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Home , Bahama Bank, Bamboo coral, Callum Roberts, Davidson Seamount, Deep sea fish, Essential fish habitat

Status of Deep in US Waters

With Recommendations for Their Conservation and Management ii “ support bizarre and beautiful life forms,

some of them hundreds or even thousands of years old.

They are being clear-cut by bottom trawl . Today’s

are squandering the riches of the deep sea and

if they are not stopped we will lose them forever. No industry

has the right to destroy the heritage of humanity.”

Professor Callum Roberts, professor of at the in England and a Pew Fellow in Marine Conservation

 Executive Summary This report focuses on 5 taxa of survival of deep sea corals, as well as The ocean—especially the deep deep sea corals found in US waters, oil and gas exploration and extrac- ocean—is the last frontier of explora- stony corals, gold corals, black corals, tion, collection and a number tion, exploitation and management gorgonian corals and hydrocorals. of other activities that contact on our planet. With demand for They come in various shapes and the seafloor. Impacts from pollu- and petroleum products sizes, from massive reefs miles long to tion, climate change and invasive exacting an ever-increasing toll on the single bushy shaped individuals many are poorly known but real deep sea, damage to deep sea corals feet tall. Our understanding of their threats. The effects of most of these is a growing worldwide conservation distribution is expanding, but is cur- activities are relatively unstudied concern. Recent deep sea exploration rently limited and varies greatly across and there is almost no monitoring of has revealed spectacularly diverse the different marine waters of the seafloor ecosystems anywhere in the seafloor communities. The deep sea USA. The vast majority of the sea- USA. Nevertheless, bottom trawl- corals that structure these communi- floor has not been surveyed for deep ing is currently the greatest threat to ties provide shelter, feeding , sea corals. What do know deep sea corals because it is capable and breeding and nursery grounds to suggests that deep sea coral concen- of significant, long-lasting damage in many species, including commercially trations are very localized, although just one pass of the gear, and it takes important . Conserving these they are widely distributed through- place over extensive areas where there extremely long-lived (some out the USA. They are commonly are corals. are documented to be over 1,500 found in areas with hard seafloor sub- Current ocean management is years old) is also important because strates and appropriate currents, such insufficient to protect these vulner- of their potential use in research and as the seaward edge of the continental able and unique deep sea habitats. medicine. In this report we provide shelf (shelf break), around the edges can provide an overview of where these deep sea of submarine canyons, and on banks some protection under existing laws, corals are found in US waters, what and . by either closing areas to fishing or activities threaten them, and what A number of human activi- through the designation of essential current management actions are used ties pose a threat to deep sea corals. (EFH) for commer- to protect them. We conclude with Bottom fishing, especially bottom cially managed species. Several of the limitations to current management , threatens the health and management councils have and recommendations for improv- recently designated deep sea corals as ing deep sea coral conservation. EFH and restricted bottom fishing and/or in some cases.

 Where areas have been designated, Oceans Commission in 2003, and trawling unless it can be shown that enforcement and monitoring are the US Commission on Ocean trawling will not damage seafloor critically needed. Oculina Bank, des- Policy in 2004—which find bottom habitats. Second, a national mandate ignated as a Habitat Area of Particular fishing, especially bottom trawling, is to protect deep sea corals is neces- Concern in 1984, in an action years a major threat to seafloor communi- sary through either amendment to ahead of its time, is now over 90% ties and deep sea corals. These studies the Magnuson-Stevens Act or new destroyed because no attention to recommend stricter protection of legislation. Third, government should enforcement followed the designation. vulnerable deep sea coral habitats. devote substantial resources to achiev- Our National Marine Sanctuary Similarly, the President’s 2004 Ocean ing a better scientific understanding Program, the main federal program Action Plan emphasized deep sea of where deep sea coral communities charged with protecting ocean coral conservation and called for are found, their ecological roles and ecosystems, does not manage fish further identification and protection threats to them, especially bottom- and therefore does not regulate the of deep sea coral areas. Despite these contact fishing gears. Last, managers impacts of fishing on deep sea corals encouraging signs, progress towards must develop a comprehensive frame- or seafloors within its boundaries. increased deep sea coral protection work to manage all human activities The Minerals Management Service, has been slow to occur. Recent based on their compatibility with which oversees energy production, actions by fishery management different ocean habitats (i.e., ecosys- can mitigate impacts to deep sea councils to designate essential fish tem-based management and ocean corals by establishing buffer zones habitat and to freeze the current zoning). Until we make protecting around deep sea coral communities, footprint of bottom trawling are ecosystems, rather than exploiting but has yet to do so. progress for deep sea coral conserva- resources, the overarching goal of The findings of this report, the tion. But those areas that have been management, we will continue to first to address the status of deep sea comprehensively protected are small fall short of protecting deep sea cor- corals in US waters, echo and reinforce in relation to the need. als, sustaining healthy fisheries, and recent conclusions by the National The recommendations of this maintaining the oceans’ Research Council in 2002, the Pew report are first, that fishery manage- and biological diversity. ment councils and national marine sanctuaries must use existing tools to protect deep sea corals, and curtail any further expansion of bottom

 Authors: Contents Lance E. Morgan Chih-Fan Tsao 7 Chapter 1: Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea John M. Guinotte 7 What are Deep Sea Corals? 10 Why Should We Be Concerned about Deep Sea Corals? Copyright © 2006 Lance E. Morgan, 10 Chih-Fan Tsao, John M. Guinotte. Longevity and Vulnerability A product of Marine Conservation 11 Medical and Scientific Value Biology Institute. 12 Deep Sea Corals as Habitat

Suggested citation: 13 Habitat for Invertebrates Morgan, L.E., C.-F. Tsao, J.M. Guinotte 13 Habitat for Fishes (2006). “Status of Deep Sea Corals in US Waters, with Recommendations for their 15 Summary Conservation and Management.” 64 pp. Marine Conservation Biology Institute, 17 Chapter 2: Deep Sea Corals in US Waters Bellevue, WA. 17 Distribution of Deep Sea Corals

Front cover photo: A close-up of 20 Stony Corals () coral polyps on a off New England 21 Gold Corals (Zoanthidea) Photo credit: Deep Atlantic Stepping Stones Science Party, IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA 22 Black Corals (Antipatharia) 22 Gorgonian Corals () Inside front cover photo: An assemblage of and corals in the Aleutian 24 Hydrocorals (Stylasterina) Islands, Alaska 25 Deep Sea Coral and Assemblages Photo credit: A. Lindner, NMFS 25 Summary This page: A close-up of a gorgonian coral ( Iridogorgia sp.) on a seamount off New England. The feeding polyps are all lined up on one side of the branches. Photo credit: the Deep Atlantic Stepping Stones Science Party, IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA

Printed on recycled paper.

