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LEGITIMIZING INEQUALITY a Political Ecology of Water in the Waterberg, South Africa

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LEGITIMIZING INEQUALITY a Political Ecology of Water in the Waterberg, South Africa LEGITIMIZING INEQUALITY A political ecology of water in the Waterberg, South Africa Michela Marcatelli i This dissertation is part of the research programme of CERES, Research School for Resource Studies for Development. Cover design: Alice Franzon Cover picture: Michela Marcatelli Printed by: Book Builders, Nijmegen (FSC logo) ISBN: 978-90-6490-071-6 © Michela Marcatelli, 2017 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior per- mission of the author. ii LEGITIMIZING INEQUALITY A political ecology of water in the Waterberg, South Africa HET LEGITIMEREN VAN ONGELIJKHEID Een politieke ecologie van water in de Waterberg, een gebied in Zuid-Afrika Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the Rector Magnificus Prof.dr. H.A.P. Pols and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board The public defence shall be held on Friday 3 March 2017 at 16:00 hrs by Michela Marcatelli born in Bologna (Italy) iii Doctoral Committee Doctoral Dissertation Supervisors Prof.dr. M.N. Spoor Prof.dr. B.E. Büscher, Wageningen University Other members Prof.dr. R.A. Boelens, University of Amsterdam, Wageningen University Dr. J.-F. Gerber Dr. A. Loftus, King’s College London iv Contents List of Maps, Tables, Pictures and Appendices ix Acronyms xi Acknowledgments xiii Abstract xv Samenvatting xvii INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Research objectives 5 1.2 Scope and contribution of the study 6 1.3 Research methodology 13 1.3.1 Ethnographic approach 13 1.3.2 Fieldwork 14 1.3.3 Research methods 17 1.3.4 Reflexivity 20 1.4 Structure of the thesis 22 Notes 24 A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE WATERBERG’S WATERSCAPE 27 2.1 Colonial appropriation of natural resources (1850-1902) 30 2.2 Lacking water-based development (1902-1994) 36 2.3 Producing water scarcity (1994-2016) 44 2.4 Conclusion 50 Notes 51 v A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN WATER REFORM 57 3.1 Before 1998: Private vs. public water 59 3.2 Entrenching white privilege: The invention of existing lawful uses 62 3.3 The redistribution process: Accumulation vs. social equity 68 3.4 Conclusion 76 Notes 77 RECOGNIZING WATER INEQUALITY IN THE WATERBERG 81 4.1 Unpacking the service delivery crisis 82 4.2 Implementing the water reform in the Waterberg 87 4.3 Patterns of water access and use 93 4.4 Conclusion 111 Notes 112 WATER INEQUALITY AND THE PRIVATE/PUBLIC QUESTION 117 5.1 Private resource, public service 118 5.2 Private water as capital 123 5.3 Public water as individual responsibilization 130 5.4 Conclusion 135 Notes 135 PRODUCING NATURE, NATURALIZING INEQUALITY 139 6.1 Nature conservation and agrarian political economy 141 6.2 Producing nature in the Waterberg: From traditional to game farming 145 6.3 Intersecting conservation and water 153 6.4 Conclusion 157 vi Notes 158 CONCLUSION 163 7.1 Back to the research question 164 7.2 On political ecology 165 7.3 Is the Waterberg exceptional? 166 7.4 Future directions for research 168 Notes 169 APPENDIX 171 REFERENCES 173 CURRICULUM VITAE 199 vii viii List of Maps, Tables, Pictures and Appendices Map 1 The Waterberg xix Map 2 Vaalwater and the Waterberg plateau xx Map 2.1 Vaalwater dorp (ca 1954) 40 Map 2.2 Vaalwater town (ca 2015) 48 Map 4.1 River catchments on the Waterberg plateau 88 Map 4.2 Water infrastructure in Vaalwater 99 Table 4.1 Times and quantities of water services for Vaalwater residents 100 Table 4.2 Level of water infrastructure in Vaalwater 102 Table 4.3 Water inequality in the Waterberg 111 Picture 4.1 Buckets queuing at a communal tap in extension 5 103 Picture 4.2 Bath serving as water container in extension 1 104 Picture 4.3 Water tank and communal tap in extension 6 104 Appendix 1 Interviews 171 ix x Acronyms ANC African National Congress CMA Catchment Management Agency DPLG Department of Provincial and Local Government DWA Department of Water Affairs DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry DWS Department of Water and Sanitation ELU Existing Lawful Use EWT Endangered Wildlife Trust FBW Free Basic Water GBP British Pound GRIP Groundwater Resource Information Project GWCA Government Water Control Area HDI Historically Disadvantaged Individual IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management MCWAP Mokolo Crocodile (West) Water Augmentation Project MLM Modimolle Local Municipality NAR National Archives Repository NGO Non-Governmental Organization NIE New Institutional Economics NPM New Public Management NWRS National Water Resource Strategy RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme TAU Transvaal Agricultural Union USD United States Dollar WAR Water Allocation Reform WARMS Water Authorisation and Registration