Denis, Claire 151, 563 death penalty: abolition 44, 108, 271 Denoël publishing house 187, 485 Deauville: film festival 43 Depardieu, Gérard 61, 72, 86, 105, 151–2, 156, Débat, Le 347 507 Debord, Guy 406, 494 films 26, 45, 105, 150, 165, 375, 424, 454, Debray, Régis 18, 140–1, 362, 446–7 466, 539, 562 Debré, Michel 124 deregulation Debussy, Claude 121, 212, 224, 370 banking system 46 decolonization 12, 141–4, 149, 195, 215, 228, public services 490 243, 378, 391, 415, 422 Derrida, Jacques 77, 109, 146, 152–4, 308, Algeria 56, 88, 143, 145, 222, 404, 521 316, 335, 374 Indochina 142–3, 157, 216, 370, 404, 521 arts criticism 29, 33, 527 Morocco and Tunisia 370 deconstruction and poststructuralism 110, sub-Saharan Africa 141, 144 397, 439, 440, 445 writings on 120, 459 influence 207, 313, 436, 438 deconstruction 110, 202, 397 and literary journals 346, 347 Decouflé, Philippe 103, 140 and Tel Quel 516–17 Decroux, Étienne 47, 144, 372, 373, 488 Desanti, Jean-Louis 359 defence and security 144–5, 215–16, 391 Desarthe, Gérard 154 Défense de l’Occident 46 Descartes, René 192, 217 Defert, Daniel 9 Deschamps, Jérôme 43, 154 Deforges, Régine 187, 345 design Degottex, Jean 32, 406 fashion 90, 97, 157, 163, 200–1, 260, Deguy, Michel 145, 346, 429, 431 319–20 Deixonne law 146, 343 furniture 73 Delacroix, Eugène 290, 292, 426 stage and theatre 2, 48–9, 115, 213, 221, Delannoy, Jean 106, 538 314, 418, 424 Delanoë, Pierre 37, 57, 146, 191, 480 textiles 163 Delaunay, Charles 304 Désir, Harlem 70–1, 154–5 Delaunay, Robert and Sonia 96, 432, 506 Detambel, Régine 492 Delavouët, Max-Philippe 460 detective fiction 155–6, 474, 493 Delay, Florence 566 Detrez, Conrad 264, 266, 267 Deleuze, Gilles 69, 146–7, 346, 374 Deutsch, Michel 156, 523, 525 art criticism 29 Devaquet, Alain 511 influence 286 Devay, Jean-François 374 political activism 193 Devers, Claire 156 psychoanalysis 281, 445 Deville, Michel 73, 375 Delon, Alain 73, 113, 147, 369, 507, 530 Dewaere, Patrick 151, 156, 375 Delorme, Christian 70 Dezeuze, Daniel 514 Delors, Jacques 147–8, 191 Di Manno, Yves 429, 431 Delphy, Christine 148, 206, 208, 326, 331 Diaghilev, Sergei 139 Delvaux, André 221 Dib, Mohammed 156–7, 229–30, 247, 248 Demarcy, Richard 148 Diderot, Denis 277 584 Index

Diên Biên Phu: battle 143, 145, 157, 370 Dotremont, Christian 242 Dijon Douai, Jacques 161 music festival 43, 384 Doubrovsky, Serge 40, 161 Théâtre en Mai festival 43 Doucé, Joseph 260 Dimitri (mime) 231 Douste-Blazy, Philippe 130, 131 Diogène 347 Doutreligne, Louise 162 Diop, Alioune 246 Doyle, Arthur Conan 155 Diop, Birago 492 Dreuilhe, Alain-Emmanuel 266 Dior, Christian 90, 157, 200–1, 202, 203, 478 Dreyer, Carl Theodor 87 director’s theatre 158–9, 523, 527 Dreyfus Affair 119, 307, 548 dirigisme 159, 168 Drezen, Youenn 458 discourse theory 340–2, 382, 440 Dridi, Karim 65 advertising 4–5 Drieu la Rochelle, Pierre 289, 346, 447 and art criticism 29 drink see alcohol; wine Disneyland Paris 436, 531–2 drugs 11–12, 71 Diverrés, Catherine 140 anti-HIV 9 Djaout, Tahar 249 pills and medicines 12 Djebar, Assia 222, 227, 228, 248 Drut, Guy 35 Djura 69, 566 Du Bellay, Joachim 431 documentaries 87, 159–60 Du Bouchet, André 162, 164, 429, 431 cinema 61, 64, 159–60, 192, 221, 273, 311, Du Gard, Roger Martin 120 401–2, 466, 475, 562 Dubillard, Roland 162 photography 91, 421–2 Dubluë, Henri 230, 231 plays 98 Duboc, Odile 140 radio 453 Dubois, Jean 341 television 33, 61, 562 Dubuffet, Jean 28, 29, 162–3, 193, 406, 486 theatrical events 115 Duchamp, Marcel 29, 163, 352, 403, 405, 408, Documents 51 486 Dohollaw, Heather 431 Duchamp-Villon, Raymond 163 Doillon, Jacques 160–1 Ducrot, Oswald 341 Doisneau, Robert 161, 421, 475 Dufy, Raoul 163 Dollé, Jean-Paul 394 Duhamel, Marcel 155 Dolto, Françoise 445 Dulac, Germaine 32 DOM-TOMs 144 Dullin, Charles 48, 158, 373, 550 political parties and movements 414–17 Dumas, Alexandre 344, 427 popular music 232–3 La Reine Margot 105 radio 236–7 Dumazedier, Joffre 163–4 television 239 Duparc, Denis/Tony see Camus, Renaud writing 95–6, 243–5, 492 Dupavillon, Christian 296 Doniol-Valcroze, Jacques 87 Duperey, Anne 41 Doret, Gustave 230 Dupeyron, François 507 Dorgelès, Roland 132 Dupin, Jacques 163–4, 431 Dormael, Jaco van 221 Dupond, Patrick 139 Dorst, Jean 277 Duras, Marguerite 164–7, 172–3, 206, 374, 382, Dörst, Thomas 286 481–2, 553, 565, 566 Dort, Bernard 99, 161 autobiography and fiction 40, 396, 481, 491 Dostoevsky, Fyodor films 63, 104, 151, 164, 165, 274, 466, 491, influence 192, 335 562–3 theatre productions 296 lesbian writing 188 Index 585

plays 463 employment 542, 559 political activism 132, 193 film 105–6 Duriès, Vanessa 188 libraries 340 Durif, Eugène 167 primary 174–6, 179 Durkheim, Émile 15, 16, 51 religion 93, 179 Dürrenmatt, Friedrich 230 secondary 174, 176–8, 179 Duteuil, Yves 167 services 489, 490 Dutilleux, Henri 121–2 special needs 176 Dutronc, Jacques 274, 283, 472 sport 504–5 Duval, Anjela 458 the state and the church 92, 178–80 Duve, Pascal de 242 unions 540 Duverger, Maurice 126 see also adult education; training; universities Duvert, Denis see Camus, Renaud education ministry 129, 174, 175, 542 Duvert, Tony 167, 188, 265, 267 educational elitism: the grandes écoles 133, 174, Duvivier, Julien 493 180–1, 501 Dvorák, Antonin 274 Effel, Jean 291 Dylan, Bob 37, 214 Egypt: Islamic fundamentalism 299 Dziga Vertov Group 274 Eicher, Stephan 235 Eigeldinger, Marc 250 Eastern Europe 36, 475 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 337 collapse of Communism 361 Eisenstein, Sergei 97, 210–11 Échos, Les 195, 389 El Ghowan, Nass 235 École des Beaux-Arts 18, 20, 132, 407 El Maleh, Edmond Amrane 249 École Nationale de la Photographie 422 El Moudjahid 199 ecology 112, 276, 368 El Oudji, Cheb Mimoun 235 politics 412, 413 Électricité de France (EDF) 399 writers 281 electronic revolution 181–3 economy 159, 168–70, 216, 377, 498 advertising 4 and employment 185, 559 art 402 globalization 391 music 123, 124, 568 and health 284 Elies, Fañch 458 and immigration 292 Eliot, T.S. 420, 550 and management style 352 Elkabbach, Jean-Pierre 183 market liberalism 169, 411, 490 Elle 183–4, 200, 201, 204, 206, 255–6, 271, modernization 259, 411 477, 563 and multinational companies 384 Elles voient rouge 206 and nationalism 391 Éluard, Paul 184–5, 249, 359, 428 oil crisis 295–6 Emmanuelle series 188 and the periodical press 357 employment 185–6, 197, 199, 489 stock market crash (1987) 411–12 education 542, 559 and trade 534–5 and immigration 293 see also European economic integration; manufacturing industry 354 informal economy; nationalization; service industries 489, 490 planning system; privatization social policy 496–7, 561 écriture féminine 98, 110, 165, 170–3, 206, 209, women 198, 298, 559–60, 560, 561, 564 264, 289, 297, 439–40, 558, 565–6 see also minimum wage education energy utilities 392 computer-based learning 181–2 Energy (zouk band) 232 culture 131 Engels, Friedrich 358, 359 586 Index

English culture opponents 288–9 popular music 385–6 and Sartre 83, 192, 193, 208, 270, 510 see also Anglo-Saxon culture; anglomanie; existentialist theatre 15, 194–5, 528 anglophone culture; franglais Exit (le journal) 264 Enlightenment values 277, 308, 394, 436, 438 Express, L’ 88, 195, 255–6, 271, 390, 397, 398, Ensemble Intercontemporain 124 432, 489 environmentalism see green issues épuration see Liberation: épuration Fabius, Laurent 198 Équipe, L’ 186, 289, 389, 503 Faivre d’Arcier, Bertrand 42 Ernaux, Annie 40, 186–7, 566 Faizant, Jacques 291 erotic writing 187–9, 264–5, 345 family 93, 197–9, 357, 413 eroticism 116, 202, 566, 567 agriculture 455 Espace (arts group) 73 firms 352 Esprit 347, 485 social policy 497, 498, 561 Etcherelli, Claire 111, 189, 565 writings on 208, 566 ethnic minorities see beurs; North Africans family planning 1 ethnography 40, 51, 331, 501 Fanchette, Jean 246 ethnology 16–18, 333 Fanon, Frantz 120, 193, 199–200, 244 Étiemble, R. 14–15 Faraldo, Claude 262, 375, 426–7 Étienne, Marie 429, 431 Farge, Arlette 41, 200 Eurocommunism 360 Fargue, Léon-Paul 132 Europe 1 189, 237, 451, 452, 472 farmers: union (FNSEA) 7 Europe 2 452 farming see agriculture European Community 126, 169, 190, 259, 369, Fascism 225, 336, 451 392, 534 iconography 290–1 see also Common Agricultural Policy; Italy 547, 552 European Union and the Left 336 European Court of Human Rights 108 politicians 350 European economic integration 101, 147, fashion 130, 200–3, 368, 436, 570 189–90, 216, 271, 309, 370, 378, 413, 455 designers 90, 97, 157, 163, 200–1, 260, European Union 101, 128, 144, 148, 189, 319–20, 477, 478 190–1, 198, 414 magazines 357, 553 agriculture 7–8, 190, 191 fast food 203 audiovisual protection 131, 241 Faulkner, William 83 green issues 278 Faure, Edgar: university reforms 133, 251, 367 health 284 Fautrier, Jean 193, 404–5, 434, 506 market liberalism 490 Fauvet, Jacques 381 regions 455, 461 Fauvism 163, 330, 353, 362 women in parliament 560 Faye, Jean-Pierre 347 women’s employment 559 FBI 488 Eurovision Song Contest 191, 253 Febvre, Lucien 15 Eustache, Jean 191–2 Fédération Nationale d’Achats (FNAC) 447–8 Événement du jeudi, L’ 192, 347, 390 Fellini, Federico 10 Ex-Libris 281 feminism 90, 108, 165, 204, 209, 279, 368, 475, existentialism 51, 88–9, 132, 152, 192–4, 270, 560 331, 428, 510 activists 56, 148 and Beauvoir 55, 56 and committed literature 120, 521 Giacometti’s art 193, 270, 404 and eroticism 188 literary works 39, 56, 193, 482–3 essays 326, 420 Index 587

films 61, 72, 151, 274, 372, 382, 488, 545, film 562–3 censorship 104, 105 groups and movements 1, 6, 193, 203–5, criticism 53–4, 87, 104, 140, 272–5 206, 207, 441–2, 521, 565 education 105–6 plays 60, 62 feminism 61, 72, 151, 274, 372, 382 and women’s magazines 357, 564 festivals 3, 43, 105, 262 writing 205, 472 funding 34, 103, 104, 129 feminist press 205–7, 442, 564 industry 41, 388, 552 feminist thought 56, 62, 109–10, 113, 148, journals 86–7 170–2, 207–10, 280, 297–9, 382, 558, 565 pornography 435 art 402, 408, 486 see also avance sur recettes; beur cinema; autobiography 38, 39, 56, 120, 208, 326 cinema; cinéma de banlieue; cinéma de history 200, 210 qualité; documentaries; francophone literary criticism 216–17, 565–6 cinema; gay cinema; literary adaptation; Marxism 204, 207, 208 women, film directors; see under names of novels 558 actors, directors and writers psychoanalysis 297–8, 315, 382 film noir 562 Féministes Révolutionnaires 204, 205 Fini, Léonore 213 Femme actuelle 563, 564 Finkielkraut, Alain 213–14, 436 Des Femmes 429, 442 Finney, Albert 10 Des Femmes en mouvement 205, 206 FIP (radio station) 238, 453 Feraoun, Mouloud 247 First World War 552 Fernandel 381 Flamand, Paul 490 Fernandez, Dominique 210–11, 264, 266 Flammarion 214, 447 Fernandez, Ramon 210 Flaubert, Gustave 111, 344, 419, 482 Ferrat, Jean 46, 211, 385, 386, 500, 547 Fleg, Edmond 250 Ferré, Gianfranco 201 Flemish language 322 Ferré, Léo 46, 132, 211–12, 386, 418 Fohrenbach, Jean Claude 304 Ferreri, Marco 151, 512 folk tales 225, 243 Ferry, Jules 178–9 Folle Avoine (publisher) 429 Ferry, Luc 278 Fonda, Jane 274 festivals Fondation de France 34 choreography 137–8 Fontaine, André 381 film 3, 43, 105, 262 Fontainebleau 277 jazz 305, 384 food see fast food; gastronomy music 43, 67, 130, 226, 234, 235, 384–5, football 166, 215, 290, 502, 503, 505 387 Force Ouvrière (FO) 540 performance arts 231 foreign policy 144, 215–16 theatre 42–3, 86, 87, 320, 384 de Gaulle 27, 141, 144, 145, 216, 412 Feydeau, Georges 224 Pompidou 433 Feyder, Jacques 221 Forêt, Jean-Claude 460 Fifth Republic 410, 433, 510 Forrester, Viviane 216–17 constitution 108, 124–6, 258, 370, 376 Fort, Paul 78 Figaro, Le 37, 212–13, 219, 220, 285, 336, 345, Forum des Halles 434 381, 389, 398, 409, 457 Foucault, Michel 9, 15, 77, 217–18, 265, 346, Fignon, Laurent 134 361, 397, 401 Filipacchi, Daniel 87, 409 art criticism 29, 217 Filipacchi, Henri 348 attacks on 27 Filippo, Eduardo de 363, 395 influence 49, 207, 213, 436, 438 588 Index

