Life Sciences Leaflets FREE DOWNLOADISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN RELATION TO

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREST

BIODIVERSITY OF

P. HAZARIKA*, NILAKSHI KAKATI AND R.K. ,

Universal Impact BIOPROSPECTING AND INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE Factor 0.9285:2012; DIVISION, RAIN FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 1.2210:2013 P.O. BOX 136, SOTAI, A.T. ROAD, -785001 (ASSAM). Index Copernicus ICV 2011: 5.09 Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected] ICV 2012: 6.42

ICV 2013: 15.8 ABSTRACT: NAAS Rating Indigenous knowledges (IKs) on are outcome of symbiosis of 2012 : 1.3; 2013-2014:2.69 indigenous people with forests and their habitat while utilizing the forest

bioresources and complementary phenomena essentially valued for Received on: 25th February 2015 development human civilization. Various tribes and communities of Assam

have their own indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) and indigenous cultural Revised on: 24th April 2015 practices due to their constant and intimate association with rich forest

biodiversity relate to its diverse forest types including wet evergreen to tropical Accepted on: 26th April 2015 rain forest & dry deciduous forest to riparian forests. A systematic study was

done for IKs documentation regarding conservation and management of forest Published on: 01st May 2015 biodiversity of Assam to facilitate national development efforts. The study

revealed that IKs are instrumental in identifying and locating forest resources Volume No. Online & Print for management which are useful for conservation of forest biodiversity and 63 (2015) ensuring promotion of sustainable practices with varieties of traditional value-

Page No. added products. Homesteads and patch vegetations near to villages may be 64 to 93 considered as important ex-situ conservation sites of the state’s biodiversity.

Life Sciences Leaflets About 373 plant species of 109 families are recorded in the homesteads of 27 is an international villages, which were being domesticated from the natural forests and utilized open access print & e for food, fodder, medicinal, spices, aromatic and essential oil, fibers, dyes, journal, peer reviewed, worldwide abstract beverage, pesticides yielding species, timber, fuelwood, handicraft items, listed, published every ornamental and aesthetic etc. Some biodiversity have unique importance as month with ISSN, RNI they are rare, endangered and endemic. The study also identified indigenous Free- membership, downloads and access. knowledge in their activities, skills and strategies for cultivation, management,

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Life Sciences Leaflets FREE DOWNLOADISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) processing of bioresources, value addition and beliefs in cultural and ritual practices of the communities of Assam with respect to forest biodiversity.

KEY WORDS: Biodiversity, Bioresources, Indigenous forest knowledge, conservation and management.

INTRODUCTION: Indigenous knowledge (IK) of a community has keen relation to the biodiversity of that habitat as IKs develop ultimately depending on the species and ecosystems of the habitat through their actions and interactions with time. People throughout the world have traditional resource management systems including protection, production and conservation practices that validated overtime. According to the report of Secretary-General, United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) , 4th session in 2004, defined traditional forest knowledge as “a cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, handed down through generations by cultural transmission and evolving by adaptive processes, about the relationship between living beings (including humans) with one another and with their forest environment”. Thus, traditional forest knowledge (TFK) and biodiversity are complementary phenomena and essential to human development. Since time immemorial, indigenous people exhibit a symbiotic relationship between habitat and culture (Arizpe,1996; Berkes et. al., 2003; Jain, 1998; Ramakrishnan, 2001 ) and have co- evolved with their environment, modify it, but actively maintaining it in a diverse and productive state based on their indigenous knowledge, socio-cultural practices and/or religious belief since antiquity (Ramakrishnan,1998). Interstingly, forest is the living treasure of biodiversity as well as bioresources and renewable in nature.In past, the people rest of our country, considered Assam as forest and are behaved as 'Jungholi' (forest dwellers). Its rich forest biodiversity owing to diverse forest types including wet evergreen to tropical rain forest and dry deciduous forest to riparian forests. The state is also under one of the mega biodiversity hot-spots of the world. It has more than 21 major tribes and 35 other tribes which still maintain their tradition with their own indigenous traditional knowledge and indigenous cultural practices adapting with the surrounding forest biodiversity. People use to earn their food, medicines, dyes, tanning agents, tools, utensils, clothing and construction materials form wild plants and forest resources. While going for grathering livelihoods the communities have experienced with time a considerable amount of knowledge through their traditional mode of survey, collection and usage due to their constant and intimate association with the forest and also use to maintain them. In the present scenario, the communities in the rural area of Assam are still dependent on forest products to meet their livelihood. Meanwhile, the protection and preservation of traditional forest knowledge is become a mounting battle for most of the communities due to rising exploitation pressures on indigenous forest resources, global cultural homogenization and many other challenges. However, documentation of

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Life Sciences Leaflets FREE DOWNLOADISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) indigenous or traditional forest knowledge in Assam is very limited. Several publications involving the survey and documentation of such IKs have appeared on traditional agroforestry (Hazarika et. al.,, 2003), homegarden (Barooah & Pathak, 2009; Das & Das, 2005, Hazarika et. al.,, 2008), biofencing (Borkataki, et. al., 2008), traditional medicine (Borthakur, 1997; Kalita & Deb, 2002;Hazarika & Pandey, 2010;Hazarika, et. al., 2008;Hajra & Baishya, 1997; Pandey et. al., 1996; Sajem and Gosai2006; Sikdar and Dutta ,2008 and Singh et. al., 1996). Most of these works are confided in traditional and folk medicines of different tribes of Assam. However, specific work for documenting traditional forest knowledge (TFK) related to conservation and management of forest plant biodiversity of the region may be scanty. The aim of this preliminary study is to investigate indigenous/traditional knowledge with respect to forest plant biodiversity and their management practices generated by the people of Assam.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: Assam is located in between 240 44' N to 270 45'N latitude and 890 41' E to 960 02' E Longitude. The study area have been selected to describe indigenous forest knowledge common to entire Assam with a specific focus on practices that have beneficial impacts on the forests in the region.The study was conducted during 2005- 2011 in twenty-sevenvillages of six districts of Assam viz.1. Alengmora Gaon, Jorhat, 2. Bhugpur Gaon, 3. Gubinpur Gaon, 4. Madhupur Gaon, Holongapar, Mariani, 5. Veleuguri Adarsha Goan, Marioni, 6. Hudamua Gaon, Meleng 7. Sotai Bhokat Gaon, Sotai ; 8. Koliapani Adarsha Gaon, Teok, 9. Kalbari Adarsha Mising Gaon, 10. Nam Deori Gaon, 11. Upor Deori Gaon, 12. Meleng Puroni Gaon, 13. Kachari Gaon, Titabor; 14. Balijan Gaon, Titabor and 15. Karhal Gaon, Hilikha, Titabor, of ; 16. Borbam Chutia Goan, Amguri, 17. Dhonekhowa Gaon, Gaurisagor and 18. Borshila Gayan Gaon of District; 19.Halluwa Gaon and 20.Dhekial Gaon of District; 21.Khuman Village, 22. Nagathal Village, 23.Lohar bond Village and 24. Khirabad Forest Village of ; and 25.Karikhai forest village of District; 26.Pawoi Village and 27.Golai Village, Margherita of District of Assam (Fig. 1). The temperature varies between 7 °C to 350C and the district receives rainfall of maximum 305 cm and minimum 178 cm. per annum with the northwest monsoon contributing a major share. Forty homesteads from each of the twenty seven villages of 0.3-1 acre or more area, a total of 1080homesteads were selected randomly for the study. At least one patch forest available near to each of the villages was also studied for record plant species. The survey was carried out following method as described by Jain (1981). The distribution of plant species were recorded and identified with the help of regional and local floras. Questionnaires and other interviews were also used to gather data.A multi-method approach to gather information on traditional methods of silviculture, management and conservation techniques and plant species utilization aspects are collected from a variety of different fields. Plant

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Life Sciences Leaflets FREE DOWNLOADISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) species recorded in the homesteads and their vicinity either cultivated or natural were categorically studied under timber and non-timber forest species (NTFPs). Non-timber forest species were again studied as food (i.e, fruits, roots stem, leaves & vegetables), fodder, medicinal plants, spices, aromatic and essential oil yielding plants, fibres yielding plants, natural dyes yielding plants, beverage and pesticides yielding species etc. Traditional silviculture techniques were investigated under seed collection; processing, nursery preparation and other propagative methods such as vegetative propagation by cutting, stumping and rhizome planting. Traditional management techniques of plant species were studied under nursery management, plantation managements and harvesting. Local needs in plant species with respect to conservation is questioned and listing on the basis of demand/requirement for different community level. Socio-ecological and geographical information were gathered through a literature review.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The study explored indigenous knowledge of more than 20 different communities/tribes of Assam with respect to conservation and management of forest biodiversity. It is recorded that the study villages are the habitat of SC, ST, OBC and General Castes viz. Deori, Mising, Thengal Kachari, H'mar, Kuki, Khasia, Barman, Rajbonshi, Kaibatra, Mattak, Manipuri, Gowala, Mundra, Teli, Chutia, Koch, Sut, Ahom, Bengali, Brahmin, Kalita, Tea garden Communities and Nepali. Although, each community has their own socio-cultural activities, customs, food habit and disease curing devices that are found to reflect in their own traditional techniques and practices on conservation of locally important and available plants resources , most others are common among the communities. These conservation techniques and practices may be the outcome of traditional use of forest plants, forest utilization practices, harvesting techniques and various traditional management practices etc INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGEON CONSERVATION OF FOREST BIODIVERSITY During the investigation of conservation of forest biodiversity through IKs of these communities, plants species were recorded from their homesteads and patch forests adjacent to the villages as they might depended on these plant species mostly during their differnt lifetimes and day to day use. Altogether, 373 plant species are recorded identified belonging to 109 family during the study(Table-1-6). Of which, Fabaceae is found to be largest family with 39 plant species. Among other largest families Euphorbiaceae has 17 plant species, Asterace wih15 plant species, Rutaceae and Cucurbitaceae both have 14 species each and Rubiaceae with 11 species; Lauraceae and Moraceae with 10 species each and Verbaneceae and Zingiberaceae each with 9 plant species distributed in the homesteads. Distribution of plant species in homesteads are categorized as boundary plantation, courtyard plantation, vegetable garden/kitchen