Management System xi WB World Bank WBR Waterberg Biosphere Reserve WfW Working for Water WMA Water Management Area WNC Waterberg Nature Conservancy WRC Water Research Commission WRSA Wildlife Ranching South Africa WUA Water User Association WWS Waterberg Welfare Society ZAR South African Rand / Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek xii Acknowledgements Researching for and writing this dissertation has been at once a solitary expe- rience and one full of encounters. If living for one year on a farm in the South African bush has taught me how to be alone, on the other hand, it simply would not have been possible for me to complete this journey on my own. My gratitude goes to all the persons who have contributed to this project in various ways: as supervisors, readers, respondents, and friends. First of all, special thanks to an excellent supervisory team composed of Max Spoor and Bram Büscher. To Max I am grateful for his continuous support and rigorous comments. As for Bram, I had the privilege of being among the very first PhD students to be supervised by him. He has provided me with constant encouragement and invaluable advice, with his characteristic enthusiasm, while pushing me, firmly but gently, to always go one step further. In other words, he has been a true mentor to me. My gratitude to him extends to Stacey Brown Büscher too. Bram and Stacey offered me a place to stay in Pretoria only months after the birth of Arana and their hospitality has con- tinued to be warm over the years. I first arrived at ISS as a MA student in 2008. It opened my eyes to a world of critical studies and internationalism that have enriched me as a scholar and a person ever since. I appreciate the institutional support that I have received along my PhD. In particular, I am grateful for the opportunity to present my work in progress and receive precious feedback from internal discussants, whose comments and suggestions have tremendously helped me sharpen my thoughts. As a PhD student, I have not resided in The Hague. Therefore, I have not been able to fully participate in a nascent and yet vibrant PhD com- munity. However, I am grateful to all those PhD fellows with whom I shared discussions about our research and life ‘outside’ the PhD, over coffee or din- ner, and in particular Eri Ikeda, Ome Chattranond, Emile Smidt, and Alonso Ramirez Cover. In South Africa, many people helped me both materially and intellectually. The Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS) of the Uni- versity of the Western Cape kindly provided me with an academic affiliation xiii that allowed me to live and conduct research in the country for one year be- tween 2013 and 2014. The Wits Institute for Social and Economic Research (WISER) of the University of the Witwatersrand offered me a place to work and discuss my research in 2015. Sincere thanks go to all the residents of the Waterberg who opened their homes to me and were willing to share their stories and knowledge for the purpose of this research. To mention them all would be too long and probably impossible, but a few names need to be made: Heidi and Bruce Carlton, Joshua Mabetwa, Janet and Peter Farrant, and Kelly Abram. Finally, I would like to thank my family for supporting me, each one in their own way, along the years: Massimo and Tiziana, Carlo and Daniela, and Giovanna. And Pietro, for endless discussions on the Waterberg, and much more. xiv Abstract This dissertation is about inequality in water access in former ‘white’ rural South Africa. It advances two major arguments. First, water inequality has largely been normalized and naturalized in the post-apartheid order. Second, instead of being only a legacy of colonialism and apartheid, water inequality is being continuously reproduced as a result of contemporary processes of neoliberal accumulation, both private and public. As a political ecology anal- ysis, this thesis questions discourses of an imminent and ‘natural’ water scar- city crisis, by showing how scarcity is produced in a context of abundance of resources and causes racialized dispossession. Moreover, it rejects the narra- tive of a service delivery crisis, by demonstrating how water access is embed- ded in a system of power relations that transcend the working of local gov- ernment and its supposed failures. Instead, the land-water nexus emerges as crucial, meaning that access to water ultimately depends upon access to land and is mediated through private property rights. My arguments are based on a specific historico-geographical context, namely the Waterberg plateau in the northern province of Limpopo, where I have conducted one year of ethnographic fieldwork. The Waterberg used to be a ‘white’ farmland growing crops and livestock, whereas now it has mostly converted to wildlife-based production via private conservation activities, such as game farms and private nature reserves.
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