Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences

---..-----~------= a~eJ~Today Volume XXVI· Issue 1 • January/February 2003

"THE HOPE OF THE WORLD": A ROLE FOR CRIMINOLOGISTS IN THE MAKING OF A RATIONAL CRIME POLICY by MIKE ISRAEL Legislative Liaison For nearly a decade there has been a "debate" in our profes- and experience would have a voice and hopefully an influence on sional newsletters, ACJS Today and The Criminologist, and in our crime policy. "The hope ofthe world," so it has been said, a rational, annual meetings on the participation of the criminology academic research driven policy in place of what Barak called a "mediated" community in the making of crime policy. I put debate in quotations crime policy by the press, politicians, and a "mean world view," a because only one side has been heard, namely, that the profession policy made from myths, politics, hysteria, moral panic. Good policy, should be involved; but the silent position, so far, has more or less made for the right reasons, by people who knew. The hope of the prevailed. Our involvement is at best marginal, and has always been. world. We have not been players in the game of crime policy making. It is Well, here we are, our national office is in the nation's capitol, time to reconsider. along with thousands of non-profit organizations, probably close In this newsletter in 1994 Gregg Barak wrote: "The Silences of to a hundred with an interest in crime policy, dozens working di- ACJS on such domestic issues as crime, criminal justice, poverty, rectly on crime policy reform, and coalitions of these groups; a great unemployment, homelessness, welfare, health care, and education city of staffers, lobbyists, professionals, researchers and evalua- is deafening." Although focused on media influence, that piece, tors, bureaucrats, journalists, PhD's, and 587 elected officials. And which called for criminal justice educators to actively intercede in The Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences! But not much progress the process, kicked off a consideration of the issue. Many essays on making history. and papers followed, but there has been only one consequence, as Of course most criminal justice activity occurs in the states, but far as I can see, and that is the move of our national office five years the federal level seems to dominate the agenda, sets the tone and ago to Washington, D.C. legal patterns, and spends a great deal of money. See the previous I can remember the Executive Board meeting, chaired by Gerry ACJS Today and the lead essay by Willard Oliver. To paraphrase Vito at a mid-year meeting in Anaheim, when the unanimous vote Everitt Dirksen, "You spend a billion here and a billion there and was taken. The hairs on the back of my neck stood up, for I had an pretty soon you're talking about real money." (Actually, he said incredible feeling that history was being made; and not just ACJS "million," but it was about 40 years ago.) The criminal justice sys- history, but American history. The plan included hiring a second tem is one of government. A democratic government, by definition, executive director to act as legislative liaison between ACJS and invites participation; and participation inherently means politics. Washington policy making. The great dream was that our research Politics, to the exclusion of almost everything else, makes crime continued on page 3

ACJS National Office Contact Information: in this issue ...

Laura Monaco: Association Manager "The Hope of the World": A Role for Criminologists in the Making of a Ratio- [email protected] nal Crime Policy (1); President's Message (2); Book Review Submission Guide- Collene Cantner: Executive Assistant lines for ACJS Today (6); ACJS Today Submissions Information (6); Police [email protected] Accountability: A European Perspective (7); Major New Developments in Crimi- Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences nal Justice at Norwich University (9); Book Reviews (10); Official Color An- 7319 Hanover Parkway, Suite C nouncement (12); Upcoming ACJS Annual Meetings (12); Debate Responses Greenbelt, Maryland 20770 (13) Policy for Profit: The Private-Prison Industry's Influence Over Tel.: (301) 446-6300; (800) 757-ACJS (2257) CriminalJustice Legislation (15); The Art and Science of Teaching Criminal Fax: (301)446-2819 Website: http://www.acjs.org Justice: A Dialogue (21); Call for Nominations (25); Call for Presentations (26) Webmaster: holden@cmsu I.cmsu.edu Publications Order Form (39); ACJS 2002-2003 Executive Board (40) 2 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003

This has been a wonderful year for the Academy and for me! We just naljustice in the field as well as our researchers and scholars. Times have concluded our 40th anniversary meeting in Boston and it was a great changed and we have changed! success. The program consisted of306 panels, workshops and roundtables Crime and justice are no longer just national issues and the Academy is and was attended by approximately 1,700 individuals. This was the again meeting the challenge. We are expanding our horizons and looking biggest and best attended conference in many years. If you attended I beyond our borders to understand international and transnational crime as know you had a good time and if you were unable to attend, you were well as terrorism. We are meeting this challenge in three ways. First, the missed by friends and colleagues alike. theme for this year's conference was the Globalization of Crime and Three new officers were welcomed to the Executive Board at the Justice and our members responded by organizing the largest number of meeting. Laura Moriarty, Virginia Commonwealth University, is our new comparative, international, transnational and terrorism-focused panels in Second Vice President, Leanne Fiftal Alarid, University of Missouri at the history of the Academy. Second, our l " VP President, Jim Finckenauer Kansas City, is our new Trustee-at-Large, and Wesley Johnson, Sam was enlisted to create and then lead the International Center at the Na- Houston State University, is our new Trustee for Region 4. Although it tional Institute of Justice. After just four years, it has become an integral was ajoyous occasion to welcome them to the board, we were sad to see part of NIJ's mission. Third, another one of our past presidents, Jay three distinguished colleagues retire from the board. Mittie Southerland, Albanese, just took over the reigns of the Center and is leading it to new our Immediate Past President, David Carter, our Trustee-at-Large, and heights of relevance and recognition. Barbara Hart, Region 4 Trustee, stepped down. We owe them a debt of We reflect the reality that crime and justice are global concepts. Today gratitude for their dedication to the Academy and their hard work on its behalf our foreign colleagues comprise 10% of our membership. In Boston, we I'd like to touch here on some of the points I made in my opening hosted participants from 16 nations that span the globe. We had partici- remarks at the Awards Luncheon. I think the Academy has grown up with pants and delegations from The Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Tur- the field of criminal justice as well as influenced and shaped its direction. key, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates, Brazil, Jamaica, The first annual meeting I attended was in 1972, nine years after its Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Taiwan, Austria, The Peoples Republic founding, and Gordon Misner was President. The attendance at that of China, Canada, South Africa, and Hong Kong. meeting was small-only a fraction of the size we are today. Our main In addition, it was a fitting coincidence that we honored David Bayley topic of discussion, besides the administration of justice, was how we at our Awards Luncheon with our most prestigious award, the Bruce could become a discipline and distinguish ourselves from our parent disci- Smith Sr. Award. David is the foremost scholar on comparative policing in plines of sociology, political sciences and the like. Times have changed the word today. He is also actively involved in projects to democratize and we have changed! policing in developing nations. In fact, he left for South Africa a day after Over the years, we have emerged as the premier professional organi- the conference ended to continue his research and work. zation that represents not only scholars and researchers, but educators ACJS has grown with the field, but has also played a critical role in its and practitioners from all areas of the criminal justice system. We did not development. We began 40 years ago as a small group offriends and now do this overnight but through the hard work and dedication of our mem- we are a major voice in criminal justice research, education and practice. bership. We began this quest for recognition ofthe Academy and the field Times have changed and we have been there to lead the change! it represents by being a leading advocate in the activities of the Joint Let me step down off the dias and address another matter. Commission on Criminal Justice Education in 1978-9. The Academy's You have probably heard rumors about the questionable financial health banner and interests were championed by two of our past presidents, of ACJS. Let me dispel those rumors and give you the facts as I see them. Vince Webb and Dick Ward. In the early 80s we began shaping the field In 1998, we decided to move our headquarters from Northern Kentucky with the founding of Justice Quarterly, now arguably the foremost journal University (NKU) where the organization was housed for II years to in the field for disseminating broad-based criminal justice knowledge. Washington, DC. We did this to gain more exposure for the Academy and Jack Greene, John Conley and I formed the original committee that made to become a "player" in crime and criminal justice policy. This move the journal a reality. Times have changed and we have changed! required that we recruit a new organization manager because Patti In the mid-90s we further defined the discipline with the creation of a DeLancey, our manager for 16 years, decided to return to her native state set of Minimum Standards for criminaljustice educational programs. Again, of Nebraska to be closer to her family. It was gratifying to honor Patti one of our past presidents, Mittie Southerland, spearheaded this monu- again at the Awards Luncheon in Boston for her long years of service. mental effort. We created the first scholarly publication outlet for knowl- Although the move was a good idea, it had some major financial edge concerning the role, structure and process of criminal justice educa- consequences. First, rent for our headquarters space went from zero to tion itself, the Journal of Criminal Justice Education. It is now in its 14th $28,000 a year. Also, we increased from 1.5 full-time employees to 2.5 year of publication. employees. The cost of living in Washington, DC is much higher than in In responding to the need to stand for ethical behavior, we were the Northern Kentucky so salaries became a huge cost item. Finally, the first crime/criminal justice scholarly organization to adopt a professional organization's incidental expenses rose dramatically. NKU had covered code of ethics for our members. In addition, our members, always seeking some of our postage and other expenses, and now we had to pay our own to advance knowledge and share best practices, created specialized sec- way. Financially, we were hemorrhaging on all fronts! tions of the Academy and new research journals in fields such as policing, By the end of the 1999-2000 fiscal year, the Academy had a deficit of corrections, international, and juvenile justice. The sections and journals over $81 ,000. To cover expenses, we robbed our endowment and invest- are beginning to emerge as authoritative sources of knowledge and prac- ment accounts. By the end of the next year, our deficit had grown to tice. We were and are by design inclusive, not exclusive. We embrace our $84,000 and we continued to borrow from our reserve accounts to pay the junior college colleagues, our students, our colleagues who practice crimi- bills. The size of the deficit and its deepening trend forced us to reassess continued on page 5 Volume XXVI, Issue 1 ACJSTODAY 3

continued from page 1 policy. This may be largely true of all policy, That is the last thing the five authors in- "mediated," and anything we do is especially but the crime issue is intensely political due tended, but outside of its culture, scholarly vulnerable to policy makers' misuse because to its salience to a mitigated public (read that: caution translates: conclude anything you we do not write in their language. a public that watches TV). We are either part want. of the process, or we have chosen to let oth- For example, The White Paper: " ... the The Current Issue: The discussion now ers do it; and every criminological scholar causes of crime are complex and varied." of our role in policy is not philosophical, but who has taken pen to paper in the last de- The politicians' reaction: "See, they is pragmatic, and directed toward a seem- cade agrees on one main point: those who don't know." ingly specific question: what works. It would have made policy have done so badly. And in case it has escaped anyone's seem that we are not being caught up in a Todd Clear probably has done the most notice, the Republicans are in control. philosophical interpretation that can be used, to promote debate and discussion on the The authors of the White Paper, Todd but an empirical question of what reduces question of the hope of the world, in his roles Clear, any of four newsletter essay writers, crime. What does research, not myth, say as Presidents of both ASC and ACJS, and or almost anyone else who has turned to- will work? But I submit we have not dodged his leadership in establishing the new policy ward the relationship of scholarship and being politicized. Asking what works is ask- oriented journal, Criminology & Public policy, do not want unintended conse- ing the right question, but what we are not Policy. The Criminologist, for a solid year quences of punitive policy, but that could asking, and must ask, is what exactly we after Todd's Presidency, featured lead articles be the result, and it would not be the first should do about it. on the subject, most notably by Marty time. About a generation ago a book was Let us return to my opening point about Schwartz, Pat Van Voorhis, Drew Humphries, written by Andrew Von Hirsh called Just a debate with only one side. The newsletter and finally by Gene Czajkoski. These Deserts, and it turned out to be enormously literature to which I have referred addresses thoughtful pieces generally equated taking influential ... toward longer prison sen- policy as a central question of whether or sides on policy as part of a larger theme of tences. That was not the position of the not to take positions. Ifwe decide to get in- improved professionalism. author. His was a philosophical argument volved in policy, taking positions is doing These essays, taken as a whole, seemed for fair and predictable sentencing, based something about it. Some are for it, some are to say, yes, in the name of reason, we are on crime seriousness, but as is typical of uneasy about it, some say it ought to be done compelled to do something about bad pub- scholarly work it had enough ambiguities, in a limited way, by committees or sections, lic policy; but there was a lack of clarity on subtleties, mixed factual conclusions, that and some say it is selling out, but that is the what to do. The ASC conclusion was to com- conservatives claimed it as their mantra. Just question being addressed. Regrettably, some- mission a small committee, chaired by Jim desserts became retribution, to the rejection thing is missing, and it is a dirty word: poli- Austin, to write a "White Paper," a policy of all utilitarian theories, and retribution be- tics. paper, titled "The Use ofIncarceration in the came severity in the world of policy. ACJS members who read their e-mail at- United States." It was not a paper on ASC And the politicians could, and did, say: tachments know that for about a half a year I policy, so the disclaimer said, although pub- "The criminologists told us to do it." have been trying to find my way as the Leg- lished by ASC, but represented the views About 15 years ago some scholarship islative Liaison that the Board envisioned in only of the five authors. found that much crime was committed by a the move to Washington. I have had a lively Side-stepping the question of whether small percent of repeat offenders. This be- e-mail forum on this subject, and those who this was an intended ASC policy paper or came the career criminal literature and led to respond overwhelmingly favor taking stands. not (it came close), and also side-stepping incapacitation sentencing theories. Putting That is what involvement means, they say, the fact that it was never repeated, the main aside the question of the research's valid- and indeed they do intensely want to be in- problem was that it was not a policy paper. ity, the conclusion was that public safety volved. It was a paper of scholarship-excellent would be enhanced by incapacitating with Taking stands is a legitimate-not illegal scholarship, I might add, written for schol- long prison sentences the small proportion or unethical-means of participation, but it ars-but had no relevance to the world of of persistent offenders. What happened in is far from the only way, and even farther policy. The good news is that no policy policy? Long sentences for all offenders! from the most effective way. I am arguing maker, or advisor or staffer, is ever likely to Somehow the political language translated here against ACJS taking policy positions, read it. They do not read scholarly papers, it career criminals into all criminals. but I am arguing vigorously for the active is not within their culture, and it is easy for The ASC White Paper, just desserts participation of our entire community and that me to understand why. The paper does not theory, and its progeny like the career crimi- ACJS and ASC should be linked and con- tell them what to do. I say "good news" be- nal theory were not written as policy pa- nected with the policy making process. We, cause if they did, they could draw any con- pers, for policy makers; but were scholarly as a community, not as organizations, should clusion on which they were so inclined. A works, for scholars, according to that cul- be in alliance on this (which can only be done Republican elected official who isa member ture. I must say that I do not know what if we do not take stands), and we should be of a House or Senate Judiciary Committee policy makers had read, or had summarized, working with those already engaged in lob- could read this White Paper and conclude or were told, or how they got the message, bying for enlightened crime policies. There that more prisons and longer sentences are but it was used to justify severity, especially are many non-profits in this town that do not justified, and the criminologists told us so. mandatory minimums. It was exploited, or take stands, but they are not here for the continued on page 4 4 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003 continued from page 3 weather. They relinquish nothing in their What can be done? SupposeACJS does it is wise to rely on the power and authority quest for influence. take a position-or a section, a committee, a that we do have and which is considerable, group of individuals-then what? We have and has currency in politics, namely, that we Is it legal? Let's get this issue out of no way to call a press conference. There are are articulate, function comfortably in com- the way. Tax law not only allows non-profits "briefing sessions" in or near the Capitol, plex organizations, are generally willing to to get involved in policy, but encourages it, and if there is a spread of food it is a nice be recognized, and have nerve. Organized in the name of "citizen lobbying." Organiza- event, but in attendance will be very junior minorities have enormous power here. But tions, under their banner, can take positions staffers and a few of us. The press will not we need a stage on which to perform. on issues, specific legislation, even candi- be there (fortunately). We can write a letter There is no question that a permanent dates for office. We can initiate legislation; to the chairs and members of the crime sub- Washington Office is necessary. I am cer- and of course, criticize it (that we have done). committees, but every Washington letter is tainly not the best representative that we We can inform our members of those posi- irradiated, takes a month to get there, and could have, for there are professionals at this tions, and the public, and policy makers. It is arrives crinkly and smelly, and will get a ma- with long experience, but they cost money. I especially appropriate for an educational chine generated reply. E-mails are ignored am free, learning on the job. Want a pro? organization to educate, and not necessar- or even blocked unless from a constituent, Hire one. Raise dues. ily on abstractions, but specific policies, bills, and they get a machine generated reply. Tele- We need a lobbyist, who does not politicians. We can even endorse candidates phone calls invariably get a machine, and "lobby," but who facilitates citizen lobbying for office. We can spend up to 15% of our unless they know you, no reply. We can by the members. The Representative pre- annual budget on citizen lobbying without actually go to see the key Congressional sumably knows what legislative initiatives an audit (I think that is about $50,000). I'm players in their offices, and after a wait we are before the Congress; and also can know not suggesting we should, but we can. Is it will see another very junior staffer who does what new legislation is on the drawing not the essence of democratic government? not have the faintest idea what we are talk- boards. This is learned from key players who The only thing we cannot do is contrib- ing about. are really committee staffers, not elected of- ute to candidates' election campaigns, which Why should any Congressional policy ficials, and by like-minded interest groups is hardly possible. There is great misunder- maker pay attention to our positions? We with their own legislative agendas. standing about this. Non-profits that lose do not have any power, we do not command It is unrealistic to expect criminologists tax exemption are policy advocacy groups enough votes to carry a precinct, or contrib- who have full time jobs and their own re- that are primarily engaged in lobbying. We ute to their campaigns. They should pay at- search and service agendas to be informed are a group engaged in education and re- tention to us because we can guide policy enough about the Washington legislative search and citizen lobbying is, if at all, a small better than the mediated moral panic that machinery to know what to do and when to part of our activities. The issue before us is they are used to, but that mediated public do it. A research finding or conclusion is an ethical issue, not a legal one; and, I be- has clout. We do not. We have reason. In useless, at least for the time being, without a lieve, one of strategy. Washington, what has more influence, legislative initiative on which to attach. We power or reason? Do not answer. are a long way from initiating our own. If we Is it ethical? Even if we had some struc- My point is, we have to know what we know about it soon enough we can contrib- ture whereby the Academy could take posi- are doing politically. We need a strategy ute to its development, not just wait for it to tions, would this be what is best for our- that works, in the Washington culture, not happen and then criticize it (our tradition). selves in our unique role in American soci- ours. In The Criminologist a year ago Gene Prescriptive analysis is unusual for all social ety? We are expected to be disinterested, Czajkoski wrote: "Policy making ... is a scientists, and criminologists are no excep- not uninterested. There are some issues on complicated process involving many com- tion, but it is impossible without knowledge which our research is divided, and some on ponents that are interconnected by commu- of the political system, in addition to the which there is a fair consensus, but less than nication and feedback loops." Amen. criminal justice system, to know where and unanimity. Taking positions would be divi- when it fits. sive. The question is, would it be worth it? The Citizen Lobbying Model: It is not The new journal, Criminology & Pub- In my view there is much to lose in terms of only legal, and recognizable in this culture, lic Policy, does indeed break new ground our internal cohesion and our premise that it is what we intended to do in the first place. toward prescriptive criminal justice analysis, method supercedes results, and little to gain. First, there must be a Washington Office, but the policy recommendations generally Still, any ethical question has to con- and a Representative-currently it is me- are addressed to no ongoing legislative sider the consequences. Divisiveness might who is a coordinator, or liaison, to facilitate work. If the authors of the articles knew of be a price worth paying if it led to substan- the participation of citizens-that is you- developing legislation, they could be so di- tive policy influence. That, I am afraid, is an who participate on your own responsibility, rected. area completely ignored in our literature. using your institutional affiliation for identi- That, of course, is the role ofthe Wash- Policy studies in criminal justice have been, fication, with the authority of your research ington representative, and it is a specializa- to date, about what is good policy-or, more and experience. It is pointless to rely on the tion. What is most important is that our rep- often, bad policy-not how policy is made. authority and power of an organization that resentative understand, and make us under- The time has come. does not have any authority or power. Then stand, that policy makers are not in the posi- Volume XXV!, Issue J ACJSTODAY 5