ISBN 1-891276-53-0

 27 Chapter 3: Threats to Deep Sea Corals 39 Chapter 4: Current Management of Deep Sea Corals 27 Bottom Trawl Fishing 39 NMFS and Regional Fishery Management Councils 29 New England and Mid-Atlantic Regions 40 New England and Mid-Atlantic Regions 30 South Atlantic Region 40 South Atlantic Region 30 Gulf of Mexico Region 41 Gulf of Mexico Region 31 Caribbean Region 41 Caribbean Region 31 North Pacific Region 41 North Pacific Region 32 Pacific Region 42 Pacific Region 32 Western Pacific Region 43 Western Pacific Region 32 Other Gears 43 National Marine Sanctuary Program 33 44 Minerals Management Service 33 Oil and Gas Exploration and Extraction 45 Undetermined Habitat Value of Corals Limits Protection 34 Coral Exploitation and Trade 47 Current Protection for Deep Sea Corals is Inadequate 35 Invasive Species 47 Summary 36 Increasing Atmospheric CO2 36 Changing Seawater Chemistry 49 Chapter 5: Status and Recommendations for Deep Sea Coral Protection 36 Warming Waters 49 Current Status of Deep Sea Corals 36 Other Threats 50 Recommendations to Improve Deep Sea Coral Conservation 36 Cable Laying 52 1. Use and Enforce Existing Laws 37 Waste Disposal and Pollution 53 2. Establish a National Mandate to Protect Deep Sea Corals 37 Mineral Extraction 53 3. Expand Scientific Research 37 Bioprospecting 54 4. Implement -Based Management 37 Summary 57 Conclusions

58 Literature Cited 64 Appendix 64 Acknowledgments

 Exploration of deep sea

corals in recent decades provides us

with images and knowledge

of spectacularly diverse seafloor

communities.

 Voyage to the by researchers document deep sea degradation, commercial fishing Bottom of the Sea corals damaged or crushed by fishing fleets are moving further out into gears. We are destroying a treasure deeper waters (Christensen et al. The ocean— especially the deep that we have yet to fully understand. 2003, Roberts 2002). Industrialized ocean— is the last frontier we are Until we comprehend the complexity fleets are now using advanced exploring and exploiting on our and interconnectivity of marine technologies (e.g., synthetic fishing planet. As recently as the late 1800s, , we cannot begin to gears, larger and more capable scientists debated whether or not life Gorgonians in the Gulf of Mexico fathom the impact that the destruc- ships, satellite navigation systems, Photo credit: L. Horn, existed below the depths to which tion of this diversity will have on our computers and electronics) to find NURC/UNCW light penetrates (roughly 660 ft). ocean and on us. In the face of our and catch fish at ever greater depths. Today we know that life extends to ignorance and the growing threat to With demand for seafood and the deepest ocean depths—below deep sea coral habitats, more than petroleum products exacting an 35,000 ft to the bottom of the 1,400 marine and conservation ever-increasing toll on the deep sea Marianas Trench. We are still discov- scientists worldwide have called upon (Glover and Smith 2003), damage ering new deep sea species at a rapid the United Nations and national to deep sea corals is a growing rate. Photographs from research governments to protect deep sea worldwide conservation concern cruises show astoundingly beautiful corals.1 This report provides a (Hain et al. 2004). The significance corals— many new to science— and Stony corals off North Carolina comprehensive overview of the status of this damage is further amplified spectacular, lush coral forests shelter- Photo credit: S.W. Ross et al., UNCW of and threats to deep sea corals in because deep sea corals are among ing diverse communities of sea life. US waters in the hope that under- the longest-lived animals on Earth— Along with these discoveries comes standing current knowledge of these hundreds to thousands of years old— increasing knowledge of the fragility animals will help us all make the and are exceptionally fragile. and vulnerability of many species— decisions necessary to protect them. especially deep sea corals. Recent As populations What are Deep Sea Corals? exploration of the marine realm, decline from and habitat aided by remotely operated vehicles Deep sea corals are not a single

(ROVs) and manned submersibles, 1 Scientists' Statement on Protecting the World's taxonomic group of animals; they has provided compelling evidence Deep-sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems (http:// are a functional group— analogous www.mcbi.org/DSC_statement/sign.htm) Opposite page: Deep sea corals that our stewardship of the deep sea to the diverse plants included under at Madison-Swanson protected is insufficient. Images brought back the descriptors “bushes” or “trees.” area in the Gulf of Mexico. Photo credit: L. Horn, NURP/UNCW

 Locations of structure-forming deep sea corals and US regional fishery management North Pacific FMC council (FMC) jurisdictions

Western Pacific FMC Deep sea corals, known for their beautiful colors Pacific FMC and abundance of fish, are home to hundreds to thousands of species of sea creatures. Many animals depend on healthy deep sea coral ecosystems for protection, and a place to feed and reproduce. Like a city community, different organisms reside at all levels within the coral structures, and each of them has a role to play. – 0 to 660 ft Deep Sea – 660 to 36,000 ft