Madness and Civilization 32–3 Europe 240–1, 539 political activism 88, 193 francophone writing (fiction, poetry) structuralism and poststructuralism 146, 440, Belgium 241–3, 569 509 DOM-TOMs 95–6, 243–5, 492 writings on sexuality 264 Indian Ocean 245–7 Fougeron, André 112 North Africa 247–9, 487 Fouque, Antoinette 206, 441 Quebec 492 Fourastié, Jean 218–19 Switzerland 249–50 Fournier, Marcel 37 franglais 14–15, 343, 533 Fourth Republic 218 Frantz, Anaik 512 constitution 37, 108, 258 Frayn, Michael 64 party system 409–10 Frears, Stephen 344 Fourvière (radio station) 452 freemasons 548 France 2 183, 219, 253, 286, 402, 518 Frénaud, André 428–9, 430 France 3 33, 183, 219, 240, 402, 518 French Committee of National Liberation France Culture 219, 238, 453 (CFLN), Algiers 142 France Musique 219–20, 238, 453 French Guiana 232, 239, 243, 414, 415 France Télécom 182, 393 French Polynesia 233, 416 France Télévision 239, 240 French Revolution 92, 125, 251, 390, 392, 460 France-Dimanche 220, 290, 390 bicentenary celebrations 31, 378 France-Inter 220, 237, 452–3 documents 341 France-Plus 70, 71, 293, 300 and French language 342 France-Soir 23, 204, 220, 285, 389 iconography 290 Francillon, Clarisse 250 Frères Jacques, Les 250, 441 François, Claude 220–1 Fresson, Bernard 250 François, Jocelyne 567 Freud, Sigmund 51, 113, 438 Françoise, Guy-Claude 221, 525 attacks on 272, 394 Françon, Alain 529 and feminist thought 207, 209, 209–10, 297 francophone cinema influence 307, 470, 509 Belgium 221–2, 563 and Lacan 443–4 Indian Ocean 226 theories 211, 313, 318, 319, 442, 513 North Africa 64, 222–4 Frick, Grace 569 Switzerland 224 Friedmann, Georges 534 francophone comic strips 116 Friends of the Earth (Amis de la Terre) 278, 320 francophone performing arts Frisch, Max 230 Belgium 224–5 Front de Libération Nationale (FLN): Algeria Indian Ocean 225–6 12 13, 124, 143, 199, 223, 228, 248, 450 North Africa 226–30, 569 Front National (National Front) 38, 139, 308, Switzerland 230–2 325, 339, 374, 377, 412, 413, 414 francophone popular music and immigrants 70, 293, 325, 391, 412, 450 DOM-TOMs 232–3 Fuller, Samuel 105, 538 Europe 233–5 Fumaroli, Marc 129 Indian Ocean 225–6, 300 Fun Radio 451 North Africa 235–6 Funès, Louis de 105, 250–1, 507 francophone radio Furet, François 251, 397 DOM-TOMs 236–7 Füseli, Henry 249 Europe 237–9, 452 Futur 263 francophone television DOM-TOMs 239 Gabin, Jean 61, 151, 344, 507 Index 589

Gabriel, Peter 225 and regionalism 461 Gagnon, Madeleine 326 sports policy 503 Gai Pied 261, 263–4 strategic policy 26 Gainsbourg, Serge 72, 191, 252–3, 253, 277, television censorship 518 385, 386, 418, 500 Gaullism and Gaullist party 96, 100, 101, 380, Galeries Lafayette 201 402, 409, 410, 411, 433 Gall, France 63, 191, 252, 253 anti-Americanism 489 Gallaire, Fatima 230 iconography 291 Galland, Philippe 65 and May 1968 364, 365, 366, 367–8 Galliano, John 201 nationalism 391, 392 Gallimard, Gaston 55, 86–7, 187, 253, 346, politicians 417, 488, 501 418, 447, 517 press 408–9 Gallotta, Jean-Claude 103, 140 youth protest 570 Galtier, Charles 460 see also neo-Gaullism Gamaleya, Boris 245 Gault, Henri 256 game shows 253–4, 519 Gaultier, Jean-Paul 64, 201, 202, 260, 553 Gance, Abel 87 Gauthier, Xavière 165 Garat, Anne-Marie 41 Gauvin, Axel 225, 246, 247 Garaudy, Roger 254, 360 gay activism 10, 260–1, 286 Garbo, Greta 49 gay cinema 262–3, 516, 563 Garcia, Irma 564 gay press 263–4 García Lorca, Federico 211, 255, 395 gay rights 108, 120 Garcia, Victor 254–5 gay writing 89, 167, 188, 211, 264–7, 286, Gardel, Jacques 231 306, 393, 534, 569 Garn, Walid 228 and AIDS 27, 281–2, 314–15 Gary, Romain 488 autobiography 393 Gasner, Louis 345 committed literature 120 Gaspar, Lorand 429, 431 see also lesbian writing gastronomy 73, 255–7, 401, 467, 471 Gaytan, Ann 234 Gatti, Armand 257, 481 Geismar, Alain 268 Gauche Prolétarienne 441 gender Gaudí, Antonio 408, 479 and fashion 260 Gaulis, Louis 231 issues 44, 55, 56, 186–7, 567 Gaulle, Charles de 37, 257–9, 351, 364, 370, and Maghrebi culture 69 378, 380, 381, 488, 501, 510 perceptions of society 6, 112 and Algeria 12–13, 125, 141, 143–4, 216, theory 110, 170–3, 208–9 258, 259, 374, 501 writers 186–7, 193, 567 constitution of Fifth Republic 124, 125–6 see also sexuality cultural policy 6, 87, 129 Génération Écologie (GE) 279, 320, 412–13 death 408–9 Genet, Jean 193, 268–9, 404 economic policy 391 cinema 262 and European integration 190, 191 homoerotic writing 188, 262, 264, 265, 268, foreign policy 27, 141, 144, 145, 216, 412 269 governments 104, 108, 114, 260, 356, 376, influence 120, 263, 427 377, 402 plays 2, 32, 47, 73, 99, 213, 255, 269, 314, legal system 329 463, 527, 529 and Liberation 337 studies 39, 153, 172, 483 May 1968 367 Genet, Philippe 262, 438, 516 and nationalization 392 genetics: Lysenko 359 590 Index

Genette, Gérard 269–70, 280, 341, 347, 490, immigration policy 292, 293 509 as president 100–1, 104, 129–30, 296 Genevoix, Maurice 277 Givenchy, fashion house 200–1 Genvrin, Emmanuel 226 Glanndour, Maodez 458 Géricault, Théodore 292 Glissant, Édouard 244, 429, 431 German cinema: influence 107, 525 Glucksmann, André 120, 193, 272, 394, 398 German Romanticism 213 Godard, Jean-Luc 81, 105, 249, 272–5, 311, German theatre: influence 525 396, 553 Germany and Cahiers du cinéma 87, 104 cultural links with France 33, 539 films 11, 47, 53, 61, 147, 288, 311, 326, economy 535 372, 427, 488, 512, 535, 562 and European integration 190, 191, 215 Marxism 104 films about 274 and Nouvelle Vague 396, 398, 544 French mistrust of 144 political concerns 512 green issues 278–9 television work 372 Green Party 114 Goddard, Agnès 151 invasion of France 258, 288, 344 Gogh, Vincent van 32, 217 Nazi power 27, 526 Gogol, Nicolai: theatrical productions 355 political links with France 216 Goldmann, Jean-Jacques 275 reunification 145 Goldmann, Lucien 359–60 student protest 365 Goldsmith, Sir Jimmy (James) 195 see also Occupation Góngora y Argote, Luis de 431 Germinal (Berri film) 111 Goodis, David: pulp novels 104 Ghelderode, Michel de 224 Gordon-Lazareff, Hélène 183 Ghorab-Volta, Zaïda 65 Goretta, Claude 224, 288 Giacometti, Alberto 29, 97, 162, 164, 249, 270, Gorin, Jean-Pierre 274 351, 431, 485 Gorz, André 39, 275–6 existentialist art 193, 270, 404 Gouines Rouges (Red Dykes) 331 Gibson, Mel 356 Gracq, Julien 276 Gide, André 49, 50, 120, 346, 447, 513 graffiti 320, 570 and gay writing 263, 264, 265, 266 Graham, Martha 136 Giély, Bernard 460 Granada: music 235 Giesbert, Franz-Olivier 213, 398 Grand Magic Circus, Le 48, 276, 484 Gignoux, Herbart 314 Gilbert, Robert 427–8 Granoff, Wladimir 444 Gilou, Thomas 65 graphic art 545 Giono, Jean 277, 344, 345, 447 Grappelli, Stéphane 276–7, 304, 462 Gipsy Kings 270 Grasset 55, 336, 395, 447 Girard, René 270–1, 346 Gravier, J.F. 455 Giraudon, Liliane 492 Gréco, Juliette 43, 55, 132, 192, 252, 277, 386, Giraudoux, Jean 194, 528 429, 441, 537 Girault, Jean 250–1 Greek culture 97 Giroud, Françoise 104, 195, 271, 397, 489 Greek theatre 228, 379, 526, 553 Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry 48, 73, 271, 271–2, green issues 277–9 283, 323, 331, 377, 410, 489 air pollution 536 architectural projects 22, 31 folk music 214 and European integration 169, 191 nuclear power 399 foreign policy 145, 216 Green, Julien 264, 265, 266 governments 394, 435, 456, 546 Green Party Index 591

France (Les Verts) 278, 279, 320, 412–13, Hanin, Roger 43 555 Hantaï, Simon 32, 406 Germany 114 Hardy, Françoise 63, 283–4, 570 green politics 278, 279–80, 320, 555 Harlequin 474 Greenberg, Clement 29, 513 Harmel, Guy 234 Greenpeace France 278 Harpman, Jacqueline 242 Greimas, A.J. 50, 280, 341, 438, 509 Harris, Z.S. 341 Grenier des Augustins, Le 47 Hartung, Hans 32 Grenoble 127, 354, 455 Hâtier (publishing group) 447 Griaule, Marcel 16, 17 Haut-Médoc: wine 556–7 Grimzi, Habib 69 Havas (advertising group) 4, 518 Gross, Marcel 341 Hawks, Howard 87, 105, 273, 538 Grotowski, Jerzy 47, 81 health 284–5 Groult, Benoîte 188, 208, 280, 565 employment 559 Groult, Flora 565 services 489, 490 Groupe de la Cité 447 social policy 497, 498 Gruber, Francis 405 Heath, Stephen 50 Grumberg, Jean-Claude 280 Hector (radio station) 453 Grüss (circus family) 107 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 110, 152, 153, Guadeloupe 144, 232, 239, 243, 414, 415 199, 319, 327, 359 Guattari, Félix 69, 146–7, 281, 286, 445 Heidegger, Martin 152, 192, 319, 335 Guérard, Michel 203, 256, 281 Hélè, Béji 249 Guérin, Daniel 281 Hélian, Jacques 304 Guérin, Michel 394 Hélias, Pierre-Jakez 459 Gueye, Lamine 142 Hemon, Roparz 458, 459 Guibert, Hervé 40, 99, 188, 263, 264, 265–6, Henric, Jacques 516 267, 281–2 Hergé (Georges Remi) 116, 117, 118 Guignols de l’info, Les 57, 282, 519 heritage Guillaume, Gustave 341 architectural 124 Guillevic, Eugène 428–9, 430 cinema 104, 105, 112 Guitry, Sacha 251 funding 34 Gulf War 26, 94, 170, 216, 378, 437 preservation 128 Guy, Michel 529 Hersant, Robert 37, 107, 212, 213, 220, 285–6 Guyotat, Pierre 265, 345 Hert, Robbe de 221 Gwalarn 458 Hess, Johnny 536 Habermas, Jurgen 436 Heure de vérité, L’ 286 Haby, René 343 Higelin, Jacques 473 Hachette 107, 290, 348, 390 higher education see universities Haïm, Vitor 86 Hinault, Bernard 134 Hains, Raymond 29 Hindu music 370 Halimi, Gisèle 1, 90, 206 Hirsch, Robert 286 Hallier, Jean-Edern 283, 329 Histoire des femmes 210 Hallyday, Johnny 53, 202, 283, 472, 500, 545, Histoires d’elles 204, 205, 206 570 history 27, 40, 41, 44, 79, 95, 200, 210, 488–9 Hammett, Dashiell 155 and discourse theory 340 Hamme, Jean van 116 radio 219 Hamza, Ahmed 236 Hitchcock, Alfred 87, 273, 473, 538 Hàn, Françoise 431 Hitler, Adolf 337, 548 592 Index