continued from page 2 tion they are in to make reasoned, research have already been told that the ACJS website trend forced us to reassess our financial situa- driven policy. First of all, good policy in the has been looked at. [They say nice things, tion. When I was 2nd VP, I chaired the Budget, political system is a concept that is compli- but of course there are no policy statements Finance and Audit Conunittee and we made 13 cated and more illusive than meets the eye there.] If we did have policy statements, our reconunendationsto theExecutiveBoardon ways for us who consider only what is good policy website is where they should be. Further- to cut costs and increase revenues. Based upon for the criminal justice system. Politicians at more, website policy statements could be a detailed financial analysis, we determined that one level want to make good policy, but they under the authority of the authors, or sec- we were spending $134 on each member and always ask, according to whom, and with tions, or committees. They must be brief, onlyreceiving$75 in dues annually. Theproblem what fall-out. Their main job in a pluralistic accessible to staff, who are not scholars, wasevenworseregardingthe25%ofourmember- ship who were students. For each student on our society is to balance conflicting interests and but not part of the mediated public either. I books, we lost approximately $110 each year. build consensus for their policies, which is recommend a website attachment that says: We were committed to reducing our costs their idea of what works. "For Hill Staffers." They are quick studies, without reducing membership benefits. We de- and their talent is the ability to process re- cided to move ACJS Today to the Web for a Realistic goals: I am not suggesting search findings of what is good policy with saving of approximately $14,000 in mailing that we surrender to the prevailing political their cultures' need for building consensus costs alone. This issue of A CJS Today will be winds, and turn our research toward what is and legitimacy, i.e., what can get passed. the last one you receive in paper form. Begin- politically popular and manipulate findings We can have an ACJS role, without ning with Volume 26, Issue 2, you will receive that conform (although not unheard of). ACJS having policies. This is a recogniz- an e-rnail message that the latest issue of ACJS There are a number of creative ways that we able model in this town, and its effective- Today is available on the ACJS Web site. It will can become an effective voice and make a ness depends upon the articulateness, tim- be placed on the Web in .pdf form and will look contribution to a rational crime policy, if not ing, and focus of the message. How do we just like the hard copy you have ben receiving entirely driven by our research, at least with- influence them? We talk to them. for the last several years. We will no longer out disregarding it. What we should be look- Policy influence is a relationship, "per- publish the Membership Directory but will ing for is a place at the table. Much of our sonal, based on trust, and late at night." move it onto the Web for easier access by our thinking about our role in crime policy mak- membership. Finally, we have restructured the ing has tended to assume that policy should A Glance at History. Indulge me a per- membership benefits for our student members be decided at our table. sonal reminiscence. I entered my academic and now offer a reduced rate for their member- At what table should we sit? We have career during the Vietnam War. As a gradu- ship that does not include our journals. to work with coalitions. As I have said, this ate student in Political Science I awaited the Included in the 13 recommendations were town has many non-profits with specific response to the war from my academic com- ones to increase the price of our products to be agendas, and many of our members can feel munity which seemed in the best position to more in line with our competitor's products. We a comfortable research-policy fit with their speak with some clarity, for foreign policy increased our library subscription fee for both Justice Quarterly and the Journal of Criminal policy goals. They take policy positions and was where we lived. All around there was Justice Education. We also offered libraries a we can support them, with our research. passion and unreason. When would the bundled package of JQ and JCJE to increase Again, that is where liaison work is needed. political scientists speak out, and say: this subscriptions ofthe latter. These actions proved Also there is the legislative table. Leg- is madness? Policy makers seemed to be very successful. Last year we increased the num- islation works its way through committees, looking for direction. ber of library subscriptions for JQ and dramati- which are influenced by their staffs. They I felt about the war as Gregg Barak did cally increased the number of new subscriptions are the actors with the most interest in ratio- about crime in 1994, that the silence was de- to JCJE. We also increased institutional mem- nal policy, and we can get the ear of the poli- fining, and the results parallel: great trag- bership from $200 to $250 per year and didn't tician through them. Most legislation in our edy. We criminologists like to see ourselves lose an institution. field is assigned to the House and Senate as social scientists, and we anchor our in- I am happy to report that at the close of the Judiciary Committees, and each has a Crime tegrity in our capacity for value free research. 2001-2 year, Mittie Southerland's term of office, Subcommittee. Not only does each elected We need to see ourselves as part of history we generated a surplus of $60,000. This money official have staff, usually with one assigned as well. We have come through a genera- was used to repay some of the funds borrowed to crime policy, but the committees have their tion of crime policy hysteria, the moral panic from our endowment and restricted accounts. own staff, including counsel. There are about that put a stranglehold on bad policy. We This year, we generated a surplus of approxi- a dozen key actors in both chambers who do not want it to happen again. mately $110,000. We have not only reimbursed are the influential crime policy makers, and I know this. When intellectuals are si- all fundsthathad beenborrowedinthe last several we should be able to sit at their table. Ironi- lent, policy is made without reason. Rea- years but also have a healthy reserve to take us cally, they need us. soned policy is the hope ofthe world. Where intothefuture. In short,ourorganizationishealthy They do not read journal articles, or there is no reason, passion alone leads to andon a solidfinancialfooting. books, but they might read summaries. They policies ofviolence. Serving as your president this past year has like to go to web sites and read policy state- beena trulywonderfulexperience. I thankyou for ments, when they have time, late at night. I the opportunity to serve the Academy and you in this capacity. My best wishes to Steve Lab as - he takes over the presidency. I look forward to seeingall of you next year in LasVegas! _ 6 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003

BOOK REVIEW SUBMISSION GUIDELINES FOR ACJS TODAY

• Provide a review that will help the readership determine how useful the book will be for teaching of particular courses.

• Identify how the book is applicable to criminal justice, criminology, sociology, and other related curriculums.

• Identify the courses for which the book will be useful and why.

• Identify the level of students most likely to find the book useful.

• Identify the teaching style most consistent with the book's approach.

• Send reviews to Dr. Laura Myers, the ACJS Today Editor at [email protected].

• Book review should be limited to no more than three (3) single-spaced pages with references in APAstyle.

• Reviews sent as e-mail attachments in Word are acceptable.

• Submission of a review to ACJS Today implies that the review has not been published elsewhere nor is it currently under submission to another publication.

ACJSTODAY SUBMISSIONS

Submissions, in Microsoft Word format, should be e-mailed or sent to: Laura Myers, Professor College of Criminal Justice Visit the ACJS website Sam Houston State University Huntsville, Texas 77341 at: Office Phone: (936) 294-1654 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.acjs.org Volume XXVI, Issue 1 ACJSTODAY 7

POLICE ACCOUNTABILITY: A EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE

by TERRANCE A. JOHNSON, OPA, CBM, CFE Lincoln University of Pennsylvania of American policing. If so, then the need to control of the police was also an important go back to where American policing begins aspect (Hall, 1987), as they were seen as be- Abstract is paramount. Great Britain's contribution ing unmanageable. to American policing is well documented and Because of the similar ongoing police duly noted (see the "Historical Perspective" The shortcomings of traditional police con- misconduct issues in America and Great Brit- in Thibault, Lynch and McBride's (1985), trol through accountability. The term ac- ain, this commentary assesses a perfor- Proactive Police Management, for a de- countability means not only to control the mance-based system that England uses to tailed review on the evolution of American police (Brogden, Jefferson, and Walklate, see if it can be applied to American policing. policing). The relevance of this commentary 1988 and Lustgarten, 1986) but also to pro- The concept employs the idea of using is to explore whether performance-based so- vide justifications for their acts (Stenning, clearly identifiable criteria to measure police lutions apply to law enforcement in the 1995). The British police (like the United activities through audits. This review also United States and England. States police) are controlled through a de- looks at its applicability in the Great Britain terrence-based system that is supported by law enforcement systems. The Reason for the Police in the United rules and regulations. Of course, this method States and England of accountability does not work due to the Introduction lack of clarity in the procedures (Bayley, 1995; The reason for the police in Great Brit- Goldsmith,1991). The problem of police accountability ain. England's concern (like America's dur- To demonstrate what it takes for the old continues to go unanswered. The prime ex- ing the early 1900s) was that she needed to style of law enforcement accountability to amples are the recurring issues of corrup- deal with the growing populations in the cit- work, Stenning (1995) uses the issue of ex- tion and misconduct that plague the voca- ies and the associated crime. " ... There- cessive force as an example: tion. The news media reports on the con- fore, [the Bobbies] diligent enforcement of 1. The law and/or departmental poli- tinuing investigations of the New York City the government's industrial laws ... helped cies are clear on how much force to use un- Police Department (NYPD) concerning its to transform the role of trade unions; their der a variety of circumstances. officers' behavior when dealing with the role as guarantors of public order . . . led 2. The clearly defined laws apply to the Afro-American community, as evidence that them into bitter conflict with picketers and police and hold them accountable for their something is wrong. Moreover, the phenom- demonstrators." This continued as "their actions. enal corruption scandal of the Los Angeles struggle ... [in] the streets of Britain during 3. The reviewers of police actions Police Department (LAPD) regarding its of- the riots of 1981 restored the public peace at have the knowledge of the officers' inten- ficers planting evidence on and providing a time when it looked as though the 'thin tions. false testimony against the same suspects blue line' was all that stood between turmoil Unfortunately, these conditions are al- to secure convictions strengthens the con- and a still nascent Thacherie revolution most never achieved because police policies tention that police malfeasance is alive and (McLaughlin, 1992:474). like these are ambiguous (Chan, 1999). How- well. However, as the uprisings stopped at the ever, attempts at clarifying vague rules have The numerous attempts to correct Ameri- end of the 1980s, the 1990s challenged Great minimum affect (Dixon, 1997; McConville et can law enforcement have failed. The ef- Britain to find solutions on the future of po- al., 1991; Walker, 1993). forts in this regard have been laden in open- licing. This effort was prompted by public The police officers can potentially use ended departmental policies that allow po- opinion polls that indicated a lack oftrust of force everyday (Bittner, 1978; CJC, 1997: lice officers to escape exposure to corrup- the police by the citizenry. Specifically, the Appendix D) and there is little or no guid- tion and misconduct uncovered during ex- issues of police wrongdoing and police bru- ance in this area (CJC, 1997:69 and Goldsmith, ternal investigations conducted by blue rib- tality were at the forefront of the public's 1999). The police are given broad discre- bon police commissions (headed by former concerns (McLaughlin 1992). tionary powers to enforce the law (CJC, judges and prominent attorneys). Although, Great Britain was fighting the same battle 1993a, b) and this complicates the brutality these independent reviews have recom- as the United States in what it wanted from issue. This sets the stage for police officers mended sound changes in policing by un- its police. At the heart of the matter was justifying their actions with what they be- veiling systematic and cultural corruption, whether to continue to concentrate training lieve to be plausible excuses (Dixon 1997; their impact are minimal, at best (see the efforts that taught the police how to "keep Ericson, 1981). Accordingly, the results are Mollen (1994, July) and Christopher Reports the peace" by preparing them for violent that those unclear rules and regulations along (1991, July) on Police Corruption in the NYPD confrontations with the public (Johnson, with non-enforcement provide the police with andLAPD). 1991). Additionally, the heavy emphasis on an opportunity to rationalize bad acts. Can anything work? Perhaps the solu- rank and file hierarchy cemented the idea that tion to solving misconduct lies in the origin continued on page 8 8 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003

The "New Police Accountability" Concept punishment and does using the following (Bayley, I995; Goldsmith, 1991) because of (Chan,1999): unclear rules and wide discretionary author- The "new accountability" factor as an an- 1. Defining the appropriate level offorce ity that allows police officers to escape ex- swer to police corruption. While public policy to use in specific situations. posure to bad behavior (Dixon, 1997; reform has been an American objective, it 2. Inspections, audits and performance Erickson, 1981). The lack of a defined ac- has not been denied entrance abroad. The reviews are necessitated to ensure standards countability mechanism under the old-fash- economic rationalist and managerial concerns are maintained and police training reinforces ioned legal deterrence strategy for the po- on public policy and administration in Great the proper practice. lice constituted a need for using traditional Britain (Miller & Rose, 1990; Power, 1997) 3. Information is used from law enforce- business techniques (0' Malley, 1996; Rose, substantiate that there is a serious debate ment activities (like surveillances, com- 1996). The use of measurable standards in on this matter in Europe as in the United plaints, audits and other sources) to effec- assessing the police officers' activities drove States. tively evaluate high-risk officers and situa- this theory. The auditing of police activities A private industry approach drives the tions and refine prevention strategies. developed from this idea and brought the idea of self-regulation through auditing The assessment of this system is not review of citizen complaints and input from (O'Malley, 1996; Rose, 1995). The efficiency available; however, two unintended conse- the community to the forefront (Chan, 1997a). and effectiveness concepts of the business quences occur. The first involves the cre- The new accountability system of curb- world and a market or quasi-market condi- ation of special units to address account- ing police misconduct is untested and has tion bring forth this idea to government. ability requirements, while the remainder of resulted in two unintended results (Chan, England's New Public Management (NPM) the operation moves forward. Thus, ac- 1999). Still, non-believers of this idea finger idea borrows the strategies of private indus- countability (like traditional oversight units) the managerialist avenue it takes to achieve try by focusing on " ... cost control, finan- is dismissed as just a reflection of manage- "market-oriented" goals (Davids & Hancock, cial responsibility, the automation of organi- ment. The second unintended consequence 1998) as a potential problem. zational sub-units, the decentralization of involves self-regulation on the accountabil- The new police accountability system management authority and the accountabil- ity unit's own performance (Chan, 1999). objective is to reduce risk instead of punish- ity to customers for the quality of service by Nonetheless, critics of the new account- ing and uses standard criterion that can be creating performance indicators" (Power, ability theory point to the "managerialist" measured. This practice is applicable to many 1997:43). method and argue against its market-ori- professions. Law enforcement, however, is The public reform idea of government ented belief of assigning responsibility not one such profession because the police produces a new type of police accountabil- (Davids & Hancock, 1998) as an impediment. officer must react to highly stressful and vio- ity. This is the reason for shifting from the Nevertheless, under the old and new ac- lent situations that require split-second pre- traditional legal and disciplinary system to countability system, the occupational cul- cision. It is difficult to assign measurable an accountability theme of clearly definable ture of policing stands in the way of any audit standards to these types of scenarios. and audible factors to assess the perfor- reform, which "excuses and encourages The environment under in which the mance of police officers (Chan, 1999). abuse of power" (Bayley, 1995). Thus, the police officer must act can never be recre- The view shifts from legal or public opin- cultural changes in policing are difficult to ated and therefore the audit team could never ion standards to managerial criterion. The correct (Chan, 1997a) under both systems. fairly assess what happened absent the en- external oversight concept (of American po- vironmental factors. licing) is combined with self-policing rather Analysis and Conclusion The police spend a tremendous amount than centralized oversight and advocates risk of time driving around and observing what management rather than rule enforcement England and the United States shared is going on, and interacting with the public. (Chan, 1999). A commitment to a rational way similar issues about policing. Both coun- On the surface, this activity appears to be a of fiscal responsibility is at the core of the tries found it difficult to define the role of waste oftime; however, it is a standard way accountability idea. the police. McLaughlin told us that Great of deterring crime. The auditors, perhaps, A redirection of self-oversight shows a Britain faced a crisis in the J 990s because may not be able to correctly measure the ef- support to move the control factor deeper its police were too brutal for the time; how- fectiveness. into the organizational structure and pairing ever, this behavior served well during The audit unit is absorbed by the orga- it with systems that can be audited (Powers, England's age of internal strife. Johnson nization and regarded as a prostheses arm 1997). A special agency would be established remarked how American policing's prepara- of management in which it is put on and taken to measure the performance-based criteria de- tion of its police officers for the same type off when convenient. The audit unit is self- veloped to critique objectives. This agency of physical confrontations with the public policed and may seize the opportunity to self would review police complaints, consult with was an identifiable attribute of England's promote its existence by unfairly reviewing the stakeholders, and monitor the organiza- dilemma. police actions. Therefore, this idea is rejected tion through audits (Chan, 1999): The emphasis on America's (Hall, 1987) for applicability, reliability and validity in and Great Britain's policing system to main- American policing. Assessing the new police accountabil- tain control is an additional similarity. The Finally, the culture of policing rears its ity standards. The new accountability model old way of controlling the police (at one time ugly head in the United States and Great is concerned with reducing risk rather than fostered by both countries) does not work Britain's law enforcement systems. Conse- Volume XXVI, Issue 1 ACJS TODAY 9 quently, any attempt to change it (even un- Goldsmith,A. (1991). External Review Major New Developments in der a system of accountability measured in and Self-Regulation: Police Accountability performance-based objectives policing) and the Dialectic of Complainants (Ed.). Criminal Justice at meets resistance (Bayley, 1995; Chan, 1999). Complaints against the Police. Oxford: Norwich University Clarendon Press. References Hall, D.T. (1987). Careers and Socializa- Norwich University announces the tion. Journal of Management 13(2), 301- creation of the National Center for the Bayley, D. (1995). Getting Serious about 321. Study of Counter-Terrorism & Cyber- Police Brutality. In P. Stenning (Ed.), Ac- Johnson, T.A. (2001). An Investigation Crime at its Northfield, Vermont cam- countability for Criminal Justice: Selected to Determine if the Culture and Subculture pus. The Center, federally chartered Essays. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. of Policing Stymie the Profession s Attempt under recently passed legislation spon- Bittner, E. (1978). The Function of the to Reform. Unpublished dissertation. The sored by Senator Patrick Leahy ofVer- Police in Modem Society. In P. Manning and Wayne Huizenga Graduate School at Nova mont, who chairs the Senate Judiciary 1. Maanen (Eds.), Policing: A Viewfrom the Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL. Committee, will serve as a national re- source and research facility for the iden- Street. Santa Monica: California: Goodyear. Lustegarten, L. (1986). The Governance tification, analysis and evaluation of new Brogden, J.T. & Walklate S. (1988). In- of the Police. London: Sweet and Maxwell. technologies to be used in the war McLaughlin, E. (1990). Community, Po- troducing Police Work. London: Unwin against terrorism and associated cyber- Hyman. licing and Accountability: A Case Study of crime. The goal of the Center is to en- Chan, 1.B.L. (1997a). Changing Police Manchester 1981-88 Ph.D. Theses. Faculty hance the United States' ability to re- Culture: Policing in a Multicultural Soci- Law: University of Sheffield. spond to terrorist and cyber-crime ety. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. McConville, M., Sanders, A., & Leng, threats directed toward the nation and Chan, 1.B.L. (1999). Governing Police R. (1991). The Casefor the Prosecution: Po- its allies. The Center will also act as a Practice: Limits of the New Accountability. lice, Suspects and the Construction of national education center for counter- Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. Criminality. London: Routledge. terrorism and cyber-crime education and Christopher, W. (J 991, July). Indepen- McLaughlin, E. (1992). The Democratic training. Leahy's legislation for the new dent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Deficit: European Union and the Account- national Center at Norwich University Department, Los Angeles. ability ofthe British Police. British Journal combines two of his top priorities, pro- Criminal Justice (CJC). (1997). Reducing of Criminology 32(4).473-487. tection against terrorism and cyber- Police-Civilian Conflict: An Analys is of As- Miller,P.,&Rose,N. (1990).GovemingEco- crime, as chairman of the committee that sault Complaints against Queenland Po- nomic Life.Economy and Society 19(1), 1-32. oversees the Justice Department and all lice. Brisbane: Goprint. Mollen, M. (J 994, July). Commission federal law enforcement programs. Criminal Justice (CJC). (1993a). Report Report to Investigate Allegations of Police The Department of Justice Studies on a Review of Police Powers in Queenland: Corruption and the Anti-Corruption Proce- at Norwich University also announces Volume II: Entry, Search and Seizure. dures ofthe Police Department, New York. a new on-line Master of Justice Admin- Brisbane: Goprint. 0' Malley, P. (1996). Post-Social Crimi- istration (MJA) degree, which will en- roll its first students in January 2003. The Criminal Justice (CJC). (1993b). Report nologies. Criminal Justice 8(1), 26-38. MJA curriculum is unique in combining on a Review of Police Powers in Queenland: Power, M. (1997). The Audit Society: criminal justice and public administration Volume III: Arrest Without Warrant, Demand Rituals of Verification. Oxford: Oxford Uni- in a 36-credit hour program structured Name and Address and Move on Powers. versity Press. around six core seminars. Students com- Brisbane: Goprint. Rose, N. (1996). The Death of the So- plete seminar work on-line and attend a Davids, c., & Hancock, L. (1998). Polic- cial? Re-figuring for Territory ofGovemment. professional capstone conference on the ing, Accountability, and Citizenship in the Economy and Society 25(3),327-56. Norwich Campus at the end of the pro- Market State. Australian and New Zealand Stenning, P. (1995). The Accountability gram. The MJA was designed around Journal of Criminology. 31(1).38-68. for Criminal Justice; Selected Essays. the contemporary justice professional's Dixon, D. (1997). Law in Policing: Le- Toronto: University of Toronto Press. schedule and skills needed to be an ef- gal Regulation and Police Practices. Ox- Thibault, EA, Lynch, L.M., & McBride, fective manager, policy maker and ford: Clarendon Press. R.B. (1985). Proactive Police Management. leader. The on-line format and intensive Ericson, R. (1981). Rules for Police De- Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. seminars allows degree completion in viance. In C. Shearing (Ed.), Organizational Walker, S. (1993). Training the System: less than two years with additional cer- Police Deviance. Toronto: University of The Control of Discretion in Criminal Jus- tificates of advanced graduate study in Toronto Press. tice 1950-1990. Oxford: Oxford University policy, public administration, information Goldsmith, A. (1999). An Important Con- Press. assurance, and terrorism studies avail- ceit: Law, Culture and the Regulation of Po- • able for those who wish to pursue spe- lice Violence. In T. Coady, S. James and S. cialization. For more information please Miller (Eds.), Violence and Police Culture. visit the On-line MJA website at Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. www.norwich.edu/mjaorcalll-800-NU ONLINE (686-6546). 10 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003