Shelves, Banks & Walls

Rises & Banks

l STONY CORALS Colonies of stony corals grow together to Seamounts: from base to peak— at least 3300 feet form large mounds or reefs. They have numerous short, white branches. The type of corals that most people below the oceans surface! Deep are familiar with, such as the stony sea corals tend to occur on “hilly” corals that form the Great Barrier surfaces or where the slope changes

New England FMC Reef in Australia, are different from abruptly; areas such as the shelf corals found in deeper waters in break (the seaward edge of the l GOLD CORALS Gold corals are colonies of individuals that grow into one significant way: shallow-water, ), the continental branching bush like structures. Growing slowly, some of these corals are estimated at 1,800 years old. reef-building corals contain symbiotic slope (a much steeper part of the algae which provide the corals with seafloor, seaward of the shelf), and Mid-Atlantic FMC nutrients. Like most plants, algae on ridges and seamounts (mountains are able to convert the sun’s energy hundreds or even thousands of feet into food through a process called tall that rise from the seafloor). For South Atlantic FMC l BLACK CORALS . Corals with symbiotic example, deep sea stony corals form colonies have extensive branching patterns which often resemble trees. algae are only found in the upper banks on the continental slope off Though not black while living, the underlying layers of the sea where sunlight can the southeastern USA, and deep sea is black or dark brown. penetrate (the photic zone), and are gorgonian corals grow on the steep usually found near shore in shallow slopes off the Aleutian islands and waters adjacent to islands. atop seamounts in waters offshore By contrast, deep sea corals do of , Hawaii, in the Gulf l GORGONIAN CORALS not contain symbiotic algae and of Alaska, and throughout the New Gorgonian corals have a flexible internal skeleton Gulf of Mexico FMC that allows them to bend and sway in the currents. can thrive at depths below the sun’s England Seamount chain. They are found on continental shelf breaks, reach. The deepest known coral submarine canyons and isolated seamounts. came from a depth nearly four miles

Not illustrated is the Caribbean FMC including waters surrounding Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands. Lightly shaded region denotes US exclusive economic zone. Orange l HYDROCORALS dots represent unknown coral records. Hydrocorals form a rigid but relatively brittle calcium carbonate skeleton with numerous pinpoint-sized pores and can be a variety of colors. Just as trees include ferns, several tonic food particles are available in are relatively small or occur alone. families of conifers, and several major the deep sea, corals can thrive well Our focus in this report is on those groups of flowering plants, deep sea beyond the depths to which light deep sea corals that grow into corals include members of a number penetrates. These corals are variously “bushes” and “trees,” or form reefs. of different taxonomic groups, referred to as deep sea corals, cold including stony corals, gold corals, water corals, and deep water corals. Why Should We Be Concerned black corals, gorgonian corals, and We use the term “deep sea corals” about Deep Sea Corals? An Iridogorgia sp. coral growing on a New England seamount hydrocorals. Several things unite in this report. Deep sea corals are long-lived animals Photo credit: the Deep Atlantic the deep sea corals we discuss in this Deep sea corals can grow alone Stepping Stones Science Party, that often provide habitat for a IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA report. They are all members of the or in colonies, and they come in diverse array of , including phylum , from the Greek various colors, shapes, and sizes. commercially valuable fishery species. “A vast expanse of the planet’s word “cnidos” meaning stinging Although corals are animals, they They also have untapped potential to unexplored, and potentially nettle. All cnidarians use modified are often compared to plants because produce novel medical compounds most promising, ocean beyond stinging cells to protect themselves some (for example black corals, and have been valued as jewelry the legal boundaries of nations and capture prey. While most tropical gorgonian corals, and hydrocorals) is being exposed to the reckless for millennia. coral reefs rely primarily on photo- branch out in bushy or tree-like plunder of marauding deep synthesis by symbiotic algae for shapes, resembling forests, groves, sea fishing trawlers.” Longevity and Vulnerability nourishment, deep sea corals lack and thickets. Additionally, some Jean-Michel Cousteau, Living in cold water, often at great Founder and President, symbiotic algae and capture all of species of stony corals, including depths, deep sea corals grow very Ocean Futures Society their food using stinging cells. Some the relatively well-studied species slowly and have extraordinarily long scientists are investigating whether pertusa and Oculina varicosa, life spans— up to hundreds or even microbial communities inhabiting develop large reefs. As colonies of thousands of years (Figure 1.1). Red- deep sea corals may serve functions these corals increase in size, their tree corals (Primnoa resedaeformis) similar to symbiotic, photosynthetic complex structure traps sediments at from southeast Alaska are 100 to 200 algae in shallow corals. Where plank- the base. Over time, the dead coral years old by the time they reach 6 to and sediment accumulate, forming a 10 ft in height (Andrews et al. 2002). characteristic deep sea , or “bioherm,” with a cap of live coral. Many other types of deep sea coral

10 The same species in Atlantic Canada Medical and Scientific Value and are distributed across a wide 2000 YRS lives more than 300 years (Risk et al. range of depths and latitudes, they Because deep sea corals are stationary 2002). A colony of gold coral provide an excellent window into the 1500 YRS animals that cannot evade predators (Gerardia sp.) living in water depths ocean’s history (Risk et al. 2005, S.W. by moving away, some species rely 1000 YRS of 1,900 feet off Little Bahama Bank, Ross et al., unpublished data, UNC- on chemical defense mechanisms to was determined to be about 1,800 Wilmington). As scientists continue protect themselves (Faulkner 2002). years old, making it one of the to develop techniques to measure the 500 YRS These mechanisms generate com- longest lived organisms on Earth; age and growth of deep sea corals and pounds that exhibit significant 0 YRS researchers likened it to the bristle- to interpret the changes in these bioactivity (effects on living cells or Human erardia cone pine because of this tremendous measurements, corals will help Rockfish *Primnoa *Lophelia *G *Coralium