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) 8–9, 12, Budapest 545 261 Soviet suppression of revolt 120, 193, 360 writers 27, 40 476, 482 see also AIDS Huppert, Isabelle 224, 263, 288, 344, 563 Hjouini, Ridha 236 Hussards 132, 288–9 Ho Chi Minh 143, 157 Husserl, Edmund 152, 192, 193, 335, 470 Hocquard, Emmanuel 429 Huster, Francis 530 Hocquenghem, Guy 262, 264, 266, 286 hypermarkets 201, 489, 490 Hodeir, André 304 Hyppolite, Jean 359 Hoffmann, Stanley 128, 548 Hyvrard, Jeanne 172–3, 289, 382, 429, 431, Hokusai, Katsushika 83 565–6 Hölderlin, Friedrich 307, 431, 515 Holocaust 254, 307, 308, 450 IAM (rap band) 454 art 405, 485 Ibsen, Henrik: Peer Gynt 99, 418 writings on 165, 302, 308, 419 Ici-Paris 290 see also Jews, Nazi genocide of iconography 290–2, 425 homelessness 112, 116, 120, 508 IDHEC (Institut des Hautes Études Homer 431 Cinématographiques) 61 Homme, L’ 334 Idiot international, L’ 283, 328–9 Homophonies 260 Idir 236 homosexuality 205, 218, 260–1, 263, 264 Illico 264 see also gay activism; gay rights; lesbian Imache, Tassadit 69, 566 activism Imadefolk 226 Honegger, Arthur 230, 231 Image et son 87 Honoré, Daniel 246 Imbert, Claude 195, 432 horse racing 286–7 immigration and immigrants 93, 149, 292–4, Hossein, Robert 344 369 Hot Club de France 276–7, 304, 462 comic strips 66 Houari, Leila 69, 566 films 64–5 Houphouët-Boigny, Félix 142 and the Front National 71, 293, 325, 391, housing 18–22, 287, 324, 464, 465 412, 450 beurs 71, 98 government policy 101, 292–4, 411 and immigration 293 legislation 94, 109, 293, 294 social policy 497 literature 59–60, 61, 68, 98, 534 Hue, Robert 411 North Africans 292, 299, 450 Hugo, Victor 111, 155, 277, 429, 495 racism 111, 450 adaptations for film 344 rights 109, 398 Huidobro, Borja 23, 62 special educational provision 176 Hulten, Pontus 30 Switzerland 249–50 human rights see also beurs; suburbs campaigners 336 India and the church 93 French dependencies 141 and equality 280 theatre traditions 373, 526 Maghrebin countries 248 Indian Ocean Humanité, L’ 287–8, 389, 426, 512 performing arts 225–6 Humanité Rouge, L’ 328 writing 245–7 Humbert, Marie-Thérèse 246, 247 Indochina Hume, David 146 decolonization 142–3, 157, 216, 370, 404, Hungary 521 Index 593

French colonial policy 120, 142–3, 157, 193 writers 254 opponents to war 193, 195 Islamic fundamentalism 299–300 war (1945–54) 12, 26, 141, 144–5, 408 Algeria 143, 249, 299, 300 writers 164 Isou, Isidore 406 see also Vietnam Israel Indochine (rock group) 294, 472 territorial claims in Middle East 120 industry 169, 384, 455 see also Arab-Israeli war employment 185 Issaad, Ramdane 69 management 352–3 Italian Mannerism 213 modernization 259 Italy: Fascism 547, 552 nationalization 392 Ivory, James 221 and trade 534–5 Ivory Coast 142 see also manufacturing industry; music, Izenzaren 235 industry; service industry Infini, L’ 347 Jabès, Edmond 302, 308, 428–9, 430 InfoMatin 294–5, 389 Jaccottet, Philippe 250, 429, 431 informal economy 295 J’Accuse 328 information technologies 131, 182 Jacob, Max 302, 467 Institut de France 2 Jacobinism 299 Institute of the Arab World 22, 295–6 J’Ai Lu 474 intellectuals 119–20, 132, 133, 140–1, 382 Jakobson, Roman 302–3, 318, 333, 340, 341, and Algerian war 77, 248, 360 443, 508 attacks on 27 JALB (Jeunes Arabes de Lyon et sa Banlieue) 70 cultural positions 6, 28–9, 214 Jamaica: music 232 effect of Barthes 49 Jambet, Christian 394 and erotica 187 James, Henry 62, 166 Marxism 27–8, 358–60 Japan 236 political activism 142, 193, 288–9, 394, 521 economy 535 postmodernism 436 theatre traditions 373, 379, 526 postwar climate 254 Jaques-Dalcroze, Émile 231 psychoanalysis 319 Jardin des modes 200, 201 see under names of intellectuals Jarre, Jean-Michel 303–4 Ionesco, Eugène 32, 47, 52, 296–7, 522, 527, Jarry, Alfred 28, 226, 403 528 Jaurès, Jean 287 existentialism 193 Javacheff, Christo and Jeanne-Claude see Christo plays 363, 528, 531 Jazy, Michel 35 Iran: Islamic fundamentalism 299 jazz 46, 67, 102, 132, 133, 252, 304–5, 310, IRCAM (Institut de R echerche et de 456, 479–80 Coordination Acoustique/Musique) 75–6, and ballet 102 123–4 cabaret 386 Ireland: short fiction writing 492 festivals 305, 384 Irigaray, Luce 109, 297–9 influence on singers and musicians 234, 235, écriture féminine 171–2, 206, 439–40 369, 499, 500, 536, 546–7 feminist thought 207, 209, 210, 445 post-war popularity 192, 304 and psychoanalysis 171–2, 209 Jean de Florette 112 Irish, William: pulp novels 104 Jeanmaire, Zizi 102 Islam 66, 92, 299–301 Jeanneau, François 305 opposition to 248, 249 Jeanson, Henri 344 values 70 Jeune France movement 122 594 Index

Jeune Révolutionnaire 328 Kassovitz, Mathieu 65, 106, 512 Jews Kateb, Mustapha 228 artists 96 Kaufman Philip 71 identity 346 Keineg, Paol 458 Nazi genocide of 192, 307 Kenzo, fashion house 201 oppression of 120, 307, 548 Kerbrat, Patrice 469 prisoners of Vichy regime 370 Kessas, Ferrudja 69, 566 symbolic violence against 450 Kettane, Nacer 69 writings 35, 214, 248, 302, 308, 419 Khaïr-Eddine, Mohammed 248 see also anti-semitism; Judaism Khaled, Cheb 67, 311, 473 Jilala, Jil 235 Khatibi, Abdelkébir 228, 248 Joffrin, Laurent 368, 398 Khelif, Kamel 66 Johns, Jasper 486 Khemir, Nacer 223 Jonasz, Michel 284, 305, 537 Khrushchev, Nikita 360 Jones, Jennifer 344 Kierkegaard, Søren 193 Jones, Michael 275 Kieslowski, Krzysztof 71, 311–12 Jospin, Lionel 101, 126, 197, 305–6, 321, 411, Kinsey, Alfred 263, 281 413, 542 Klapisch, Cédric 262 Jouhandeau, Marcel 188, 264, 267, 306 Klarsfeld, Serge 308 Jourdan, Éric 265, 266, 267 Klee, Paul 75, 76, 249 Jourdheuil, Jean 154, 306–7, 552 Klein, Gérard 485 Journal du dimanche, Le 390 Klein, Yves 29, 312–13, 408, 486, 506, 532 journalism 72, 87–8, 120, 192, 195, 257, 271, Klossowski, Pierre 187, 188, 249 280, 345, 432, 489, 534 Koestler, Arthur 388, 550 Jouve, Christiane 332 Kofman, Sarah 313 Jouve, Pierre-Jean 307, 428, 429 Kohl, Helmut 33, 191 Jouvet, Louis 158, 550 Kojève, Alexandre 359 Joyce, James 58, 75, 109, 209, 297, 347, 431, Kokkos, Yannis 314, 323, 552 517 Koltès, Bernard-Marie 99, 159, 314–15, 524 Judaism 92, 300, 302, 307–9, 335 Kooning,Willem de 32 Julliard, Jacques 398, 471 Korda, Alexander 345 July, Serge 336 Korean war 408, 551 Jungle Gala 67 Kosma, Joseph 441 Juppé, Alain 309, 412 Kouchner, Bernard 369, 401 Kaas, Patricia 310, 385 Kraemer, Jacques 315 Kabaréunion festival 226 Kréa, Henri 228 Kacel, Karim 67, 310 Kristeva, Julia 109, 297, 315–17, 342, 347, Kafka, Franz 47, 192 516–17 Kahn, Jean-François 192 art criticism 29 Kahnweiler, Daniel-Henry 425 feminist thought 206, 207, 208–9 Kali 232 psychoanalysis and language 438, 445 Kalisky, René 224–5, 310, 525, 552 and Tel Quel 516–17 Kalouaz, Ahmed 69 Krivine, Alain 468, 476 Kanak identity 233, 415–16 Ktari, Nacer 223 Kandinsky, Wassily 432, 506 Kundera, Milan 71 Kant, Immanuel 146, 436–7 Kurys, Diane 263, 288, 317, 375, 563 Kapoor, Anish 486 Kushner, Tony 529 Karina, Anna 273, 310–11, 562 Kwak 232 Index 595

La Rochefoucauld, François, duc de 50 feminist thought 170–2, 188, 205, 208–9, La Rochelle 298 film festival 43 French 2, 131, 182, 183, 226, 227, 248, Francofolies 385, 456 321–3, 342–3, 386, 533 La Rocque, Colonel de 548 French regions 146, 321–3, 343 La Tourette: convent 19 postmodernism 436–7 La Villette: architectural projects 22 see also franglais; linguistic regulation; lin- Laâbi, Abdellatif 248 guistic theory; slang/argot/verlan; spelling Labkiri, Moussa 69 reform Laborde, Chas 132 Lanskoy, André 506 Lacan, Jacques 27, 49, 164, 187, 318–19, 425, Lanzmann, Claude 308 516–17 Laot, Jeannette 206 art criticism 29 Lapidus, fashion house 200–1 and feminist thought 113, 297, 441–2 Laplanche, Jean 444 influence 14, 50, 207, 208, 436, 438 Lardreau, Guy 394 linguistics 315, 397, 439 Laroque, Pierre 498 psychoanalysis 39, 40, 109, 170–1, 360, 382, Larrès, Jean-Claude 474 442–4, 444–6, 509 Larrieu, Daniel 103, 140 Laclos, Pierre Choderlos de: Les liaisons Lartigue, Jacques-Henri 323, 421 dangereuses 344, 544 Larzac, Jean 459 Lacoste, (fashion house) 203 Lassalle, Jacques 314, 323–4, 529, 530 Lacroix, Christian 200–1, 319–20, 553 Laudenbach, Roland 289, 344 Lacrosil, Michèle 244 Lauren, Ralph 203 Lafleur, Jacques 415, 417 Laurens, André 381 Lafont, Bernadette 192 Laurent, Jacques 288, 522 Lafont, Robert 460 Lausanne: MUDRA dance school 102 Lafontaine, Philippe 234 Lautner, Georges 61, 262 Laforgue, Jules 428 Lautréamont, Comte de (Isidore Ducasse) 315 Lagache, Daniel 444 Laval, Pierre 338, 548 Lagerfeld, Karl 201, 202 Lavant, Denis 90 Lainé, Pascal: The Lacemaker 224 Lavelli, Jorge 126, 324, 401, 467, 529 Lakhdar-Hamina, Malik 223 Lavilliers, Bernard 324 Lakhdar-Hamina, Mohamed 222, 223 Lavudant, Georges 428 Lalanne, Francis 384 laws Lalloui, Mehdi 69 abortion and contraception 1–2, 108, 271, Lalonde, Brice 279, 320, 412 475 Laloux, Victor 31 advertising 5, 11 Lambrichs, Louise 242 affecting civil rights 108, 356, 365 Lang, Jack 24, 25, 105, 320–1 age of consent 260 cultural policy 112, 130–1, 138, 268, 296, anti-terrorism 108, 109 320–1, 472–3, 529 anti-vandalism 108 Langlois, Bernard 433 broadcasting 239 Langlois, Henri 87, 273, 321, 539 censorship 187, 345–6 language conservation zones 124 in advertising 5–6, 533 education 178 Creole 225, 232–3, 245, 416 immigration 94, 109, 293, 294 critical theory 50, 109, 217, 397, 418 Lazareff, Pierre 220 engineering 182–3 Le Chanois, Jean-Paul 344 experimental theatre 82 Le Clézio, Jean-Marie 246, 492 596 Index