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Life Sciences Leaflets FREE DOWNLOADISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) garden species and pond vegetation etc. The plants species of 'patch forest' near to the village and homesteads are also categorized according to their utilization as described below: TIMBER WOOD SPECIES The study recorded 18 numbers of traditional timber wood species from homesteads and patch forest. Informations on indigenous conservation process of these species are described in table -1.A. Most of these tree species of patch forest were regenerate naturally and however, majority of homesteads species are cultivated. These species in village patch forests and/ or in homesteads are allowed to grow naturally and protect them from probable destruction by cattle and other threats. These tree species are being conserved mainly for wood/timber utilizing for their various constructions and furniture. NON TIMBER FOREST PLANT SPECIES (NTFPS) Fuel wood species Twelve major fuel wood species were recorded in the homesteads and village patch forestviz. Dysoxylum binecteriferum, Melia azadarach, Albizzia lucida, Tamarix dioica, Delonex resia, Albizzia procera, Actinodephnae angustifolia, Schima wallichii, Macaranga denticulata and Mallotus sp. etc. Some of the fuel wood species were found to use as timber wood also (Table-2.A). Human Food- Fruits- More than 60 plants species were recorded to conserve traditionally for utilizing their fruits, however, same the plant or its parts are found to use as traditional medicines also, i.e.,Artocarpus heterophylla, Anonas comosus, Artocarpus chaplasha, Aegle marmelos, Artocarpus lekoocha, Syzygium cersoides,Syzygium malaccasis, Baccuaria sapida, Flacaurtia cataphacta,Purnus persica, Purnus domestica, Elaegnus latifolia, Averrhoa billimbii, Rhus semialata, Garcinia lanceaefolia, Garcinia sp, Garcinia cowa, Garcinia pendanculata, Mangifera indica, Mengifera sylvatica, Emblica officinalis, Terminalia cebula, Elaeocarpus sp, Olea europa, Musa paradisiaca, Musa acuminata,, Dilenia indica, Litchi sinensis, Morus alba, Punica granatum, Ziziphus mauritiana, Spondius mengifera, Garcinia xanthocymus, Annoa squamosa, Citrus maxima, Citrus aurantium, Pisidum guyava, Pyrenaria barringtoniaefolia, Borassus flabellifer, Areca catechu, Phoenix sysvestris, Caryota urens, Averrhoa carambola, Averrhoa sp, Treminalia belerica, Mimosops elengi, Randia sp, Talauma hodgsonii, Prunus jenkinsii, Roydsia suavcolens, Melastoma spp, Syzygium jambolina, Syzygium jambos, Tamarindus indica, Passiflora edulis, Moringa oleiferaCarrica carandas Carissa billimbi, Garcinia oxyphylla, Carallia- lucida, Carallia integerrrima, Cephalandra indica and Rubus hexagynous etc. Traditional conservation needs for these plant species are described for thirty-two plants species (Table-2B). Roots and Stems. Few plants species were found to conserve by the villagers as they taken plants or plant parts as food i.e. Juvenile shoots of Bambusa Balcooa, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and Macocana bacifera,Musa sp and Calamus spp; rhizome of Zingiber cassumunar; tubers of Dioscoria bulbifera

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Dioscoria alata, Dioscoria esculenta, Dioscoria trifida; roots of Manihot esculenta, Ipomea batatas; corm of Colocasia antiquorum, Amorphophallus campanulatus, Colocasia esculanta etc. Leaves: Many plant species found to cultivate and conserve mostly in homesteads and plant or its parts are being used to take as food such as fresh leaves of Piper betel, Piper lomgum, Eryngirum foetidum, Muraya koenigii, Baringtonia sp; juvenile stem tips of Ipomea aquatica, tendered leaves/ plant parts of Azadirachta indica, Paederia foetida, Pteris critica, Perilla ocimoides, Cinnamomum tamala and Clerodendrum coleobrookianum etc. Some of them such as Paederia foetida, Pteris critica, Getum gnemon and Clerodendrum coleobrookianum are collected from the neaserst vegetation by the villagers. Edible seeds: Seeds of Artocarpus heterophylla, Caesalpinia crista, Calamus spp, Caryota urens, Areca catechu, Areca negensis, Pinanga, Livingstonia jenkinsiana, Nymphea nauchaliPhaseolus lunatus and Dolichos biflorus etc. are eaten by the indigenous people. Therefore, these plant species are being conserved traditionally generation after generation by the villagers in their homesteads. Edible flowers: The study releals thatfew plant species i.e.Sesbania grandiflora, Nyctanthes arboristis and Cieba pentagyna etc. are being conserved for edible flowers in the homesteads. Out of these flowers of Cieba pentagyna is taken by Mising tribe only. Fodder: In the study more than 23 plant species were recorded as fodder. Most of these plants species are regenerate naturally and adopted indigenous harvesting techniques with time so as to conserve them for future recurring use for their cattle. Albizza procera, Bauhinia purpurea, Bambusa spp, Dalbergia sisoo, Artocarpus heterophylla, Ficus indica, Artocarpus lacoocha, Mengifera indica, Atrocarpus chaplacha, Ficus religiosa, Morus alba, Terminalia chebula, Malotus sp, Mikania micrantha, Pongamia pinnata, Ficus indica, Musa spp, Eichhornia crassipes, Lagerstreomia speciosa, Zyzyphus jujuba, Syzygium cumini, S. armontam, are the major plant species recorded from the homesteads. Among the fodder grasses found in homesteads were Saccharum spontaneum, S. munja, Impareta cylindrica, Paspalum conjugatum, Desmostachya bipinnata, Typha elephantine, T. angusta, Cynodon dectylon and Clinogyne dichotoma etc. Bamboo: Bamboospecies are the major component of the homesteads. Bamboo species recorded in the homesteads were Bambusa balcooa (Bhaluka), Bambusa tulda (Jati), Bambusa nutans (Mokal), Bambusa pallida (Bijuli); Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Kako), Bombusa valgaris (Borial), Schzostachyum dullooa (Doloibanh) and Melocana bacifera. The first four species are the major cultivated bamboo species and conserve in the homesteads. Mostly people use to plant bamboos in west and south side of the homesteads for shade and wind break. Sometimes this species forms pure strands i.e. bamboo groves.Bambusa cacharensis is found to occur in Khuman, Nagathal, Lohar bond Villages and Khirabad Forest Village of Cachar District, Assam.

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Rattan species: Four rattan species were recoded to conserve in homesteads of different study homesteads of Assam i.e. Calamus tenuis (Jati Bet), Calamus gracilis (Culi Bet)and Calamus floribundus (Lezai bet). Calamus flagellum(Raidang bet) is found to occur only in the natural strand in Golai village, Tinsukia, Assam. Gums and Resins: Traditionally gum arabic and gum are collected from Acacia farnesiana and Baquhinia purpurea, Albizzia lebbeck, Butea monosperma etc. Resins are extracted from the plant species found to conserve in the homesteads are Boswellia serrata and Canarium resiniferum etc. Oil seeds: The information reveals that seeds of Mesua ferea, Terminalia belerica, Pongamia glabra, Cocos nucifera and Recinus communis etc were found to use for burning in raw or extracting oil and use as substitute of kerosin. Aromatic and Essential oil: Homesteads were often recorded for many aromatic and essential oil yielding plant species such as Eucalyptus spp, Aquilaria agalocha, Sesamum indicum, Gnetum genon, Cymbopogon winterianus, C. nardus, Cymbopogon martini, Michelia champaca, Cinnamomum camphora etc. However, these plant species were not common to each homestead; few were recorded only from patch forests. Fibre Plants: Some homesteads and patch forests of the study villages were recorded for sheltering the fibre yielding plant species such as Trema orientalis, Sterculia villosa, Sarcochlamys pulcherima , Hibiscus sabdariffa , Urena lobata , Bombax cieba , Tyhpa angustifolia , Alpinia spp , Boehmeria nevia and Cocos nucifera etc. Medicinal plants: Almost all the plants species known to have more or less properties of traditional medicinal uses. However,near about67 plant species of medicinal important are recorded from homesteads during the study and recorded for conserve traditionally because of traditional medicinal applications (Table-3). There are over 1500 species of medicinal plants reported so far from and more than 350 species from Assam (State Biodiversity Strategy & Action Plan, Assam, 2002). The plant materials that collected are used either fresh to obtain the extract from the whole plant or parts i.e. leaves, roots, flowers or fruits. In case of woody forms, mostly the bark, roots and sometimes wood chips are used. Ginger, cloves and coriander are also usually added as fresh or dried materials. Likewise, the easy availability of fresh material is a critical point for the traditional medicinemen in the village as they are well familiar with various plants he/she needs, their growth patterns, seasonality, habitat and other details. Such details are usually passed on in the past from parent to offspring in the family and uses of plants and the various combinations or mixes made were kept as a family secret. Most of the methods and uses were taught orally and through demonstration, and very few records or writings were maintained such as "Assomia Gharua Darb Bhag in 'Asomia Bor Bejali' " etc.

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Spices Plants: Specially, homesteads were recorded for a few spices plant species i.e.Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum zeylenicum, Cinnamomum pauciflorum, C. camphora, Zingiber officinalis, Piper nigrum and curcuma longa. NaturalDyes: Eleven species of natural dye yielding plants species were recorded from different homesteads and even from natural stand of patch forests (Table-4). As per information, villagers of different communities used different natural dye for their unique uses. Natural dyes are extracted from the fruits of Bixa orellana; flowers of Butea parviflora and barks of Trema orientalis; roots of Morinda angustifolia and Buatea monosperma are used by the indigenous people for dying fibres, clothes and other items. Pesticides from plants: More than hundred plant species of the homesteads are mentioned to have insecticidal and pesticidal properties ( et. al., 1999 and Hazarikaet. al., 2004). However, people have very limited IKs on applications of the traditionally used botanical resources. The bark of Milletia pachycarpa, tendered plant of Parthenium sp, Eupatorium odoratum, Ageratum conyzoides and A. haustonianum; fruits of Citrus maxima; leaves of Melia azadarach and Azedirachta indica etc are found to practice traditionally. Aesthetic and Ornamental Plants: Homesteads are being landscaped for beautification with many aesthetic and ornamental plant species. Some of such important plant species were recorded in different homesteads presented in table-5. Some others are Polyalthia longifolia, Eucalyptus spp, Acacia auriculiformis, Pongamia glabra, Phoenix sysvestris, Areca catechu, Tamarindus indica, Gravellia robusta, Cocos nucifera, Boehmeria nivea, Ficus benghalensis, Tregets erecta, Chrysanthemum morifolium, Dahlia variabillis, Gladiolus grandifolia, Calendula officinalis, Petunia hybrida, Phlox drummondii, Althaea rosea, Bougainvillia spp, Polyanthes tuberosa, Zinnia elegans and Impatiens balsamina etc. Endemic, vulnerable, Threatened and endangered Plants: The study recorded almost 27 species of endemic, vulnerable, threatened and endangered plant species under the Red List of IUCN that are found to conserve by the ethnics of Assam. Some of them are Acorus calamus, Aegle mermelos, Andrographis peniculata,Hydnocarpas kurgii, Aquilaria malaccensis, Amorphophallus commutatus, Cinnamomum tamala, Clerodendrum coleobrokianum, Diospyros peniculata, Rhus semialata, Saraca asoca, Alpinia galanga, Curcuma caesia,Talauma hodgsonii, Piper lomgum, Piper nigrum,Rubus hexagynous,Kaempferia galanga, Carallia integerrrima,Garcinia morella, Carallia-lucida,Rauvolfia serpentina,Terminalia arjuna, Carissa billimbi, Mengifera sylvatica are vulnerable/ threatened/ rare/ endangered plant species. Gnetum gnemon and Gnetum ula are endemic plants. Locally available and even exotic species of forestry plants are found to conserve in their homesteads and patch forest of adjacent to the villages of individual and community interest. Although, most of the