organisms). Some of these com- *

longevity (Druffel et al. 1995). reconstruct the history of changes in *Desmophylum pounds show promise as treatments Urchin The ivory-tree coral Oculina growth, temperature, and ocean for human ailments. Scientists are Fig. 1.1: Ages of deep sea corals (*) varicosa, found in the southeast USA, chemistry at great depths beneath studying extracts of deep sea corals, and other animals from selected studies grows about 0.6 inches a year, yet has the sea. Andrews et al. 2002, Andrews et al. sponges, and other organisms to 2005, Caillet et al. 2001, Druffel formed 80 ft high reefs off Florida The tremendous longevity of develop new pharmaceutical products et al. 1995, Ebert and Southon 2003, that are estimated to be 1,500 years deep sea corals makes them valuable Paull et al. 2000, Risk et al. 2002 to fight cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, old (Reed 2002a). On a stony coral archives of past conditions on Earth. asthma, pain, and viral infections Lophelia reef off Florida, live corals Furthermore, the erect, branching “The disaster of bottom trawling on (Box 1.1). Some of these compounds may be as old as 700 years, and of deep sea corals are fragile the high threatens thousands are also used in paints and other of species and can mean a reversal rubble from dead coral is over 20,000 and easily damaged by disturbances materials to prevent algae and in of tens of thousands years old (Reed 2002a). Existing such as mobile bottom fishing gears. invertebrates from growing on boat of years.” Lophelia reefs in the Gulf of Mexico Once damaged, these invaluable hulls, piers, and bridges. Mikhail Gorbachev, may be 40,000 years old (Reed 2002a)! archives are lost to science, and these Chairman of the Board, In addition to their potential seafloor communities may need Green Cross International value as medical therapies, deep sea decades to millennia to recover, if corals are also archives of the ocean’s they are able to recover at all. history (Box 1.2). Changes in ocean conditions are naturally recorded in the skeletons of corals, and because deep sea corals live a very long time

11 Deep Sea Corals as Habitat the higher-current zone above the Box 1.1: sea-floor, where more food is available Drugs from the Deep Sea As anyone who fishes, snorkels, or (e.g., Buhl-Mortensen and Mortensen There are currently several drugs in devel- dives knows, fish are often encoun- 2005, Krieger and Wing 2002). opment that are derived from compounds tered in or near places with complex, Coral ecosystems not only found in deep sea organisms (Maxwell three-dimensional habitat— for increase local microhabitat, but may et al. 2005). example, kelp forests, coral reefs, and also cover vast areas, thus providing beds. The amount of three- Discodermolide. This promis- A stony coral colony resources to uncountable numbers (Enallopsammia sp.) growing dimensional habitat on the seafloor ing drug recently completed and types of creatures. For example, on top of a rock. generally correlates with the level of the early stages of clinical Photo credit: the Deep Atlantic the Røst Reef located in northern Stepping Stones Science Party, biodiversity (Krieger 1993, Love et trials and is one of the most IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA Norway, the largest known deep sea al. 1991, Risk 1972, Yoklavich et al. exciting anticancer compounds coral reef, is approximately 25 miles to date, because it may treat 2000). Many deep sea corals form “About 98 percent of the oceans’ long and 1.5 miles wide, covering cancers that are resistant to complex, three-dimensional habitats. species live in, on or just above an area of about 40 mi2 (Fosså et other drugs. It is isolated from The spaces and gaps between coral the seafloor. Many of them al. 2005). Those corals that do not the sponge Discodermia branches serve as shelter and refuge including ancient deep-sea corals create reefs but grow as individual dissoluta, found off the coast of the for the eggs, larvae, and juveniles and sponges haven’t even been colonies (gold corals, black corals, Bahamas in water over 460 ft deep. discovered yet.” of , , and fishes, and gorgonian corals, and hydrocorals), Dr. Elliott A. Norse, for many of the adults as well (e.g., E7389. This compound comes from the also increase structural complexity, President of Marine Conservation Krieger and Wing 2002, Reed sponge Lissodendoryx sp., which lives Biology Institute in Bellevue, WA particularly if they occur at high 2002b, Reed et al. 2006). A variety of in New Zealand waters at depths of densities or are extremely large. animals forage within deep sea coral 3,330 ft. E7389 is being tested for the Other invertebrates (especially areas (Box 1.3), and filter-feeding treatment of lung and other cancers and sponges) that co-occur with these is currently undergoing the early stages animals use deep sea corals as a corals also contribute to habitat of clinical trials. feeding platform that is raised into structure (Freese 2001). Studies in Dictyostatin-1. A sponge from the order the Aleutian Islands suggest that Lithistida (family Corallistadae), found at corals and sponges may serve as 1,450 ft off the northern coast of Jamaica, “keystone structures” that provide yielded Dictyostatin-1, which may be more effective than the very successful anti- cancer drug Taxol®.