Le Corbusier 18, 19, 20, 249, 324–5, 330, 434, Ephémère, L’ 164 568 Leplée, Louis 423 Le Dantec, Denise 429, 431 Lépront, Catherine 492 Le Doeuff, Michèle 207, 210, 327 Lesbia 332 Le Forestier, Maxime 325, 384 lesbian activism 204, 331–2, 567 Le Havre 19, 76 lesbian cinema 262, 263, 563 Lê, Linda 492 lesbian press 332 Le Lionnais, François 402, 403 lesbian writing 188, 208, 331, 558, 564–7, 569 Le Pen, Jean-Marie 46, 70, 101, 293, 308, 325, Lescure, Pierre de 374 350, 412, 450, 451, 515, 546 Lestrade, Didier 261, 264 Le Péron, Serge 64 Lettres françaises, Les 405–6 Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel 15, 325–6, 359 Lettrisme 406 Le Touze, Guillaume 265, 267 Levallet, D. 304 Léaud, Jean-Pierre 90, 192, 273, 326, 538 Lévi-Strauss, Claude 16–18, 27, 49, 50, 152, Leblanc, Maurice 155 244, 318, 333–4, 341, 360, 397, 398, 438, Leclair, Yves 429, 431 445, 508–9, 509–10, 511 Leclaire, Serge 444, 445 Levinas, Emmanuel 153, 214, 308, 335, 346 Leclerc, Annie 90, 206, 208, 326 Lévy, Bernard-Henri 120, 193, 335–6, 394, 395 Leconte, Henri 521 Lévy, Raoul J. 221 Leconte, Patrice 72, 73, 493 Leygues, Georges 343 Lecoq, Jacques 326–7, 373, 469, 553 Liberation 46, 111, 119, 132, 142, 163, 291, Leduc, Violette 39, 188, 327, 327, 565, 567 327, 337–9, 364, 425 Lee, Spike 105 ciné-clubs 538 Lefebvre, Henri 39, 52, 327–8, 359 effect on cinema 104 left-wing groups 119–20, 193 effect on culture 192, 212, 345, 346, 482 left-wing press 1, 328–9, 397–8, 433, 476, 521 effect on women’s rights 564 legal system 329–30 épuration 338, 346 Léger, Fernand 112, 330, 351 politics 376, 390 Legrand, Michel 150 reconstruction 18–19 Lehman, Boris 221, 222 Libération 140, 166, 294, 328, 336–7, 347, 381 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 152, 489 389 Leibowitz, René 75 Liberté de l’esprit 364 Leiris, Michel 17, 38, 39, 51, 187, 188, 330–1, libraries 112, 339–40 425 see also Bibliothèque Nationale de France Lejeune, Philippe 39–40 Liebermann, Rolf 456 Lelé, Gramoune 225 Lifar, Serge 102, 136 Lelouch, Claude 10, 61, 105, 111, 344, 515 Life (magazine) 408, 421, 422 Lemahieu, Daniel 331 lifestyles Lemonnier, Camille 242 advertising 4, 5 Lemsine, Aïcha 248 youth 570 Lenin, Vladimir 359, 361 Ligeti, György 122 Leninism 468 Ligue Communiste Révolutionnaire 468 see also Marxist-Leninism Lilar, Suzanne 224 Lenorman, Gérard 146 Lille Léotard, Alain 42 circus Festival du Prato 43 Léotard, François 34, 130, 131, 331, 350 orchestra 456 loi Léotard 239, 519 Limon, Jose 136 Léotard, Philippe 331, 424 Lindon, Jérôme 340, 374, 396 Lepenism 291 linguistic regulation 342–6, 499 Index 597

linguistic theory 39, 49, 62, 208–9, 217, 280, short-story writing 51, 55, 69, 88, 89, 247, 302, 318, 333, 340–2, 346, 371 281–2, 289, 382, 454, 491–3 and autobiography 38 Surrealism 32, 95, 97, 184–5, 211, 428, 429 and feminism 297, 298, 315 Symbolism 211, 242 poststructuralism 109, 438–40 travel writing 39, 210, 250, 382, 476 see also language; structuralism writings on fashion 200 Lipchitz, Jacques 270, 344 see also autobiography; beur writing; Lipovetsky, Gilles 200, 436 committed literature; feminist thought; Lire 242, 243 francophone writing; gay writing; lesbian Lirus, Julie 244 writing; nouveau roman; romantic Lispector, Clarice 110, 297 novels; science fiction; women’s writing; literary adaptation 37–8, 63, 104, 106, 344–5 see under genres and names of writers literary censorship 187, 345–6 Littérature 347 literary criticism 162, 210, 216–17, 315, 346, Living Theatre 47 348, 469, 470, 565–6 Livre de poche 348, 447 literary journals 49, 82, 120, 346–7, 418 Lo Duca, J.M. 87 see under journal titles Loakira, Mohammed 248 literary prizes 2, 56, 59, 61, 68, 88, 109, 141, Lods, Marcel 19 161, 166, 167, 189, 211, 224, 241, 242, Lorca, Federico García see García Lorca, 244, 249, 250, 276, 348, 383, 393, 396, Federico 420, 478, 479, 482, 494, 534, 558 Lorraine, Alain 245 literary theory 104, 109–10, 113, 269–70, 449, Lorraine industry 354, 366 479 theatre 115, 315 literature Losey, Joseph 147 aphorisms 52–3, 97 Losfeld, Éric 187 biography 39, 40–1, 210–11 Lou, Valérie 234 children’s literature 60, 348, 476 Louvre 30, 529 diaries 56, 481 Grand Louvre project 23, 24, 30–1, 130, essays 30, 49, 50, 51, 69, 83–1, 87, 88, 113, 378, 446 120, 269–70, 280, 289, 306, 355, 420, Lukács, Georg 359 480 Lumière, brothers 159 experimental work 83–4, 86, 127 Lutte Ouvrière 328 influence on choreography 102 Luxembourg letters 56, 275, 481 radio 237 novels 51, 55–6, 58, 61, 68, 69, 83, 87, 88, television channels 9 98, 109, 113, 114, 127, 164–5, 289, 382, Lyne, Adrian: Fatal Attraction 113 393, 419, 420, 454, 468–9, 471, 478, Lyon 20, 102, 456, 461, 530 480–1, 493, 499, 534, 547 Lyon-Libération 336–7 plays 3, 42, 43, 60, 63, 69, 71, 87, 88, 95, Lyotard, Jean-François 29, 308, 348–9, 374, 126, 127, 148, 165, 224–5, 228, 280, 436, 437, 492 281, 296, 310, 314–15, 355, 374, 427–8, Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich 359 454, 469, 479, 488, 515, 546, 550, 555, 569 M6 4, 350, 386, 435, 518 poetry 32, 49, 52, 61, 69, 74–5, 82, 95, 97, McCartney (fashion house) 201 119, 145, 157, 162, 164, 231, 248, 275, Machiavel 234 302, 307, 371–2, 420, 428–32, 434, Machiavelli, Niccolò 546 441, 468, 513, 516 Machin, Alfred 221 radio 219 McLuhan, Marshall 52, 437 598 Index

MacOrlan, Pierre 132 Manessier, Alfred 353 McQueen, 201 Manet, Édouard 426 Madagascar 142, 225 Manet, Éduardo 353–4 music 233 Manicom, Jacqueline 244 writing 245, 247 Mann, Thomas 379, 431, 526 Madame Figaro 564 Mano Negra 67, 354, 394, 473 Madelin, Alain 350, 488 Mansour, Joyce 429 Maderna, Bruno 75 manufacturing industry 4, 354–5 Madonna 260 Mao Ze Dong 347, 362 Maeght Foundation 350–1 Maoism 14, 87, 204, 268, 274, 361, 365, 394 Maeterlinck, Maurice 224, 241 406, 441, 468, 513, 517 Magazine littéraire, Le 347 China 316, 360, 517 magazines 98, 192, 195–6, 388, 390, 408–9, Marais, Jean 262 432, 433, 553–4 Marais: theatre festival 86 see also television/spectacle guides; women’s Marais plan 31, 124, 355 magazines Marceau, Félicien 355 Maghreb Marceau, Marcel 355, 372, 373 culture and literature 61, 68, 69, 570 Marceau, Sophie 355–6, 507 French territories 141–2 Marcel, Gabriel 193 see also Algeria; beurs; Morocco; Tunisia Marcellin, Raymond 356 Magnelli, Alberto 506 Marchais, Georges 73, 183, 356, 411 Magnum photographic agency 91, 421–2 Marcuse, Herbert 52 Magritte, René 217 Maréchal, Marcel 250, 356, 401, 546 Maison des Sciences de 1’Homme 79 Maréchal, Maurice 89 maisons de la culture 112, 129, 139, 214, 229, Marie-Claire 201, 206, 357, 408, 563 351, 351, 384, 524, 552 Marigny theatre 47, 530 Makeba, Miriam 223 Marimoutou, Carpanin 225, 245 Makeiff, Macha 154 Marin, Maguy 102, 140 Malaurie, Jean 17 Marini, Marcelle 164, 565 Malavoi 232 Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de 431, Malet, Léo 155 473 Malherbe, François de 342 theatrical productions 99, 286 Malicorne 214–15 Marjollet, Catherine 332 Mallarmé, Stéphane 75, 119, 164 Marquis de Sade (rock group) 472 influence 123, 162, 347, 428, 431 marriage/cohabitation 109, 126, 198, 357–8 studies 83, 153, 470, 483 Marsan, Hugo 264, 266, 267 Malle, Louis 71, 81, 91, 104, 351, 380, 382, Marseille 215, 461 395, 402, 454 Martel, Frédéric 332 Mallet-Joris, Françoise 241, 565 Martin, Frank 231 Malraux, André 120, 124, 192, 321, 350, Martinet, André 340 351–2, 362, 398, 405, 447, 481, 519, 550 Martinet, Patrice 43 maisons de la culture 112, 129, 214, 351, 434 Martinique 142, 144, 199 Malraux act 20, 124, 129, 351, 352, 464 parties and movements 414, 415 Mami, Cheb 67 popular music 232 Mammeri, Mouloud 228, 248 television 239 Man Ray 352 writing 144, 243 management style 352–3 Marx, Karl 272, 358, 359, 438 Manciet, Bernard 459 Marxism and Marxian thought 13, 52, 104, Mandiargues, André Pieyre de 187, 188 113, 153, 274, 358–61 Index 599

art 513 iconography 291 attacks on 394 and intellectuals 98, 104, 116, 120, 146, 268, on class 112 272, 273, 327, 346, 347, 349, 362, 398, and Communism 358–9, 360, 361 470, 494, 510, 517, 539 criticism of 88, 348 and Marxist militancy 360–1 feminism 204, 207, 208 political aftermath 433 literature 250 and the press 184, 283, 328, 336, 398 opponents 27 resulting university reforms 541 philosophers 272, 327–8, 348–9, 483 revolutionary action committee… 165 and structuralism 510 sexual and social liberalization 12, 188, Marxism-Leninism 328, 347 197–8, 260, 262, 331, 345, 533, 565 Maspero, François 362, 512 and socialism 281 Masques 331, 332 student movement and uprisings 20, 47, 108, Massif Central 7, 354, 455, 535 212, 268, 327, 347, 356, 364–6, 398, Masson (publishing group) 447 407, 511, 541 Masson, André 29, 246 tracts 341 Masson, Loys 246, 247 and youth culture 202, 570 Mastroianni, Marcello 150 Mayotte 239, 247, 415, 416 Mathieu, Georges 31–2, 362, 406, 559 MC Solaar 369, 570 Mathy, Jean-Philippe 435–6 Mechkour, Larbi 66 Matin de Paris, Le 389 Meddeb, Abdelwahab 248 Matisse, Henri 157, 163, 330, 351, 362–3, 405, Medecins Sans Frontières (MSF) 369 513 media Matthews, Harry 403 attacks on 27 Mauclair, Jacques 363 expansion 4 Maunick, Edouard 245 government policy 85, 129 Maupassant, Guy de 344, 388 and new philosophers 394 Maurane 234 and postmodernism 437 Mauriac, Claude 306, 363–4 service industry 489 Mauriac, François 143, 195, 266, 364, 447 writings on 140–1, 552 Mauritius 226, 233, 245, 246, 247 see also advertising Maurois, André 447 Mediterranean: collective creations 115 Mauroy, Pierre 364, 518 Medjdoub, Amine 66 Maurras, Charles 476 Meilleur, Le 390 Mauss, Marcel 16, 52, 333 Mellah, Fawzi 228 Maximin, Daniel 243 Melville, Jean-Pierre 87, 104, 147, 369 May 1968 61, 78, 100, 114, 128, 129, 168–9, Memmi, Albert 120, 247, 248 192, 220, 259, 271, 278, 351, 356, 364–9, Mendès France, Pierre 11, 143, 195, 366–7, 370, 377, 402, 445 397, 398 attacks on events 27, 356 Mercure de France 429 Cahiers du cinema 87, 104 Mérimée, Prosper 274 and class conflict 111 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 29, 32, 119, 193, 359, and ecologism 412 362, 482, 485, 521 effects on cinema 160, 224, 273, 321 Mertens, Pierre 241, 242 effects on education 251 Messiaen, Olivier 75, 122, 370–1 effects on performing arts 114–15, 136, 214 Métoui, Mohammed Moncef 228 effects on religious life 92 Métraux, Alfred 16, 17 effects on visual arts 422 Metz, Christian 371 feminism 203–4, 207, 565 Meynard, Serge 65 600 Index