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Life Sciences Leaflets FREE DOWNLOADISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) people not aware of environmental and biodiversity aspects and need of the plant species for sustainable environment and biodiversity. However, these ethnic people, generation after generations, use to conserve plants species to fulfill their various local needs and to some extent, cut down time and tide to collect their resources directly from the forests. Probably, another reason for their traditional conservation is to ensure the availability of the resources as and when they required. Therefore, it is learnt that they use to collect various forms of propagules/ planting materials from the forests and planted them in the homesteads, community centers as well as religious places such as temple campus and Namghar etc. Many a times religious and superstitious believes prevailing among the communities tends to conserve many plants species. So far information concerned cultivated lands of the villagers were originally occupied by the natural forests. However, people transformed these areas into agricultural fields with time. Some of the uplands with forests vegetation are still retained and evidients frequently inside or around the agricultural fields due to various reasons. These areas are allowed to a regenerate plant species naturally in patch forests of their neighboring villages. Thus, they contribute directly or indirectly to conserve forest biodiversity through their indigenous and traditional knowledge. Although, Tripathi et. al., 2005 found to describe on some NTFPs of Assam, however, they did not described about the traditional forest knowledge. TRADITIONAL AGRO FORESTRY SYSTEMS In agro forestry system, villagers use to cultivate forestry plants species with agricultural crops together in the same pieces of land. During the study in different villages people were found to develop high density traditional agro forestry with canopy (vertical distribution of plant species in different story) planting systems. Musa spp. (Kal), Mangifera indica (Am), Artocarpus heterophyla (Kothal), A. lakoocha (Bohot), Emblica officinalis (Amlokhi), Eleocarpus reticulata (Jalphai), Spondias mangifera (Amora), Brusera serrata (Mirtenga), Baccuria sepida (Lateku), Flacourtia jangomus (Ponial), Rhus semialata (Naga tenga), Averrhoea carambola (Kordoi), Litchi chinensis (Lichu), Garcinia indica (Bor thekera), Garciniacowa (Mahi thekera), etc. are common to all these homestead agro-forestry. Out of ten traditional agro forestry systems described in the homestead areas of the villages of Assam (Hazarika et. al.,, 2003) the following seven types of traditional homestead agro-forestry systems are recoded as below: Areca nut-coconut based agro-forestry: Main and common species of this type is Areca catechu (Tamul) and Cocos nucifera (Narikal). Homesteads of this type are dominated mainly in the villages of Cachar district as recorded during the study, but also scattered in all over Assam. Aquilaria based agro-forestry system: This type of agro-forestry is seen in study villages of Golaghat and villages under Jorhat districts. Aquilaria agalocha (Agar), Arecacatechu (Tamul), Piper betel (Pan), Schima wallichii (Makarisal), Bamboo spp. (Banh) and Canes (Bet), Musa spp are some other plant species.

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Livingstonia based agro-forestry: Livingstonia jenkinsiana (Takau) based homestead areas are frequently met in study villages of Tinsukia, Sibsagar and Jorhat districts. Other plant species are Areca catechu (Tamul), Bamboo spp. and Sepindus pinnata (Ritha), Sterospermum chelonoides (Paroli) Sibsagar and Jorhat districts and also Morus leavigata (Bola) and Shorea assamica (Assam Sal) in . Eri- Muga- Silkworm based agro-forestry: Villagers in Titabor and Bhogpur and Madhupur Villages of Mariani, Jorhat are mainly involved in this type of agro-forestry. Phoebe goalpariansis (Bonsum), Ailanthus excels ( Bor keseru), Heteropenex fregens (Keseru), Menihot esculenta (Simolu alu), Ricinus communis (Aragosh), Litsea serrata (Mejankori), Litsea monopetela (Sulalo), Bamboo spp. and other timber & fuel wood species were seen in these homestead area. Tea based agro-forestry: Small tea growers of upper Assam and few vilegers of Bhugpur, Madhupur, Jorhat, Borbam Chutia Gaon of Sibsagar and Haluwa Gaon of Golaghat districts have developed this youngest type of agro-forestry system. The plant species such as Aquilaria agalocha (Agar), Cassia nodosa, Cassia seamea, Albizzia procera, Piper betel (Pan), Piper longum (Jaluk), timbers and shade trees and animal husbandry are very common to this agro-forestry to plantation of tea (Thea assamica). Bamboo-Areca-Betel based agro-forestry: Some homesteads of almost all study villages of Assam have developed this type of traditional agro-forestry. Bamboo species such as Bambusa tulda (Jati banh), Bambusa nutans (Mokal banh), Bambusa pollida (Bijuli Banh) and Bambusa balcooa (Bhalukabanh) are very common in the homesteads. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Kako Banh), Teinoscachyum dulloa (Doloi banh) and Melocana baccifera (Muli banh) are found species in homesteads situated in foothill of the districts. These bamboo species were plnted in boundary and other spaces of the homesteads are planted with Areca catechu (Tamul), Piper betel (pan) and many other agric- horti species under this agro- forestry system. Bombax-Bamboo-Bridellia based agro-forestry: The study reveals that the villages i.e. Alengmora Gaon, Kalbari Adarsha Mising Gaon, Namdeori Gaon and Upordeori Gaon of Jorhat are dominated by this type of agro-forestry system. Main plant species of this traditional agroforesty are Bombax ceiba, Bamboos spp. Bridellia retusa (Kahir), Premna benghalensis (Gohora), Lagerstromia speciosa (Ajar) and Areca catechu (Tamul) and Piper betel (pan), Piper longum (Jaluk) etc. CONSERVATION OF FOREST BIODIVERSITY THROUGH CULTURAL TRADITIONS Many plant species of forest origin are found to have link with cultural traditions of ethnic groups or local communities. These could be discussed under plant species used in public ceremonies, place names, religious ceremonies, etc. Cultural trees, not only centuries-old veteran trees, but also culturally modified trees for the production of fodder, as well as hedges, tree rows etc. The study also encountered the traditional linkage of the communities with the description of many publish works of such trees species.

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For example, 11 plant species in weaving handloom traditional clothes; 16 plant species in sacred functions; 30 plant species in making local licour “Laupani” by Missing and Deori tribes, 101 plant species as curry in the second day of the Bohag and 14 plant species in various activities during bihu festival etc are reported (Begum and Gogoi, 2007; Deori et. al., 2007; Hazarika et. al., 2011 and Sharma and Pegu, 2007). Kaibtra community of Jorhat district use to go to the 'Than' a sacred grove where they celebrate 'Na-lagouwa' i.e. a first fest after harvesting rice in every year. 'Bor-bheti' and 'Kalilamukh Than' are two such religious sacred groves as described by the community people.Sacred groves were marked around the temples where certain rules and regulations applied. Each and every villages, there were Namghar and its campus is full of different plant species (Table-6).Sacred groves are the good source of a variety of medicinal plants, fruits, fodder, fuelwood, spices, etc. Even though some village groves have been disappearing, there are quite a number of them still conserved by villagers in Assam. Village groves/patch forests are common woodlands of rural communities which are considered to protect the community from potential threats of physical or psychological nature. Some plant species like Ficus benghalensis(Peepal/ Banyan), Euphorbia ligularia (Siju), Aegle marmelos (Bel) and 0cimum sanctum (Tulshi) etc. are recorded for worships as Gospuja in different occasions and time. On the day before Rangali Bihu, the Goru bihu is celebrated in Assam; some communities like Kalita, Koch, Sut, Kaibatra, Ahom and Kacharies use to "Gupuja" (worship Cows) and a number of plant species are used. Some others are recorded to use in marriage cerimonies such as Kaempferia galanga(Gathion), Curcuma longa (Haladhi), Mengifera indica (Am), Areca catechu ( Tamul), Piper betel (Pan), Phaseolus mungo (Matimah), Cocos nucifera (Narikal), Musa spp (Kal), Mimosops elengi (Bakul), Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Sewali),0cimum sanctum (Tulshi), Aegle marmelos(Bel) etc. Some the directives about prohibition of certain fruits and vegetables of the Assamese food habit describes in 'Shri Shri Lashmi Charitra and Pachali' found to follow by the Hindu communities in Assam, which directly or indirectly helps in conservation of such plants. Many plant species are planted in the house booundary as they serve ecological functions such as natural wind breaks. Knowledge of biodiversity utilization provides the community with motivation to protect their village containing rich forest biodiversity. Orchids are traditionally used by different communities which have link with community culctures. For example, flower (inflorescence) of Rhyncostylis retusa Kapou Phul) is used by the female dancers and girls in adorning hair in Rongali bihu of the . Some other orchid species such as Vanda roxburghii, Aerides odoratum and Dendrobium spp are recorded for used in the cultural festivals and religions. Medhi and Chakrabarti (2009) found to describe such traditional conservation of these orchid species by Deori and Tai people of Assam.