BOOK REVIEWS

Palmer, T. (2002). Individualized Interven- specifically for this population, with an em- ciology, forensic psychology, and tion with Young Multiple Offenders, New phasis on treatment modality. criminology). York: Routledge. Teaching Utility for Academic Courses While this text is a terrific resource in Reviewer: CARRIE M. HARTER the above named courses, it would best Sam Houston State University Experimental methodology is employed serve as a supplement to a text more com- to evaluate individualized approaches for in- prehensive in these areas. This text covers an array of issues re- tervention. Currently, most research con- lated to individualized treatment for juvenile ducted in criminal justice, sociology, and Academic Level offenders. Few texts have provided specific education utilize survey research, therefore, details on effective treatment procedures for including experimental studies in the evalu- The text is appropriate for the upper- this population, and few have provided lon- ation of juvenile offender programs offers level undergraduate and master's level gitudinal data on program effectiveness. more rigorous research in these fields of courses. The student should have a good Individualized Intervention with Young study. understanding of statistics, a basic under- Multiple Offenders has achieved both, which Academic courses that would benefit standing of research methodology, and some makes it a refreshing addition to the current from this text include those that can capital- comprehension of the study of juvenile de- body of literature onjuvenile crime and of- ize on the utility of these methods. Courses linquency. At the graduate level, students fenders. This text offers solid data on com- related to juvenile delinquency andjuvenile would be better able to synthesize and evalu- ponents of effective individualized treatment justice would be optimal, however, this book ate data, in addition to applying strategies through experimental research. could be applied to courses in research meth- outlined in the book for ideas regarding their The purpose for this review is to ad- ods. The author presents impressive ap- own research. dress the book's teaching utility for academic proaches to analyzing and evaluating inter- courses; its applicability to criminal justice vention outcomes of individualized treat- Professional Teaching Style and other related fields; the types of courses ment that can benefit both quantitative and that can utilize its content; the academic level qualitative research. The instructor can ad- The style of teaching most effective in appropriate for its inclusion; and professo- dress the importance of qualitative data to maximizing information in this book varies rial teaching styles most consistent with its supplement and/or pursue curious findings depending on the academic level at which design. In addition, content and relevance from statistical measures. Qualitative meth- the course is offered. At the undergraduate to the study of juvenile delinquency will be ods, such as focus groups and interviews level, lecture in combination with small-group addressed. with incarcerated youth, can substantiate interaction can help students to understand Individualized Intervention with Young experimental and survey methods. For ex- and integrate the material. At the graduate Multiple Offenders is designed to provide ample, qualitative measures can be utilized level, large group or seminar format would longitudinal data on individualized interven- in current research as a precursor to more be effective as an informal approach to ana- tion for serious juvenile offenders, based on rigorous quantitative methods at different lyzing and evaluating intervention ap- data provided by a community-based cor- stages of program evaluation. The follow- proaches. rectional project. The California Youth Au- ing undergraduate and graduate courses The professor should be aware of his- thority, a state-operated agency, governed would be most applicable: torical trends in treatment intervention for the project for a period of almost 40 years. incarcerated youth and be able to compare The specific name of the program was called Undergraduate textual information with current journal ar- the Community Treatment Project, or CTP, 1. Juvenile Delinquency; ticles. and it was designed to determine whether or 2. Special Needs and Special Offenders; not serious juvenile offenders could be prop- 3. Intermediate Research Methods in Content erly supervised within their communities Criminal Justice (or in the fields of so- without incarceration. Three different loca- ciology, forensic psychology, and The outline of the book provides stages tions over the course ofthe project provided criminology); of intervention according to year and loca- experimental data on the success ofindividu- tion. The chronological order makes the alized intervention over more traditional in- Graduate phases of intervention easy to understand stitutionalized methods. While the Informa- 1. Juvenile Offenders; and the data collection at eachjuncture logi- tion contained in this text is extremely help- 2. Advanced Research Methods in cal. Subsequent to chapters on interven- ful to practitioners, adopting it for academic Criminal Justice Research Methods in tion, the author presents theoretical and ethi- course value will take a course designed Criminal Justice (or in the fields of so- cal trends that allow the information to be- VolumeXXVI, Issue 1 ACJSTODAY 11 come tangible to practitioners and academi- diction. Alternately, most mental health prac- plexities surrounding couples affected by cians. He concludes with perspectives on titioners are keenly aware that family/ addiction problems. Notably, one article is the benefits of community-based individu- couples therapy has been shown to be written by the acclaimed Virginia Satir, a vir- alized intervention. The findings reinforce highly effective in treating those who battle tual guru within the marriage and family consistent benefits over the past several addiction issues but are not well-versed on therapy literature. Satir provides insight into decades by handling troubled juveniles with the true extent by which substance abuse how therapists can prepare for their first ses- individualized community-approaches. This problems aggravate crime statistics. sion with a client so as to maximize their was a great way to accent intervention find- This anthology, edited by Barbara therapeutic effectiveness. This is important ings presented throughout the book, and to Brothers, demonstrates how disparate fields because the first session can set the tone reinforce the utility of research in the field. such as marriage counseling, substance for the entire therapeutic relationship; thus The text includes an index entitled, "Er- abuse addiction, and criminal justice can having a substantial impact on the likelihood rata, Index, and Further Readings for Indi- share interlinking points of concern. This is of treatment success. vidualized Intervention with Young Multiple apparent even though this anthology is One chapter explores the developmen- Offenders." The author explains that this largely written with the marriage counselor tal process of intimacy in addictive couples, addition was included after the book's hasty in mind. Issues from several disciplines are going beyond the typical psychopathology release as a result of the national crisis on brought together but the clinical concerns associated with substance abuse problems. September 11,2001. Consequently, certain and terminology place heavy emphasis on Specific focus is placed on substance ad- chapters were not proofed for errors. Al- the counseling process. This makes this diction and the clinical dimensions that must though the separate index is somewhat in- book a bit unorthodox when observed from be recognized in couples' therapy. Dynam- convenient, the author has provided extreme the perspective ofthe criminal justice prac- ics and processes between intimate dyads detail in which to compensate for chapter titioner. However, this does not detract from are discussed as is the growth toward mistakes. The author also provided useful the text's utility in meeting the therapeutic healthy partnering among addicted couples. references for supplementary readings. needs of many clients of the criminal justice Treatment interventions in this chapter rely system. This is because most offenders do on behavioral couples' therapy with relevant Summary not live in a social vacuum. Rather, offend- case studies that illustrate the implementa- ers have social networks and significant tion of behaviorist interventions. This par- This book is an excellent addition to others just as do non-offenders. This is an ticular form of intervention, with its empha- courses related to juvenile delinquency, and important point to keep in mind when dis- sis on concrete and measurable indicators is an effective example of experimental re- cussing issues of treatment for substance- of success, is likely to appeal to most crimi- search with juvenile offenders. The special- addicted offenders. nal justice practitioners. These types of in- ized nature of the book yields its applicabil- Practitioners reading this book will gain terventions dovetail nicely with most crimi- ity as a supplemental text, but nonetheless, a greater appreciation for treatment modali- nal justice concerns and make for an effec- the book is a much-needed resource in the ties that go beyond simple group and indi- tive community supervision intervention for area of juvenile delinquency. The author has vidual counseling for substance-addicted offenders suffering from addiction. done an excellent job in outlining the stages offenders under their supervision. Thus, in- A particularly unusual contribution sets of intervention in conjunction with corre- tervention specialists, caseworkers, and out to explain the adaptive functions, both sponding research efforts. community supervision personnel can all physiologically and emotionally, oflove that • benefit from this book. This anthology is is experienced by couples. This is impor- also likely to be useful for those practitio- tant because many couples contend that ners and scholars who deal with marital and they do indeed love one another, but when family violence issues. Given that sub- hard-pressed, many cannot give specific Brothers, B. J. (2002). Couples, Intimacy stance abuse problems correlate with do- reasons why. This article provides an inter- Issues, and Addiction, New York: The mestic abuse, an anthology designed to pro- esting viewpoint on the functional elements Haworth Press. vide services to chemically addicted couples oflove between couples, showing that love, can serve as an excellent supplementary as an emotion, serves as a buffer to many of Reviewer: ROBERTHANSER source in treating violence within the fam- the stressors in our day-to-day living. University of Louisiana ily. Aside from specific issues, the selec- Another article points toward the tions are highly useful for any practitioner means by which addictions destroy both in- It is commonly understood among most working with couples affected by substance dividuals and their intimate relationships. criminal justice practitioners and scholars abuse. This article demonstrates how one member that substance abuse plagues a significant The initial chapters of this book pro- of the couple, ostensibly non-addicted, will portion of the offending population. How- vide the reader with extensive detail on the stay together in the hope that their partner ever, many criminal justice practitioners are intricate dynamics of any couple relation- will eventually abstain from their substance unaware that couples/family intervention ship. While not necessarily related directly abusing behavior. This article is unique be- approaches have been shown to be more cause it includes the marriage therapist in to substance abuse, these initial contribu- effective than individual and group coun- an area of intervention often considered the tions serve to lay the groundwork for sub- seling when treating substance abuse ad- sole domain of the addictions counselor. sequent chapters that demonstrate the com- 12 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003

This article provides specific techniques and This form of problem-based learning is interventions with case illustrations to dem- intended to develop student problem-solv- onstrate effective use with clients. This spe- ing ability using knowledge and skills ac- cific contribution likewise has several sig- quired from their reading. Cases such as nificant points that interrelate with co-de- those presented in this anthology provide pendency issues common to couples where contextualized learning, rather than learn- one member is a drug abuser. ing that is disassociated from pragmatic Other contributions deal with a contexts. This type ofleaming, particularly variety of concerns that couples may present when dealing with therapeutically oriented Editorial Staff to the treatment specialist. Problems with skills, requires students to apply course Editor: extramarital affairs are covered and show content to practically based scenarios. Us- Laura Myers how substance addiction can lead to affairs ing the case scenarios in each article, in- Director of Research and Professor of indiscretion. In the opposite vein, it is structors can teach students methods of College of Criminal Justice also shown how marital affairs can lead to clinical intervention that address those un- Sam Houston State University poor coping strategies such as substance Huntsville, Texas 77341 abuse in an attempt to relieve guilt and anxi- derlying problems that aggravate the addic- (936) 294-1654 ety. Some contributions are particularly in- tion, thereby generating more accurate as- [email protected] sightful for the intervention specialist be- sessments in determining the prognosis for cause they point toward specific techniques each couple. It is through this effective treat- Publication Specialist: that can be used with couples. The use of ment orientation that the criminal justice Kay Billingsley dream analysis and facilitated imagery are practitioner can achieve their ultimate ob- examples of these unique but highly appli- jective when dealing with substance abuse; College of Criminal Justice cable approaches to couples therapy. the eventual amelioration of drug problems. Sam Houston State University From the standpoint of • Huntsville, Texas 77341 criminal justice education, this book is likely (936) 294-1689 to be most suited for specialized courses [email protected] that deal with case treatment planning and/ or assessment, family violence, rehabilita- OFFICIAL COLOR Book Review Editor: tion, and/or other treatment related con- ANNOUNCEMENT Cary Adkinson cerns. However, this book is also ideal, and College of Criminal Justice should be required as a supplementary read- BLUE FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE Sam Houston State University ing, for any graduate level counseling course Huntsville, Texas 77341 on marriage and family therapy. It is impor- Please note that the discipline of (936) 294-1654 tant to add that though this book addresses criminal justice has officially [email protected] addiction issues among couples, the spe- adopted the color DARK BLUE for cific type of addiction is not restrained to all discipline related regalia. ACJS Today is published four times a year chemical dependency. Indeed, addictions (January/February, May/June, September/ with gambling, sexual intercourse, and other October and NovemberlDecember). Copy- compulsive behaviors could be addressed right © 2000 by the Academy of Criminal Jus- as well. The collection's main points are tice Sciences. All rights reserved. Distrib- applicable to any form of treatment plan- uted to all current members of ACJS. ning that address difficulties between Inquiries: Address all correspondence con- couples. UPCOMING ACJS cerning editorial materials to: Editor, ACJS Because of its specialized nature, this ANNUAL MEETINGS Today, c/o Professor Laura Myers, College supplementary reading is perhaps most of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State Uni- suited to graduate level education. For versity, Huntsville, Texas 77341 • (936) 294- graduate programs in counseling or marriage Las Vegas, 1654. and family therapy, this book is perfect. Nevada Postmaster: Please send all address However, this book will fill a limited but March 9-13, 2004 changes to: ACJS Today, c/o Laura Monaco, needed, niche within the criminal justice 7319 Hanover Parkway, Suite C, Greenbelt, arena. Professors who employ a case method Chicago, Maryland 20770. oflearning are likely to get effective results Illinois from this supplement. In fact, several of the March 15-19, 2005 Membership: For information concerninq articles are designed as clinical cases, where ACJS membership and advertising materials, the writer explains the symptomology and/ contact Laura Monaco, 7319 Hanover Park- or underlying problems between the couple Baltimore, way, Suite C, Greenbelt, Maryland 20770 or visit our website at http://www.acjs.org. and then discusses strategies used for treat- Maryland ment. February 28-March 4, 2006 Volume XXVI, Issue 1 ACJSTODAY 13