M’Hamsadji, Kadour 228 education policy 179 Michaux, Henri 193, 241, 371–2, 428–9, 430 and European integration 191 Michel, Georges 86, 372 foreign policy 145, 216, 378 Michelangelo 211 governments 44, 45, 126, 127–8, 169, 190, Michelet, Jules 49 233, 251, 336, 361, 364, 366 Michon, Pierre 41 immigration policy 70, 293 Middle East influence on politicians 197, 306, 320, 475 Israeli territorial claims 120 as Kermitterrand 57 peace campaigners 346, 521 market liberalism policy 169, 197 Miéville, Anne-Marie 274, 372 May 1968 366–7 Mignonnes allons voir sous la rose 206 memorial service 93 Milan: opera 550 and Parti Socialiste 410, 411 Millau, Christian 256 presidential campaign 1988 4 Miller, Henry 187, 345 and privatization 393, 451 Miller, Jacques-Alain 445–6 regional reform 461 Millett, Kate 297 sports policy 503 Mills and Boon 474 and Vichy 548–9 Mimouni, Rachid 249 Miyake, Issey 201 Minghella, Anthony 71 Mnouchkine, Ariane 95, 112, 115, 158, 159, Minimalism 372, 373, 379–80, 523, 525, 526, 531 art 313, 513 modernism 277, 404 sculpture 487 architecture 20, 324, 382 minimum wage (SMIC) 109, 185, 366, 373–4, art 405, 513 497 fiction 492 Ministry of Finance: new building 23, 62 films 90 Minitel 181–2, 183 theatre 110 Minnelli, Vincente 344 Modiano, Patrick 40, 308, 380, 396 Minuit editions 58, 340, 346, 374, 396, 447, Mogin, Jean 224 471 Mohamed, Bajedoub 235 Minute 374 Molière (Jean Baptiste Poquelin) 527 Minyana, Philippe 159, 374, 522 Tartuffe 105, 158, 227, 428, 526 Miou-Miou 151, 156, 263, 374–5 theatre productions 286, 379, 427, 428, 550 Miquel, Jean-Pierre 2, 116, 529 Molinaro, Édouard 262, 488 Mirbeau, Octave 265 Mollet, Guy 143, 380 Miró, Joan 97, 164, 351, 431 Monde, Le 213, 256, 336, 347, 380–1, 389, Miroir des sports, Le 503 457, 499 Misérables, Les (Lelouch film) 111 Monde Libertaire, Le 328 Mishima, Yukio 265, 266 Monferrand, Hélène de 332, 567 Misrahi, Moshe 493 Monnet, Jean 190, 428 Mistinguett 100, 375, 499 Monod, Jacques 359 Mitchell, Eddy 375, 472, 500 Monod, Jean 231 Mitterrand, François 62, 101, 166, 259, 260, Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de 217 271, 283, 291, 370, 375–9, 398, 409, 560 Montaigner, Luc 9 advisers 36, 140 Montand, Yves 113, 274, 381, 429, 441, 454, and Algerian war 143, 376 466, 484, 500, 507, 537 architectural projects 21, 22–6, 30–1, 62, Montfort, Henri de and Suzanne de 290 130, 296, 320–1, 340, 378, 446 Montfort, Sylvia 107 cultural policy 33, 34, 105, 112, 130, 339, Montherlant, Henri de 264, 266, 362, 447 340, 378, 456, 524, 570 Montmartre (radio station) 452 Index 601

Montparnasse 132 music Tower 381–2 African 67, 233, 500 Montpellier Andalusian 67, 235, 236 jazz centre 456 avant-garde and experimental 121, 123, 303 Printemps des Comédiens festival 43 blues 310, 324, 479–80, 499 university 541 and choreography 102 Montrelay, Michèle 382, 445 classical 75, 75–6, 121–4, 370–1, 386, 456, Morand, Paul 289, 382, 447, 535 568, 571 Morax, René 230 country-and-western 214, 375 More, St Thomas: Utopia 484 festivals 43, 67, 130, 226, 234, 235, 384–5, Moreau, Jeanne 42, 104, 150, 165, 382, 516, 387, 537 538, 544, 562 folk 37, 161, 214–15, 225–6, 452, 456, 472, Morgan, Michèle 507 499 Morin, Edgar 132, 382–3, 397, 570, 571 industry 385–6, 499 Morocco 12 and poetry 429 independence 143, 222, 227, 247, 370 prizes 303, 470, 479 performing arts 226, 227–8 punk 353, 385, 472, 500 popular music 235–6 radio 219–20, 499 Mossuz-Lavau, Janine 331–2 raï 67, 68, 235, 236, 300, 311, 353 motor sport 383 rap 67, 202, 320, 353, 369, 385, 454, 472, Mouloudji, Marcel 132, 383, 441, 546, 547 500, 570 Mounier, Emmanuel 120, 193 record companies 46, 55 Moustaki, Georges 384, 384, 423, 500 reggae 67, 232, 236, 324, 472, 500 Moutoussamy, Ernest 244 software 130 Mouvement de la LibÉration des Femmes (MLF) soul 310, 472 1, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 331, 332, 441, television channels 350 442, 565 theory 75–6 Mouvement des Citoyens 413 training 128 Mouvement écologiste Indépendant 279, 555 venues 384–5, 386, 386–7, 473 Mouvement Républicain Populaire (MRP) 410 and writing 84 Movie 87 yé-yé 570, 571 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 211, 307 see also beur music; concerts; francophone MUDRA dance school 102 popular music;jazz;regional music;rock Mugler, fashion house 201 and pop; song/chanson;world music Müller, Heiner 99, 306, 529 Musil, Robert 166, 431 multiculturalism 93, 109, 391, 473, 570 multinational companies 384, 385 Nacht, Sacha 444 Mumford, Lewis 52 Nadj, Josef 103 Muppets, The 57 Naguy 254 Murnau, F.W. 87 Namiand, Arlette 388 Mururoa: nuclear testing 399 Nancy: opera 456 Musée d’Orsay 22, 31, 130 Nanterre Musée National d’Art Moderne (MNAM) 30 Les Amandiers theatre 98, 99, 133, 529, 552 Musée Picasso 31 Hauts-de-Seine 20 Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle: renovation 24 University of Paris 114, 133, 365, 470 museums 30–1, 112, 350–1, 434 Nantes 43, 150, 366, 556 building and architecture 22, 23, 30–1 Narboni, Jean 87 funding 34 National Centre for Contemporary Art 129 management training 128 National Cinematographic Centre 388 602 Index

National Hebdo 374 influence 51, 349, 394 National Jazz Orchestra (ONJ) 305 studies 146, 313 national press 128, 388–90 Nigeria: film documentaries 475 see also newspapers Nikolais, Alwin 136 national service 145 Nimier, Roger 288, 289 nationalism 72, 316, 390–1, 476 Nin, Khadja 234 Flemish 80 Nini, Soraya 69, 566 French 101, 216, 390–1 Nissaboury, Mostafa 248 North African 223 Nizan, Paul 120, 359 Quebec 216 Noah, Yannick 521 see also Algeria: independence movement Nobel prizes 59, 88, 482, 494 nationalization 169, 391–3 Noël, Bernard 429, 431 NATO 26, 144, 145, 191, 216, 259, 378 Noël, Marie 430 Navarre, Yves 188, 264, 265, 266, 267, 393 Noiret, Philippe 96, 395, 516 Nazism 109, 225, 405, 548 Noisy-le-Grand: Espaces d’Abraxas estate 21 censorship 119 Nord-Sud 468 concentration camps 211, 405, 426, 466, North Africa 546, 548 architecture in French colonies 19–20 and genocide 192, 419, 548 cinema 64–5, 222–4 Germany 27, 526, 552 immigration from 292, 299, 450 opponents 521 performing arts 226–30, 569 writings on 534 popular music 91, 235–6, 500 see also Occupation; Vichy Second World War 141–2 Négresses vertes, Les 67, 393–4, 472 women’s writing 564, 566 négritude 95, 199 writing 68, 247–9 Nelli, René 459 North African community 64, 67–8, 70, 293 Némo, Philippe 394 see also beurs neo-Gaullism 100, 309, 413 Nostalgie (radio station) 451 Nerval, Gérard de 315 Nothomb, Amélie 242–3 Neuwirth, Lucien: loi Neuwirth 1–2 Nougaro, Claude 46, 384, 395, 456 Nevers 63 Nougé, Paul 242 New Age thought 313 Nouveau Détective, Le 390 New Caledonia 233, 239, 415–16 Nouveau Réalisme 29, 407, 408, 478–9, 486, new philosophers 193, 272, 336, 394–5 532 New Theatre 32, 527, 550 nouveau roman 40, 49, 58, 83, 104, 164, 242, New York 314, 344 340, 364, 374, 395–7, 460, 466, 469, 480–1 Family of Man exhibition 422 491, 516, 566, 569 gay activism 261 Nouveaux écologistes 279 Museum of Modern Art 425, 532 Nouvel, Jean 296 Newman, Barnett 29 Nouvel Observateur, Le 1, 27, 195, 213, 271, newspapers 37, 89–90, 120, 128, 186, 212–13, 345, 347, 390, 397–8, 471 220, 285, 287–8, 290, 294–5, 374, 380–1, Nouvelle Critique, La 347 388–90, 409 Nouvelle Revue de la psychoanalyse, La 347 advertising 336–7, 389, 457, 598 Nouvelle Revue français (NRF) 119, 346, 418, see also feminist press; left-wing press; 447, 482, 516 national press; regional press Nouvelle Vague (New Wave) 104, 106, 107, Nice: jazz festival 384 160, 273, 321, 344, 369, 396, 397, 398, Nichet, Jacques 115, 395 463 466, 544, 562 Nietzsche, Friedrich 193, 209, 297, 346, 438 actors 61, 81, 382 Index 603

directors 87, 96, 105, 369, 396, 473, 538–9, ORTF (Office de Radio-Télévision Française) 544 115, 229, 271, 402, 452, 518, 521 Nouvelles Féministes, Les 205 Ott, Carlos 20, 22 Nouvelles Questions Féministes 206, 208 Ottinger, Ulrike 491 Novarina, Valère 356, 398 Quest-France 457 NRJ (radio station) 451, 452 OuLiPo 402–3, 419, 430 nuclear deterrent 26, 144, 145, 215–16, 259, Oury, Gérard 105, 251, 507 378 Oury, Jean 281 testing 101, 346, 399 Outers, Jean-Luc 242 nuclear power 277, 278, 398–400 outsider art 163, 193, 406 protests against 279, 412 Overney, Pierre 468 Nureyev, Rudolf 139 Pacific Obadia, Régis 103, 140 francophone television 239 Obaldia, René d’ 401 French dependencies 141 O’Brien, Edna 61 nuclear testing 101 Obsidiane (publisher) 429 Wallis and Fortuna 414, 415 Occitan country 214, 215, 322, 456 pacifism 278, 279 see also regional writing: Occitan Pagès, Bernard 487 Occupation 46, 56, 111, 113, 258, 307, 338, Pagliero, Marcello 106 344, 390, 444, 493 Pagnol, Marcel 277, 344–5 art 193, 404–5 painting 82–3, 330, 362–3, 404–8, 424, 425–6, culture 132, 192 432, 501, 506–7, 513, 543, 545 effects on cinema 104, 160, 463, 466 Abstract Expressionism 29, 32, 53 fiction on 136 automatism 559 films about 38, 351, 402 Expressionism 28 music 537 and film 274, 545 publishing 119, 212, 408, 457 influence on cinema 221–2 theatre 195 Lyrical Abstraction movement 29, 32 see also Liberation; Resistance movement; Minimalism 313, 513 Vichy Nouveau Réalisme 312, 478–9 Ockrent, Christine 401 portrayal of class 112 Offenbach, Jacques: opera productions 99 Post-Impressionism 96 Ogier, Bulle 224 Surrealism 184–5, 424 Ohnet, Georges 474 Tachism 559 Oldenburg, Claes 486 theory 83 Oliver, Raymond 255, 256, 401 writings on 58, 315, 534 Ollier, Claude 396 see also art brut; art galleries and museums; Olympic Games 35, 215, 505 art informel; Cubism; outsider art Opéra 289 Palais des Sports 102 opera houses 139 Palau, Thérèse 161 Opéra-Bastille 20, 22–3, 130 Palestinians 229, 274 Ophuls, Marcel 160, 401–2 Panassié, Hugues 304 Ophuls, Max 87, 401 Pancrazi, Jean-Noël 266, 267 oral tradition and testimony 39, 61, 69, 492 Panofsky, Erwin 290 Oran: raï music 236 Papon, Maurice 308 Oriental culture 137–8, 523 Pappas, Irène 223 Orlan 402 Paris, Jean 347 Ormesson, Jean d’ 213 Paris 604 Index

architecture and new buildings 20, 23–4, peace prizes 426 24–5, 30–1, 382 Peckinpah, Sam 64 arts festivals 43 Peduzzi, Richard 99, 418 Bercy 23, 62, 386–7, 500 Peer Gynt: theatre production 99, 418 café theatres and concerts 86, 386 Pei, Ieoh Ming 21, 23, 30 churches as music venues 386 Penchenat, Jean-Claude 418–19, 526 Cinémathèque 87, 112, 273, 321 Pénélope 206 cultural topography 131–3 Pennac, Daniel 155 Family of Man exhibition 422 People and Culture association 112, 163 Jardin d’Hiver 36 Perdriel, Claude 397, 398 Jazz Age 44 Perec, Georges 40, 402–3, 403, 419 Left Bank cabaret 386 Pérec, Marie-Jo 35 Marais 31, 86, 124, 355 performance artists 126 music 384, 387 performing arts Protestantism 93 cabaret 86, 132, 192, 386, 417–18, 488 Radio Beur 67–8 circus 43, 107–8, 130, 231 regional assembly 461 festivals 42–3 residential areas 54 mime 47, 107, 144, 231, 250, 326, 355, Sarcelles housing estate 19 372–3, 488, 515–16, 527 universities 109, 133, 441, 445, 541 music hall 132, 133, 251, 276, 375, 384–5, see also suburbs;see under names of build- 386, 418 ings and institutions musicals 63, 80 Paris Opéra/Ballet 102, 103, 136, 139, 231 opera 14, 113, 210, 324, 386, 456, 571 Parisien, Le 213, 389, 409, 457 operas 74, 99, 121, 122 Parisienne, La 289 pantomime 276 Paris-Match 408–9, 421 performance artists 402 Paris-St Germain 215 regional centres 351 Paris-Soir 408 see also collective creation; concerts; dance; Parti Radical 410 francophone performing arts; theatre Parti Républicain 410, 413 perfumes 97, 201, 478 Parti Socialiste (PS) 197, 364, 377, 378, 380, Périer, François 419 410, 410–11, 413, 414, 471 Perrault, Dominique 22–3 parties and movements 13, 14, 37, 38, 51, 62–3, Perrein, Michèle 420 96, 100, 125, 126, 258, 259, 271, 279, 290, Perret, Auguste 18, 19 320, 356, 377–8, 409–14, 490 DOM-TOMs 414–17 Perrin, Elula 567 Pascal, Blaise 50 Perrot, Michelle 210 Pascal, Christine 105 Perse, Saint-John 307, 420, 428, 429, 459 Pasolini, Pier Paolo 211 Pétain, Philippe 258, 259, 291, 547–8 Pasqua, Charles 191, 417 pétanque 420–1 Pasqual, Lluis 529 Peter, Paul and Mary 547 Patachou 55, 78, 417–18 Petit, Roland 102, 136, 139 Patou, fashion house 200–1, 201 Petite Gironde, La 457 Pau: festival 43 Pétroleuses, Les 204, 205 Paulhan, Jean 245, 346, 418, 447 Peyrefitte, Alain 213 Pauvert, Jean-Jacques 187, 345 Peyrefitte, Roger 264, 264–5 Pavese, Cesare 210–11 Pfeiffer, Bernard 304 Paxton, Robert 548 Philip, André 470 peace movements: art 405, 425, 426 Philipe, Gérard 42, 88, 104, 133, 421, 507, 544 Index 605