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TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE ON MANAGEMENT OF FOREST BIODIVERSITY On the basis of ownership, the forests of Assam can be broadly grouped into three categories: (i) state government managed forests (ii) Village & private patch forests and (iii) Homestead forest. The state managed forests comprise reserve forests, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries which are controlled and managed by, and subject to, Indian union or state laws. In true sense no village forests are found in Assam. However, natural stand of forest either an individual or group of individuals near to villages can be termed as patch forests are available. Homesteads are the surrounding area of the home, in colloquial the 'Bari' in Assamese. Homesteads can be defined as land use systems involving deliberate management of multipurpose trees and shrubs in intimate association with annual and perennial crops and invariably, livestock within the compounds of individual houses, the whole tree-crop-animal unit being intensively managed by family labour and reflect the wisdom of the traditional culture and ecological knowledge that have evolve over years (Fernandes et. al.,, 1986). According to state forest department, percentage of forest & tree cover to total geographical area of Assam 36.67; of which, total forest area controlled and managed by the state government is 26,748 sq.kms or 24.58% of recorded forest area. And the rest is occupied by tea garden, forest patches etc. People have to acquire in-depth knowledge of species, their relationships, and ecosystem functions and develop indigenous knowledge to determine favourable times of land preparation, way to propagate plant, seed storage and processing (drying, threshing, cleaning and grading); seed practice: indigenous methods of sowing (seed spacing) and intercropping) seed preparation and care, farming and cropping and harvesting system and even post hervesting practices. They develop the skil to use natural resources without depleting them, and often by enhancing them, to preserve options for the future and sustainable development. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN PROPAGUL (SEED) COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND HARVESTING All farmers have basic indigenous knowledge about trees and seed. However, the knowledge differed in levels. Farmers traditionally maintained their indigenous crop species particularly vegetable crops and agricultural crops by keeping household seed stock and by obtaining seed through networks and exchange with nearby communities. Crop improvement starts with selection of quality seeds. In most cases the farmers use to select mature healthy, viable and productive seed stocks of the crop species. Although, in Assam, most cases of forest tree plant species planted in the homesteads come from naturally regenerated seedlings of nearby forests. However, seeds of some plants species such as a Auilaria malacences (Sashi), Azadiracta indica (Maha Neem), Melia azadirect (Ghora Neem), Mimosops elengi (Bakul), Artocapus heterophylla (Kathal), Saraca indica (Ashok), Avorrhoea corrombula (Kordoi), Gmelina arborea (Gamari), Terminalia arjuna (Arjun), Areca catechu (Tamul), Terminalia chebula (

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Silikha) and Michelia champaca (Titasopa) and seeds of some legume family plants species are found to collect either from natural forest of from homesteads from well-matured, healthy mother tree in good seed year. Pulpy seeds are putting in gunny begs and kept in submerged condition for two days and depulped by creasing and dry in shade condition. Seed of evergreen trees are always dried in shady places. They also propagate certain plant species through vegetative means such as rhizome and offsets for Bamboo spp, Musa spp( Banana), Zingiber officinalis (Ada), Curcuma longra ( Halodhi) and Dioscoria spp ( Kath alu, Mua Alu); stump cuttings for Emblica officinalis (Amlokhi), Gmelina arborea (Gamari), Dalbergia sisso (Sisoo), Tectona grandis (chegun), Bombux ceiba (Simolu); brach cuttings for Citrus spp, Moriga oleifera (Sajina), Simolu, Manihot esculenta ( Simolu alu) and Erythrina indica (Madar ) etc. Some species are found to propagate though tuber such as Manihot esculenta (Tapioca), Trichosanthes dioica (Potal), Dioscoria esculenta and D. spinosa (Muwa alu), Colocasia esculenta (Kochu) and so many species. Orchid species are propagated through their vegetative saplings. More over, they have their own indigenous techniques to maintain planting stock by superior propagul selection, protection of propagules from demage due to attack of pests, oversummering and overwintering of propagules of seasonal crop species. They have IKs about incubation and germination periods. For example, seeds of Aquilaria malacences (Sashi) are short viable and viviparous. Such germinated seeds loss viability after 24 hours. So the farmers of Jorhat, Sibsagar and Golaghat districts use to collect non germinated mature seeds and sow immediately or within maximum of 3-4 days after collection in the seed bed. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN NURSERY MANAGEMENT Fertility management of the nursery soil is being done by incorporating 'Pasansar' i.e. compost in most cases. Instances also recoded for cultivation legume specdies as intermediate crops to increase soil fertility. Shade management system to the nursery seedlings is done traditionally planting/ intercropping leguminous species in rows in north- south direction. To reduce the unwanted weeds nursery holders used to fire organic debries keeping on the nursery beds. Traditional live hedge fencing is also found to practice in some nursery. Certain indigenous tools and appliences are also found to use in the nursery for ploughing, weeding, watering activities. Weeds are mostly growing during raing and summer season. Regular and insensive weeding is required during these months. Similarly, winter season is mostly dry and so the farmers facilitate water to plant species from the ponds. Most of the farmers have use indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) for water management and weed control. Diseases and insect- pest control masseurs are mostly same as describes below. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL Phutsai (Ash), the byproduct of the fuel wood burnt for domestic purpose for cooking food and animal feeds are used to dusting over the leaf of the plant which may act as antifeedant to leafhoppers and aphids

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Life Sciences Leaflets FREE DOWNLOADISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) and even applied in finished soil beds before sowing seeds to get rid of ants that feed on seeds. Moreover, after soil-works or few days before going to plant the seeding or sowing seeds in nursery beds farmers use to cover the entire beds thickly with dry to semi dry weeds and grasses and burn them which in turn the raising temperature kills the insect pests as well as seeds of the unwanted weeds and increase soils fertility. Some fermars describes that during dark ninght they use to catch fire inside the nursey or even in crop fields at center in suitable place so as to destroy many insect pests. Farmers traditionally found to use some plant species for cure and control of crop diseases and insect pest. Water extract of whole plant of Polygonum hydropiper (Potharua bihlogani) with leaves is sprayed against crop pests. Leaves, stem, seeds and roots of Annona reticulata (Atlas) are crushed and mixed in water and applied against aphid and other insect pests. Pounded leaves and fruits of Azadirachta indica (Mahaneem) are applied in crop fields to kill and /or repel insects and against fungal diseases. Pounded seeds of Croton roxburghii (Gach-mahudi) and Croton tiglium (Konibih) are mixed with water and applied on crops to control insects and fungal diseases. Pounded leaves and roots of Derris elliptica (Etam-chali) are used against crop insects. Pounded root and stem bark of Millettia pachycarpa (Bakal bih) is applied to crops to kill and repel insects. Deka et. al., 2006, described traditional pest management practices of certain agricultural crops of the farmers of Jorhat Sivasagar and of Assam by using some ferns, bamboo, duck and cowdung in addition to neem, pumalo, phutuka and drumstrick plant species. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN PLANTATION AND PLANTATION MANAGEMENT IN ASSAM The study reveals that Bamboo and Aareca nut are major and dominant plantation crops in the traditional homesteads of the villages. Rhizomes and offsets from 1 or 2 years old Bamboo culm with 3-4 nodes are dug up and planted at a new place in January-February. Every year in the day before the Magh bihu people use to do soil works including loosening the soil and also heaping soil covering the bared rhizomes of the culm of each clump, which increase number new shoots, reduce mortality and promotes healthy growth. Traditionally, farmers use to provide 'mati' i.e. soil in Makalbanh (Bambusa nutans), Jabor i.e. rotten organic debirs to Jatibanh (Bambusa tulda) and Gubor i.e. cowdung to Bholuka banh (Bambusa balcooa). Traditional knowledge recommended the cutting of 3 –year-old bamboo culms from the plantation every year to ensure proper growth of new culms. Extraction is done only in the afternoon periods by some community peoples as they think that cutting bamboo during morning hours exudes more cell saps which in turn weakening the vigour of the entire clump. Few communities do not cut bamboo on Tuesday, Saturday and even during entire 'Suklapakha' i.e. moon nights. An established plantation will regenerate on its own and can be continuously exploited for a number of years. Traditional management of other plantation crops specially Banana, Cassava, Tamul, Pan, Jaluk, Citrus species and

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Life Sciences Leaflets FREE DOWNLOADISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) major timber species are also recorded during the study. For example, infection induced by cutting stems of Aquilaria malacences (agar wood) plants for people of Thengal Kachari, Chutia and Ahom inhabited villages of Jorhat and Sibsagar districts of Assam. Cut banana plant is kept erect to some plant species such as Piper betel (Pan) and Piper longum (Jaluk) during winter season to mitigate water scarcity and to supply required water. Many shade loving plant species are planted as understory plants.

CONCLUSIONS: In recent years, importance of traditional forest knowledge has been emphasized by intergovernmental organizations, policy forums, NGOs, governments and others. The vast treasure of indigenous methods, developed by indigenous people of Assam for conservation, management and untlization of plant biodiversity requires extensive study and proper documentation.Compiletion of people’s biodiversity registers may be worthmentioned as it starts under the Biodiversity Action Plan, GoI. However, at the sametime, threats to this traditional forest knowledge become pronounced day by day due to encroachment and/or expropriation of their lands, degradation of their forests, piracy and the erosion of their cultures, values, and traditional lifestyles. There is a prime need to generate public consciousness about the importance and relevance of traditional knowledge that used by the indigenous communities for centuries. Equal importance may be time demanding to protect intellectual property rights on that traditional knowledge of the community concerned are potentially being expropriated by scientists and commercial interests.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Authors are very much thankful to the Director, Rain Forest Research Institute, Jorhat, Assam for kind permission, facilities provided and Dr. Y.C. Tripathi, Scientist -E for his encouragement and Shri Nilabh Das, RA-II for his help to perform the study.