TEACHING CRIMINAL JUSTICE DEBATE

References department (even though it had a huge num- ber of students and published faculty). So- Note from the Editor: The debate on Deflem, M. (2002a). Teaching criminal jus- ciology was dying and they had the politi- the teaching of criminal justice that has tice in liberal arts education: A sociologist's cal power to take it. There are two points emerged in the last couple of A CJS To- confessions. ACJS Today 22(2),1,3-5. that I will suggest why CJ needs to become day issues has created a few responses Detlem, M. (2002b). Reply to "Reply." an academic and valued discipline. from the membership. Thanks to those A CJS Today 22(4), 10-11. I. Criminal justice issues can be the decid- of you who have taken the time to ex- Hemmens, C. (2002a). Teaching criminal ing factor in political races. Issues rang- press your views on this important sub- justice: Reply to a sociologist. ACJS Today ing from the death penalty to the 2nd ject and especially thanks to Mathieu 22(4),8-10. Amendment can become key concerns, Detlem and Craig Hemmens, both of Hemmens, C. (2002b). Independence day: nullifying education, war, and the whom have demonstrated the commit- Rejoinder to Professor Detlem. ACJS Today economy. If Americans feel so strongly ment to criminal justice education that 22(4),11-12. about such issues, it gives validity to has inspired me to serve as the editor the major. Rodney King and Waco have ofACJS Today. Mathieu Deflem had a far reaching impact on the way the University of South Carolina electorate views the government. 2. If we could start a CJ department from - scratch, we could make a real effort to With respect to a debate which I had origi- You [Dr. Laura Myers, editor ACJS To- have the degree be meaningful (and a nally envisioned to be about the teaching day], like Mathieu Detlem, asked for com- high school graduate would not be eli- of criminal j ustice (Detlem 2002a), I regret to ments. CJ has problems, primarily because gible for the jobs our graduates could again have to bring up more elementary of its roots. CJ departments were a response get). There is a dearth of financial inves- matters in light of the comments made by to $, without academic integrity. When LEEP tigators in this country. Having talked Craig Hemmens (2002a, b; Detlem 2002b). started, tuition and books were paid for with FBI and IRS supervisors, they feel Anybody is always welcome to agree or dis- those who would go into the CJ system. there are about 2500 truly competent in- agree with my statements, but I would hope Most ofthe jobs available in CJ only require vestigators in this area in the entire law they do so without being offensive and with- a high school degree. Since employers don't enforcement network. Instead of accoun- out distorting my ideas. Yet Hemmens has value the degree, teachers dumbed down tants being recruited and taught CJ, CJ misrepresented my ideas in every conceiv- courses to make it easier for students to departments should push for a five-year able way and he does so again in his Re- pass. The more money (tutition) you bring degree where CJ students with a knowl- joinder, not so much by misspelling my in, the more your department expands (as edge of health care fraud, stock manipu- name, but most strikingly precisely then does you salary and rank). There are still a lation, and white collar crime also are able when he categorically denies taking any large number of Cl programs that are diploma to get their CPA. There could be another quotes out of context. I ask the reader only mills. A colleague of mine who is a lieuten- track involving the use of computer in- to read what is written. Hemmens writes that ant in a law enforcement department has formation systems and analyzing intelli- "[Deflem] says that he decided to 'teach taken over a high profile unit in investiga- gence. Instead of preparing our majors what would surely be the easiest class any- tions. He was told he could hire an intelli- for the local twenty-person police de- body could ever take at the university' and gence analyst and have input into the quali- partments, we should be aiming at the to advertise the course as 'easy, fun, and a fications for selection. He listed an M.S. Office of Homeland Security. wonderful opportunity to watch me sell out degree and asked me what majors he should Vance McLaughlin, Director of Planning big time'" (Hemmens 2002b, p. 11). In fact, include. When I mentioned a CJ degree he Savannah Police Department _ however, the original statement in my essay balked. I asked him what his objection was. is as follows: "My immediate reaction was He said he had an associate's degree in CJ Having been kicked out of a doctoral pro- to teach what would surely be the easiest and knew that CJ courses were so unde- gram in sociology for not being "sociologi- class anybody could ever take at the uni- manding that someone with that background cal" enough in my pursuit of a CJ-related versity. I also decided to recruit heavily from would not be prepared for the demands of dissertation, and salvaging myself at extra the courses I was teaching at the time, ad- the job. expense by picking up a Ph.D. in criminol- vertising the course as easy, fun, and a won- The comments that Craig Hemmens ogy later, I can relate to the issues raised by derful opportunity to 'watch me sell out big made about sociology only offering CJ Profs. Hemmens & Detlem. Since 1993, I've time!' Yet,fortunately, that is not what hap- courses to get students is right on the taught in three CJ departments. One was pened, for from the seeds of spite grew what money. When I taught at UNCC, I was not headed by a tenured person with a master's would be a great experience for the students allowed to teach criminology, even though degree who saw to it that no new folks would and their instructor alike" (Detlem 2002a, p. I had my master's in criminology. Only soci- stay long unless they constantly bom- 3, emphases added). I ask readers only to ology could teach that course. At Penn State, barded him with praise over how his police read, especially before they write. where I got my Ph.D., they got rid ofthe CJ experience qualified him to be the same as a

continued on page 14 14 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003 continued from page 13

Ph.D. The second was a CJ program capti- Campbell, and wonderment leads me to some There are a number of disciplines vated by a sociology department, and it kept personal confessions. wherein every significant idea is borrowed tight control over CJ precisely because of I have no high school diploma. I never from a more established discipline and there the enrollment and budgetary reasons even finished the ninth grade-a typical are continual battles between the practitio- Hemmens points out. I am now in ajustice result of public education for an Indian kid ners and scholars: business, education, jour- studies program, and the only Ph.D. in rural Oklahoma. When] came to higher nalism, and yes, criminal justice. One rea- amongst a faculty of J.D.s, and the 1.D.s education without even a OED certificate, I son a J.D. is as good a proxy for the talents have done everything from play their "ex- discovered that only Research 1 schools we seek in faculty as the Ph.D. is because perience" card to having the A.B.A. or re- would give me the time of day. The lower on one of those more established disciplines lated bodies bombard my administration the academic food chain, the less likely I from which all of the disciplines above bor- with reasons why J.D.s are the same as could get admitted. My academic record row is law. Ph.D.s. I am also a bit concerned about ac- from the University of Texas at Austin says But, good grief! This conversation is not crediting bodies, such as the Southern As- "basis for admission: individual approval." about what makes a good professor but sociation of Colleges and Schools, which I was turned down at several lesser places. rather what can create the appearance of a seem to have some ambiguous ideas about The other school that offered me an ap- good professor! I thought such nonsense whether or not the J.D. is the same as the pointment with an admissions officer was would disappear in the magic of anonymous Ph.D. and the appropriate terminal degree. I the University of Chicago, but I broke the peer review. Why rely on any proxy? Hire think Prof. Deflem's argument for "bridge appointment because Chicago (city of) people based on their publications and their building" is naive. It does nothing to re- scared the daylights out of this small town presentations. Academia has a very long lieve the deep, heartfelt sense of betrayal boy. probationary period. It should be possible that Ph.D.s in CJ feel over being dominated Academia is my second career and I do in five years to judge substance. That re- by non-Ph.D.s and Ph.D.s in other disci- not pretend to understand the turf wars. It quires a critical mass of smart people who plines who cover up their interloper role by seems to me self-evident that criminal jus- are not threatened by incoming smart acting as gatekeepers. I would be interested tice will get respect when it attracts the best people. If! knew how to achieve that critical in working organizationally to remedy this students rather than simply the most stu- mass, I would be happy to share that infor- problem. dents and when criminal justice literature mation, but the best I can say is that you rises to the level of the more established will have about the same chance with a half Dr. Tom O'Connor disciplines. I hope I am contributing some- dozen randomly selected 1.D.s as with a simi- North Carolina Wesleyan College thing, but it's hard not to notice that none lar number ofPh.D.s, but the former would • of the subjects on which I have published leave you short on quantitative methods. made it into double digits in Professor We are not supposed to select at ran- Robinson's analysis of the papers read in dom, are we? Before reluctantly contributing to the Anaheim-unless you count the one article I was able to get into better schools as a rebarbative discussion about credentials to in the Journal of Criminal Justice Educa- high school dropout because the better teach criminal justice, I must first offer my tion where I stood up for the lowly J.D .. schools had made their reputations and condolences to Professor Hemmens about Professor Hemmens suggests that J.D.s could afford to take a chance based on my the size of his school loans, but I also want who want to teach prove it by spending the presentation of self. 1.D.s are more easily to assure him that I had nothing to do with money to acquire aPh.D. My proof of com- accepted at better criminal justice depart- advocating the policies that caused him to mitment certainly came with a similar price ments for the same reason. Joseph Campbell incur those debts. As a matter of fact, that is tag. I bought life memberships in ACJS and could teach at Sarah Lawrence but probably my main purpose in writing. ASC because I knew with my coming 2/3 could not have made the first cut ("mini- Hemmens cited me for the proposition pay cut I was not going to be able to afford mally qualified") at MiskatonicA&M Teach- that the J.D. is "a substitute for" a Ph.D., the dues. I had to quit the ABA over dues. I ers College. If you have the substance, you and I am moved to disputation. The citation pony up for the Law & Society Association can take risks with outward appearances. is correct, but this duck is willing to sit still because I can't do without it. I am not sure exactly how criminal jus- for an even clearer shot. I will go far beyond When I interviewed at what became my tice can get the respect it is trying to claim the parity argument. A Ph.D. is taken to be a first full-time academic post, one of the sooner rather than later. My best guess is substitute for proven ability to publish re- mucky-mucks told me to my face the only the debate should shift to how to deserve search, educate students, and perform com- reason I was short-listed was because I hold respect rather than how to appear to de- munity service. The J.D. can be at least as an advanced degree in addition to the J.D .. serve it. I apologize in advance to anyone I useful a proxy if supplemented with a dol- Another told me the only reason I was short- have offended with these remarks. Personal lop of common sense. Academia should not listed was because I was published. (At that affront is not my intent. I only wish to say be a last refuge for failed lawyers, but it time, one refereed journal article, five law to those who care to listen that continued should not be a last refuge for failed re- journal articles, and miscellaneous other struthious behavior carries its own penalty. searchers either. My interest in this dispute things.) I was wondering if! really wanted over what constitutes an appropriate union to teach badly enough to put up with such Judge Steve Russell card is limited, but I wonder at any defini- patronizing nonsense. I did. Indiana University at Bloomington tion of "scholar" that excludes Joseph • Volume XXVI, Issue 1 ACJSTODAY 15

POLICY FOR PROFIT: THE PRIVATE-PRISON INDUSTRY'S INFLUENCE OVER CRIMINALJUSTICE LEGISLATION by JOEL CAPLAN read a private prison conference invitation industry. Between 1995 and 1999, the fed- Rutgers University letter, "profits are to be made-profits from eral inmate population increased over 30 crime. Get in on the ground floor of this percent and private prisons were used to Abstract booming industry now" (Mauer, 1999: 10)1. ease the pressure within federal facilities The modem private prison industry is pow- (Camp & Gaes, 2002; Cheung, 2002; Mattera Private prisons claim to be able to house erful and it thrives on prisoners (Shichor, & Khan, 1999). The United States Immigra- prisoners at significant savings compared 1998). This clash of interests between the tion and Naturalization Service (INS) was to government-run facilities. Therefore, pri- need to reduce the prison population and the first government agency to use private vate prisons have been used for several the desire for profits will almost ensure that prisons (Austin & Coventry, 1999). In 1997, the Federal Bureau of Prisons (FBOP) con- decades to reduce the strains on over- private firms will seek to maintain an increas- tracted with the Wackenhut Corporation to crowded public facilities. However, it is be- ing prison population by lobbying for operate a prison in Taft, California. In 2000, lieved that the clash of interests between tougher sentencing policies (Schneider, the FBOP contracted with CCA to maintain the need to reduce the prison population 1999, Sellers, 1993). and the desire for profits will almost ensure 3,300 beds with an estimated value of$760 Background of Private million over 10 years; and in 2001 the INS that private firms will seek to maintain an Prisons in the U.S. and the U.S. Marshals Service renewed five increasing prison population by lobbying contracts (worth approximately $50 million for tougher sentencing policies. This paper America has a long history of private each) with CCA (Cheung, 2002). begins with a review of the history, propo- firms that managed specific prison services; nent and opponent arguments, empirical although, the extent of reliance on them has studies, and conceptual issues surround- varied (Austin & Coventry, 1999; Bender, The Private Prison Debate ing private prisons and then focuses on the 2000; Camp & Gaes, 2002; Cheung, 2002; private prison industry's influence over Dilulio, 1990; Schneider, 1999). Private-pub- Reasons for Private Prisons criminal justice legislation. Limitations of lic partnerships eventually came to an end past research, ideas for future research and in the late 1950s as a result of scandals, de- There are two levels of explanation for recommendations for policymakers follow. pleted demands for prison-made goods, and privatization: ideological and analytical. This paper concludes that private prisons polemic favoring public control of incarcera- Proponents of an ideological explanation call do not save taxpayers money and, stake- tion facilities (Dilulio, 1990; Schneider 1999). for privatization because they favor a holders within the private prison industry The 1980s ushered in a new era of prison laissez- faire state. Proponents of an analyti- have greatly influenced policies to promote privatization. Prisons were overcrowded and cal explanation call for privatization as a their interests. most states had serious financial problems. means for controlling government expendi- To reduce the stress on the public system, tures (Sellers, 1993; Shleifer, 1998). Those Introduction officials turned to the private sector in favor of private prisons say that they save (Cheung, 2002; Greene, 2000; Mattera & taxpayers money while maintaining facilities A significant increase in the United Khan, 2001; Robbins, 1986; Schneider, 1999; that operate more efficiently (20% less costs) States' prison population has occurred over Sellers, 1993). In 1984, Hamilton County, and at a higher quality with lower recidi- the past several decades. This increase is Tennessee, awarded Corrections Corpora- vism rates- than public ones (Cheung, 2002; primarily due to policy changes within the tion of America (CCA) a contract to operate Logan, 1990; PBS, 2002; Robbins, 1986; criminal justice system, such as mandatory its jail (Cheung, 2002; Mattera & Khan, Shichor, 1998). Some companies simply take over the minimum sentences, habitual offender laws, 2001). This sparked the beginning of the management of existing prisons. "Yet one the war on drugs, preventative detention, modem private prison era. According to of the main selling points for the larger op- and the abolition of parole in somejurisdic- Schneider (1999: 196), "CCA was well con- erators has been that they can provide ad- tions (Caplan, 2002; Dilulio, 1990; Mattera nected with political and financial leaders in ditional jail and prison capacity," stated & Khan, 2001; Mauer, 1999; PBS, 2002; Tennessee, and it had strong ties to experts Mattera and Khan (2002: 12). Because pri- Reisig & Pratt, 2000; Robbins, 1986; in the prison business." Historically, prison "was a means to an end," stated Garvey vate companies are not subject to the same Schneider, 1999; Shichor, 1998, Xiong, 1997). (2002:9A), "not an end in itself. And profit construction rules as governments, they can There are several alternatives to incarcera- was not in the equation." Today, however, build prisons for nearly 25 percent less and tion that can lesson the strain on govern- private prisons are pools of wealth for na- in half the time of comparable government ments caused by overcrowded prisons tional and international corporations construction projects (Austin & Coventry, (Caplan, 2002). However, the solution that (Schneider, 1999; Xiong, 1997). 1999; Williams, 1997). Additional arguments began in the 1980s and continues to this The utilization of private facilities by for the privatization of corrections are that day is prison privatization. "While arrests states has dwindled in recent years; how- it will reduce the public pension system's and convictions are steadily on the rise," ever, federal expansion has safeguarded the indebtedness because employees will be

continued on page 16 16 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003

continued from page 15

privately employed (Sellers 1993), abusive tute of Corrections. The study reports Conceptual Issues Surrounding behavior within prison will cease because univariate results but interprets the implica- Private Prisons such action defeats the long-term interests tions ofthe empirical findings using a multi- of private contractors (Austin & Coventry, variate analysis of three variables: gender, Profits from Crime? 1999), and privatization will give public pris- staff-to-inmate ratios, and indicators of po- The major difference of prison policy ons the abi Iity to evaluate themselves tential systemic effects associated with from other types of policy is that prisons through comparative analysis (Sellers, 1993). prison performance (Camp & Gaes, deliver punishment (American, 2002; 2002:435). Reasons Against Private Prisons Schneider, 1999). "Within a prison, every The study concluded that compared to aspect of an inmate's life is disciplined and Research to date shows little evidence the FBOP facilities privately operated pris- subject to enhanced punishment at the dis- that prison privatization has resulted in sig- ons used more custody staff; however, they cretion of guards and other personnel," ex- nificant public savings (Bender, 2000; had much higher staff turnover rates, es- plains Schneider (1999: 192). "Thus, special Bender, 2002; Cheung, 2002; Grassroots, cape rates, and drug hit rates; and they have issues are raised when considering the ap- 2002; Mattera & Khan, 2001). Taxpayers not produced an acceptable level of public propriate role of the private sector in the are not only paying for punishment (incar- safety or inmate care (Camp & Gaes, management or ownership of prisons." A ceration), they are also paying for a 2002:435,447). Camp and Gaes (2002: 445) fundamental moral question accompanies corporation's profits (Mattera & Khan, suggested that escape is a good indicator private prison management-for advocates 2001). "In the case of prisons," Mattera and of prison problems in policy, procedures, and opponents alike: Setting aside con- Khan (2001: 19) explain, "... there is no inde- technology, and staff capabilities. cerns over cost, efficiency, liability, and pris- pendent source of revenue; inmates don't Commonly overlooked problems related oner rights, should the authority to manage pay to be incarcerated. The funds that pay prisons be given to private individuals; for the operation of the facilities come out to costs. A commonly overlooked expense thereby, allowing profits to be made from of federal, state or local correctional bud- for governments when they utilize private crime? (DiIulio, 1990; Robbins, 1986; White gets. In other words, tax revenues are the prisons is the cost of monitoring contract 2001). According to the American Civil Lib- ultimate source of the income stream." performance. According to Austin (1999:23), erties Union (ACLU) (2002), "[t]he decision The private prison industry's claim ofre- "[ c]onstant monitoring of all aspects of in- to place an offender in prison, and the deci- duced operational cost is a major area of ternal performances is essential to a good sion to impose a particular length of sen- concern for private prison opponents. Sell- contractual relationship, which may become tence, are critical social policy decisions that ers (1993 :52) asks if cost effectiveness is a expensive over time." Without effective should not be contaminated by profit con- form of union busting and exploitation of monitoring, opponents argue, private pris- siderations." Other opponents argue that labor, lower wages, pensions and benefits. ons can accept maximum-security prisoners punishment is the sole responsibility of the Labor generally represents 60 to 80 percent without the proper controls to house them. state (Harding, 1997; Reisig & Pratt, 2000; of a prison's operating expenses and, be- (Camp & Gaes, 2002; Greene, 2000; Mattera Williams, 1997). DiIulio (1990: 170) rational- cause many prison companies are not bound & Khan, 2001; Schneider, 1999). Forexample, izes that the philosophy of "those who by civil service and union rules, reduced a private prison in Ohio was caught hous- abuse liberty shall live without it" should costs are believed to come from lower em- ing maximum security prisoners despite their be conveyed by" ... the offended commu- ployee wages, benefits and staffing levels. agreement to incarcerate only medium or nity oflaw-abiding citizens, through its pub- (Camp & Gaes, 2002; Mattera & Khan, 2001; lower security offenders (Schneider, 1999). lic agents, to the incarcerated individual." PBS, 2002; Schneider, 1999; Sellers, 1993; Opponents also express concerns over A clear distinction between the determi- Wetzel, 2002; Williams, 1997). problems of access to records of private nation of guilt and the execution of punish- companies and the lack of incentive for pri- ment is made by private prison advocates. Quality of U.S. private prisons: A com- vate facilities to be evaluated (Harding, 1997; They assert that punishment can constitu- parative study. Camp and Gaes (2002) sur- Shichor, 1998). Moreover, opponents argue tionally be delegated to a private entity- veyed three major areas of private prisons: that government agencies are usually faced and the federal courts have agreed. Of general characteristics of the prisons and with the financial responsibility to appre- course, those who oppose private their staff, types of inmates, and types of prisonization argue that even if such del- inmate misconduct. Data was collected from hend escapees or control riots that occur in egation is constitutional it not necessarily a a national survey oflocal, state, and federal insecure facilities. To help mitigate these wise thing to do (Austin, 1999; Badalamenti jurisdictions housing adult offenders. The concerns Arizona requires private facilities & Thomas, 1998; Robbins, 1986; Shichor, survey was given to "contract officials to have insurance policies that will reimburse 1998; Sellers, 1993). within agencies that utilize private prison state agencies should they have to inter- bed space" (Camp & Gaes, 2002:433). The vene during an escape or a riot. However, The Symbolism of Punishment questionnaire was collaboratively designed this only adds to the number of profiteers in Opponents argue that the symbolism by the Office of Research and Evaluation at the private prison enterprise-insurance factor is lost when private firms make a profit the Federal Bureau of Prisons (FBOP), ex- companies (Camp & Gaes, 2002; Schneider from punishment (Sellers, 1993). Symbol- perts at the FBOP, and the National Insti- 1999). ism can involve: judges' robes, police offic- Volume XXVI, Issue I ACJSTODAY 17