philosophy 27, 55–6, 87, 146–7, 152–4, 192, Planchon, Roger 3, 99, 154, 158, 159, 250, 217–18, 272, 335, 470 427–8, 488, 523, 527, 529, 551 and discourse theory 340 planning system 428 feminism 208–9, 297–8, 327 Plasson, Michel 456 journals 346–7 Platini, Michel 215, 503 and literature 489 Plato 152, 209 Marxist 272, 327–8, 348–9 Platonov: theatre production 99 and politics 275–6 Pléïade editions 97, 184, 420, 429 postmodernism 348–9 Plenel, Edwy 381 radio 219 Pleynet, Marcel 513, 516, 517 and science 489 Plume, Amélie 231, 250 see also existentialism; new philosophers; see Poe, Edgar Allan 155 under names of philosophers Poésie 347 Photographe, Le 422 Poétique 347 photography 91, 281–2, 323, 352, 421–3, Point, Fernand 255 474–5, 559 Point, Le 195, 196, 390, 432 critical theory 50, 422 Poiré, Jean-Marie 45, 105, 432 fashion 200, 201 Poiret, Paul 163 and film 275, 545 Poirier, Anne and Patrick 487 magazines 421, 422, 553 Poivre d’Arvor, Patrick 432 writings on 534 Poland 482 Piaf, Édith 43, 121, 381, 384, 423–4, 451, 500 Communist-led government 311 student protests 365 Piaget, Jean 53, 250, 424, 508 Polanski, Roman 150 Pialat, Maurice 74, 151, 288, 355, 424 Poliakoff, Serge 432 Piano, Renzo 20, 30, 434 police Picabia, Francis 352 accountability 109 Picard, Raymond 49 brutality 108, 321 Picasso, Pablo 31, 77, 97, 157, 184, 291, 405–6, and homosexuals 260–1 424–6, 429, 486, 553 services 489 Piccoli, Michel 55, 277, 426–7, 471, 484 Vichy 548 Piel, Jean 346 Polignac, Comte de 435 Piero della Francesca 45 politics Pifarély, Dominique 304 activism 55–6, 60, 88, 95, 114, 115–16, 120, Pills, Jacques 57, 423 193, 280, 421 Pilote 116 and agriculture 7–8 Pineau, Gisèle 243, 492 analysts 128 Pinget, Robert 249, 250, 374, 396 beur activism 60, 66, 70–1, 300 Pinguet, Robert 157 and the church 94 Pinoteau, Gilles 355 and civil rights 108–9 Pinson, Jean-Claude 429, 431 comic strips 116 Pinter, Harold: theatre productions 76, 428 and employment 185–6 Pirandello, Luigi 15 and European integration 189–90, 191 theatrical productions 363 films 466 Pitoëff, Sacha 158 the Left 56, 104, 112, 126, 132, 135, 159, Pitte, Jean-Robert 256 271, 281, 336, 361, 366–7, 368, 370, Pivot, Bernard 18 391, 394, 395, 413, 463 Plamondon, Luc 63 and the performing arts 114–15, 381, 480, Planche, Jeanne 78 488 606 Index

radio 219 poststructuralism 29, 51, 110, 146, 153, 315, the Right 46, 96, 101, 109, 132, 135, 159, 437, 437–40, 511 185, 279, 288, 325, 338, 394–5, 410, linguistic theory 109, 315, 438–40 411–12, 413, 451, 501 Pottier, Bernard 341 satirical TV programmes 57, 519 Poujadism 325, 490 television 286 Poulenc, Francis 121 women 127–8, 493, 560–1 Poullet, Hector 243 see also constitution; cultural policy; Prague Linguistic circle 340 feminism; foreign policy; gay activism; Prague Spring 193, 356 green politics; Marxism and Marxian Prélocaj, Angelin 139 thought; May 1968; parties and Preminger, Otto 488 movements; revolutionary groups; Prenant, Marcel 359 see under names of politicians Présence africaine 199, 347 Politis 433 Presley, Elvis 472 Politzer, Georges 359 press 4, 285–6, 336, 447 Pollock, Jackson 32 see also feminist press; gay press; left-wing Pomiane, Édouard de 256 press; lesbian press; national press; Pompidou, Georges 96, 100, 191, 271, 433–4, regional press 503 Presses de la Cité 474 advisers 45 Prévert, Jacques architecture programmes 20 films 47, 112, 441, 550 cultural development 129–30 poetry and song 112, 277, 428, 429 May 1968 366, 367, 368 Prévost d’Exiles, Antoine François: Manon Pompidou Centre 20, 30, 31, 34, 130, 221, 339, Lescaut 344 408, 434, 434, 479, 533 Priel, Jarl 459 Ponge, Francis 193, 347, 428–9, 430, 434 priests 92, 93, 93–4 Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand 41, 444 Prima 564 pop music see rock and pop Printemps stores 201 pop video 435, 492, 549, 570 Prisunic stores 201 popular culture 163 privatization 11, 131, 169–70, 391–3, 411 Popular Front 129, 392, 501, 532, 547 prizes see literary prizes population see demographic developments Propp, Vladimir 50 pornography 187, 188, 262, 435, 468 Prost, Alain 383 laws 345, 346 prostitution 205, 441 novels 546 films 273, 274, 512 Portugese community 293 Protestantism 93–5 Portzampare, Christian de 22 politicians 471, 501 Positif 87 Proust, Marcel 30, 50, 83, 146, 161, 166, 270 postmodernism 52, 105, 299, 397, 435–7 447 architecture 20, 31 adaptations for film 344 art 487, 514 and gay writing 264, 265, 266 cinema 262 Prouvé, Jean 19 critiques 214 Prouvost, Jean 408, 409 dance 102 Provence: regionalism 461 films 60, 90 Psych et Po 110, 148, 204–5, 206, 209, 441–2 language 436–7 445 philosophy 272, 348–9 psychoanalysis 146–7, 442–6, 466 poetry 458 autobiography 38, 39, 40, 90 short-story writing 491–2 criticism 49 Index 607

discourse theory 340, 440 writings on 60, 189, 193, 199, 246 feminism 56, 204, 208, 297–8, 315, 382, 441 Radical Socialist Party (Radicaux Socialistes) film theory 371 413, 489 and history 95, 113 radio 189, 402, 520 Lacanian 39, 40, 109, 315, 318–19 actors 74, 162 and structuralism and poststructuralism advertising 4, 237, 451, 452 438–9, 509 music 219–20, 499 see also Freud, Sigmund plays 32, 58, 127, 162, 314 psychology 424 private/free 451–2, 476 public services 190 state-owned 4, 219–20, 451, 452–4 public works 446 see also beur radio; francophone radio publishing/l’édition 118–19, 132, 296, 374, Radio Beur 67–8, 70 446–8, 490 Radio Bleue 238, 453 censorship 345–6 Radio Classique 452 see also feminist press; gay press; see under Radio France 226, 236, 237–8, 247, 402, 452 names of publishers Rafenomanjato, Charlotte 226 Pujade-Renaud, Claude 492 Raffinot, François 140 Punch 256 Raï, Raina 67 puppets and puppetry 57, 127, 231, 519, 552–3 Rainbow Warrior affair 381 Pyrenees region 92, 455 Rakotondradany, Josette 226 Rakotoson, Michèle 226, 247 Quaghebeur, Marc 241 Rambert Dance Company, UK 139 Quartett: theatre production 99 Ramsay, Max 232 Quartier Latin, Paris 132, 133 Ramuz, Charles-Ferdinand 249, 277 Quebec 234, 492, 539 Randrasana, Ignace Solo 226 Queneau, Raymond 277, 288, 402, 403, 419, Rapaport, Herman 347 428, 429, 429–30, 449, 547 Rapho photographic agency 421 Questions féministes 148, 172, 204, 205, 206, Rappeneau, Jean-Paul 71, 105, 151, 454 208 Rasheed 66 Quinon, Pierre 35 Rassemblement pour la République (RPR) (Rally Quinzaine littéraire, La 347 for the Republic) 100, 101, 213, 258, 410, Quotidien de Paris, Le 389 412, 413, 414, 417, 488 Quotidien des femmes, Le 205, 206 Ravel, Maurice 121, 212 Ravoaja, Suzanne 226 Rabéarivelo, Jean-Joseph 245–6 Ray, Man see Man Ray Rabelais, François 78, 115, 517 Raymond, Marcel 250 Rabémananjara, Jacques 245–6 Raymond, Marie 506 race 6, 112, 193 Raynaud, Jean-Pierre 487 see also beurs; racism Reagan, Ronald 170 Rachedi, Ahmed 223 Réage, Pauline 188, 345 Racine, Jean 49, 192–3, 434 Réalités nouvelles 82 theatre productions 428 Réda, Jacques 429, 431 racism 64–5, 70, 120, 179, 300, 382, 391, Redonnet, Marie 172–3, 454 450–1, 570 Redoute, La, clothing company 201 and beur writing 69 Regards 421 comic strips about 66 Reggiani, Serge 384, 547 films about 64–5, 160 Régine 252 protests 70–1, 155, 244, 346 regional cinema 150, 160 satire against 115 regional dance companies 137 608 Index regional economic development 454–5 Resnais, Alain 26, 104, 151, 160, 164, 381, regional music 214, 215, 455–6 396 466–7, 544 regional opera companies 139 films 491, 562–3 regional press 388–9, 456–7 Résonances-Femmes 206 regional theatre 76, 115, 459, 460 Restany, Pierre 29, 312, 313, 486 regional writing restaurant guides 255, 256, 467 Breton 458–9 restaurants du coeur 467 Occitan 459–60 Rétoré, Guy 2, 63, 467 regionalism 146, 460–2 Reunion 225, 226, 232, 239, 245, 246, 247, architecture 19 414, 415 autonomy 368 Reusser, Francis 372 Brittany 278 Revaux, Jacques 480 language 146, 321–3, 343 Reverdy, Pierre 362, 425, 428, 429, 431, 467–8 Reich, Wilhelm 281 revolutionary groups 199, 356, 365, 367, 394, Reinhardt, Django 276–7, 304, 462 468, 494 religion see also Maoism; Trotskyism and education 93, 179 Revue des sciences humaines, La 347 fundamentalism 336 Revue du cinéma, La 87 historians 95 Reyes, Alina 188, 468–9 and society 92–3, 94 Reza, Yasmina 469 writers 534 Rezvani, Serge 469 see also Christianity; Islam; Judaism; spiritual RFM (radio station) 451, 452 enquiry RFO (radio company) 239 Rembrandt van Rijn 506 Rhône valley 93, 556 Renaïvo, Flavien 245–6 Ricardou, Jean 291, 347, 396, 469 Renaud 120, 384, 385, 462, 500, 547, 570 Ricci, Nina 200–1 Renaud, Madeleine 47, 59, 164, 462–3 Richard, Jean 107 Renaud-Barrault Company 47, 60, 62, 462–3 Richard, Jean-Pierre 469–70 Renault 392, 393, 468 Richard, Pierre 151 Renault, Louis 338 Richelet, Pierre 502 Rennes: rock festival 43, 384, 456 Richet, Denis 397 Reno, Jean 432 Richet, Jean-François 65 Renoir, Auguste 463 Richier, Germaine 193, 485–6 Renoir, Jean 57, 64, 87, 104, 160, 201, 344, Ricoeur, Paul 470 463, 473, 493 Rilke, Rainer Maria 431, 513 renovation projects 352, 464–6 Rimbaud, Arthur: influence 193, 428, 431, 536 see also architecture; urban planning Riopelle, Jean Paul 32, 431 Republican Party (Parti Républicain) 331, 350 Risset, Jacqueline 429, 431 Republicanism 125, 259, 299, 300, 370, 433, Rita Mitsouko, Les 470, 472 436 Rivarol 289 iconography 291 Rives, Jean-Pierre 477 and the Jews 300, 307–8 Rivette, Jacques 55, 72, 74, 81, 87, 273, 311, opponents 288, 548 398, 470–1 supporters 463 Riviera (soap opera) 495 Resistance movement 58, 97, 166, 258, 336, Rivière, Jacques 346 337, 338, 376, 402, 466, 536 RMC (Radio Monte-Carlo) 452 artists 425 Robbe, Hervé 140 writers and intellectuals 184, 257, 383, 397, Robbe-Grillet, Alain 40, 58, 103, 104, 188, 340, 476 374, 396, 430, 466, 471, 481, 491 Index 609