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TABLE 1: TIMBER WOOD SPECIES CONSERVE TRADITIONALLY IN ASSAM

Plant name/ Family/ local name Traditional Conservation Method Traditional utilization 1.Albizzia lebbeck (L.) Willd. Planted in homesteads, natural Timber use for house construction. Fabaceae (F), Sirish (As) regeneration allowed, not unnecessarily felled 2. Albizzia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth; Planted occasionally in homesteads, Timber used for construction of Fabaceae(F), Jati Koroi(As) mostly allowed growing in village purposes, stem bark yields brick red patch forests. dye. 3. Albizzia procera(Roxb.) Benth; Planted in homesteads, natural Timber use for house construction& Fabaceae (F); Koroi(As) regeneration allowed, not furniture unnecessarily felled 4. Anthrocepalus chinensis Lam, Planted in homesteads, natural Timber use for house construction Rubiaceae(F), Kadam/Raghu (As) regeneration allowed in village/ private forest patch 5. Artocarpus chaplasha Roxb. Found to regenerate in village forest Timber use for house construction, Moraceae (F); Chama(As) patch, rarely planted in homesteds/ Fresh barks used to take as muhudi after meal. etc 6. Artocarpus lacucha Hom. Common in patch forests. Wood used as taeniafuge; fruits used Moraceae (F); Bohot-goch (As) as refrigerant; bark used as masticatory 7.Bombax ceiba L.: Bombacaceae (F); Common in riverside villages i.e. Wood use for parling, battam and Simolu (As) Alengmora, Deori Gaon etc of other building material; silk obtain Assam, planted and also naturally from the fruits of the plant; leaves

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regenerated in the homestead and and are use as fodder; seed oil use as patch forest of villages vermicide 8. Chukrasia tubularis A. Juss. Found to regenerate in village forest Use for furniture and house building Meliaceae ( F); Bogipoma (As) patch and rare in homesteads, people construction consider it as valuable timber species and do not cut the plasnt unnecessarily. 9. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Conserve by planting in the home Mainly use for making furnitures Fabaceae (F); Sisoo (As.) garden, boundary of the paddy fields and as Leaves used in colic and and pond sides, Private forests and tonsillitis roadside tree. 10.Depterocarpus retuses Blume.; Plant species planted for wood and Timber use for house building and Dipterocarpaceae (F), Hollong (As) timber in village patch but rarely in various purpose of woodworks, also homesteads use as fire wood. 11. Dysoxylum procerum Hiern. Plant species found frequently in Boat making and wood for house Meliaceae (F); Bandardima (As) patch vegetation of the village construction 12. Gmelina arborea Roxb. Common throughout the state, often Timber and wood is use for smooth Verbenaceae(F); Gomari (As.) planted. woodworks, furnitures, doors etc and Bark used in Spleenomegaly, hepatitis and dropsy. 13. Lagerstroemia perviflora Roxb. Found in villages patch forests of Use for boat making, pole of house Lythraceae (F); Ajar (As) riversides allowed to regenerate and construction of house naturally 13. Mansonia dipikaePur. The species is found to plant in Mainly use for making furnitures Sterculiaceae (F); Kath Badam(As) homesteads and naturally village patch forest of Gubinpur, Madhupur and Bhugpur but not common other area 14. Mesua ferrea L. Gutiferae (F); Planted front side in homesteads as Use for pole making, furniture and Nahor (As) aesthetic plant; found naturally in bridge. Seed is burnt for lighting village patch vegetation, Tree is houses at night. extracted only from the village patch for use 15. Michelia champaca L. Planted in home gardens in the Very popular wood for making Magnoliaceae (F); Titasopa(As) boundary and also regenerates furniture and house articles. naturally in village patch, not allowed to cut unnecessarily. 16. Pterospermum lanceaefolium Roxb. Naturally regenerate in both House building construction and fuel Sterculiaceae (F); Paroli ( Ass) homesteads and village patch , do not wood cut the plants frequently. 17. Tectona grandis L.; Verbaneceae Planted in homesteads in boundary Furniture and wood for making (F); Segun (As) and also in private forests. consider house as valuable tree 18. Tetrameles Found to planted in the boundary of Wood is use for making furniture nudifloraTetramelaceae, Bhelu (As) the homesteads and roadsides,

TABLE 2: TRADITIONAL CONSERVATION OF NON TIMBER FOREST SPECIES (NTFP) IN ASSAM A. FUEL WOOD PLANTS Plant name/ Family/ local name Traditional Conservation Method Traditional utilization 1. Actinodephnae angustifolia Nees. Grow naturally in patch vegetation A good fire wood plant, can be use Lauraceae (F), Satisoli (As) with good regeneration, instead of immediately after fresh cut. cutting entire plant, only upper portion at certain height is cut to proliferate branches profusely, then cut only the branches. 2. Albizzia lucida Benth.; Mimosaceae Frequently found in the homesteads A good fuel wood, fodder

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(F); Moj (As) as boundary plantation and naturally in village forest patch, copies well from cut stamp of the tree Albizzia procera(Roxb.) Benth Frequently found in the homesteads Good fuel wood and timber tree Mimosaceae (F); Koroi(Ass) as boundary plantation Delonex regia (Hook) Raf. Planted in homesteads, community Aesthetic fuel wood and timber Caesalpinioideae (F); Radhachura places (As) Dysoxylum binectariferum Hook. f. Plant species found frequently in Timber and fuel wood Meliaceae (F); Bandardima (As) patch vegetation of the village Fuel wood species Mallotus sp Euphorbiaceae Naturally grown in patch forest Fuel wood species, also leaves are use (F);Morolia (As) to make disc. Melia azedarach L. ; Meliaceae (F); Cultivate in homesteads Fuel wood species, Bark & leaves Ghora-neem (As.) used in skin diseases, and tendered branches use as tooth brush against toothache. Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. Common in Tea garden villages, Fuel wood species, Shad tree Mimosaceae (F): Sirish (As) planted in homesteads Schima wallichi (DC) Korthals Common in deciduous forests, Fuel wood; bark used in fish poison; Theaceae (F); Makori sal (As) occasionally grown. flowers used in pox Tamarix dioica Rox. Ex Roth.; Mostly found in riverside villages An important fuel wood Tamaricaceae (F); Jao bon (As) Vatica lanceaefolia Bl. Sporadic in homesteads but Important fuel wood, Bark used in Dipterocarpaceae (F); naturally grown in village forest dysentery Mor-sal (As) patch particularly in the foot hillside.

B. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FRUIT PLANTS OF FOREST ORIGIN

Plant name/ Family/ local name Traditional Conservation Method Traditional utilization 1. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Conserve planting in homesteads Ripen fruits are eaten in raw alone or Rutaceae (F); Bel (As) and also consider as sacred plant. with milk; Stem bark used in post natal complications, fever, hepatitis and loss of appetite. Leaves used in blood dysentery with mucus and dropsy; Leaves are used in worships of Gods. 2. Annona reticulata L. Annonaceae Planted in home gardens Ripen fruits are eaten; Roots used as (F); Aatlos (As) purgative; roots, bark and leaves used in jaundice. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. Cultivated in homesteads, also found Ripen fruit are eaten; Juvenile fruits Moraceae(F) Kothal (As) as an escape in village patch forests are taken as Carry; tendered tips with leaves are boiled in water and taken to control diabetes. Artocarpus lacucha Hom. Common in village patch forests, Ripen fruits eaten, flowers used as Moraceae(F); Dewa, Bohot-goch sometimes naturally regenerated refrigerant; bark used as masticator (As) plants are seen in homesteads, not allowed to cut unnecessarily. Averrhoa carambola L. Averrhoaceae Cultivated in homesteads and also Fruits eaten & made pickle ; Juice (F); Kardoi (As.) found as an escape. used in jaundice; Roots used in pyorrhea; Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. Naturally grown in patch forest and Fruits eaten; water boiled bark juice Euphorbiaceae (F); Leteku (As.) cultivated in homesteads used against ulceration in mouth of children. Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. Cultivated in homesteads, naturally Ripen fruits eaten, fruits used in Rhizophoraceae (F); Mahi thekera grown in village patches. stomach trouble, use in pickles.

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(As) Carissa carandus L. Usually cultivated, occasionally Fruits eaten & made pickle ; Bark Apocynaceae (F); Korja-tenga (As.) found in wild state. used in cardiac problem Caryota urens L. Araecaceae (F); Sporadic throughout the state Mature ripen seeds are taken as Chewa – goch (As) substitute to Tamul ( Betel Nut) Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Cultivated in the homesteads for its Fruits used in curry, pickles, diarrhoea Swingle fruits. and dyspepsia Rutaceae (F); Gol-nemu(As.) Citrus grandis (L.) Osb., Rutaceae Cultivated in the homesteads and Ripen fruits eaten, Roots used in (F); Robab-tenga (As.) found as an escape. cough, bronchial trouble. Citrus indica Tanaka, Syn. C. medica Natural in village patch forests, Fruits used in curry ,Bark and leaves L. occasionally cultivated in used as vermifuge Rutaceae (F);Jora-tenga (As.) homesteads Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. Rutaceae Cultivated throughout the state, very Fruits used in curry, pickles, leaves (F); common. used to control vomiting; fruits used in Nemu, Kaji-tenga (As.) vomiting, seeds in acidity, piles and diarrhoea. Cocos nucifera L. Cultivated in the homesteads Fruits eaten , used in religious Arecaceae (F); Narikol (As.) ceremonies; fruits used in burn injuries; fruit bark is used in painful inflammation in the fingers and toes under the nails. Dillenia indica L. Dilleniaceae (F); Common in patch forests and also Fruits eaten & made pickle ; Roots Ow-tenga (As.) planted in the homesteads used in hydrocele and swelling of scrotum; fruit used in dysentery and for dandruff. Elaeagnus caudata Sch. Ex Common in patch forests and also Fruits eaten & made pickle, dried for Momiyama planted in the homesteads future use Elaeagnaceae( F); Mirika tenga (As) Emblica officinalis Gaertn. f. Common in patch forests and also Fruits eaten & made pickle, dried for Euphorbiaceae (F); Amlokhi (As.) planted in the homesteads future use; fruits used in diarrhea, acidity, dyspepsia, anemia, gastric ulcer, and as cardio tonic, stomachic, laxative and blood purifier ; Roots used in asthma; leaves used in blood dysentery. Garcinia cowa Roxb. ex DC. ; Usually cultivated in homesteads, Fruits are dried and used in curry, Clusiaceae (F); Kuji-thekera (As.) occasionally found wild in village indigestion, dysentery; seeds used in patch. blistering spots on the body with burning sensation and pain. Garcinia lancifolia (G. Don) Roxb. ; Both cultivated in homesteads, and Fruits eaten, dried, used in blood Clusiaceae (F); Rupahi-thekera (As.) found wild in village patch. dysentery and indigestion Garcinia pedunculata Roxb.; Both cultivated in homesteads, and Fruits eaten, pickle, dried for future Clusiaceae (F); Bor-thekera (As.) found wild in village patch. use, treated for blood dysentery Garcinia xanthochymus Hook. f. ex T. Both cultivated in homesteads, and Fruits eaten and also used in dyspepsia Anderson Clusiaceae (F); Tepor- occasionally found wild in village tenga (As.) patch. Mangifera indica L. Cultivated in homesteads and Fruits are eaten, made pickle, Bark and Anacardiaceae (F); naturally grown in patch forests. fruit used in diarrhea; leaves used in Aam (As) burn injuries, liver disorders and diabetes; seed used in piles. Mengifera indicaL;Anacardiaceae Cultivated in homesteads and also Utilized for timber, firewood and (F); found naturally in patch vegetation fruits Aam (As.) of the villages. Musa acuminata Colla Cultivated in homesteads and Fruits are eaten Mussaceae (F) : Cheni-champa kol occasionally grown in patch forests. (As.) Phylanthus acidus (L.) Skeels Cultivated in homesteads Fruits are eaten, made pickle. Euphorbiaceae (F); Poramlokhi (As) Psidium guajava L. Cultivated in homesteads, occasional Fruits eaten, made Jam, Roots and