12 Topsentin. Isolated from the sponge “goods and services” (food resources animals of more different species Spongosporites ruetzerli, which lives at and shelter) crucial to the survival than surrounding habitats (Costello depths of 990 to 1,980 ft, Topsentin shows of associated animals (Heifetz et al. et al. 2005). promise as an anti-inflammatory agent 2005, Tews et al. 2004). The standing dead portions of to treat arthritis and skin irritations, as large coral colonies are as valuable well as for the treatment of Alzheimer’s as, if not more so, than the living disease and to prevent Habitat for Invertebrates portions. A wide range of encrusting colon cancer. Many studies have found high species Mystery mollusk (Order Nudibran- and boring organisms use the dead chia) above the diversity where deep sea corals are Bone Grafts. Scientists are coral skeleton for habitat. For at 4,943 ft depth. Exploration of densely distributed (Roberts et al. the deep sea is discovering many now able to synthesize bone example, dead Lophelia colonies in species new to science. 2006). One deep sea coral reef was analogs from bamboo corals. the Florida Straits support sessile Photo credit: B. Walden, home to 3 times as many species NOAA/MBARI Found at depths that can organisms such as feather stars and exceed 3,280 ft, these corals as the surrounding sandy seafloor sea anemones that need hard sub- have a skeletal structure and (Mortensen et al. 1995). In Atlantic strate for attachment and are not dimensions that are almost Canada, deep sea gorgonian corals otherwise found on the surrounding identical to bone. host 114 species—more than some seafloor (Messing et al. 1990). tropical gorgonian coral communi- Collagen. Bamboo corals also contain Structure-forming corals are bio- ties— and support a variety of gorgonin, which closely resembles diversity hotspots in the deep sea invertebrates, including crabs, collagen, an important component of (Jensen and Fredericksen 1992, Raes shrimps, clams, snails, and worms bone. Collagen can be used for controlled and Vanreusel 2005). Yellow sponges surrounding release of medicines, as scaffolding for (Buhl-Mortensen and Mortensen a glass sponge on a seamount tissue rebuilding, and for a variety of 2005). In waters off the southeastern Habitat for Fishes off New England. other applications. Scientists hope that by USA, a study of Oculina colonies Photo credit: the Deep Atlantic Fish species diversity is directly Stepping Stones Science Party, understanding how corals form gorgonin, found more than 300 species of IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA they can create a synthetic collagen-like invertebrates and over 70 species of correlated with three-dimensional material under the low temperature and fish associated with this coral (Reed habitat on tropical coral reefs high pressure environments that bamboo et al. 1982, Reed 2002b). Lophelia (Connell and Jones 1991, Friedland- corals naturally inhabit. reefs in the northeast Atlantic host er and Parrish 1998), because com- more than 1,300 species (Roberts et plex habitats provide more refuges al. 2006) and are home to more

13 from predators than less rugged and others (Costello et al. 2005, Deep sea coral beds are habitats (Risk 1972). The mortality Fosså et al. 2002, Husebø et al. foraging grounds rates of are greatly 2002). Trawl nets containing large for a number of species reduced when there is abundant amounts of Lophelia pertusa coral including refuge from prey (Hixon and Jones material also caught at least 13 Hawaiian monk seals. 2005, Lindholm et al. 2001), and species of fish, such as , this may have important population- , and various Growth Rings of a Skeleton The width of the cross section is approximately 0.4 in. level effects (Lindholm et al. 1999). (Hall-Spencer et al. 2002). Coral Formation of these rings is affected by the condition of the seawater around the coral colony. The diversity, quality, and extent of habitats may also be more productive Photo credit: Courtesy of NIWA and Sanchez et al. 2004 seafloor habitats are vital determi- than surrounding areas: fishes found nants of the diversity, distribution, associated with Lophelia reefs in Box 1.2: Climate Information and abundance of valuable commer- Norway were larger than those in Archived in Deep Sea Corals cial species such as rockfishes (Carr non-coral habitats (Husebø et al. Over the long life of a coral, its growth pattern records information on how ocean 1991, Nasby-Lucas et al. 2002, 2002). Thus, Lophelia reef habitats chemistry and even global climate have O’Connell and Carlisle 1993, may be functionally important changed. Methods to read these archives Pearcy et al. 1989). The degree to to species (Costello are still being perfected, but exciting which structure-forming deep sea et al. 2005). progress has been reported in recent corals and sponges provide habitat In Alaska, Heifetz (2002) found years. Researchers analyzed fossils of the stony coral Desmophyllum cristagalli for fish species depends on their Atka and rockfish com- collected off Newfoundland and found a size, density, growth form, and the monly associated with corals. In a sudden change in one specimen’s isotopic interaction of the fish with the coral study in southeast Alaska, 85% of composition during its lifetime as well as structure (Mortensen and Buhl- the observed large rockfishes were in a major difference between this specimen and other specimens that lived at different Mortensen 2006, Pirtle 2005, Tissot and around red-tree coral colonies times but in the same region. This pattern et al. 2006). (Krieger and Wing 2002). In the Box 1.3: Deep Sea Corals is a signal of rapid climate change—the Surveys of European waters have Aleutian Islands, 85% of economi- as Foraging Grounds Younger Dryas cooling event, a mini discovered many different species of cally important fishes and crabs and In 2003 researches were fortunate enough ice-age that took place 13,000 years to film an endangered Hawaiian monk ago (Smith et al. 1997). fish inLophelia reefs, including , 97% of juvenile rockfishes were saithe, ling, tusk, rabbitfish, redfishes, observed associated with corals and seal swimming among gold coral colonies at 1,740 ft depth, in the Northwestern other structure-forming invertebrates Hawaiian Islands. Other research has (Stone 2006). shown that monk seals also forage

14 In the southeastern USA, still at a very early stage in under- scientists have suggested a strong standing deep sea coral communities association between deep sea coral and dynamics, and much has yet to (and other rugged habitats) and be discovered. certain fish species (Ross and Nizin- ski in prep.). The Oculina reefs off Summary Florida were identified as spawning Deep sea exploration is revealing habitat for various species of grouper, spectacularly diverse seafloor com- although gag and scamp groupers munities. The deep sea corals that Sea star preying on the live polyps of a have undergone severe declines in structure these communities provide bamboo coral colony. Photo credit: Mountains in the Sea, NOAA the last decade (Reed et al. 2005a). shelter, feeding habitats, and breed- Juvenile speckled hind (also a ing and nursery grounds to many Box 1.4: grouper) have been observed in species, including commercially Deep Sea Corals as Prey Oculina reefs, which suggests that the important fishes. Conserving these Deep sea corals are not only shelters reefs may be an important nursery long-lived animals is also important and feeding platforms but also prey. habitat for fish (Gilmore and Jones because of their potential use in A number of species feed on deep sea coral polyps directly. For example, 1992, Koenig et al. 2005). Fish climate research and medicine. In populations from the deep sea coral parasitic , worms, anemones, this report we provide an overview of sea stars, sea slugs, and snails prey on habitats of the Pourtales Terrace where these deep sea corals are found gorgonian corals, such as bamboo corals (south Florida Straits) include several in US waters (Chapter 2), what (e.g., Buhl-Mortensen and Mortensen important commercial fishes, includ- activities threaten them (Chapter 3), 2005, Krieger and Wing 2002). ing snappers, groupers and sharks and what current management actions (Reed et al. 2005b). Hawaiian monk seal are used to protect them (Chapter 4). Photo credit: J. Palmer, NMFS In addition to serving as struc- We conclude with limitations to turally complex habitats for various current management and recommen- in gold, pink and black coral beds species of invertebrates, fishes, and dations for improving deep sea coral feeding on and bottomfishes mammals, deep sea corals may also conservation (Chapter 5). (Parrish et al. 2002). be prey for other seafloor animals