Robinson, Christopher 265 RTL (radio station) 237, 451, 452, 476 Robuchon, Joël 471 Rude, François 290 Rocard, Michel 127, 320, 378, 411, 415, 471–2, Rueff, Jeannine 303 489 rugby 476–7, 502, 503, 505 Roche, Denis 516 Russia Roche, Pierre 43 revolution 251 Rochefort, Christiane 188, 206, 472, 565, theatre 553 565–6, 567 see also Soviet Union rock and pop 67, 91, 112, 130, 234, 235–6, Russian Formalists 347, 509, 516 283, 284, 294, 310, 324, 375, 384, 385, Ruwet, Nicolas 341 435, 452, 470, 472–3, 499, 500, 570, 571 Rwanda: war 26, 336, 378, 409 see also pop video Rykiel, Sonia, 201, 477 Rocking Babouche 67 Rodenbach, Georges 242 Sabatier, Patrick 476 Rogers, Richard 20, 30, 434 Sabeurdet 66 Rognet, Richard 429, 431 Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von 146 Rohmer, Éric 58, 81, 87, 104, 273, 398, 473–4 Sacks, Oliver: The Man Who Mistook His Wife Rolin, Dominique 241, 242 for a Hat 82 Rolland, Romain 307 Sade, Donatien, Comte de (Marquis de Sade) romand culture 230, 231 187, 265, 345, 347 Romania 296 Sagan, Françoise 398, 478, 488, 535, 565 romantic novels 474 St Eloi, Patrick 232 Romeu, Jean-Pierre 477 Saint Laurent, Yves 200–1, 201, 478 Ronchamp: church of Notre-Dame-du-Haut 19 St Val, Tanya 232 Ronis, Willy 421, 474–5 Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de 447, 536 Roques, Philippe 164 St-Germain-des-Près, Paris 132 Rossi, Tino 499, 537 Saint-Hélier, Monique 250 Rossy 225 Saint-Phalle, Niki de 407–8, 478–9, 486, 532–3 Rotin, Jean Michel 232 St-Pierre-et-Miquelon 239, 415 Rouault, Georges 475 Sakharyn 234 Roubaud, Jacques 403 Salacrou, Armand 479 Rouch, Jean 160, 475 Saladin 66 Roudinesco, Elisabeth 444, 446 Sallenave, Danièle 479, 566 Roudy, Yvette 6, 475 Salon de la Jeune Peinture 407 loi Roudy 2, 475, 561 Salvador, Henri Sanson 472, 479, 546 Rouge 328, 476 Samlong, Jean-François 246, 247 Rougemont, Denis de 250 Sand, Georges 277 Rougerie (publisher) 429 Sans Souci theatre company 86 Rouquette, Yves 459 Sanson, Véronique 63, 479–80 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 152, 224, 230, 249, 277, Santos, Emma 565–6 326 Sapho 235–6 Confessions 38 Saporta, Karine 103, 140 Roussel, Raymond 83, 217, 347, 403 Sarajevo: siege of 272 Rousselet, André 294 Sarapo, Théo 423 Rousset, Jean 250 Sardou, Michel 146, 480, 500 Rousso, Henry 338, 548 Sarraute, Nathalie 40, 62, 206, 374, 396, 480–1, Roy, Claude 476 491 Royan, Brigitte 105 Sarrazin, Albertine 120, 481, 565 RTF (Radio et Télévision Française) 123 Sarrazin, Maurice 481 610 Index

Sarris, Andrew 87 schools see education: primary; education, Sartre, Jean-Paul 27, 28, 268, 272, 277, 447, secondary 481–4, 538, 553 Schubert, Franz 50 autobiography and biography 39 Schüfftan, Eugen 107 and cinema 103 Schuiten, François and Luc 117, 118 committed literature 346, 482 Schuman, Robert 190 and Communism 193 Schwarz-Bart, André 243 criticism 29, 49, 119, 430, 480, 483 Schwarz-Bart, Simone 244 existentialism 83, 192, 193, 208, 510 science fiction 491 philosophy 489 and gay writing 266, 268 radio 219 and Giacometti 404, 485 science fiction 52, 83, 116, 484–5, 547 influence 199, 419, 479 film 273 as intellectual 27, 39, 103, 119, 120 Scorsese, Martin 81 and the Jewish question 308–9 sculpture 28, 73, 270, 351, 363, 404, 424, 425, and journals 275, 397, 398, 521 426, 478–9, 485–7, 532–3 Marxism 359, 360, 483 existentialism 193, 270, 404 May 1968 483, 510 and film 545 plays 15, 194, 194–5, 528, 529, 550 Minimalism 487 political activism 88, 119, 142, 143, 193, Supports/Surfaces group 513 195, 328, 482 see also Cubism quarrel with Camus 88, 89, 193, 482 Sebbar, Leïla 68, 487, 566 and Simone de Beauvoir 55, 56, 327 Seberg, Jean 273, 487–8 writings on art 270, 404, 485, 559 Second World War Satie, Alain 406 effect on art 404, 485 satire effect on economy 68 newspapers and magazines 89–90, 98 effect on ethnology 17 songs 79 impact on French empire 141 television 57 in literature 88, 552 Saumont, Annie 492 population change 460–1 Saussure, Ferdinand de 29, 52, 62, 152, 249, see also Occupation; Vichy 318, 340–1, 371, 397, 438, 439, 440, 443, secularism and secularization 92–3, 94, 179, 508–9 299–300 Sautet, Claude 38, 55, 74, 484, 488, 535 security see defence and security Sauvageot, Jacques 268 Seeger, Pete 37 Savary, Jérôme 276, 484, 529 Seghers, Pierre 211 Savitzkaya, Eugène 242 Séguéla, Jacques 4 Savoy region: Séguin, Philippe 191, 413, 488 Catholicism 92 Semal, Claude 234 Schaeffer, Pierre 123 semiology 49, 50, 280, 371, 509 Schaer, Éric 231 semiotics 62, 280, 315, 341, 347, 439 Schiaparelli, Elsa 90 and autobiography 38 Schlöndorff, Volker 26, 147 Senegal 142 Schmidt, Helmut 191 Senghor, Léopold 95, 142, 245–6 Schmitt, Éric Emmanuel 530 Sennep 291 Schneider, Jean-Claude 429 Sens Unik 234 Schneider, Romy 484, 507 Sept, La (Société d’Édition de Programmes) 33 Schnitzler, Arthur 74 Sept Couleurs, Les 46 Schönberg, Arnold 75 7 jours madame 563 Index 611

Serrault, Michel 484, 488 television 519 Serreau, Coline 3, 227, 488, 563 Sobel, Bernard 91 Serreau, Jean-Marie 228, 521 social policy 190, 496–8, 561 Serres, Michel 488–9, 508 social security 9, 295, 490, 496, 498, 561 Sert, Josep Lluis 351 socialism 62–3, 127–8, 147, 281, 305–6, 320, Servan-Schreiber, Jean-Jacques 195, 271, 489 364, 471 service industry 489–90 iconography 291 advertising 4 and Marxism 360, 361 Seuil editions 206, 347, 447, 490, 516 and nationalization 392 sexism newspapers 287 cinema industry 263 opponents 394 and feminism 203, 206, 398 unions 540 in politics 127 Socialisme ou Barbarie group 348 writings on 189, 217, 264 Socialist Party (SFIO) 37, 70, 155 sexuality feminism 206, 475 and the church 93 governments 89, 101, 108–9, 112, 130, issues 44, 55–6, 109, 184, 188, 193, 298, 169–70, 213, 262, 336, 377, 392, 393, 331, 565 397, 411, 453, 471, 561 perceptions of society 6, 104, 112 socialist realism 112, 407 writers 193, 298, 313, 326, 327, 420, 440, society 6, 104, 112 534 and advertising 4–5 see also gay activism; gender; homosexuality; attitudes towards AIDS 9 lesbian activism changing typology 93 Seychelles 225, 233, 245, 247 civil rights 108 Seydoux, Jérôme 337 family structures 93 Seyrig, Delphine 165, 466, 491, 563 life histories 41 Shakespeare, William modernization 104, 112 theatre productions 2, 82, 379, 418, 427, and politics 128 523, 525, 526, 552 and religion 92–3 translations 307, 431 see also consumerism Sheila 491, 500 sociology 40, 76–7, 128, 173, 383, 533 Shelley, Percy Bysshe 32 and autobiography 38 Siffer, Roger 215 and discourse theory 340 Signoret, Simone 58, 104, 381, 493, 507 Socrates 209 Sigrid, Jean 224 Sollers, Philippe 347, 430, 498–9, 516, 517 Simenon, Georges 155, 241, 493 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander 272 Simon, Claude 40, 396, 481, 493–4 Gulag Archipelago 120, 394 Simon, François 224 song/chanson 78, 79–80, 85, 132, 211–12, 214, situationism 52, 327, 406–7, 494 456, 479–80, 499–500, 536–7 Six, Les 121 Belgium 233–4 Sjöberg, Henri 490 and poetry 429, 441 Skol Walarn 458 protest songs 324, 383, 454, 462, 499, 546, Skyrock 451, 452 547 slang/argot/verlan 69, 70, 78, 253, 342, 462, Switzerland 234–5 494–5 see under names of singers and Slim 66 songwriters Smurfs 222 Sophocles 550 soap opera 495–6 Sorbonne 114 radio 453 debates 202 612 Index

and May 1968 365 Staël, Nicolas de 405, 506–7 Sorbonne Radio France 453 Stalin, Joseph 193, 359, 360, 405–6, 426 SOS Racisme 70–1, 91, 154–5, 293, 300, 336, Stalinism 225, 254, 327, 383, 468 570 Starobinski, Jean 250 Souchon, Alain 305, 384, 500, 501, 537 stars 5, 47, 147, 151, 284, 369, 382, 386, 408 Souffles 248 424, 493, 507–8, 530, 537 Soukaz, Lionel 262 Starshooter (rock group) 472 Soulages, Pierre 32, 406, 501 Stéfan, Jude 431 Soustelle, Jacques 501 Stefanski, Christiane 234 South America: music 324 Stella, Frank 513 Soviet Union 316 Stendhal (Henri Beyle) 38, 111, 344 Cold War policy 144, 216 Stétié, Salah 429, 431 collapse of regime 361, 411 Stil, André 112 Communism 193, 359, 360 Stillman, Whit 473 invasion of Afghanistan 356 Stills, Stephen 480 labour camps 394 Stivell, Alan 215 Second World War 337 Stockhausen, Karlheinz 75, 122, 370 suppression of Hungary 120, 193, 360, 476 Stone, Sharon 105 suppression of Prague Spring 193, 356 Stoppard, Tom 64, 491 Spaak, Charles 221, 344 Storck, Henri 221 Spain storytelling 225, 244, 419 AIDS 284 Strasbourg Civil War 425, 494 music festival 43, 384 music 67, 235, 236 opera 456 post-Franco cinema 262 student activism 407 regionalism 322 theatre 156, 323, 528, 529–30, 552 student protests 365 Les Turbulences festival (La Maillon) 43 Spécial-Dernière 390 Strauss, Botho 74 spelling reform 501–2 Stravinsky, Igor 75, 121, 123, 231, 370 Spinoza, Benedict 13, 146 street papers 508 the spiritual Strehler, Giorgio 529 enquiry 93 strikes 101, 366, 407, 468, 475, 540 in painting 312–13, 475 Strindberg, August 165, 546, 550 philosophers 394 structuralism 14, 29, 38, 49, 76, 152–3, 302, Spirou 116 315, 334, 340, 346, 438, 508–11 Spitting Image 282 and the arts 406 Spivak, Gayatri 316 criticism 516 Splendid, Le: café theatre group 45 film 371 Spoerri, Daniel 407, 486 genetic 77 sport 373, 502–4 linguistics 29, 397, 445, 508–11 advertising 292 nouveau roman 396–7 education 504–5 students funding 505–6 drama festival 320 government policy 504–5 opposition to higher education policies 101, newspapers 186 412, 511 television 518 political activism 114, 407, 412, 511, 570 see under various sports revolt of 1986 108, 412, 511–12, 570 Spreckelsen, Johan Otto von 21, 23 U.S. political movement 364–5 Staël, Madame de 249 see also May 1968; universities Index 613

Suarez, André 338 Tapie, Bernard 503, 506, 515 suburbs 512–13 Tapié, Michel 28, 29 ethnic tensions 106 Tàpies, Antoni 431 films 563 Tarantino, Quentin 105 and immigrant culture 59–60, 67, 70–1, 293, Tardieu, Jean 515 299, 310, 494–5 Taslitzky, Boris 405 and Mitterrand’s planning policies 25 Tati, Jacques 80, 87, 104, 515–16 music 369 Tati stores 201 national sports stadium 505 Tavernier, Bertrand 12, 53, 72, 81, 104, 221, photography 161, 475 288, 355, 395, 516 prostitution 441 Taxi-Kreole 232 writings on 362 Tazdaït, Djida 70 see also cinéma de banlieue Tchou, Claude 187 Sud Radio 452 Téchiné, André 71, 150, 156, 160, 262, 263, Sud-Ouest 457 516 Sue, Eugène 155 Tel Quel group 49, 208, 283, 316, 346–7, Suez expedition (1956) 26, 143, 380 439, 499, 513, 516–17 Sullivan, Vernon (Boris Vian) 547 Telchid, Sylviane 492 Supervielle, Jules 430, 513 Télé 7 jours 520 Supports/Surfaces group 406, 513–14 Télé star 520 Surrealism 28, 32, 51, 74, 82, 162 Telephone (rock group) 472 automatic writing 362 television 517–20, 520 Belgium 242 advertising 4, 239, 240, 350 cinema 32, 103 AIDS awareness programmes 9–10, 265 fiction 157, 187–8, 276, 449 broadcasters 183, 432 influence 213, 371, 486, 494, 536, 559 channels 33–4, 89, 107, 182, 219 movement 104, 163, 318, 331, 347, 352, cinema co-productions 105 424, 425, 434, 441, 486 cooks 401 painting 184–5, 424 destructive influence on culture 551 photography 352, 421 documentaries 33, 61, 562 poetry 32, 95, 97, 184–5, 211, 428, 429 effect on press and publishing 389, 447 Surréalisme révolutionnaire group 35 European directive 131 theatre 52 and information technology 182 Swaim, Bob 53 and music industry 499 Switzerland 275 and new philosophers 394 cinema 224 privately owned channels 107, 130, 350, 377, popular music 234–5 518 radio 237, 238 programmes 18, 27, 33–4, 57, 282, 286 television 240 rise of 87, 105, 255 writing 249–50 series on photography 422 state-owned channels 4, 402, 518–19 Tabarly, Éric 555 variety shows 55 Tadjer, Akli 69 and video 549 Taha, Rachid 91 and writers 281, 336 Tai Phong 275 see also cable and satellite television; Taine, Hippolyte 434 francophone television; game shows; Taizé: ecumenical community 94 pop video; soap opera Tallendier 474 television/spectacle guides 520 Tanner, Alain 224 Tellermann, Esther 429, 431 614 Index