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Myrtaceae (F); in village patch bark used to control labour pain and Madhuri-aam, Saphuri-aam (As.) easy child birth; leaves used in amoebic dysentery and diarrhea; fruits used in diarrhoea. Punica granatum L. ; Punicaceae (F); Cultivated in homesteads, very Ro Fruits are eaten, roots used to Dalim (As.) occasional in village patch control tape worm, dysentery, conjunctivitis and cataract; Root bark in diarrhea, blood dysentery; leaves used in dysentery. Rhus semialata Merr.; Anacardiaceae Cultivated in homesteads, very Fruits are eaten, made pickle; fruits (F) occasional in village patch, Common used in colic pain. Noga – tenga (As) in Upper Assam area

Rubus rugosus Sm. Rosaceae (F); Naturally grown in village patch, Ripen fruits eaten; Roots used in Jetuli poka (As) occasional in homesteads, usually dysmenorrhoea; shoots used in conserve for various traditional toothache; leaves and unripe fruits value used in ulceration of mouth and tongue. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Naturally grown in village patch and Ripen fruits eaten; Bark used in Myrtaceae (F); Jamu, Kala-jamu homesteads, usually conserve for diarrhea, liver disorders and diabetes; (As.) various traditional value leaves used in blood dysentery; seeds used in diabetes. Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & Grown in village patch and Fruit eaten Perry: Myrtaceae: Pani-jamu, Thola- homesteads, usually conserve for jam (As.) various traditional value

Tamarindus indica L. ; Cultivated in homesteads, very Fruits ripe and unripe are eaten, Caesalpiniaceae (F); occasional in village patch tendered leaves taken as curry Teteli (As.) Terminalia chebula (Gaertn.) Retz. Common in forests as well as Fruits eaten; fruits used in vomiting, Combritaceae (F); cultivated constipation, indigestion, dyspepsia, Silikha (As.) diarrhea, amoebic, blood dysentery and as blood purifier; seeds used in piles Roots used in jaundice. Ziziphus mauritianaLamk., Syn. Z. Cultivated in homesteads; grown Fruits are eaten; Bark and leaves used jujuba auct. ; Rhamnaceae : Bogori naturally in village patch, also as in gonorrhoea; leaves used in abscess (As.) wild .

C. TRADITIONAL CONSERVATION OF FOOD PLANTS OF FOREST ORIGIN

Plant name/ Family/ Local name Conservation Method Traditional utilization for Solanum nigrum L. Grow naturally in vegetable garden Tendered plant parts eated as leafy- Solanaceae (F); Pok-mou,Lach-kachi of the homesteads vegetable. (As.) Alocasia indica (Roxb.) Schott Often cultivated in homesteads in Rhizome eaten by cooking; used in Araceae (F); Man-kachu non water stagnant places ulcer of tongue; Alocasia macrorrhiza (L.) G. Don Apparently wild, cultivated in Rhizome eaten; used in abscesses and Araceae (F); Bar-kachu (As.); homesteads also liver disorders. Amorphophallus bulbifer (Roxb.) Bl. Naturally grow, cultivated in Cooked rhizome eaten, Corm used in Araceae (F); Ol-kachu (As.) homesteads piles and gonorrhea Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Cultivated in homested in non water Ripen fruit eaten; Leaves used in Bromeliaceae (F); Anaros, stagnant area as under story for its jaundice, dyspepsia, and as vermicide Matikathal (As.) fruits to children; roots in gout and rheumatism Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt., Cultivated as well as an escape Fruit taken as vegetable; Roots used Cucurbitaceae (F); Kunduli (As.) to control bleeding during pregnancy Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, Cultivated as well as wild in Rhizome cooked for eated as food; Family : Araceae (F); Kachu (As.); homesteads and marginal area of the Petiole is used as haemostatic. Thaso (Bd.). forest patch http://lifesciencesleaflets.ning.com/ PEER-REVIEWED Page | 85

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Dioscorea alata L. Dioscoreaceae (F); Usually grown for its tubers, Cooked tuber taken as food and fresh Kath-aloo (As) occasionally found as escape. tuber used in swelling Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae Usually cultivated, also occurring Cooked tuber taken as food ; Leaves (F); wild. used in eczema Kath-alu (As.) Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burk. Cultivated in homesteads , also found Tuber eaten; fresh tuber pulp applied Dioscoreaceae (F):: Mau-aloo (As) as escape in swelling Dioscorea pentaphylla L. often cultivated in homesteads , Tuber eaten; Tubers used in Dioscoriaceae(F); Pachpotia aloo occur naturally in patch forests rheumatic pain and anthelmintic Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Naturally grow in moist, open places Tendered plant is eaten after cooking; Athyriaceae (F); Dhekia-sak (As.) forming thickets. Roots used in jaundice Hibiscus sabdariffa L.; Malvaceae Cultivated in vegetable gardens. Tendered plant parts and fruits are (F); Tenga –mora (As) eaten as carry, leaves used in stomach trouble Homalomena aromatica (Roxb.) Cultivated, also occurring wild in Petiole used as vegetable as a part of Schott marshy areas and as forest post natal care. Araceae (F); Gondh kachu (As) undergrowth. Manihot esculenta Crantz. Cultivated in homesteads. Root tubers are eaten by Manipuri, Euphorbiaceae (F); Simalu-alu (As.) Kachari and Tea gaerden communities Moringa olifera Lamk.; Moringaceae Cultivated throughout the state Juvenile pods are eaten while cooked; (F); bark used in gout, rheumatism; leaves Sajina, Sajana (As.) used in pox and measles,

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. ; Common throughout the state, often Leaves used in abdominal gripe, Rutaceae (F); Narasingha (As.) grown. intestinal colic and dysentery. Piper betel L. Piperaceae (F); Commonly in homesteads as climber Leaves taken with Tamul/ superis; Pan (As.) on Madar or Areca plants Petiole used in constipation Piper thomsonii (DC.) Hook. f. Occasionally found in patch forest as Leaves used in spermatorrhoea and Piperaceae (F); Aoni pan (As.) undergrowth leucorrhoea. Polygonum chinense L. Grow in damp shady places in Leaves and tendered shoots used for Polygonaceae (F); Madhu- homesteads also cultivated curry , vermicide. soleng,(As.) Portulacea oleraca L. Portulacaceae Naturaaly grow in vegetable gardens Whole plant eaten as vegetable; used (F); and in shady area of homesteads. in diabetes and ringworm. Hanh-thengia, Ronga-khutaria (As.) Rumex maritimus L. Abundant in moist places of Tendered plant tips taken as Polygonaceae (F); Pirali- paleng (As) homesteads, also cultivated vegetable; leaves used in boils, joints swelling Thladiantha cordifolia (Bl.) Cogn. Naturally grow in homesteads and Fruits cooked for vegetable; Roots Cucurbitaceae (F); Beli poka (As) marginal areas of the patch forests used in sinusitis. Trichosanthes diocia Roxb. Cultivated in vegetable garden of Fruits taken as vegetable; Leaves Cucurbitaceae (F); Patal (As.) homesteads ; also wild in forests used in asthma and bronchial trouble patch Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott. Natural in shady places of the Rhizome eaten; used in piles and as Araceae (F); Shyma kachu, Shema homesteads stimulant kachu

TABLE-3: TRADITIONAL CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN ASSAM Plant name/ Family/ local name Traditional Conservation Method Traditional utilization for Abroma angustha Linn.;Sterculiaceae (F); Planted in well drained places in Bark and leaves are used in irregular Ulatkambal, Bon kapah (As) homesteads occasionally by menstruation, urinary infection, kidney medicinemen disease, diabetes, bronchitis, back pain, skin disease, fever and indigestion. Acacia fernasiana L , Mimosaceae (F); Planted in well drained high Medicine for worms, bark juice used Torua-kadam(Ass) places in homestead as aesthetic as mouth wash and also as gargle in plant and traditional medicinal sore throat, tonsillitis, pharyngitis and value used in coughand ornamental. Acorus calamus L. Araceae (F); Planted in damp and water Decoction of rhizome or powder of

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Bach, Bojo (As), segment places of homesteads, dried rhizome is sprinkled as repellent of insects, moths and snakes. Adhatoda vasica Nees. Acanthaceae(F), planted in boundary 'Dhap' of The fresh juice or decoction of the bahaktita(Ass) homesteads of many tribes in leaves in doses of one tola, is given Jorhat, Golaghat and sibsagar with honey and long pepper in cough. districts Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.)Wallich Cultivated in well drained beds of The whole plant is used in the form of Ex Nees ; Acanthaceae (F); Kalmegh (As) the homesteads and maintained powder and decoction to treat fever, this annual herb for traditional sprue, oedema, for purifying breast- medicinal value milk, intrinsic haemorrhage, vomiting.fever: Asparagus racemosus Willd. Sporadic, occasionally cultivated Roots used in diarrhea, liver disorders, Liliaceae (F); Sat mul (As.) puerperal diseases, general debility Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Planted in homesteads, Leaves eaten and used in scabies, Meliaceae (F); Mohanim (As.) community places for its ulceration in mouth, menstrual medicinal uses. disorder, leucorrhoea, colic, jaundice, acidity, gonorrhea; Bark used in pyorrhea, jaundice; seeds used in bleeding piles. Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb., Syn. C. Planted in homesteads, Seeds used in ringworm, eczema, crista L.; Caesalpiniaceae (F); Lataguti wastelands. typhoid, and leucoderma (As.) Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br.; Planted in homesteads, Latex is used in piles, ringworm, Asclepiadaceae (F); Akon (As.) wastelands community places for carbuncle, cough and caries; roots its medicinal uses. used in insect bite, stem is used in tonsillitis; leaves used in cough, piles. Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. Planted in homesteads, Same with C. gigantean. Asclepiadaceae (F);Saru – Akon (As) wastelands Cissampelos pareira L. Allowed natural grow in Roots used in diarrhea, dysentery, Menispermaceae; Tubuki-lota (As.) homesteads and forest patch. piles, bone fracture, control labour pain and easy child birth; fruits liver disorders. Curcuma amada Roxb. ; Zingiberaceae Rare, occasionally cultivated in Rhizome sap used in itching, burns, (F); Amada (As.) homesteads for its medicinal uses cuts by Deori tribes and piles by Kachari. Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Usually occurring in wild Rhizome used in tonsillitis Zingiberaceae(F); condition in village forest patch, Bon-halodhi, Borahuda (As) occasionally grown Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. Grown naturally in roadside, Rhizome used in jaundice by Mising Zingiberaceae (F); marginal patch vegetation, very and Kalita Keturi (As.) common Curcuma caesia Roxb. Rare, occasionally cultivated in Rhizome used in gout by Hmar and Zingiberaceae (F); Kola-halodhi (As.) homesteads Kuki tribes Lasia spinosa (L.) Thw. Common in marshy places Leaves used in leucoderma and Araceae (F); leucorrhoea, Rhizome use in jaundice Chengamora, Cheng-kachu (As.) by Sut and Bengali people Plumbago zeylanica L. Wild, not common, grown by Roots used in epistaxis, Plumbaginaceae (F); Agyachit (As.) local medicine men spermatorrhoea and liver disorder. Cissus quadrangula L. Grown as ornamental plant, often Stem used in rheumatism, piles, bone Vitaceae (F); Harjora-lota (As.) found as an escape. fracture, menstrual disorder, gout and constipation Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp. Gregarious in wastelands, Leaves used in hypertension, tendered Verbenaceae (F);Nephaphu (As.) occasionally cultivated in leaves eaten as carry by Deori tribes homesteads for its tendered leaves Clerodendrum indicum (L.) O. Kuntze., Occurring along forests margins Roots used in asthma, epilepsy, Syn. C. siphonanthus R. Br. and in open areas naturally painful swelling of gum and Verbenaceae (F); Akol-bih (As.) including homesteads. bronchitis. Use as fish poison by the Mattock community Costus speciosus (Koen. ex Retz.) J. E. Natural in damp area and also Rhizome used in whooping cough and

