“Choosing the Other – Conversion to Christianity in Japan”
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“Choosing the Other – Conversion to Christianity in Japan” A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2010 Ian D. Miller School of Languages, Linguistics and Cultures Choosing the Other – Conversion to Christianity in Japan Table of contents Abstract 3 Declaration 4 Copyright Statement 5 Acknowledgment, note on terminology, 6 author preface Chapter 1 Introduction 7 Chapter 2 Theories of conversion 25 Chapter 3 Deviating from what? – cultural and 56 religious norms in Japan Chapter 4 Converting to what? – Christianity in Japan 99 Chapter 5 Conversion stories 132 Chapter 6 A place to feel at home 186 Appendix The interviewees 208 Bibliography 226 Word count, including footnotes and endnotes 73,959 2 Abstract Choosing the Other – Conversion to Christianity in Japan A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Ian David Miller, June 2010 This thesis explores conversion to Christianity in contemporary Japan. Christianity is widely regarded as having failed to make any impact on Japanese culture, and to be a foreign body (indeed in the opinion of some an irritating foreign body) that has failed to accommodate with or indigenise itself in Japan. And yet, Japanese people continue to choose to convert to Christianity. What is the significance of this? Are people who convert those who feel excluded from mainline Japanese society, the proof of which is their affiliation with a foreign religion, or can this phenomenon of conversion be understood in a different way? This thesis suggests that it can be, and that the fact that small but significant numbers of Japanese regularly convert to Christianity means that the understanding of Christianity’s place in the Japanese religious landscape needs to be re-examined. Theories of conversion are studied, with a view to identifying the particular approaches to analysing and understanding conversion which will be appropriate for the Japanese context. The work of Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge on conversion to a deviant perspective forms the starting point for the study. Cultural and religious norms of Japan are identified, with a view to investigating in what ways and to what degree Christianity in Japan represents a deviant perspective. The history of Christianity in Japan is studied, indicating that at certain times in Japan’s history when there is a feeling of national uncertainty and of a lack of social integration there is an openness to Christianity, although at times of national self-confidence there is more resistance to it. Christianity is also compared and contrasted with Japan’s New Religious Movements, which may also represent a deviant perspective. Qualitative research among converts to Christianity is carried out. The results of this research show that while there are parallels between conversion to Christianity and to New Religious Movements there are also areas of difference, especially in terms of motives for conversion. Motives for conversion to Christianity tend to focus on what might be termed “the spiritual”, and conversion is experienced in terms of emotional peace, welcome into a Christian congregation, and the promise of salvation to come, rather than the “health and wealth” or “this worldly benefits” which are reckoned to be, or to have been, motives for conversion to New Religious Movements. As Shimazono Susumu points out, however, the so called “New” New Religions also have a focus on spiritual salvation. The conclusion reached is that, though Japanese who convert to Christianity are choosing “the other” in that their choice is clearly not to stay within the religious mainstream of the country, yet Japanese society is more heterogeneous than is often assumed and actually embraces a range of diverse groups. Christian converts, while being aware of the tensions which they face as a result of conversion, do not feel “outsiders” in Japanese society. So, while Christianity cannot be said to have indigenised in the way that Buddhism clearly has, yet it should not be seen as an unsuccessful foreign import, but rather, in terms of glocalisation, as a culturally appropriate local expression of a global movement. 3 Declaration I declare that no portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning 4 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trade marks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://www.campus.manchester.ac.uk/medialibrary/policies/intellectual- property.pdf ), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations ) and in The University’s policy on presentation of Theses 5 Acknowledgments Firstly I would like to express my sincere thanks to my supervisor, Professor Ian Reader. His insights and understanding of Japanese religion and culture, and of wider issues involved in the dissemination of religion have been invaluable, and his patience, guidance and constant encouragement have helped me immeasurably. Taihen osewa ni narimashita. I would also like to thank my colleagues at International Christian College in Glasgow for their support and encouragement over the years during which I have been working on this thesis, and for the financial help and sabbatical study time provided by the college as well. I am very grateful to members of OMF International in Japan, and in particular to the staff of the Sapporo Mission Centre where I was able to stay during two of my field trips to Japan. Many missionaries took time to engage with me and respond to my questioning. I am also deeply grateful to the pastors and members of churches in the Japan Evangelical Church Association for their willing cooperation in my interviews and research, and for the interest they have shown in the project. I would like to thank especially the staff and students of Hokkaido Bible Institute who provided hospitality for me on my first field trip in May and June of 2004 And finally I am truly grateful to my wife Jeanette for all her support and companionship over the period of research and study for this thesis. A Note on Terminology With regard to the use of Japanese names in this thesis, all Japanese names are given with the family name first and the given name second. Where a name is used on its own, it is the family name which is used, except where indicated. Japanese terms are italicised and macrons are inserted except in the case of place names such as Tokyo, Kyoto and Hokkaido, and words such as Shinto, samurai etc. which are in common use in the English language. Author preface The author worked for ten years in Japan from 1986-96. Upon his return he studied for a Master in Theology degree at the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non- Western World in the University of Edinburgh, where his dissertation thesis looked at the life and work of Uchimura Kanz ō. He currently lectures in mission studies at the International Christian College in Glasgow, Scotland. 6 Chapter 1 Introduction This thesis explores conversion to Christianity in contemporary Japan. Christianity is widely regarded as having failed to make any impact on Japanese culture, and to be a foreign body (indeed in the opinion of some an irritating foreign body) that has failed to accommodate with or indigenise itself in Japan. And yet, Japanese people continue to choose to convert to Christianity. What is the significance of this? Are people who convert those who feel excluded from mainline Japanese society, the proof of which is their affiliation with a foreign religion, or can this phenomenon of conversion be understood in a different way? In this thesis I will suggest that it can be, and that the fact that small but significant numbers of Japanese regularly convert 1 to Christianity means that the understanding of Christianity’s place in the Japanese religious landscape needs to be re-examined. Christianity in Japan - the unwelcome guest? 'This country is a swamp. In time you will come to see that for yourself. This country is a more terrible swamp than you can imagine. Whenever you plant a sapling in this swamp the roots begin to rot; the leaves yellow and wither. And we have planted the sapling of Christianity in this swamp” (End ō, 1982: 237).