NOAA Ocean Explorer Northwestern (Box 1.4). Despite recent progress in Hawaiian Islands 2003 Expedition: http:// deep sea coral research, scientists are oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/ 03nwhi/media/monkseal-video.html

15 Deep sea corals come in

various shapes and sizes, from

massive reefs miles long

to single polyps the size of one’s

finger tip.

16 Deep Sea Corals in US Waters shelter to other forms of seafloor life: benthic storms when turbulence • Stony corals (Scleractinia) can resuspend sediments that may Deep sea corals fall within the phylum • Gold corals (Zoanthidea) bury corals. Cnidaria. Their characteristic trait is • Black corals (Antipatharia) Seafloor relief, or topography, the presence of stinging cells, which • Gorgonian corals (Alcyonacea) influences currents and therefore provide defense against predation and • Hydrocorals (Stylasterina) plays a key role in coral distribution. a means of obtaining food. Shallow Both at small and large scales, water corals retain symbiotic algae Distribution of Deep Sea Corals features that increase vertical relief, that use sunlight to produce energy and therefore current speeds—such for themselves and their coral hosts. Deep sea corals are widely distributed as the shelf breaks, offshore banks, Deep sea corals live beyond the throughout US waters (Map 1), but and the slopes and ridges of canyons depths at which algae can photosyn- several factors limit where they will and seamounts—also increase the thesize; therefore, they rely entirely thrive: substrate type, current speed, suitability of the area for deep sea on catching food particles from seafloor relief (ruggedness of the corals. Map 2 (next page) shows a the . Despite these seafloor), nutrient availability, and slope gradient analysis which suggests common traits and their sedentary temperature (Freiwald et al. 2004). that deep sea corals in the Mid- existence, deep sea corals vary widely The deep sea coral species discussed Atlantic and New England regions in morphology, color, size, habitat, in this report need a hard, rocky sub- are found in greater abundance in life history, and depth range. Some strate on which to attach as larvae. areas with the steepest slopes (see have a cosmopolitan distribution, Currents are also important and serve Appendix for coral record data while others are endemic to a limited to supply food particles and to pre- sources). Off the southeastern USA, area. For the purposes of this review, vent sedimentation (deVogeleare the interaction of the Florida Current we examine the distribution of 5 et al. 2005, Duineveld et al. 2004, and the Gulf Stream with the broad taxa of deep sea corals (Figure Freiwald 2003, Genin et al. 1986, topography of the seafloor is thought 2.1) that typically inhabit rocky, Roberts et al. 2003). Fan-shaped Fig.2.1, From Top: Stony coral to be an important factor influencing Gold coral,Black coral, Gorgonian hard-bottom areas and provide corals and sponges often orient their coral, and Hydrocoral broadest profile across the current to the abundance of corals (Popenoe maximize their access to food carried and Manheim 2001, Reed et al. 2006). Similarly, observations from Opposite page: Coral polyps in the prevailing current flow. on , Florida Keys However, currents may also be National Marine Sanctuary Photo credit: Brent Deuel detrimental to corals, such as during

17 “Bottom trawling is environmental vandalism, but also economic madness. By destroying the very marine communities that support the fish being targeted, the trawl New York fishers are wiping out their own livelihoods.” —Professor Callum Roberts, University of York

Stony coral (Enallopsammia sp.) Image courtesy of the Deep Atlantic Washington D.C. Stepping Stones Science Party, IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA

Box 2.1: Deep Sea Coral Distributions and Shifting Baselines

Historically, deep sea corals were likely present in many areas along the US Map 2: Deep sea corals tend to occur in high-relief areas. This map represents an analysis of steepness (slope) for the Mid- Atlantic and New England regions, overlaid with deep sea coral records. Deep sea corals are abundant in areas with steeper continental shelf. Since no baseline studies slopes (red color), gentle slopes (blue color). Corals: l stony corals, l gorgonian corals. Black line is US EEZ. on the distribution of deep sea corals were Davidson Seamount off California, walls of sinkholes off southern conducted, it is impossible to determine their former abundance, but reports and anecdotes suggest that gorgonian and black Florida have high densities of from fishermen serve as evidence that the corals concentrate on ridges where gorgonian corals and hydrocorals seafloor, at least in some areas, has been currents are accelerated (Andrews et (Reed et al. 2005b). On bioherms greatly altered by fishing. One of the first al. 2005, deVogeleare et al. 2005). in the northeastern Straits of Florida, reports of deep sea corals on the West Coast is Many corals are observed on corals are segregated by zone; gold of a hydrocoral that was hauled up in fishing rugged surfaces such as ridges and corals on the up-current crest, gear near San Francisco in the late 19th century (Dall 1884). Similar records exist peaks or on boulders, ledges, and Lophelia pertusa on the up-current from in New England (Verrill rocky outcrops. For example, the slope, and gorgonian corals on the 1878). Canadian fishermen from Nova Scotia flanks and the downstream crest were quoted in a 1997 report, “35, 40 years (Messing et al. 1990). This suggests ago, the Stone Fence was full of trees. You couldn’t set halibut gear there. They’d haul up