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Smith ; Costaceae (F); Jam-lakhuti (As.) cultivated homesteads as jaundice. ornamental plant. Crateva magna(Lour.) DC; Often cultivated in homesteads. Bark used in urinary trouble and Capparaceae(F); Barun (As.) malignant pustule. Croton tiglium L. ; Euphorbiaceae (F); Rare, occasionally cultivated in Shoots used in constipation and in Koni-bih, Jaiphal (As.) homesteads and medicine men painful inflammation in the fingers Dracaena angustifolia Roxb. Grown as ornamental plant in Roots used in jaundice; leaves used in Liliaceae (F); Jam-lakhuti (As.) homesteads. swelling and pain of joints. Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kost. Planted as aesthetic and medicinal Seeds used in acute dysentery and Ebenaceae (F);Kendu (As.) plants in front side of the blood dysentery. homesteads on heap at boundary. Ficus rumphii Blume; Moraceae (F); Common in Patch forest and Fruits eaten; used in asthma and as Mou-dimaru (As) naturally grown in homesteads. vermifuge Emblica officinalis Gaertn. f. Common in patch forests and also Fruits used in diarrhea, acidity, Euphorbiaceae (F); Amlokhi (As.) planted in the homesteads dyspepsia, anemia, gastric ulcer, and as cardio tonic, stomachic, laxative and blood purifier ; Roots used in asthma; leaves used in blood dysentery. Glycosmis arborea (Roxb.) DC., Syn. G. Very common in patches near Stem bark used in pneumonic fever; pentaphylla Corr. villages, occasional in homesteads leaves used in acidity and colic; stem Rutaceae (F); Chauldhoa (As.) used as tooth brush in toothache. Glycyrhiza glabra L. Rare, only occasionally cultivated Roots used in acidity, haemorrhage, Fabaceae (F); Jashtimadhu (As.) menorrhagia, apoplexy and piles. Heliotropium indicumL. ; Boraginaceae Common weed in agricultural Roots used in snake bite and lumbago; (F); Hatisuria-bon (As.) fields and in wastelands. leaves used in jaundice Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. Often naturally grown in the Roots used in leucorrhoea, irregular Asclepiadaceae (F); homesteads menstruation, ulceration in mouth, Anantamul, Duduli-lota(As.) syphilis, jaundice, blood purifier and as general tonic. Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Bl.) Cogn. Naturally found to patch Seeds used in stomach disorders by Cucurbitaceae (F); Hati-kerela (As) vegetations Kuki Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. Naturally grown in Cachar district Bark used in dysentery; seeds used in Apocynaceae (F); Dudhkuri, Kutharua cold and cough by the Hmar & Kuki (As.) tribes Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Saururaceae Often grown in the homesteads, Whole plant used in dysentery; leaves (F);Machundori (As.) medicinemen used in colic and bilious pain, sores and as diuretic. Hydnocarpas kurgii ( King); Often cultivated by traditional Seed and seed oil used to cure Flacourtiaceae (F); Chalmugra, lamtem medicinemen in homesteads intestinal worm and leprosy (As) Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.) Heine Not common, grown in wet and Leaves used to stop bleeding by Acanthaceae (F); Jopa-peteri (As.) marshy places. Manipuri and Hmar tribes Justicia adhatoda L., Syn. Adhatoda vasica Usually growing naturally, Leaves used in tuberculosis, Nees; Acanthaceae (F); Boga-bahak, sometimes grown Homesteads in bronchitis, asthma, whooping cough, Bahak (As.) villages liver disorders and abscess Kaempferia rotunda L.; Zingiberaceae Ornamental, grown in homesteads Roots used in snake bite. (F); Bhui-champa (As) and medicinemen Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers., Naturally grow in shaded Leaves used in abscess, gonorrhea, Crassulaceae(F);Pategaza, Dupor-tenga wastelands and also grown as liver disorders, kidney stone. (As.) ornamental plant in home gardens. Litsea cubeba (Lour.)Pears. Plant species is allowed to grow Fruits, consumed by Kachari people . Lauraceae (F), Mejankari (As) in both homesteads village rearing silkworm for production of forests. mejakari silk Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) Robinson Naturally come, often grown in Leaves used in acidity and colic pain; Lauraceae (F); Baghnola (As.) the homesteads, medicinemen bark used in abscess. Moringa olifera Lamk.; Moringaceae (F); Planted in homesteads as food Roots used in fever, mumps and Sajina, Sajana (As) plant and medicinal values cough; bark used in gout, rheumatism; leaves used in pox and measles,skin

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diseases; seeds used in paralysis and painful joints Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. Naturally regenerate, sporadic in Bark used in internal abscess, Bignoniaceae (F); Bhat-ghila (As.) patch forests, Rare in homesteads hypertension and ulceration in mouth of children, seeds used in eczema. Osbeckia nepalensis Hook.f. Natural weed in homesteads, Roots used in leprosy; shoots used in Melastomaceae (F) Common in open waste lands, carbuncle; leaves used in chronic Boga phut-kola (F) dysentery Paderia scandens (Lour.) Merr., Syn. P. Natural and cultivated in Leaves used in rheumatism, liver foetida L. ;Rubiaceae (F); Bhedai lota homesteads for leaf vegetable and disorders, dysentery, diarrhea, (As.) medicinal uses. abdominal gripe, anemia, dyspepsia and acidity. Pogostemon benghalensis (B) O.Ktz. Natural and cultivated in Shoots and leaves used in stomach Lamiaceae (F); Shookloti (As) homesteads for leaf vegetable and pain and menstrual disorders medicinal uses Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. Natural weed to homesteads Whole plant used for healing cuts and Urticaceae (F); Borali-bokua (As) wounds by Thengal Kachari Rauwolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz; Occasionally cultivated in Used for treating snake bite and high Apocynaceae(F); Sarpagandha (As) homesteads by medicinemen blood pressure Sapindus mukorssi Gaertn. Occasionally planted in the Bark used in cough, whooping cough Sapindaceae (F);Haitha, Manichal (As.) homesteads by medicinemen. and asthma; seeds used in leucorderma Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde., Syn. planted in homesteads, roadsides, Bark used in leucorrhoea, uterine S.indicaL. ; Caesalpiniaceae (F); community centers ailments, menstrual disorder, Ashok (As.) pyorrhea; flowers used in menorrhea. Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. ; Fabaceae Occasionally cultivated as Bark used in high fever by Mishing (F); Jayanti (As.) ornamental and medicinal plant. tribes. Spondius pinnata (L. f.) Kurz; planted in homesteads and Bark used in dysentery, and blood Anacardiaceae (F); Amora (As.) community centers dysentery; leaves used as vermifuge; fruits used in diarrhea and cough Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Grown in homesteads for Stem used in stomach disorders, skin Karst. ; Gentianaceae (F);Chirata (As.) medicinal value diseases, vermicide and fever

Terminalia chebula (Gaertn.) Retz. Planted in homesteads and Roots used in jaundice; fruits used in Combritaceae (F); Silikha (As) allowed plant to grow naturally in vomiting, constipation, indigestion, village patches for fruits, timber dyspepsia, diarrhea, blood dysentery; and medicinal value seeds used in piles.

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wt. et Arn. Planted in homesteads for Bark used in ulcer in mouth, heart Combritaceae (F); Arjun (As.) medicinal value trouble, dysentery, asthma, gastric ulcer, chronic bronchitis ;Roots used in elephantiasis;

Terminalia bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Planted in homesteads for Fruits used in dysentery, blood Combritaceae (F); Bhomora (As.) medicinal value. dysentery and as expectorant; seeds used in common cold, influenza and in asthma

Tinospora cordifolia Miers. Found naturally in homesteads Stem used in liver disorders, cough, Menispermaceae (F); Amor-lota, Amoi- and forest patches hydrocele, as aphrodisiac, diuretic and lota (As.) cardiotonic; leaves in carbuncle.

Smilax perfoliataLour., Syn. S. prolifera Found naturally in homesteads Roots used in post natal care and in Wall. ex Roxb. and forest patches odorous urine; stem used in swelling Smilaceae (F); Tikani-barual (As.) of gum

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Vitex negundo L. Found naturally in homesteads of Roots and leaves used in eczema, Verbenaceae (F);Pochotia (As.) riversides and rarely in forest ringworm and other skin diseases, patches rheumatic pain, gout, back pain; seeds used as vermicide

Solanum torvum Sw. Found naturally in homesteads Roots used in puerperal diseases; fruits Solanaceae (F); Tita-bhekuri, (As.) and forest patches used in bronchial asthma and intestinal colic.