=' uniforms, correctional personnel, and A Need for Prisoners proliferation of private prison corporations' vanous badges and insignias-which rep- (Bender, 2000; Schneider, 1999). Rhetoric of . The conflict between reducing the resent sources of authority to punish. Op- harsh punishments for criminals is widely pnson population and the financial incen- ponents c.laim that the criminal justice sys- uttered by politicians and supported by tive for corporations to increase it is a cru- tem and Its acts of punishment provide a voters; and, when strict sentencing policies cial concern (American, 2002; Develop- forum for reaffirming the values ofthe com- create overcrowded prisons, "privatization ments, 2002; Dilulio, 1990; Robbins, 1986; munity. However, symbolism is altered when gives policy makers the opportunity to gain Sellers, 1993; Shichor, 1998). Opponents fear for-profit corporations deliver punishment political capital through the appearance of th~t in their pursuit for profits, private firms and therefore, the punishments have less domg something about the failed criminal will seek ways to keep cells filled, prison m~an!ng (Robbins, 1986; Shichor, 1998). justice system and simultaneously open up construction booming, and more offenders Dilullo (1990: 173-174) illustrates the moral market opportunities for private business" under private supervision (DiIulio, 1990; implications of privatizing justice with an pro~laims Schneider (1999:201). Howev~r, Sellers, 1993; Shichor, 1998). Shichor analogous example: the I~ony of the situation is that while pri- (1998:91) explains that " ... opportunities You have worked tirelessly on behalf of v~te mdustry ISsubject to government poli- a~l~w private employees to playa quasi-ju- Y?Uf fellow citizens. You have [for example] cies, policy is influenced by private indus- dicial role, as in the case of disciplinary write- discovered a cure for cancer. ... For your ~ry,and corporations are influenced by prof- ~ps, which may affect the inmates' 'good good deeds, you are to receive the National time' and their conditions of confinement..." ItS(Cheung, 2002; Schneider, 1999; Sellers, Medal of Honor. The big day arrives. The 1993; Shichor 1998). In the world of private prisons, the identi- crowd is assembled on the White House ties and preferences of prisoners are of no Government Subsidies to Private Prisons lawn. The Marine Band begins to play. You interest-they are simply profit centers for gaze into the crowd and notice that the dis- Early in America's history, prisons were corpo~ations (Garvey, 2002; Harding, 1997; tinguished-looking guests (and the "Ma- considered an important part of a Schneider, 1999). For example, an increased rine" musicians) have little pins on their la- government's economic development pro- demand for cells in light of America's new pels that read "MCA" for Medals Corpora- gram (Schneider, 1999). This ideology ap- homeland security initiatives is of growing tion of America. The ceremony is grand. The pears to hold true for today as well. Private co.ncern for private prison opponents. crowd roars as your name is called and the prisons are usually constructed in economi- Pnson corporations, however, have seen the "president ... " shakes your hand and em- cally distressed areas-communities that price oftheir stocks rise substantially (Glo- braces you. You know for a fact that by are desperate for jobs and economic salva- bal,2001). ~very tangible measure-the physical qual- tion. Moreover, because private prisons are Research has shown that the number of ity of your medal, the warmth of the pre- taxa~l~ and provide jobs to the citizenry, incarcerated offenders has always risen to senter, the duration and intensity of the subsidies (tax breaks, low-cost financing, fill available prison space (Robbins, 1986; crowd's ovations, the sound of the music grants, etc.) have been offered by govern- Sellers, 1993; White 2001). In fact states and so forth-MCA gave you a ceremon; ments to influence prison-site location de- with more private prison contracts i~ 1996 that was far superior to the one you would cisions (Mattera & Khan, 2001; ... Or Per- had higher rates of incarceration in 1997 have received had the government and its haps, 1994; Williams, 1997). than states with fewer contracts (Schneider, officials presided; moreover, MCA spent 1999). A spokesperson for the ACLU ar- only one-third of what the government The extent of government subsidies: A ~ued that ideally" ... prisons should be try- would have spent. Satisfied? Bothered? study. A study conducted by Good Jobs m~ to put themselves out of business by Why? First-a project of the Institute on Taxation domg everything in their power to reduce and Economic Policy--examined the extent Other Conceptual Issues the recidivism rate. But the very function of to which the private prison industry has a for-profit prison company is to keep people been the recipient of economic development Many parties ponder if the use of re- locked up, as long as possible, because the subsidies provided by local, state and fed- straint, force and deadly force can be del- co.mpanies are paid a certain amount per eral governments. Data for 60 private pris- egated to the private sector and who should pnsoner, per day" (Van Natta, 1995:24). In ons With a capacity of 500 or more beds that be liable for maltreatment or abuse of pris- 1997, The Corrections Corporation of Ameri- ",:ere constructed by private prison compa- oners (Robbins, 1986; Sellers, 1993). Re- can recognized that "the rate of construc- TIles was collected from several sources". tion o~ new facilities and the company's search yields that the government cannot Information on subsidies was collected from potential for growth will depend on a num- shed its legal liability for inmates by con- a combination of sources as well? (Mattera ber of factors, including crime rates and sen- tracting with private companies' however & Khan, 2001). tencing patterns in the United States'" private facilities are less liable! for inmate~ The study found that "nearly three-quar- (Cheung, 2002). than public ones (Correctional Services ters of the large [private] prisons in the Corporation, Petitioner v. John E. United States ... received at least one form Private Prisons and Political Influences Malesko, 2001; ... Or Perhaps, 1994; Sellers, of economic development subsidy" 1993; Shichor, 1998). (Mattera & Khan, 2001 :v; Shichor 1998) and Penal policy is intimately related to the a regression analysis showed that govern- prison population and consequently the

continued on page 18 18 ACJSToDAY January/February 2003 continued from page 17 ment subsidies affect the construction of news sources. Data on corporate contribu- while suggesting that, ideally, each prison private prisons. It is also important to note tors were collected from the Securities and should be considered on its own merits that not one official interviewed in this study Exchange Commission and business refer- (Camp & Gaes, 2002). The study by Mattera conducted a formal economic impact study ence sources. Data used to analyze the ex- and Khan did not use a random sample of after a prison was completed. This "shows tent of monetary contributions was compiled pri vate prisons, nor was the sampling frame that local officials have no comprehensive from contribution and expenditure reports of their study representative of the entire information on whether the subsidies they that were filed with each state's disclosure population of private custodial facilities. In are providing to these companies are doing agency. other words, their conclusions are not gen- any good for the local community," stated The Institute found that private prison eralizable to the entire private prison popu- Mattera and Khan (2001 :46). companies successfully blocked legislation lation (Mattera & Khan, 2001). Finally, the "that would have been harmful to their in- types of prisoners housed in private pris- Private Prison Companies terests" (Bender, 2002:3 I) by strategically ons are usually different from those housed and Lobbyists timing their campaign contributions-ensur- in public ones. For example, private prisons ing that a large percentage of their money generally house lower-level security offend- Policy makers are almost always under went to winning candidates. Over $1.1 mil- ers compared to public prisons. This inevi- the eye of the press, bureaucrats, clientele lion was contributed by private prison com- tably limits the validity of any study that groups, and agencies and these groups in- panies to both Democrat and Republican compares private and public facilities. herently influence policy makers and legis- candidates-whichever candidate had a lation. In fact, sometimes bureaucracy is as better chance of winning. The study also Future Research Suggestions involved as the lawmakers themselves. This found that in all the cases of pro-industry has been a major concern for those opposed measures passed after the 2000 elections Currently, private prisons are paid a man- to private prisons (Bender, 2000; DiIulio, "lawmakers who could influence the out- day charge. That is, they are paid a fee for 1990; Mauer, 1999; Sellers, 1993). come ofthe policy debate received campaign each day a prisoner is housed in their facil- Research shows that private prison com- contributions from the people who stood to ity (Schlosser, 1998). Research has shown panies and other stakeholders within the benefit from the decisions" (Bender, 2002:8). that this leads private prison companies to "prison-industrial complex" spend large For instance, prior to the 2000 election, influence prison policy so as to increase the sums of money on lobbyists to push the North Carolina posed limits on new private number of prisoners housed in their facili- passage ofiegislation that will promote their prison construction, banned the importation ties. Future studies should ask what the interests (Bender, 2000; Developments, of out of state prisoners to private prisons, effects would be if governments paid a flat 2002; Greene, 2000; Schlosser, 1998; Sellers, and took over two existing CCA facilities. fee to house an unlimited number of prison- 1993; Shichor, 1998). These lobbyists pro- However, following the 2000 election, law- ers over a specific period of time, or some mote longer sentences, stronger penalties, makers authorized the construction ofthree other type of prospective payment. Would stringent parole standards, an increased use new private prisons. Corporate supporters governments be inclined to incarcerate more of custodial sentences, and habitual of- of this proposal contributed over $226,000 people to feel like they were "getting their fender legislation-all of which leads to a to political candidates in the 2000 election. money's worth" (Austin & Coventry, 1999)? larger prison population (Sellers, 1993; Eighty percent of that money went to win- While analyzing the linkage between Shichor, 1998).8 ning candidates (Bender, 2002:9-10). campaign contributions and subsequent criminal justice legislation, Bender (2002) Private Prisons Companies and Previous Limitations and Future found it difficult to quantify the role lobby- Campaign Contributions Research Suggestions ists played in policymaking. Since stake- holders within the private prison industry Research to date reveals that private Limitations of Previous Research spend large sums of money on lobbyists, prison companies protect their "capital" by the extent of their impact is important. His nurturing relationships with lawmakers A majority of studies on private prisons study also excluded campaign contributions through campaign contributions (Bender, were conceptually and philosophically from companies that sub-contracted with 2000; Bender, 2002; Greene, 2000). The Na- based. Empirical studies were the minority. private prisons. Therefore, future research tional Institute of Money in State Politics However, among the empirical studies, many should focus on these qualifications. recently attempted to gauge the influence of them analyzed the comparative costs be- Correctional corporations strive to op- that private prison companies have over tween public and private prisons, but few erate efficiently and profitably; yet, it is un- state correctional policies and budgeting? studies statistically assessed the effects that clear whether the government spends tax (Bender 2002). The Institute examined cam- the private prison industry has on public dollars efficiently by utilizing them. Even- paign contributions made during the 2000 policy. Also, the limited number of empiri- tually, the prisoners will be released and election cycle in several southern U.S. cal studies has several qualifications. society will have to deal with the long-term states. It included contributions made by In the study conducted by Camp and consequences of short-term corporate de- "lobbyists representing the private correc- Gaes (2002) non-secure FBOP facilities were cisions. Therefore, is private profitability in tions companies as well as those from other excluded; likewise, the private sector was the penal system antithetical to the needs employees of the firms" (Bender 2002:3). favored in the study because they had fewer of society? Finally, assuming that some pri- Data on lobbyists were collected from offi- maximum-security inmates. Furthermore, vate prisons save taxpayers money in the cial state disclosure agencies and media they grouped private entities as a whole short-run, who is to guarantee that costs Volume XXVI, Issue I ACJSToDAY 19

will not unduly increase later? What if a ability for the offenders under their care that thoughtful review of the complex issues sur- private corrections monopoly arises? (Sell- a public facility would have, and this should rounding private prisons is necessary be- ers, 1993). Furthermore, with the emergence be mandated by law. In the long-term, gov- fore private facilities are hailed as a solution of transnational corrections companies, per- ernments should lessen their dependence to public prison overcrowding. haps private prisons will send some of their on private prisons before they gain enough References prisoners overseas where real estate and political power and influence legislation in labor costs are less? In the future, should ways that can, directly or indirectly, hinder Adler, E, GO.W Mueller, & W S. Laufer. this be encouraged as a solution to the government's ability to do so in the fu- (2001). Criminology (4th ed.). New York: America's overcrowded prisons? (Harding, ture. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. 1997). Future research should focus on American Civil Liberties Union. Policy Pri- these concerns as well. Conclusion orities for Prison Reform. [online] October 6, 2002.Available:http://www.aclu.orgiissuesJpris- Recommendations and Conclusion Public prisons do not make profits from ons/nppyolicy.htm!. incarceration but private companies do. Austin, J., & 0. Coventry. (1999, March). Recommendations Since taxpayers' money is used to pay for Emerging Issues on Privatized Prisons. Prepared Scholarly and industry literature sug- private prison space, then ultimately their for the National Council on Crime and Delin- gests that corporations benefit from every money is not only paying for punishment, it quency, San Francisco. Badalamenti, J. L., & C.W Thomas. (1998, cent saved in operational costs and are is paying for corporate profits (Schneider, December 20). Legal Authority for State-level highly sensitive to changes in penal legis- 1999). In October 2001, there were nearly CorrectionsPrivatization.[Online]November 14, lation (Cornell Companies, 2000; Cornell 130,000 privately controlled prison beds 2002.Available:http://www.privatization.org. Companies, 2001; Cornell et al., 1998; Cor- throughout 37 U.S. states. According to Bender, E. (2000, July). Private Prisons, Poli- rections Corporation, 1998; Corrections Cor- the Good Jobs First study in 2001, eight tics & Profits. A report of research conducted poration, 2002; Shichor, 1998; Whitaker prison companies shared over $1.56 billion by the National Institute on Money in State 2002). To protect its profits, the prison in- in revenues (Mattera & Khan, 2001). To- Politics, Helena, MT. dustry has already infiltrated government day, CCA is the largest private corrections Bender, E. (2002, April). A Contributing In- and university research, contributed sub- company. It owns 40 correctional, deten- fluence: The Private-prison Industry and Politi- stantial amounts of money to political cam- tion and juvenile facilities, and operates 61 cal Giving in the South. A report of research paigns, hiredlobbyists to push desired poli- facilities with a total capacity of60,000 beds conducted by the National Institute on Money cies, and sacrificed staffing levels and se- in 21 states and Washington, D.C. (Correc- in State Politics, Helena, MT. curity at correctional facilities (Adler et al., tions, 2002). With so much at stake, it is not Camp, S. D., & Go. Gaes. (2002, July). 2001; Bender, 2000; Bender, 2002; Camp & surprising that stakeholders within the pri- Growth and Quality of U.S. Private Prisons: Gaes, 2002; Ellin, 2001; Mattera & Khan 2001; vate prison industry are trying to influence Evidence from a National Survey. Criminology Schneider, 1999; Sellers, 1993; Williams, penal policy to protect their investments. & Public Policy, pp.427-449. 1997). Furthermore, opponents to private When government delegates the author- Caplan, 1. (2002, April). Alternatives to In- prisons fear that when times are difficult ity to deprive citizens of their liberty to pri- carceration: A Solution to Skyrocketing Correc- (small prison population), corporations may vate entities, it says a lot about how pun- tional Costs. The College ofNew Jersey Journal initiate advertising campaigns that will in- ishment should be perceived. At the start of Student Scholarship, pp. 34-38. crease society's fear of crime-resulting in of the modem private prison era, Robbins Cheung, A. (2002, January). Prison stiffer sentences, less alternative sentenc- (1986:30) warned that the rush to correct our Privatization and the Use of Incarceration. Re- ing and higher prison populations (Robbins, correction's problems " ... should not inter- search and analysis prepared for the Sentencing 1986; Sellers, 1993). fere with the caution that must accompany Project, Washington, D.C. Six recommendations for policymakers a decision to delegate to private companies Cornell Companies, Inc. (2000). Annual Re- can be drawn from the current literature- one of government's most basic responsi- port. [Online] October 17,2002. Available:http:! five short-term and one long-term. In the bilities--controlling the lives and living con- /media.corporate- ir.net/media_filesINYS/CRN/ short-term: (1) Contracts with private facili- ditions of those whose freedom has been reports/200 1AR.pdf. ties should mandate minimum staffing lev- taken in the name of the government and Cornell Companies, Inc. (2001). Annual Re- els and specify that private facilities will be the people." Policy choices other than in- port. [Online] October 17,2002. Available:http:/ solely responsible for reimbursing govern- carceration to ease prison overcrowding /media.corporate- ir.net/media_filesINYS/CRN/ ment agencies for apprehending escapees include: reducing the scope of custodial reports/200 1annua!.pdf. or controlling riots; (2) Contract performance sanctions, increasing the number of com- Cornell, D. M., A. R. Lissner, & R.J. Gable. should be scrupulously monitored; (3) Pri- munity-based programs, lessoning sentence (1998). Private Sector Corrections: The Prom- vate prison companies and their stakehold- lengths, increasing early release programs, ise of the Future. The Cornell Papers, 1, Au- ers should not be allowed to give campaign or investing in crime prevention programs, gust, pp. 1-15. contributions or hire lobbyists to promote to name a few (Schneider, 1999). However, Corrections Corporation ofAmerica. (1998). legislation that can affect criminal justice if expanding prison space is used as a pri- Corrections Corp. of America-Third Quarter 1998.[Online] October 6,2002. Available:http:/ policy or practice; (4) Private correctional mary solution, then the current "prison-in- /www.streetlink.comlcxc/. facilities should not be eligible for govern- dustrial complex" will grow indefinitely ment subsidies; and (5) Private correctional (Schlosser, 1998). A thorough review of the companies should have the same legal li- literature suggests that a deliberate and continued on page 20 20 ACJSToDAY January/February 2003 continued from page 19