18 that different coral species occupy discoveries, many of the same areas different niches based on preferences have been surveyed by remotely for different current flows. operated vehicles (ROVs) or Despite growing knowledge of manned submersibles. deep sea coral distributions, the vast In some cases, however, we majority of the seafloor has not been should be circumspect about the surveyed for deep sea corals. Thus, data we are relying on. Regional The red gorgonian an important factor in our current knowledge of deep sea coral distri- (Lophogorgia chilensis) knowledge of deep sea coral distribu- butions may vary considerably. For Photo credit: Shane Anderson tions is where scientists have con- example, fishermen have long known

ducted research and why. Scientists about some deep sea corals from “Bottom trawling is simply not suggest that the perceived abundance bringing them up in their nets, but sustainable. The trawl nets are of L. pertusa in the northeast Atlantic scientists have only recently described stripping the seabed of life, Damage by bottom trawl fisheries is a threat many others. For those areas that to survival of deep sea corals. The Royal is partly because of the intense trashing ancient corals and Society of New Zealand’s Committee on scientific, economic, and military have been historically impacted by destroying entire ecosystems. Biodiversity is petitioning for protection investigations that have occurred fisheries, we will never have baseline There is much that we are still of the world’s largest seafloor species, bubblegum coral arborea. there (Freiwald 2003, Roberts et al. information on pre-impact coral to learn about life in the oceans. Photo credit: Copyright Greenpeace/Malcom Pullman 2006). Other examples of activities distributions (see Box 2.1). Watling Sadly, much of it will be gone that have incidentally aided in the and Auster (2005), who produced before we get the chance big trees, big pieces of trees. They’d be if we don’t act now.” attached to the rocks at the base” (Breeze et collection of deep sea coral distribu- the most comprehensive review of gorgonian coral records in the New Dr Sylvia Earle, al. 1997). The trees in this case were most tion data include exploration in Executive Director of likely bubblegum corals (Paragorgia sp.) or Hawaii for precious corals used England and Mid-Atlantic regions, Conservation International’s Global Marine Division and red-tree corals (Primnoa sp.). Following the in jewelry trade, discoveries in the state that records have been collected Explorer-in-Residence at the beginning of bottom trawling in this region, Gulf of Mexico as a byproduct of largely opportunistically and sporadi- National Geographic Society fishermen also noted that less and less coral deep sea research, and bycatch of cally. Etnoyer and Morgan (2003, was caught over time. The historical reports corals in fisheries. Along the Pacific 2005) classified Pacific deep sea coral of deep sea coral bycatch suggest a need to be cautious when interpreting current deep coast of North America, most deep records into 4 categories reflecting sea coral distributions, as we have not been sea coral records come from research- the degree of expertise associated witness to changes in the distribution pattern trawl surveys and bycatch records over time from cumulative fishing impacts from fisheries (Etnoyer and Morgan (i.e., the Shifting Baseline phenomenon, 2003, 2005). Since these early Pauly 1995).

19 with the coral identifications. Many expand, the space between the coral corals collected from government branches is eventually filled with trawl surveys or recorded on video trapped sediments, and the base of are difficult to identify beyond the the colony becomes a mound of family level, and some survey pro- unconsolidated sediment trapped in grams lack the assistance of experts a dead coral framework, with living in coral taxonomic identification. corals growing on the outside. While The shortage of trained coral taxon- these structures are often described omists is a worldwide problem that as reefs, scientists refer to them as hinders our understanding of coral bioherms. If, over time, the sediment distribution (Cairns 2001). consolidates into a concrete-like crust (a process called lithification) Stony Corals (Scleractinia) the formation is referred to as a lithoherm (Neumann et al. 1977). The generic term “coral” is most There are 2 major reef-forming often applied to stony corals that species of stony coral in the USA: form hard, calcium-carbonate skeletons. Of the nearly 500 species Oculina varicosa and Lophelia pertusa. of stony coral in the deep sea, only Other stony coral species, such as 6 or 7 species grow into mounds that Enallopsammia profunda and resemble the more familiar tropical Madrepora oculata, contribute to reefs (Cairns 2001, Freiwald et al. the reef framework in some places. 2004). Although superficially similar O. varicosa has slender white branches to tropical coral reefs, deep sea coral and can reach up to 7 ft in height. reefs are composed of only 1 or 2 It is often difficult to distinguish framework species, in contrast to the individual colonies on mature reefs large diversity of species that com- since they combine over time to form prise tropical reefs. As coral colonies tangled thickets of mixed live and dead coral. O. varicosa inhabits relatively shallow coastal waters from