Temaru, Oscar 416, 417 Théâtre du Rond-Point 48, 356 Temps, Le 381 Théâtre du Soleil 95, 100, 112, 115, 158, 221, Temps modernes, Les 55, 58, 119, 193, 275, 379, 418, 523, 525–6, 529 346, 482, 485, 521 Théâtre National de Chaillot 97, 314, 320, 331 tennis 505, 521 528, 529, 550 Tériade (publisher) 362 Théâtre National de l’Odéon 47, 528, 529 Terry, Norbert 262 Théâtre National de Lorraine 115, 135 Terzieff, Laurent 2, 223, 521 Théâtre National de Paris 91, 372 Tesnière, Lucien 341 Théâtre National de Strasbourg 156, 323, 528, Tesson, Philippe 389 529–30, 552 Têtu 261, 264 Théâtre National Populaire 76, 99, 286, 419, Texier, Henri 305 428, 529 Teyssiéras, Anne 429, 431 Théâtre Ouvert 36, 63, 127, 167, 555 TF1 57, 107, 130, 239, 240, 253, 282, 393, 402, Théâtre Populaire 161 432, 495, 518, 521–2 theatres 112, 133, 522 Thackeray, Jake 78 national 116, 158, 528–30 Thatcher, Margaret 170, 250, 462 private 530–1 theatre 522–4 regional 76, 115 aesthetics 32–3 see also opera houses Belgium 224–5 theme parks 531–2 community projects 257 Theresa of Avila, Saint: translations 307 companies 36, 43, 331 Therond, Roger 409 critics 161, 551 Therré, Jean-Baptiste 107 documentary 115 Thévener, Bernard 134 experimental work 47, 82, 86, 127 Thibeault, Fabienne 63 festivals 42–3, 86, 87, 320, 384 Third World 199, 224, 228, 259, 279 funding 34, 522–3, 528, 530–1 XIII (comic strip saga) 116–17 journals 43 Thorez, Maurice 360, 532 plays 15, 28, 36, 47, 58, 59, 63, 71, 74, 76, Tinguely, Jean 29, 408, 479, 486–7, 532–3 95, 97, 98, 126, 135, 156, 353, 401 Tintin 116, 117, 118, 222, 241 political 522 Tjibaou, Jacques 415, 416, 417 radio 219 Tlati, Moufida 223 stage design and designers 2, 48–9, 115, 213, tobacco 221, 314, 418, 424 production 10–11 texts 3, 551 see also cigarettes total theatre 127 Todorov, Tzvetan 280, 341, 347, 490, 509 see also café theatre; director’s theatre; exis- Tolstoy, Leo 335 tentialist theatre; francophone performing Ton, Delfeil de 398 arts; regional theatre; see under names of topography see cultural topography actors, directors and playwrights Torchon Brûle, Le 205, 332 Theatre of the Absurd 3, 58, 127, 194, 296, Toubon, Jacques 130–1 515, 523, 527–8 Toubon law 6, 533 Theatre of Cruelty 32, 81, 158, 526–7 Touita, Okacha 223 Théâtre de la Colline 528, 553 Toulouse Théâtre de l’Europe 528, 529 industry 354, 455 Théâtre des Nanterre-Amandiers 98, 99, 133, opera 456 529, 552 orchestra 456 Théâtre du Quotidien 156, 523–4, 524–5, 551, Palais des Sports 387 555 university 541 Index 615

Tour de France 49, 133–4, 502–3, 533 Union pour la Démocratic Française (UDF) Touraine, Alain 471, 533–4 320, 410, 412, 413 Tournier, Michel 264, 266, 267, 422, 492, 534 Union pour la Nouvelle République (UNR) 410 Toussaint, Jean-Philippe 242 unions 450, 475, 540–1 Tout (newspaper) 328, 329 FNSEA 7 Touvier, Paul 308 May 1968 366 trade 534–5 shopkeepers 490 translation 58, 162, 306, 307, 431, 546 theatre trips 550 plays 64, 91, 553 United Kingdom poetry 515 censorship 435 transport 255, 446, 535–6 conservation policies 352 nationalization 392 green issues 278–9 services 489 interest in nouveau roman 396 unions 540 part-time employment 559 Trautmann, Catherine 130 student protests 365 Travail théâtral 161 wine exports to 556 Trenet, Charles 78, 91, 381, 384, 500, 535, see also Anglo-Saxon culture 536–7 United States of America 234, 316, 330 Trintignant, Jean-Louis 473, 537 Black Power movement 199, 269 Trintignant, Nadine 562 censorship and surveillance 435, 488, 493 Trois Suisses, Les, clothing company 201 imperialism 359 Trotskyism 204, 328, 365, 394, 468, 476 interest in nouveau roman 396 Trotter, Patrice 553 involvement in French unions 540 Truffaut, François 87, 105, 273, 326, 398, 507, military presence in Vietnam 120, 259, 538–9 364–5, 407, 480 attack on cinéma de qualité 38, 104, 106, political relations 216, 258 107, 538 pornogaphy videos 435 films 3, 26, 53, 81, 90, 150, 151, 326 psychoanalysis 444 Tschumi, Bernard 22 student movement 364–5 TSF (radio station) 452 visits of artists and intellectuals 352, 407, Tunisia 12 470 cinema 223 wine exports to 556 independence 143, 222, 227, 247, 370 see also American cultural infuences; New performing arts 226, 227, 228 York popular music 236 universities 109, 114, 133, 180, 202, 251, TV5 240, 539 441, 445, 541–3 TV6518, 519 fashion 202 Twombly, Cy 29, 50 feminism 204 Tzara, Tristan 429 libraries 340 linguistics 340 Ulysse Fin de Siècle (publisher) 429 reforms 367, 412, 541 unemployment 169, 185–6, 190, 276, 455, 503 sport 504 beurs 67, 71 see also students and class 112 urban decay: and class 112 government policy 101, 170 urban planning 18–22, 25, 352, 355, 455, 512 and informal economy 295 see also renovation projects restaurants du coeur 116 Utrillo, Maurice 543- social policy 496, 498 UNESCO: French language programme 343 Vadim, Roger 47, 150, 344, 472, 537, 544 616 Index

Vaillant 116 and dance 103 Valadon, Suzanne 543 films on 105 Valenciennes: rock festival 456 imports 435, 549 Valéry, Paul 119, 447, 459, 513 influence on film 90, 274, 275 Vali, Justin 225 Vidéothèque de Paris 339 Vallauris: chapel 405, 426 Vietnam 143, 157, 229, 346 Valle-Inclàn, Ramón María del 255 American military presence 120, 259, 364–5, Van Gogh see Gogh, Vincent van 407, 480 Vance, William 116 boat people 272 Vaneigem, Raoul 494 war 273, 364–5, 365 Vannier, Jean-Claude 305 see also Indochina Varda, Agnès 72, 74, 81, 150, 263, 544–5, 562 Vieux Colombier 529 Varèse, Edgard 123, 568 Vigneron, Thierry 35 Vartan, Sylvie 545 Vigo, Jean 160 Vasarély, Victor 506, 545 Vilar, Jean 2, 42, 47, 76, 86, 158, 250, 372, 398, Vaugelas, Claude Favre 342 421, 529, 549–50 Vauthier, Jean 545–6 theatre productions 3, 42, 522 Vaxelaire, Daniel 246 Villeneuve-lès-Avignon: festival 42 Vecchiali, Paul 262, 263 Villeurbanne: theatre 427 Vegliante, Jean-Charles 429 Villin, Philippe 213 Veil, Simone 546 Villon, François 78 loi Veil 2, 108, 546 Villon, Jacques 163 Velan, Yves 250 Vinaver, Michel 3, 314, 323, 427, 428, 523–4, Velázquez, Diego Rodriquez de Silva 29, 426 525, 551–2, 552 Vendée region: Catholicism 92 Vincennes Venice: opera 550 Cartoucherie 115, 525–6 Ventura, Lino 344 University of Paris VII 109, 133, 441, 445 Ventura, Ray 78, 304, 479 Vincent, Christian 473 Vercors 374 Vincent, Jean-Pierre 97, 156, 529, 530, 552 Verhaeren, Émile 241 violence Verlaine, Paul 536 film 273 Verne, Jules 485 gay writing 264, 265 Viala, Michel 231 Virahsawmy, Dev 226, 246 Vian, Boris 485, 546–7 Virilio, Paul 552 influence 132, 192, 211 Visconti, Luchino 147 music and song 304, 383, 472 visual arts writing 288, 345 collage 362–3, 487 Viansson-Ponté, Pierre 195 conceptual art and Happenings 163, 313, Vichy 547–9 486, 487 censorship and restriction 345, 357 engraving and printmaking 132, 424 collaborators 46, 100, 119, 285, 288, 308, installations 404, 486–7 338, 346, 382, 392, 402, 408, 521 multimedia 402, 486 and Mitterrand 376, 378 murals 405, 426 regime 1, 18, 37, 78, 109, 187, 244, 260, op art 545 262, 291, 307, 308, 338, 370, 390, 420 pop art 313, 407, 486 ruralist ideology 277 stained glass design 363, 475 sport and education 504 see also art criticism; art galleries; film; paint- see also Occupation; Resistance ing; photography; sculpture; see under video 130, 435, 456, 499, 571 movements Index 617

Vitez, Antoine 97, 154, 159, 227, 310, 320, Wols 29, 32, 404, 558–9 331, 395, 529, 552–3 women theatre productions 42, 158, 314, 551 advertising 6 Vlaminck, Maurice de 132 employment 198, 298, 559–60, 560, 561, Vlasta 332 564 Vogel, Cosette 553 and family 198 Vogue (company) 385 film directors 43, 60, 61, 105, 151, 156, 160, Vogue (magazine) 201, 553–4 164–5, 263, 317, 488, 544–5, 562–3 Voix du Nord, La 457 playwrights 74 Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet): politics 127–8, 493, 560–1 Micromégas 484 priests 93, 94 Voulzy, Laurent 501 rights 1, 2, 90, 160, 184, 346, 398, 564, Voynet, Dominique 279, 413 564–5 Vrigny, Roger 265, 267 social policy 561 see also feminism; feminist thought Waechter, Antoine 279, 412, 555 Women’s Film Festival (Créteil) 105 Waehner, Karin 137 women’s magazines 6, 183–4, 201, 206, 357, wages see minimum wage 563–4 Wagner, Richard: opera productions 99 see also feminist press Wajda, Andrzej 344 women’s writing 55–6, 90, 98, 164–7, 289, Wallace Collection (Belgian band) 234 297–8, 454, 564–7 war see Algerian war; Bosnia; Gulf war; Algeria 230, 487 Indochina; Rwanda autobiography 39, 327, 478, 567 Warhol, Andy 486 beur culture 69, 487 Waro, Danyel 225 eroticism 188, 566 water sports 555 literary theory 479 Weidt, Jean 137 North Africa 248–9 welfare 93, 190, 559 novels 420, 468–9 see also social policy; social security poetry 431 Wenzel, Jean-Paul 99, 388, 523, 525, 555 psychoanalysis 445 Wesker, Arnold 525 see also écriture féminine; feminist thought West Germany: student protests 365 Woolf, Virginia 216 West Indian culture: Caribbean DOMs 232–3, World Health Organization (WHO) 9 416 world music 225–6, 570 Whitford, Margaret 297 World Peace Congress, Paris 405, 426 Wiesel, Elie 308 Wilkominski, Benjamin 249 Xenakis, Iannis 122, 123, 370, 568 Willems, Paul 224 Willis, Bruce 64 Yacine, Kateb 228–9, 247, 248, 249, 569 Wilson, Bob: theatre productions 42, 43 Yeats, W.B. 431 Wilson, George 529 Yourcenar, Marguerite 2, 41, 569 wine 8, 10–11, 11, 384, 555–7 youth culture 132, 569–71 winter sports American influences 116, 202 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 436 drug-taking 12 Wittig, Monique 172–3, 188, 206, 208, 331, influence of May 1968 368 332, 558, 565–6, 566–7 YSL, fashion house 200, 201, 202 Wogensky, André 20 see also Saint Laurent, Yves Wolinsky98, 117 Yugoslavia 482 Wollstonecraft, Mary 210 see also Bosnia 618 Index

Zap Mama 234 Žižek, Slavoj 438 Zebda 67 Zobel, Joseph 244 Zegers, Freddy 234 Zola, Émile 111, 119, 344, 345, 495 Zemmouri, Mahmoud 65, 223 Zouk Machine 232 Ziegler, Jean 250 Zurich Zins, Céline 429, 431 Dada group 28 Ziskakan 225 Radio Beur concert (1985) 67–8 Zitouni. Ahmed 68