Corrections Corporation of America: Inves- Reisig, M.D., & T.C. Pratt. (2000, June). J In Correctional Services Corporation, Peti- tor Relations. (2002). Corrections Corporation The Ethics of Correctional Privatization: A Criti- tioner v. John£. Malesko (2001), the Supreme of America Announces Record Date for Third cal Examination ofthe Delegation of Coercive Court held that it would not recognize the right Quarter Dividend on Shares of Series A Preferred Authority. Prison Journal, pp. 210-223. of action for damages against private entities al- Stock. [Online] October 12,2002. Available: http:// Robbins, LP. (1986). Privatization of Cor- leged to have violated a citizen's (inmate's) fed- www.shareholder.comlcxw/news/20020918- rections: Defining the Issues. Federal Probation eral constitutional rights. 90247.cfm. 50 (3): 24-30. 4 Original citation from Securities and Ex- Developments in the Law-The Law ofPris- Schneider, A.L. (1999, September). Public- change Commission, CCA 10-K, March 31, ons. (2002, May). Harvard Law Review, pp. private Partnerships in the U.S. Prison System. 1997. 1838-1963. American Behavioral Scientist, pp. 192-209. 5 The Federal Sentencing Reform Act of 1984 DiIulio, John J. Jr. (1990). The Duty to Gov- Schlosser, E. (1998, December). The Prison- resulted in a rapid growth of the U.S. prison ern: A Critical Perspective on the Private Man- industrial Complex. The Atlantic Monthly, pp. population and much ofCCA's early profits. agement of Prisons and Jails.Pp. 155-178 in Pri- 51-77. 6Data for the study was collected from the vate Prisons and the Public Interest, edited by Sellers, M.P. (1993). The History and Poli- Florida Police BenevolentAssociationiCommu- Douglas C. McDonald. New Brunswick, NJ: tics of Private Prisons: A Comparative Analy- nications Workers of AmericalNational Coalition Rutgers University Press. sis. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickenson Uni- of Public Safety Officers Prison Privatization Ellin, A. (2001). Student Life; A Food Fight versity Press. webpage, the Private Adult Correctional Facil- Over Private Prisons. The New York Times, April Shichor, D. (1998, February). Private Pris- ity Census, The Corrections Yearbook 2000: Pri- 8, Section 4A, p. 23. ons in Perspective: Some Conceptual Issues. vate Correctional Facilities, websites of private Garvey, E. (2002). Conservatives Gearing up Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, pp. 82- prison companies, the Securities and Exchange to Push for Private Prisons. Capital Times (Madi- 100. Commission filings, Lexis-Nexis News Library, son, WI), April 16, p. 9A. Shleifer, A. (1998). State Versus Private and by telephone surveys to the companies Global Exchange. (2001). Prison Companies Ownership. Journal of Economic Perspectives themselves. Get Hot. [Online] October 17, 2002. Available: 12: 133-155 7 Data on subsidies was collected from "the http://www.globalexchange.org/education/ Van Natta, D., Jr. (1995). Despite Setbacks, press or other public-record materials contained californialnews200 1/nyp 10040 l.htrnl. A Boom in Private Prison Business. The New in the Lexis-Nexis database," Securities and Ex- Grassroots Leadership. (2002). Study: $45m York Times, August 12, Section I;p. 24. change Commission filings, an online index of to Mississippi Private Prisons at Expense of Wetzel, D. (2002). Consultant Cool to Pri- municipal bonds called Munistatments.com, a Educational Spending. [Online] October 15, vate Prison. The Bismarck Tribune, May 2, p. survey questionnaire for public officials who 2002. Available: http://grassrootsleadership.org/ lB. "were involved in negotiating with prison com- press JelslFinal_ MS _ Edu _Incarc.html. Whitaker, B. (2002). National Briefing West: panies," and from the public reference room of Greene, J. (2000). Prison Privatization: Re- California: Closing Private Prisons. The New the Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board in cent Developments in the United States. Paper York Times, March 16, p. 12; Column 4. Alexandria, Virginia. presented at the International Conference on White, A.A. (2001, Winter). Rule of Law 8 Since 1973 the American Legislative Ex- Penal Abolition. [Online] October 15, 2002. and the Limits of Sovereignty: The Private Prison change Council (ALEC) has drafted model legis- Available: http://www.oregonafscme.comlcorrec- in Jurisprudential Perspective. American Crimi- lation that advances conservative principles- tions/private/prison -privatization.htm. nal Law Review, pp. 111-147. like privatization (Bender 2000). ALEC has a Harding, R. W. (1997). Private Prisons and Williams, M. (1997). Down-and-out Town major impact on politics with nearly 40 percent Public Accountability. New Brunswick, NJ: Sees Survival in a Private Prison. The New York of its members being state legislators and gener- Transaction Publishers. Times, March 24, Section B; p. 1. ous contributions provided by corporations. In Logan, C. H. (1990). Arguments For and Xiong, N. (1997). Investing It; Private Pris- fact, two ofthe largest private prison corpora- Against Private Prison Contracting. [Online] ons: A Question of Savings. The New York Times, tions, CCA and Wackenhut, are major contribu- September 16, 2002. Available: http:// July 13, Section 3; p. 5. tors. Through their funding, private prison com- www.ucc.uconn.edu/-wwwsocilproscons.html. panies can directly influence sentencing legisla- Mattera, P., & M. Khan. (2001, October). Cases Cited tion (Cheung 2002). Jail Breaks: Economic Development Subsidies 9 The National Institute on Money in State Given to Private Prisons. A report of a study Correctional Services Corporation, Peti- Politics conducted a similar study in 2000 that conducted by Good Jobs First: A project ofthe tioner v. John s. Malesko, 534 U.S. 61 (2001). produced comparable results. Bender, E. 2000, Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy, July. "Private Prisons, Politics & Profits." Washington, DC. Endnotes • Mauer, M. (1999). Race to Incarcerate. New

York: The New Press. I Original citation from Jennifer L. Berk, ... Or perhaps not. (1994). The Economist World Research Group, conference invitation 330 (7852):26 letter, December 1996. PBS. (2002). Back to the Floor: Women's 2 Original source is the New York Times, Feb- Prison. [Online] October 14, 2002. Available: ruary 11, 1985 at B6. Statement by Ted Nissen, http://www.pbs.org/opb/backtothefloor/prisonl President of Behavior Systems Southwest. boss2.htm. Volume XXVI, Issue I ACJSTODAY 21

THE ART AND SCIENCE OF TEACHING CRIMINAL JUSTICE: A DIALOGUE* by MICHAEL C. BRASWELL East Tennessee State University FRANCIS T. CULLEN University of Cincinnati A dialogue concerning the nature of In the end, though, I think the essay status quo or be inspired by more teaching and research as well as "what does forces us all to confront whether what we nonconventional thinkers (e.g., Buddha, it mean to be a good teacher" began with are doing in the classroom makes a damn bit Jesus and John Nash whose life "A Beauti- Frank Cullen's response to an essay, "In the of difference or just increases the alienation ful Mind" was based upon)? Could science Beginning Was the Student: Teaching of our students. If I had to take a guess, I also be an ideology/religion? For example, I Peacemaking and Justice Issues" by myself think it is when professors-whatever the find a current "in" phrase among some col- and John Whitehead (2002). Our paper ex- method used-are able to speak the truth leagues amusing when I hear them respond, plored the contrast between developing ex- that makes the difference. I believe students "What does the science say?" "The" sci- pertise and experienced learning. Feelings have an underlying sense of whether their ence is important to be sure, but so is "the" and intuition, thinking and knowledge and teachers are truth seekers and genuine-or art and philosophy-form as well as func- imagination and creativity were examined in just "going through the motions." tion. the context of bringing student and teacher Michael Braswell: There often seems to "Wishful thinking" and a sense of philo- together in a common experience that would be a schizophrenic element in movements sophical wonder are also important, but they encourage critical thinking, open-mindedness of any kind, including peacemaking crimi- are not enough. Science is important as a and mutual respect. The discussion quickly nology, where the passion for a fresh ap- means oftesting and holding wishful think- moved beyond the essay and evolved over proach may on, occasion, result in rhetoric ing accountable, "but" it is not enough. the course of several months into a lively and writing that becomes too polemical and Why 100 studies? What not 101 or 100 I? and extended discussion regarding the mer- self-important. As you know, peacemaking Does the number necessarily mean any- its and limitations ofteaching and research. as I see it is grounded in ancient wisdom thing? Maybe only one study is of value- Francis Cullen: My reactions are some- traditions and focuses on personal trans- maybe none. Wishful thinking is the begin- what schizophrenic. The essay unmasks formation as well as systemic changes. ning of the research question which in the how what we do mindlessly in the class- Russell Crowe, by the way, won an Acad- best sense sets good science in motion. As room proves alienating to everyone. The ex- emy Award for portraying a schizophrenic I like to comment to my students, "It doesn't amples of scenarios show how taken-for- person in "A Beautiful Mind." matter how efficient your car is on gas if granted views of the world are I do agree that the claim of virtue regard- you are headed in the opposite direction of deconstructed-punctured so that deeper ing the peacemaking movement, while your desired destination." and more complex realities are confronted. tempting, is also evasive. At the risk of I think we can get too scientifically It also forces one to think about what is sounding self-righteous, I would suggest dazzled by the technology and quantitative truly memorable regarding learning and be- that it's much easier to debate the merits of aspects of research. Perhaps it's not how ing a student-about how touching a peacemaking over wine and cheese than to much research is published, but whether it student's mind requires more than dispens- actually serve in the soup line of a home- is being published because it is making a ing information. less shelter. However, what you really seem genuine contribution to our body of know 1- There are two aspects of peacemaking to be concerned with is the problem of "ide- edge or is disingenuous because it is prima- criminology that bother me somewhat, al- ology and ideologues" rather than peace- rily being published for the purpose of gain- though it is a perspective toward which I making and related movements such as re- ing tenure and promotion. Of course, the have much inclination. storative justice. In the late sixties and sev- two goals are not necessarily mutually ex- First, the peacemaking approach can, to enties, your point could just as easily be clusive. some extent, become self-righteous. By this, applied to the rehabilitation movement. And So I would agree that we have "too little I mean that there seems to be an insufficient since the movement appealed to both of us, science rather than too much (good) sci- appreciation that what is espoused may be we weren't particularly concerned. I know ence," but I would add that there is also the wrong in some cases or too inexact to "work" on more than one occasion, I claimed the issue that teaching and learning are both an in the world of criminal justice and correc- high ground of virtue when discussing re- "art" and a "science." And wishful think- tions. The claim of being "virtuous" may habilitation as a preferred treatment philoso- ing, not as an ideology (true also for sci- seem, in some instances, to be disingenu- phy over punitive and other status quo ence), but more as philosophical wonder can ous-a strategy for gaining the upper hand models. be a legitimate part of the process. in arguments, including with students. I wouldn't agree that peacemaking is All teachers are different and have dif- Second, peacemaking can, at times, ap- necessarily hostile to science. Is it possible ferent strengths and weaknesses, but the pear hostile to research and science. I think that science, or at least some social scien- more important question is not whether they that is what is wrong with criminology, in- tists, are hostile to peacemaking and other are like you or me, but are they the most cluding the teaching of criminology. There nonconventional approaches which address informed, creative and stimulating teacher is not too much science, but too little sci- crime, suffering and a compassionate re- they can be? Are their students as impor- ence. I think that half of what we teach is sponse to such issues? Are innovations tant as their research? Do they employ the based on wishful thinking as opposed to, more likely to come from refinements ofthe same critical thinking skills in addressing say, 100 studies. continued on page 22 22 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003 continued from page 21 their "wishful thinking," whether conven- reduce crime. I happen to believe that sci- to be dismissed by less competent teachers tional or nonconventional, that they expect ence helps us to more fundamentally un- who conduct mediocre research. their students to engage in? derstand what is accurate and correct. We 4. Good, committed teachers who are Your conclusion seems right on the mark: would predict that mean-spirited boot camps also engaged in meaningful research. "Do we speak the truth?" would not work, and science shows us that I would agree that bad is bad whether Sometimes in our attempt to speak it, we they do not. one is addressing poor research or poor are required to move outside of our comfort The risk in abandoning science-data, teaching. The question becomes, how can zones whatever they happen to be. Every- tests and such-is that claims about what a "point of balance" be encouraged between thing has an up and down side and we need is virtuous and what makes effective crime the two? How can the "art" and "science" to try to be as clear and open as we can to policy (as in increasing public safety) are of teaching be equally valued? that point of balance. An important distinc- an ideological contest. What makes your or Regarding the value of unread publica- tion is are we "true believers" simply de- my views more valid than, say, a politician's? tions being useful ... "if authors learned fending this or that ideology or "believers My answer is that science does. from their work and grew as scholars," ... I in the truth?" This question applies equally Robert Merton once defined his lectures would suggest that is a damn big "if." While to art and science, wishful thinking and re- as "oral publications." I agree. I think that your observation might be true in some in- search, liberal and conservative. The ques- the line between teaching and research stances, in many other cases it would seem tion becomes: How can we better transmit a should be fuzzier. The notion that they are to be more about repetition and imitation commitment to the truth to our students? in competition is a bad thing. We should be than genuine growth. Of course, most pub- Fe: Ijust got through watching "A Beau- about producing and disseminating knowl- lications are probably also unread, and there tiful Mind"-great story and film. Of course, edge-whether through our teaching, writ- are some examples of highly creative and if John Nash had not published a great piece ing or service. I am against compartmental- innovative papers that go unpublished and of research and won the Nobel Prize, there izing ourselves-I'm a teacher over here or unread which could still promote growth and would be no movie! a researcher over there. Some of this may be discovery for the author and his or her col- I think that your skepticism about re- inevitable, of course, because the tasks have leagues. Still, in the majority of cases ... search is both correct and misplaced. It's their distinctive qualities. But by separat- It is true, as you comment, that one correct because it can take people away from ing ourselves, we set up an unnecessarily doesn't know which book or paper will be teaching and because much of it is wasted false dichotomy. transformative. The same holds true for other activity if one sees it in the narrow sense MB: Nice point on "A Beautiful Mind," areas as well-for example, treatment pro- that no one reads it. But a few comments: but it's important to remember that before grams. One never knows for certain in a cor- 1. Most teaching is wasted, too, since John Nash published his ground-breaking rectional context which treatment programs much of it is never remembered. There is at piece of research, the original theory he de- will be trans formative-even for a small least as much bad teaching as bad research. veloped was considered nonconventional number of offenders. 2. Even unread publications are valu- and so much wishful thinking. He was criti- I would not completely agree with your able if the authors learned from their work cized and his thinking made fun of. In fact, fourth point. There are other important tra- and grew as scholars-and as teachers. his fellow students who were also quite bril- ditions that do not necessarily include re- 3. One never knows which book or pa- liant took the safe way out and imitated their search and writing. For example, the "oral per will be transformative--even for a small faculty sponsors, preferring the road well tradition" is an essential element of family number offolks. traveled rather than less traveled. Of course, as well as discipline histories. Anecdotal 4. Without research and writings, there he persevered and we have the movie. commentary is also very important. And I is no field-nothing to read, no knowledge I would suggest there are four types of know that such can also be considered a to share. teachers: kind of research and certainly qualifies as On the broadest level, I think you are 1. Teachers who do poorly in the class- "writing." I noticed you stated, ... "With- correct. Without larger questions and the room and don't do research. Such teachers out research and writings .... " Are writings right direction, science is empty ifnot dan- seem unmotivated and often appear incom- which don't fall within the traditional re- gerous. Science can bring the bomb and all petent (I don't see too many of this type.) search parameters really respected? I don't of us along with it to the edge of mass de- 2. Uncommitted teachers who are com- think so, but they should be. Geis's (2002) struction. However, it cannot answer petent researchers. These faculty members essay on research in a recent issue of The whether or under what conditions such a could be much more effective in the class- Criminologist suggests that Freud and bomb should be constructed. Ethical ques- room and their research generally isn't as Marx were nonconventional, not even tions ultimately make us human and are al- good as they think it is. For these persons trained for the discipline in which they ways the larger context in which knowledge and Type I teachers, most students are con- wrote, yet made noteworthy contributions should matter. sidered an intrusion. to our body of knowledge. Where I think we may differ is what 3. Good teachers who are well-read and We both trust knowledge, but you may "knowledge" do we "trust?" I happen to incorporate the latest thinking and research feel there is only one kind or at least one favor "science"-with all its limitations. My but do not actually conduct formal research! type which takes priority-head or think- difficulty with "softer" ways of knowing is writing themselves. This seems to me to be ing knowledge. that there are few rules (as in the "scientific the most unrecognized and under-appreci- I would suggest there is head and heart method") to decide what is true or not true ated type of teacher. I know several faculty knowledge. Neither works as well indepen- and whether something reduces or does not who are amazing in the classroom, but tend dently as they do together. So what seems Volume XXVI, Issue 1 ACJSTODAY 23