Sida rhombifolia L., Syn. S. orientalis Cv. Naturally grow and even Leaves used in carbuncle, malignant Malvaceae (F);Son-barial (As.) homesteads, do not cut the plant pustule and boils unnecessarily

Scoparia dulcis L.; Scorphulariaceae (F); Naturally grow and even Roots used in menstrual problems, Bon tulshi (As) homesteads, do not cut the plant respiratory trouble; leaves used in unnecessarily diabetes, , skin diseases and piles

Streblus asper Lour. ; Moraceae (F); Naturally grow in wastelands, Tendered stem is used as tooth brush, Sarua (As.) marginal area of the forest patch Roots used in wounds and ulcers; stem and homesteads. used in toothache and pyorrhea

Withania somnifera Dun. Rare, occasionally grown by the Roots used in impotency Solanaceae (F);Aswagandha (As.) medicinemen

Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC. The climber grow naturally and Roots used in asthma and rheumatism; Rutaceae (F); Tezmui, Tezmuri,(As.) even homesteads, do not cut the stem used in pyorrhea and to control plant unnecessarily labour pain and easy child birth

TABLE-4: TRADITIONAL NATURAL DYE YIELDING PLANTS FROM HOMESTEADS OF ASSAM Plant name/ Family/ local name Conservation Method Traditional utilization for Bischofia javanica Bl. Sporadic all over the state. Pink dye extracted from the bark ; bark Family : Euphorbiaceae . used in blood dysentery Local name : Urium (As.) Bixa orellana L. Throughout the state. Extracted pink dye from the ripen Family : Bixaceae fruits, Leaves used in hypertension, Local name : Sendur (As) used as diuretic, digestive stimulant and laxative by tea tribes. Buatea monosperma (Lam); Febaceae Planted as ornamental and dye Dried flowers owith shalk lime in (F); Palash (As) yielding plants water gives yellow dye Eclipta prostrata (L.)L., Syn. E. alba Common weed in agricultural fields Blue dye yields from stems and (L.) Hassk.; Asteraceae (F) leaves; roots used in impotency and Kehraji-bon, Kehraj-bon (As.) pyorrhoea Erythrina indica Lam., Planted in homesteads and Dark brown dye is extracted from stem Fabaceae (F); Madar community centers for ornamental bark and flowers and dye yeild Heteropanax fragrans (D. Don) Occasional, wild as well as grown Bark used in hypertension Seem ; Araliaceae (F) Kecheru, Koronga (As.) Lawsonia inermis L., Syn. L. alba Common under cultivation in Leaves yield yellow orange dye; Bark Lamk. ; Lythraceae (F); homesteads used in jaundice; leaves used in Jetuka (As). nocturnal pollution and epilepsy. Malotus philipinensis (Lamk.)Mull. Found in patch forest adjacent to Orange color extracted from ripen Arg Euphorbiaceae ( F); Seduri (As); villages; Cotton clothes of Deori fruits by boiling in water Gongai ( Deori) tribes use to dye and conserve plant species.

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Morinda angustifolia Roxb. Plant species sporadic to village Stem chips with lime yield red color Rubiaceae (F); Achu gas (As) homesteads and patches, dye; roots treated with lime in water give yellow dye. Terminalia catappa Linn Found in natural patches vegetation Black dye is extracted by boiling fruits Combretaceae (F); Bon Silikha (As) and also in homesteads. in water Trema orientalis Blume. Grow naturally in patch forests of Stem barks of boiling in water yield Ulmaceae (F); Fackdema(As) the villages; conserve the plants for brown dye use for cotton and Silk natural dye.

TABLE 5: TRADITIONALLY CONSERVED ORNAMENTAL PLANTS OF ASSAM Plant name/ Family/ local name Traditional Conservation Method Traditional utilization Bauhinia purpurea L. ; Planted in front side of the houses in Ornamental, Roots used in wounds, Caesalpiniaceae (F); Kanchan-phul homesteads boundary. inflammation of throat, (As.) spermatorrhoea, and leucorrhoea. Bauhinia variegata L.; Planted in front side of the houses in Ornamental, Leaves used in abscess. Caesalpiniaceae (F); Kanchan-phul homesteads boundary for beautiful (As.) flowers. Borassus flabellifer Linn.; Planted in homesteads in rows Ornamental, Palm shoot is cut and the Aracaceae.(F); Tal (As) juice is traditionally collected in hanging earthen pot, Juice anthelmintic, and diuretic Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Planted in community centers and Ornamental, Root bark used in Fabaceae (F);Palash (As.) rarely in homesteads. dysentery; seeds used as vermicide. Cassia fistula L. ; Caesalpiniaceae; Planted in front side of the houses in Ornamental; Roots used in piles; Sonaru (As.) homesteads boundary, roadsides for leaves used in ringworm by mishing beautiful flowers. tribe Caesalpinia pulcherima Swartz. ; Planted in homesteads for seasonal Ornamental and fuel wood species Fabaceae (F); krishnachura (As) beautiful flowers Calamus viminalis Willd.; Arecaceae Grow naturally patch forest forms Ornamental, useful for preparing (F); Jati bet (As) cane grove, and planted in tubs binding threads, root juice use in dog /homesteads bite Clitoria ternatea L.; Fabaceae(F); Planted in front side of the houses in Ornamental; Roots used in headache, Aparajita (As.) homesteads boundary for beautiful menstrual irregularities, intestinal flowers. colic, leucoderma. Catharanthus roseus G. Don, Syn. Planted in homesteads boundary for Ornamental plant; Leaves used in Vinca rosea L. ; Apocynaceae (F); beautiful flowers. diabetes Nayantora-phul (As.) Canna indica L. Traditionally cultivated as Ornamental plant; Cannaceae (F); Parijat phul (As) ornamental plant. Erythrina stricta Roxb.; Fabaceae Allowed naturally grow, often Ornamental; Roots used in boils, (F);Ronga-modar (As.) planted in homesteads chronic dysentery and gout Delonix regia Raf.. Fabaceae (F); Planted in homesteads boundary in Ornamental and fuel wood Radhachura (As); rows for beautiful seasonal flower and shade. Euphorbia ligularia Roxb., Syn. E. Cultivated in homesteads for Latex used ringworm, carbuncle and neriifolia L.; Euphorbiaceae; Siju medicinal and ornamental values. as purgative; stem used in painful (As.) swelling, boils; leaves in rheumatism and boils Gardenia angusta Merrill., Syn. G. Cultivated in home gardens Roots used in impotency Florida L.; Rubiaceae; Tagar (As.) Hibiscus mutabilis L.; Malvaceae (F); Cultivated as ornamental plant Flowers used in menorrhea Sthala-padma (As.) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. ; Malvaceae Cultivated as ornamental plant in the Bark used to remove dandruf; leaves (F); Joba (As.) gardens. used in gonorrhea and asthma. Impatiens balsamina L. ; Common as weed in vegetable Roots used in piles; leaves used in Balsaminaceae (F); Dem-deoka (As.) gardens, also grown as ornamental jaundice plant. Livistonia jenkinsiana Griff. Planted in boundary in homesteads Ornamental, Seed is eaten, leaves Arecaceae (F); Takou (As.) or in rows. rare in patch vegetation used in roofing of the hut, make Japi

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Life Sciences Leaflets FREE DOWNLOADISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

Mimosops elengi L. Sapotaceae (F); Planted in homesteads, community Ornamental, sacred, fruits edible, anti Bakul (As) center and Temple campus diarrheal, vermicide and cure dental disorders, the tender stems are used as tooth brushes or powdered bark used for cleaning the teeth . Nerium indicum Mill., Syn. N. Occasionally cultivated Ornamental; Bark used in dropsy odoratum Soland.; Apocynaceae (F); Rakta-karabi (As.) Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Cultivated in homesteads Ornamental; flowers used as Oleaceae (F); Sewali-phul (As.); Rat appetizer,Leaves used in fever, gandha (Nep.) toothache and as vermicide Pandanus fascicularis Lamk. Planted in homesteds in boundary Roots and flowers used in headache Pandanaceae (F); Keteki phul (As) for medicinal and ornamental and rheumatic pain; leaves used in vaslues skin diseases Plumeria acuminata Ait. Common, grown in gardens and near Roots used in blood dysentery; leaves Apocynaceae (F); Gulanch, Champa- temples. to kill lice and as vermicide. phul (As.) Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Exotic, Planted in the homesteads Ornamental, use for landscaping Thwaites. Annonaceae (F); Debdaru (F) Quisqualis indica L. Cultivated rarely in homesteads for Mainly ornamental but roots and Combretaceae (F); Malati – phul (As) its aesthetic value seeds used as anthelmintic by Thengal Kachari Rhynchostylish retusa (L.) Blume Allowed to grow naturally as Roots and leaves used in pyorrhea. (F); Kapou phul epiphytes of other trees and also cultivate in homesteads Sansevieria roxburghiana Schult.f. Often grown as ornamental plant. Leaves used in asthma Liliaceae (F);Konari, Gumuni (As.) Tagetes erecta L. ; Asteraceae (F); Commonly cultivated in gardensLeaves as used in cuts and wounds Narji phul (As.) ornamental plant

TABLE-6: TRADITIONAL SCARED/ RELIGIOUS AND CULTURALLY CONSERVE PLANT SPECIES Plant name/ Family/ local name Conservation Method Traditional utilization Ficus religiosa L.; Moraceae(F); Ahot- Naturally grow and planted in the Worship; Roots used in carious tooth; goch (As.) campus of temple, community centers bark used in gonorrhea, liver disorders, and roadside boils and burn injuries.

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) R. Br. Naturally grow in patch forests and Leaves used on day of Garu bihu of Fabaceae (F); Makhiyoti (As.) planted in homesteads Rangali bihu evening when the cows are bring back from the grazing fields. Roots used in ringworm and menstrual disorders.

Kaempferia galanga L. ; Zingiberaceae Often cultivated in homesteads by the Plant used in Marriage; Rhizome used in (F); Gathion (As.) medicinemen and religious personals cough and cold in swelling of gum and as deodorant

Litsea salicifolia (Roxb. ex Nees) Hook. Often found naturally in forest patches Branches used on day of Garu bihu of f. ; Lauraceae; Digh-loti (As.) and rarely planted in homesteads. Rangali bihu morning when the cows are bath and bring to the grazing fields; Bark used in asthma

Talauma hodsoni Hook.Syn. Magnolia Plant grow naturally in patches forests; Plant used in marriage ceremonies; pterocarpa Roxb.; Magnoliaceae occasionally panted in homesteads Fruits are eaten on the day of Bohag (F) ; Borhomthuri (As) bihu, yield dye.

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Mimusops elengi L. ; SapotaceaePlanted. (F); Bark used in toothache, pyorrhea, Bokul (As.) inflamed gum and ulceration in mouth; leaves used in epistaxis.

Ocimum sanctum L. ; LamiaceaeCultivated (F); throughout the state Roots used in sexual debility; leaves Tulashi (As.) used in cough, respiratory problem, sore throat, liver disorders, conjunctivitis and as expectorant and carminative.

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