to be called for is a kind of synthesis of the knowing. In a basic sense, everything about ernment, or the status quo in general (e.g., two types-the rational and the intuitive, human experience is empirical and evolu- the "war on drugs"). thinking and feeling. For example, I need to tionary. From native medicines in the Ama- Without a moral and compassionate inform students of the latest empirical re- zonjungles to Hiroshima, there is a deeper heart, personally and collectively, the "rules" search and thinking on a subject, but I have more fundamental experiential empiricism at of science can become very elastic and rela- to also do it in a way that translates it into work if the seeker has the eyes and heart to tive in terms of outcomes and conclusions their experience-where they are at in their see. and serve whatever purpose is politically lives. That takes more effort than simply I like Merton's ideal oflectures as "oral correct with little or no regard for what is elaborating on the latest research or one's publications." I would prefer "oral publica- true. Such rules can easily change to sup- professional "war stories." This is also true tions/discussions." Students want discus- port racial inferiority, cruel correctional poli- regarding a teacher's preferred ideology, sion as well as dissertation. They want to cies, and morally reprehensible economic whether it be peacemaking, restorative jus- be a part of the process at some level of policies (e.g., Enron). tice, or rehabilitation. Every ideology, model, their being and that is the only way they Both the heart and the head can embody theory, belief . . . everything-has an up will take the knowledge being imparted as good "common sense" or passionate/dis- and down side (i.e., limitations). So while their own. passionate violence and destructiveness. we may think our models and beliefs have I also agree that the lines between teach- For example, Hitler was essentially a nobody many more advantages than other compet- ing and research should be fuzzier. For that before his rise to power, but the first com- ing points of view, we are still bound in our to happen, we will need a more dynamic, mandant of one of the concentration camps search for the truth to point out their disad- inclusive definition of good teaching and was a psychiatrist, and one of the first com- vantages and weaknesses. research-what a meaningful balance looks manders of the killing squads in Eastern Softer, more philosophic and introspec- like. Europe had two academic doctorates and tive ways of knowing also have rules which Why the competition between teaching was referred to by the men in his charge as include questioning and struggling with and research? Perhaps we hold the eco- "Dr., Dr." revelations; what one might call a kind of nomic perspective as the highest priority; I agree we are at great risk to ignore the skepticism. Heart and head knowledge al- economic theology (the world's largest best of what science can offer us, but we ways require that we be skeptics of a sort. church), career (the largest income), aca- also risk great peril if we ignore our personal True believers, whether in religion, science, demic (most publications), and athletics and collective heart. philosophy, politics or athletics, are what I (most victories). The message is that one Some questions to ponder in the pines: could consider to be cynics. Rational think- can never have enough, that "more is 1. Do (and should) we focus more on ing supposes that knowledge gained from more," when in truth, "less is often more." the "philosophy" of science or the "tech- understanding that isn't rational to be irra- Research wins the competition because it is nology" of science? tional. That is an incomplete assumption. easier to count and is more logical/rational. I believe we have neglected the philoso- Knowledge may also be gained from non- Teaching is more difficult to measure and phy of science, and to some extent, have rational experiences and non-conventional includes subtle, more nonconventional and been dazzled and seduced by scientific tech- thinking. A philosopher once wrote that all nonrational distinctions. I would certainly nology and technology in general. The phi- original thought starts in the minds of agree that the separation between the two losophy of science includes the heart and "crazies and mystics." That assertion could is an unnecessary and false dichotomy. focuses on research methodology (i.e., ask- certainly be supported with such historical FC: I am sitting in the pine trees of Sun ing the right questions, ethics, etc.jwhile figures as Jesus and Buddha as well as John River, Oregon, and thinking about your last technology seems to be more value neutral. Nash. response. For example, nuclear power can warm people I agree that science is on our side, but it My only problem with knowing through on a winter's day or vaporize them. can also be on the side of the bad guys. the "heart" is that the "heart" of many 2. What do you think is a proper or rea- Often, it is years later that what was consid- people leads them to positions that we would sonable "point of balance" between teach- ered to be good science turns out, in fact, to find abhorrent. Yes, science legitimated the ing and research, the heart and the head- be bad science. Research often proves com- Nazis, but it was the heart of the Germans, both of which can be involved in either ac- mon sense (e.g., boot camps are ineffective) not their science, that led them to embrace tivity? to be true. But quantitative research was Hitler. 3. What should we expect of faculty also used by Nazis to prove the inferiority What happens when two views-based given the need for such balance? of Jews and the adaptive potential of gypsy on one's heart or on "common sense"-con- 4. How do we respond to teachers who children to the Third Reich (the researcher flict? How does one settle which conten- are outstanding in the classroom but con- received her Ph.D. and most of the surviv- tion is correct? Science, for all its weak- duct no formal research themselves? ing children received the gas chamber). The nesses, has rules for determining truth from FC: I am getting closer to home, writ- newly minted Dissertation was accepted by nontruth. I think we ignore this at great risk. ing now from Colorado Springs. highly educated true believers as being good MB: Good comments on the "heart and I agree that we should teach more about research and good science. As you indi- science." Yes, the heart of many Germans the philosophy of science-both sides: cated earlier, the moral issue always raises led them to embrace Hitler. But I would sug- those who critique positivism and those its ugly head where science is concerned. gest that the heart always comes first. Sci- who defend it. I read a fair amount of this in The one who believes in the truth should ence seems more inclined to legitimize or graduate school, in courses with Robert be open to rational and nonrational ways of validate the policies ofa given leader, gov- Merton and Peter Blau. The more informed continued on page 24 24 ACJSTODAY January/February 2003 continued from page 23 students are about the underpinnings of graduate students who are interested in their I do not see these three qualities as dis- science and theorizing, the more they can research. If 75-80 percent of one's time is tinct elements as much as I see them holisti- understand the limits and power of science. spent doing research, I can see where teach- cally. People who care about others (are As for teaching and research, that's a ing traditional courses might be perceived decent) and who care about scholarship more difficult question. I would give these as an intrusion. Of course, mediocre re- (ideas, knowledge, research) also are people responses: searchers tend to make mediocre teachers who tend to influence others. 1. Different universities have different and vice verse-although there are excep- I do think it is okay, again, for a depart- missions. Thus, the balance is different in tions. ment to carve out their unique mission and different places. My only objection is that if Perhaps the question becomes one of recruit faculty who are consistent with that someone is at a research university, the per- how to encourage faculty to be all that they mission. As a doctoral-granting department son in question should not be surprised can be by giving equitable and proper re- committed to research, it is appropriate for when tenure is based substantially on re- spect to both teaching and research. One us to recruit faculty members who publish search (and vice versa at a teaching-oriented way might be to promote more teaching/ in journals (or other places), get grants, and university). commentary/philosophical publications and so on. But what makes our department rather 2. I would give great value to someone discouraging elitism, whatever form it might special is not just that people are "good who was a truly outstanding teacher. I think take. scholars"; rather it is that, for the most part, such folks are rare (those with good stu- What then, are the essential qualities of they are decent people who care about oth- dent evaluations are more frequent). To me, a good teacher? How does one define a ers. a great teacher is someone who truly moves "quality" faculty member? If, in an academic department, there is a students to think differently. They are also FC: How does one define a "quality" fac- culture of caring or concern among faculty "scholarly." By this, I mean the person reads ulty member? That's a tough one. On a broad about what they do-and this includes stu- widely and thinks in a special way. level, I think that it depends on your institu- dents, it is manifested in different ways by 3. What do I think that the typical pro- tion. For example, it is difficult to train doc- different faculty-but it is present. It flows fessor should publish. Well, again, in some toral students how to do research when fac- from the top, and faculty will be recruited universities (where the teaching load is ulty do not excel in this area. who are likely to embrace such a culture. heavy), I might say that the exceptions That aside, I would immediately reject MB: In reflecting on what we have dis- should be nonexistent. But for folks at the the elitism that faculty quality is reducible cussed over the last eight weeks, it seems typical university, I think that it is fair to to publishing in Criminology, Justice Quar- we both agree that too much teaching and expect that they try to write one piece a year; terly, or one or two other top journals. In- research is wasted. Several points of con- or, phrased differently to always be work- stead, I would define a quality faculty mem- sensus have emerged that could be viewed ing on some idea. ber as having a combination of these quali- as recommendations: 4. Remember, in all universities those ties: 1. Our discipline, in specific, and higher who prefer to do research are not excused 1. They are fundamentally a decent hu- education, in general, needs to encourage a from teaching. man being. more meaningful balance between teaching 5. I think that the best professors are I would have broad parameters in defin- and research as well as a more dynamic defi- those who value doing scholarship and ing "decent human being," but it would at nition regarding what constitutes good teaching. I can separate the two functions, least involve that they care about others in teaching and scholarship. but I believe that my research enlivens my the world and not just be ego-involved. 2. The mission ofthe university or aca- teaching. In some cases, it makes it special 2. They are scholarly. demic program should be considered in de- because the knowledge I share, I helped cre- This might involve substantial publish- fining good teaching and scholarship. ate. ing, but it also might involve reading widely 3. There needs to be a greater empha- 6. I think that all of us-even if we do and thinking seriously about issues relevant sis on the philosophy of science. not publish in journals-should always re- to the field. Those who never "connect" 4. Quality faculty members (a) demon- main scholars, seeking to expand our intel- with the discipline or who get alienated tend strate personal integrity, human decency lectual horizons. Often, those who teach to treat criminological (and related) knowl- and care concerning their students and col- become stagnant, teaching from textbooks edge as being of little use in the real world. leagues; (b) actively engage in scholarly and refraining from readingjournals, books This anti-intellectualism is dangerous. On activities; and (c) have a positive impact on and works outside the discipline. So long the other hand, persons who read and think the people around them. as folks remain intellectually active, I have have the basis for delivering a special mes- much respect for them. sage in their research, teaching and/or ser- *Thanks to Wayne Gillespie and John Whitehead for reviewing this essay. MB: I agree with all the points you made vice. You and I read different things, but in although I might revise one point a bit; the our own ways we try to bring something References one where you indicate that at even research special to our students and to those who institutions, faculty aren't excused from read our writings. Braswell, M.C., & Whitehead, J.T. (2002). teaching. 3. They have a positive impact on the In the beginning was the student: Teaching peace- I might add that they may, in fact, be ex- people around them. making and justice issues. Crime and Delin- cused from "good" teaching. And I'm not I think that "high quality" faculty do not quency 48,333-349. so sure I wouldn't excuse them from teach- leave those around them untouched. Again, Geis, G. (2002). On cross-disciplinary quali- ing altogether with the possible exception how they impact folks might differ. tative research: Some homilies. The Criminolo- of working with a small group of advanced gist 27, 1-4. • VolumeXXVI, Issue 1 ACJS TODAY 25

CALL FOR NOMINATIONS

The ACJS Nomination and Elections Committee is soliciting nominations for the following Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences offices: Second Vice-President, Secretary, Trustee-at-Large, and Regions One and Five Trustees. All candidates for office must be regular ACJS members in good standing. Forms for nomination and petition are also available on the ACJS website (www.acjs.org) and must be completed to be valid.

The person elected to the office of Second Vice-President will have a four-year term of office on the ACJS Executive Board and will hold the offices of Second Vice-President, Vice President and President-Elect, President, and Immediate Past President in turn. The person elected to the office of Secretary will have a two-year term. The person elected to the office of Trustee-at- Large will have a three-year term. The persons elected to the Regional Trustee positions will have three-year terms. Only current ACJS members from the respective regions may run for the trustee position for their region and candidates must be current members of their regional association for at least one full year.

Region One includes Connecticut, Delaware, DC, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont. Region Five includes Alaska, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming and Utah.

Those nominating individuals for ACJS office are expected to contact the nominee to ensure that the nominee is willing to run for the office in question.

As per ACJS policy (# 303.02), members may also use the petition process to gain a position on the ballot. An ACJS member seeking an office this way must obtain fifty (50) signatures of regular ACJS members in good standing. To be valid, the petition must state the name and complete address of the candidate, his/her e-mail address, home and office phone numbers, and the office he/she is seeking. In addition, the petition must include the printed name, dated signature, and institutional affiliation or address of each ACJS member signing the petition. More than one petition form may be submitted on behalf of a specific candidate.

THE DEADLINE DATE FOR NOMINATIONS AND PETITIONS IS JUNE 1,2003.

All nominations and petitions should be sent to Richard R. Bennett, Chairperson, ACJS Nomination and Elections Committee, Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, 7319 Hanover Parkway, Suite C, Greenbelt, Maryland, 20770.

As per ACJS policy (#303.01), the following rank-ordered criteria will be used by the Nomination and Elections Committee in making recommendations to the ACJS Executive Board regarding the final slate of candidates.

1. Dependability, demonstrated experience, record of accomplishments

2. Demonstrable service to the Academy

3. Demonstrable record of scholarship or contributions to the field of criminal justice

ACJS policy (#104.01) states the goal of inclusiveness. ACJS seeks to provide opportunities for all its members to participate in the business of the Academy.

NOTE: The final slate of candidates approved by the Executive Board will be asked to complete a Candidate's Information Form. This document will include length of ACJS membership; previous service for ACJS; previous service to other criminal justice organizations; major publications; and a candidate's statement. CALL FOR PRESENTATIONS

ACADEMY OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE SCIENCES 41st ANNUAL MEETING Crime Prevention: One Goal, Multiple Approaches

March 9 - 13, 2004

Riviera Hotel and Casino 2901 Las Vegas Boulevard, South Las Vegas, Nevada 89109 (702) 794-9561 Reservations: (800) 634-3414

Persons interested in participating should contact a Topic Area Committee Member or:

Lawrence Travis, III University of Cincinnati Division of Criminal Justice Post Office Box 210389 Cincinnati, OH 45221-0389 (513) 556-5837 FAX: (513) 556-3303 [email protected]

Steve P. Lab, President Bowling Green State University PROGRAM DEADLINES

Abstracts and information due to topic area chairs October 1, 2003 Participants notified of acceptance/rejection of abstracts December 1, 2003

PROGRAM GUIDELINES

• Program participants are required to pre-register for the conference. • Abstracts should be submitted to only one program committee member. • Individuals requesting special assistance should contact Lawrence Travis, III. • An overhead projector and screen is provided in each meeting room. If you require additional audiovisual equipment, you will incur the charges for the equipment and you will arrange for such equipment through the ACJS National Office at the time of registration for the annual meeting. A request form for making these arrangements will be included with registration materials.

ACJS2004 Presentation Options

The following presentation options are available to participants in the 2004 meeting:

Panel Presentations (90 minute sessions)

Panels consist of four or five presenters of written papers and a panel chair. Presenters make formal presentations of completed works. The panel chair opens and closes the session and coordinates questions and comments from the audience. Participants who select this option must submit their completed paper to the panel chair prior to the annual meeting.

Roundtables (90 minutes sessions)

Roundtables are open discussions of a topic, organized by a moderator and involving several individual discussants with special knowledge or expertise in the topic area. No formal papers are presented. Often the discussion centers on diverse viewpoints or findings in a topic area.

Workshops

Anyone interested in conducting a workshop should contact Larry Travis, III, Program Chair. ACJS2004 Submission Format

The following information must be provided to the appropriate topic area chair no later than October 1, 2003 to ensure full consideration. Please use only ONE of the following avenues for submission.

• Those who wish to serve as panel chair or discussant should also use one of these avenues to contact the chair of the topic area in which you would like to serve and provide all necessary contact information. 1. Mail or Fax. You may mail or fax your submission to the appropriate topic area chair. If you select this option, we ask that you submit the information both as a hardcopy and on a disk, preferably as a WORD file. 2. E-mail attachment. Send an e-mail message to the appropriate topic area chair with the submission as an attachment, preferably as a WORD file. 3. AOS website submission. Visit the AOS website at www.acjs.org and follow the instructions to submit your abstract to the appropriate topic area chair.

All submissions must include:

1. Submission Type (Select only one) Panel Presentation Roundtable

2. Title (of paper, roundtable or workshop)

3. Abstract A too-word abstract must be submitted for each paper or roundtable.

4. Authors, Presenters, Chairs, Moderators, Discussants The following information is required for each individual to be included in the program and must be provided with the submission. Authors should be listed in order of authorship. Name Affiliation Mailing Address Telephone Numbers Fax E-mail Address

5. Chair and/or Discussant: Individuals willing to serve as chair and/or discussant for a panel in a topic area should contact the appropriate program committee member. Chair/Discussant information should include: Name Affiliation Mailing Address Telephone Numbers Fax E-mail Address

NOTE: Authors acknowledge that papers presented at the annual meetings of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences are original and have never before been published, printed, or accepted for publication elsewhere. ACJS2004 Topic Area CommiHee Members

Submit your proposal to ONLY ONE topic area committee member. If you do not see an appropriate topic area for your submission, please send the information to the Program Chair, Lawrence Travis III. CRIME PREVENTION: ONE GOAL, MULTIPLE APPROACHES

Topic Area: Prevention Risk Fadors for Crime and Violence Violence in the Workplace Becky Tatum Mahesh Nalla University of Houston-Clear Lake School of Criminal Justice Evaluating Prevention and Interventions School of Human Sciences and Humanities Michigan State University Graham Farrell 2700 Bay Area Boulevard 560 Baker Hall Division of Criminal Justice Houston, Texas 77058 East Lansing, MI 48824-1118 University of Cincinnati (281) 283-3417 (517) 355-2197' (517) 432-1787 FAX Post Office Box 210389 [email protected] [email protected] Cincinnati, OH 45221-0389 (513) 556-5827 • (513) 556-3303 FAX Critical Criminology Fear of Crime [email protected] Marty Schwartz Ted Chiricos Department of Sociology Criminology and Criminal Justice International Crime Prevention Efforts Ohio University Florida State University Tim Hope 281 Lindley Hall Tallahassee, FL 32306 Department of Criminology Athens, OH 45701 (850) 644-7371 • (850) 644-9614 FAX Keele University (740) 593-1366 • (740) 593-1365 FAX [email protected] Keele, Staffs ST5 5BG, UK [email protected] 44 (0)1782 584166' 44 (0)1782 584269 FAX [email protected] Life Course Alex Piquero Topic Area: Policing Community Crime Prevention Center for Studies in Criminology and Law Police Effediveness Dennis Rosenbaum University of Florida Tim Bynum Department of Criminal Justice Post Office Box 115950 University of Illinois at Chicago School of Criminal Justice 201 Walker Hall Michigan State University 1007 West Harrison Gainesville, FL 32611-5950 560 Baker Hall Chicago, IL 60607 (352) 392-1025 • (352) 392-5065 FAX East Lansing, MI 48824-1118 (312) 355-2469' (312) 996-8355 FAX [email protected] [email protected] (517) 355-2196' (517) 432-1787 FAX Biology and Crime [email protected] Business Security and Prevention Steve Tibbets Police-Community Partnering Martin Gil Department of Criminal Justice David Duffee Scarman Centre California State University School of Criminal Justice University of Leicester 5500 University Parkway University Road University at Albany San Berardino, CA 92407 135 Western Avenue Leicester LEI 7RH, UK (909) 880-5552' (909) 880-7712 FAX Albany, NY 12222 44 (0)116 252 5709' 44 (0)116 252 5788 FAX [email protected] [email protected] (518) 442-5224 • (518) 442-5212 FAX [email protected] Theories of Prevention Marcus Felson Topic Area: Vidims Issues Police Organization School of Criminal Justice William King Rutgers University Campus Crime Criminal Justice Program 15 Washington Street John Sloan Bowling Green State University Newark, NJ 07102- 3102 Department of Justice Sciences Room 223, Health Center (973) 353-5237 • (973) 353-5896 FAX University of Alabama-Birmingham Bowling Green, OH 43403 [email protected] OB 15, Room 101, 1530 1st Avenue South (419) 372-0373 • (419) 372-2400 FAX Birmingham, AL 35294-2060 [email protected] Surveil/ance and Technology (205) 975-5701 • (205) 934-2067 FAX Corey Watkins [email protected] Police Management Criminal Justice and Legal Studies Michael Buerger University of Central Florida Dimensions of Family and Partner Violence Criminal Justice Program HPA I Suite 311 Judy Hails Bowling Green State University Oriando,FL-328161600 Social Science Public Affairs Building 223 Student Health Center (407) 823-036 • (407) 823 5360 FAX (Ss/pa) Room 158 Bowling Green, OH 43403 [email protected] California State University, Long Beach (419) 372-8905 • (419) 372-2400 FAX 1250 Bellflower Boulevard [email protected] Long Beach, California 90840 (562) 985 - 4738 • (562) 985 - 8086 FAX Police Accountability Bob Taylor Topic Area: Theories [email protected] Department of Criminal Justice Theories of Crime Prevention and Interventions for Family Violence 359 Chilton Hall Chris Sellers Harvey Wallace University of North Texas Department of Criminology Department of Criminology Denton, TX 76203-5130 University of South Florida 2225 East San Ramon, MS/MF 104 (940) 565-2562 • (940) 565-2548 FAX 4202 East Fowler Avenue - SOC 107 California State University, Fresno [email protected] Tampa, FL 33620-9900 Fresno, CA 93740-8029 (813) 974-9547 • (813) 974-2803 FAX (559) 278-4223 • (559) 278-7265 FAX [email protected] [email protected] Training Issues Topic Area: Corredions Topic Area: Juvenile Justice Jim Hendricks Criminal Justice and Criminology North Quad 248 Ball State University Prisoner Re-entry Gangs Muncie, IN 47306 Todd Clear Scott Decker Department of Law and Police Science Criminology and Criminal Justice (765) 285-5979· (765) 285-5912 FAX University of Missouri-St. Louis [email protected] John Jay College of Criminal Justice 899 Tenth Avenue 8001 Natural Bridge Rd., 494 Lucas Hall Profiling New York, NY 10019 St. Louis, MO 63121-4499 Robin Sheppard (212) 237-8470 • (212) 237-8383 FAX (314) 516-5038· (314) 516-5048 FAX Division of Criminal Justice [email protected] [email protected] University of Cincinnati Post Office Box 210389 Community and Intermediate Sanctions Recent Trends in Juvenile Justice Cincinnati, OH 45221-0389 Gerry Vito Lonn Lanza-Kaduce Center for Studies in Criminology and Law (513) 556-5827 • (513) 556-3303 FAX Justice Administration [email protected] University of Louisville Post Office Box 115950 203 Brigman Hall University of Florida Police Practice Louisville, KY 40292 Gainesville, Florida 32611-5950 Ken Novak (502) 852-6509 • (502) 852-0065 FAX (352) 392-1025 • (352) 392-5065 FAX Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice gfvitoOl @gwise.iouisville.edu [email protected] University of Missouri-Kansas City 5100 Rockhill Road; 208 Haag Hall Prisons Schools and Preventing Delinquency Richard Lawrence Kansas City, MO 64110-2499 Rosemary Gido Department of Criminal Justice-SH245 (816) 235-1599 • (816) 235-1117 FAX Criminology Department [email protected] Indiana University of Pennsylvania st. Cloud State University G-l McElhaney Hall 720 Fourth Avenue, South Indiana, PA 15705 st. Cloud, MN 56301-4442 (724) 357-2720 • (724) 357-4018 FAX (320) 255-3974 • (320) 255-2993 FAX Topic Area: Courts [email protected] [email protected] Judicial Issues Jails Preventing Delinquency Marv Zalman Stan Stojkovic John Whitehead Department of Criminal Justice Helen Bader School of Social Welfare Criminal Justice and Criminology Wayne State University University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee East Tennessee State University Detroit, MI 48202 2400 Eat Hartford Avenue Box 70555 (313) 577-6087 • (313) 577-9977 FAX 10543 Enderis Hall Johnson City, TN 37614-0555 [email protected] Milwaukee, WI 53201 (423) 439-5604 • (423) 439-4660 FAX Sentencing (414) 229-6038· (414) 229-5311 FAX [email protected] Cassia Spohn [email protected] Department of Criminal Justice Treatment Issues University of Nebraska at Omaha Jody Sundt Topic Area: DSC 251 Center for Study of Crime, Research and Public Policy Omaha, NE 68182-0149 Delinquency and Corrections (402) 554-3591 • (402) 554-2326 FAX Southern Illinois Univ. at Carbondale [email protected] Mail Code 4504 The Media and Public Policy Carbondale, IL 62901-4504 Prosecution and Defense Steve Chermak (618) 453-6371 • (618) 453-6377 FAX Alissa Worden Department of Criminal Justice School of Criminal Justice [email protected] Indiana University University at Albany 302 Sycamore Hall 135 Western Avenue Privatization Bloomington, IN 47405 Albany, NY 12222 USA Travis Pratt (812) 855-5161 • (812) 855-5522 FAX (518) 442-5213· (518) 442-5212 FAX Department of Political Science and [email protected] [email protected] Criminal Justice Restorative Justice Washington State University Public Opinion, Politics, and Policy 801 Johnson Tower Gordon Bazemore Mike Israel Pullman, WA 99164-4880 Florida Atlantic University 1003 Elm Avenue (509) 335-4075 • (509) 335-7990 FAX University Tower Takoma Park, Maryland 20912-5839 [email protected] 220 S.E. Second Ave., Room 616K (301) 270-5944 Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33301-1905 [email protected] (954) 762-5663 • (954) 762-5626 FAX Juvenile Corrections [email protected] Sponsored Research and Support Issues Alex Holsinger Robert Langworthy Sociology/Criminal Justice-Criminology Specialty Courts (drug, etc.) Justice Center University of Missouri-Kansas City John Goldkamp University of Alaska Anchorage 5100 Rockhill Road Crime and Justice Research Institute 3211 Providence Drive 208 Haag Hall 520 N. Columbus Blvd., Suite 600 Anchorage, AK 99508-0389 Kansas City, MO 64110-2499 Philadelphia, PA 19123 (907) 786-1810· (907) 786-7777 FAX (816) 235-5288· (816) 235-1117 FAX (215) 267-3766· (215) 627-7810 FAX [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Emerging Research Techniques Organized Crime Local Arrangements Deanna Wilkinson Jay Albanese Department of Criminal Justice International Center Shelley Johnson Listwan Temple University National Institute of Justice Department of Criminal Justice 1115 West Berks Street - Room 520 810 Seventh St., NW 4505 Maryland Parkway Philadelphia, PA 19122 Washington, DC 20531 Box 455009 (215) 204-2211· (215) 204-3872 FAX (202) 616-1960 University of Nevada, Las Vegas deannaw68@aoLcom [email protected] Las Vegas, NV 89154 (702) 895-0228 • (702)895-0252 FAX Legal and Ethical Issues White Collar Crime [email protected] Sam Souryal Kip Schlegel Criminal Justice Center Department of Criminal Justice Sam Houston State University Indiana University Program Chair Huntsville, TX 77341-2296 302 Sycamore Hall Lawrence Travis, III (936) 294-1643 • (936) 294-4296 FAX Bloomington, IN 47405 Division of Criminal Justice [email protected] (812) 855-0889 • (812) 855-5522 FAX University of Cincinnati [email protected] Post Office Box 210389 Comparative and International Justice Cincinnati, OH 45221-0389 Topic Area: Bill Wakefield (513) 556-5837 • (513) 556-3303 FAX Criminal Justice Education Department of Criminal Justice [email protected] University of Nebraska at Omaha DSC 242, UNO Deputy Program Chairs Omaha, NE 68182 Pam Tontodonato (402) 554-3568· (402) 554-2326 FAX Delores Jones-Brown, Co-Chair Criminal Justice Studies [email protected] and Kent State University Maria Haberfeld, Co-Chair 113 Bowman Hall Race, Ethnicity and Criminal Justice Department of Law and Police Science Kent, OH 44242-0001 Janice Joseph John Jay College of Criminal Justice (330) 672-0318 • (330) 672-5394 FAX Criminal Justice Program 899 Tenth Avenue [email protected] Richard Stockton College of New Jersey New York, NY 10019 Jim Leeds Road Delores Jones-Brown (212) 237-8390 Pamona, NJ 08240-9999 Maria Haberfeld (212) 237-8381 Topic Area: (609) 652-4312 • (609) 748-5559 FAX (212) 237-8383 Fax Alcohol and Drug Issues [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Gender Issues in Criminal Justice Henry Brownstein, Director Barbara Owen Drugs and Crime Research Division Department of Criminology Office of Research and Evaluation California State University, Fresno National Institute of Justice MCF 104 810 7th Street, Northwest Fresno, CA 93740-8029 Washington, DC 20531 (559) 278-5715 • (559) 278-7265 FAX (202) 305-8705 • (202) 514-8200 FAX [email protected] [email protected] Capital Punishment Topic Area: Terrorism Bob Bohm Criminal Justice and Legal Studies Brent Smith University of Central Florida Department of Criminal Justice 102B Phillips Hall University of Alabama at Birmingham Orlando, FL 32816-1600 Birmingham, AL 35244 (407) 823-5944 • (407) 823-5360 FAX (205) 934-2069 • (205) 934-2067 FAX [email protected] [email protected] Crime Mapping George Rengert Topic Area: Special Topics Department of Criminal Justice Sex Offenses Temple University Philadelphia, PA 19122 Richard Zevitz (215) 204-7994· (215) 787-3872 FAX Criminology and Law Study [email protected] Marquette University Lalumiere Hall, Room 414, PO Box 1881 Milwaukee, WI 53201-1881 (414) 288-6838· (414) 288-6444 FAX Topic Area: Student Papers [email protected] Hate Crimes Brian Byers Jill Gordon Criminal Justice and Criminology Department of Criminal Justice North Quad 248 Virginia Commonwealth University Ball State University Post Office Box 842017 Muncie, IN 47306 Richmond, VA 23284-2017 (765) 285-5979 • (765) 285-5912 FAX (804) 828-1050· (804) 828-1253 FAX [email protected] [email protected] 43-08 1621ld Street P.O. Box 650042 Flushing, NY 11358 Fresh Meadows, NY 11365-0042 800-647-5547 FAX:718-539-0941 www.LooseleafLaw.com [email protected]

Thanks! It Was Great Seeing You in Boston!

On behalf of the entire Looseleaf Law Publications team, I want to congratulate the ACJS staff on yet another successful annual conference! Thank you for all of your hard work and continued commitment to informing, supporting and enhancing the Criminal Justice community.

For more than 35 years, Looseleaf Law has been indescribably proud to be of service to the scores of CJ educators and practitioners we have met and continue to do business with. It was great to see many of you in Boston. Your dedication to keeping safe this country and those who have sworn to protect it continues to be inspiring.

One of the founding principles of Looseleaf Law is to supply what you tell us you need to teach and apply. The message that came across loud and clear at this year's ACJS conference is your urgent need for solid counter- terrorism training materials. With that, we offer below our most recent contribution.

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Contact us to order books or a free catalog with over 723 titles Call 1-800-258-8980 or 1-217-789-8980 or Fax 1-217-789-9130 Complete catalog available at www.ccthomas.com·[email protected] Books sent on approval· Shipping charges: $6.95 U.S. / Outside U.S., actual shipping fees will be charged Prices subject to change without notice .Juvenile .Julltice An Introduction

Fourth Edition

John T. Whitehead Steven P. Lab

1 The Definition and Extent of Delinquency 2 The History of Juvenile Justice 3 Explaining Delinquency: Biological and Psychological Approaches 4 Sociological Explanations for Delinquency 5 Gang Delinquency 6 Drugs and Delinquency 7 Policing and Juveniles 8 The Juvenile Court Process 9 Due Process and Juveniles 10 Institutional/Residential Interventions 11 Juvenile Probation/Community Corrections 12 The Victimization of Juveniles 13 Future Directions in the Juvenile Justice System • Glossary

Juvenile Justice: An Introduction provides a fresh and comprehensive analysis of all aspects of the juvenile justice system, including history, movements toward diversion and deinstitutionalization, police interaction, court process, due process and community intervention. It also explores the theoretical rationales for the various interventions in order to make a complete evaluation of each effort. This book also examines subthemes of juvenile justice, such as female delin- quency, gang delinquency, the use of the death penalty on youths and finding the correct philosophical approach to juvenile justice. It concludes with a look to the future of the juvenile court, including the real possibility of abolition.

ISBN: 1-58360-541-X • 2003 • 480 pages • $54.95

anderson publishing co. More than 30 Years of Quality Criminal Justice Textbooks 581-719' (ext. 5Jl'IJ The Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice: Special Edition, "Hispanics and the

U.S. Criminal Justice System". The Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice invites scholars to submit manuscripts for a special edition of its journal on "Hispanics and the

U.S. Criminal Justice System." Four copies of the manuscript should be submitted. The manuscript should be approximately 15-20 pages double-spaced with a one-inch margin on all four- sides and should include an abstract of 100 words, a title page, and a brief biographical sketch of author(s). References, citations, and general style of manuscripts for this Journal should follow the APA style (as outlined in the latest edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.) References should be double-spaced and placed in alphabetical order. The use of footnotes within the text is discouraged. Words should be underlined only when it is intended that they be typeset in italics. Manuscripts should be addressed to either of the co-editors listed.

The deadline for submissions is June 15, 2003. All manuscripts submitted for publication to Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice are peer-reviewed. Please send manuscripts to: Dr. Wilson R. Palacios. University of South Florida, Department of

Criminology/SOC327, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620; (813) 974-7290;

The Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice is indexed in Criminal Justice Abstracts,

Social Services Abstracts; Sociological Abstracts, and other major abstracting and indexing services. INDIVIDUALIZED INTERVENTION WITH YOUNG MULTIPLE OFFENDERS

Ted Palmer

Foreword by Francis T. Cullen and Patricia Van Voorhis

Volume 1 California's Community Treatment Project

Part I An Experiment in Individualized Intervention Part II Program Effectiveness and Matching Part III Review, Phase 3, Implications, and Key Factors Part IV The Feasibility of Community-based, Individualized Intervention

Volume 2 Issues, Theory, and Perspectives

Part I Issues and Developments Part II Rationales, Theory, Ethics, and Trends Part III Perspectives on Community-based, Individualized Intervention

Volume 1 of this 1,173 page book details all aspects of the intensive, low case- load, multimodal, in-lieu-of-institutionalization Community Treatment Program that operated in three urban settings, including San Francisco, collectively for twenty-five years. Compared to randomly assigned controls, CTP reduced arrests and convictions, including those for violent offenses, by 35%-to-50% for males, on several years of followup within those settings; it also markedly reduced costs to society. Based on thousands of observations by on-site researchers over twelve years, key factors contributing to CTP's success are identified, as are the program's core operations, essential requirements, and main supporting conditions. The feasibility of CTP and of modifications thereof is examined at length, as are these programs' applicability to a range of conditions and correc- tional contexts, such as specialized individual caseloads within probation.

Volume 2 provides sets of concepts for (1) understanding serious young offenders as human beings--particularly their interests and lliotivations, their social/ developmental needs as adolescents, and their related practical challenges, inter- personal issues, and ambivalence--and for (2) understanding why these youths do or do not respond positively to given approaches, to specified types of staff (parole agents), and to particular attitudes as well as relationships. It also examines the ethics of, and presents a social-protection rationale for, needs- and-growth-centered (NGC) intervention. Further, it describes several individual- ized, non-California based programs that long-operated within the USA and Canada.

In the final analysis, the book shows how and why intervention must be based on careful and updated diagnosis (not mainly on risk-assessments, checklists, and/ or broad classifications), be quickly responsive to crisis and change, be flexible, and be focused as well as carefully coordinated, if it is to achieve considerable long-term, internally sustained, behavioral change and related social adjustment with multiply problemed offenders. The bearing of community-based, individualized NGC intervention on today's restorative justice approaches becomes evident, as do the critical differences between such intervention and the latter.

Hardcover. 30 chapters. 2002. ISBN 0-8153-2122-8. Routledge (Taylor & Francis Publishing Group), New York & London. Phone Customer Service: 800-634-7064 in USA; 877-226-2237 in Canada. Inquire about examination copy for academics. Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences 7319 Hanover Parkway, Suite C Greenbelt, Maryland 20770 (301) 446-6300 • Fax (301) 446-2819 ORDER FORM

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President Trustee-at-Large Steven P. Lab Richard Holden Bowling Green State University Central Missouri State University Criminal Justice Program Department of Criminal Justice Bowling Green, Ohio 43403 Warrensburg, MO 64093 (419) 372-2326 • (419) 372-2400 (660) 543-4950 • Fax: (660) 543-8306 [email protected] [email protected]

First Vice President Trustee-at-Large James Finckenauer Joycelyn Pollock Rutgers University Southwest Texas State University School of Criminal Justice Department of Criminal Justice Newhouse Center for Law and Justice HAC 120 123 Washington Street San Marcos, TX 78666 Newark, NJ 07102 (512) 245-7706 • Fax: (512) 245-8063 [email protected] (973) 353-330 I· Fax: (973) 353-5896 fi [email protected] Trustee (Region One) Second Vice President Roslyn Muraskin Laura J. Moriarty Long Island University-C.W. Post Campus Virginia Commonwealth University Department of Criminal Justice 923 West Franklin 720 Northern Boulevard Post Hall 3C3 505 Scherer Hall, Box 842019 Brookville, NY 11548 Richmond, VA 23284 (516) 299-3146 • Fax: (516) 299-2640 (804) 828-1674 • (804) 828-2171 [email protected] [email protected]

Treasurer Trustee (Region Two) Mary K. Stohr Ronald Hunter State University of West Georgia Boise State University Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Department of Criminal Justice Administration Criminology 1910 University Drive Carrollton, GA 30118-2110 Boise, JD 83725 (770) 836-4301 • Fax: (770) 838-3036 (208) 426-1378 • Fax: (208) 426-4371 rh [email protected] [email protected] Trustee (Region Three) Secretary Lee Ross Brandon Applegate University of Wisconsin at Parkside University of Central Florida Department of Criminal Justice Department of Criminal Justice 900 Wood Road Post Office Box 161600 Post Office Box 2000 Orlando, FL 32816 Kenosha, WI 53141-2000 (407) 823-3739 • Fax: (407) 823-5360 (414) 595-3416 • Fax: (414) 595-2471 [email protected] [email protected]

Immediate Past President Trustee (Region Four) Richard R. Bennett W. Wesley Johnson American University Sam Houston State University Department of Justice, Law and Society College of Criminal Justice 4400 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Post Office Box 2296 Washington, DC 20016 Huntsville, TX 77341-2296 (202) 885-2427 • (202) 885-2353 (936) 294-1640 • Fax: (936) 294-1653 [email protected] [email protected]

Trustee-at-Large Trustee (Region Five) Leanne Fiftal Alarid Faith Lutze University of Missouri at Kansas City Washington State University Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice Criminal Justice Program 5100 Rockhill Road, 208 Haag Hall Post Office Box 644880 Kansas City, MO 64110 Pullman, WA 99164-4880 (816) 235-5706 • Fax: (816) 235-1117 (509) 358-2272 • (509) 335-7990 [email protected] [email protected] Association Manager Laura Monaco ACJS 7319 Hanover Parkway, Suite C Greenbelt, Maryland 20770 (301) 446-6300; (800) 757-ACJS (2257) Fax: (30 I) 446-2819 • [email protected]