20 North Carolina to the Caribbean Pacific, although small specimens Gold Corals (Zoanthidea) Sea (Reed 2002a), but at deeper of L. pertusa have been collected Members of the order Zoanthidea depths (230 to 330 ft) off eastern (Etnoyer and Morgan 2003). Recently, are colonial, sea-anemone-like Florida, it forms a nearly contiguous a small, isolated patch of L. pertusa organisms. Gold corals are in the coral bank 103 miles long, with was discovered by an ROV off the Gerardia and grow rigid ridges and pinnacles up to 115 ft coast of Washington at a depth of branches that form bushy structures. high (Reed 2002a). 890 ft (Hyland et al. 2005). Scientists They can grow up to 3.3 ft tall Fig. 2.2: Large Lophelia pertusa Lophelia pertusa, which is bush off North Carolina at about speculate that the presence of L. and 5 ft wide on lithoherms in common in the Atlantic and rare in 1,200 ft. Note squat lobster and pertusa, but the absence of reefs, in the northeast Straits of Florida at near bottom of photo the Pacific, has a similar morphology Photo credit: S.W. Ross et al., the North Pacific may be related 1800- to 1900-ft depths (Messing to O. varicosa and also may develop UNC-Wilmington to sea water chemistry conditions et al. 1990). The largest Gerardia into massive reefs (Figure 2.2). In the that are unfavorable for reef building reported was nearly 7 ft tall (Bell US Atlantic L. pertusa is distributed (Guinotte et al. 2006). 1891, cited in Druffel et al. 1995). from North Carolina to Florida and E. profunda often co-occurs with Gold corals are also found through- into the Gulf of Mexico. Lophelia L. pertusa in waters from South out the Hawaiian Archipelago, in reefs rise up nearly 500 ft from the Carolina to Florida (Reed 2002a, beds off Oahu and Hawaii, and on seafloor and live at depths between S.W. Ross unpublished data). M. the Cross Seamounts, and have been 1,300 and at least 3,000 ft (Reed oculata occurs from North Carolina a target for the coral jewelry trade 2002a). It has been estimated that to Florida and is also found in the (Grigg 2002). the Blake Plateau, especially between northern Gulf of Mexico along the Gold corals, like other coral Fig: 2.3: Gold corals growing southern North Carolina and Cape on a wall in the Northwestern seaward edge of continental shelf species, tend to occur in areas of Hawaiian Islands Canaveral, Florida, contains thou- (Schroeder et al. 2005). Other stony increased current speed (Figure 2.3). Source: NOAA sands of coral mounds, most of corals that may form bioherms in In Hawaii they grow on ridges and them unexplored (Paull et al. 2000, US waters include Solenosmilia walls (Parrish 2005), and off Florida Reed 2002a). Significantly, deep sea variabilis and Pourtalosmilia conferta they occur on the up-current por- coral reefs are unknown in the US (Stephen Cairns, National Museum tions of the crests of reefs (Messing et al. 1990). Opposite page: Fly-trap anemone of Natural History, Washington (Family Hormathiidae) on the D.C., pers. comm.). slope of the Davidson Seamount (6,184 ft depth). Photo credit: NOAA/MBARI

21 Black Corals (Antipatharia) Seamount (4,593-ft depth) in the Researchers observed 135 colonies Gulf of Alaska (Baco and Cairns of these pink-, white-, red-, or gold- Black corals—members of the order 2005)1 and Manning Seamount colored corals distributed at depths Antipatharia—are, deceivingly, not (5,577-ft depth) off New England2 of 328–738 ft around the Channel black in outwards appearance. The are just a few seamounts where Islands off southern California underlying skeleton is black or dark black corals have been found. (Tissot et al. 2006). brown, but the color of the surround- Recently, scientists described ing tissue varies across species and a new species of black coral — the can be a range of brilliant colors Gorgonian Corals (Alcyonacea) including red, brown, orange, yellow, Christmas tree coral (Antipathes Gorgonian corals, also sometimes green, or white. Black coral polyps dendrochristos) off southern Califor- referred to as sea fans, have a flexible are only millimeters wide or even nia (Opresko 2005). Despite growing internal skeleton that allows some smaller, and they often form colonies to a height of over 8 ft and living just species to bend and sway in the in the shape of bushes, trees, or whips miles from one of the most densely currents like the branches of a tree up to 8 ft tall (Figure 2.4). The populated urban centers in the world Fig. 2.4, Top: A white Christmas in gusty winds. Gorgonian coral tree coral colony off southern skeletons of black corals are covered (Los Angeles), where there are many morphology is very diverse; some California at 500 ft depth in thorn-like spines or knobs, and marine laboratories, this species colonies have dense branches, grow Photo credit: M. Amend, NMFS these corals are sometimes called remained undiscovered until 1995 several feet tall, and form groves, Bottom: Whip-shaped black coral off Florida thorny corals. (Tissot et al. 2006). As their name while others look like isolated whips Photo credit: J. Reed, HBOI Antipathes dichotoma and A. suggests, these coral colonies resem- or stalks standing upright on the ble Christmas trees, with extensive grandis are 2 black coral species that seafloor. All gorgonian corals are branching and ornaments of worms, have been collected for the jewelry members of the group Octocorallia, barnacles, shrimps, and crabs. trade off the main Hawaiian Islands meaning that each contains 8 at 130- to 250-ft depths (Grigg tentacles. They are found throughout 1 NOAA Ocean Explorer Gulf of Alaska 2004 Expedition: 2002). Black corals are also found http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04alaska/ US waters, from continental shelf logs/aug05/media/coral_defense_video.html breaks and submarine canyons to along the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, 2 NOAA Ocean Explorer Mountains in the Sea 2004 in the Gulf of Mexico, and on Expedition: http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/ isolated seamounts. Our focus is on explorations/04mountains/logs/may16/may16.html seamounts. Derickson Seamount those structure-forming species with (6,562-ft depth) and Denson erect, bush-like shapes; these species fall predominately into 4 families: red

22 or pink corals (Coralliidae), bamboo skeletons resemble bamboo, with and Morgan 2003). Colonies reach- corals (Isididae), bubblegum corals white, bony, calcareous sections ing 33 ft in height have been report- (), and red-tree corals separated by black internodes ed in New Zealand (Smith 2001), (Primnoidae). composed of protein (Figure 2.5). whereas in Alaska they seldom grow Red or pink corals, belonging However, live colonies with extended larger than 7 ft.6 Bubblegum coral to the family Coralliidae, are often feeding tentacles lose their resem- can be white or red, with characteris- referred to as precious corals because blance to bamboo as they take on tic round knobs throughout the colony. Fig. 2.5: Skeleton of bamboo they have been used in jewelry since the red, orange, or white color of Gorgonian corals in the family coral from Warwick Seamount antiquity. Today several species are the polyps and outer tissue. Bamboo Primnoidae are usually tree-like or Photo credit: NOAA OE collected for the jewelry trade (as corals can grow in the shape of a bushy with pinnate branches. Species are some black corals, gold corals, branching bush or a single long whip of this family are found throughout and bamboo corals). Pink coral up to 10 ft tall or more.4 Bamboo the USA. Colonies of the red-tree (Corallium secundum) and red coral corals occur along the East, West, coral (Primnoa resedaeformis) grow to (C. lauuense) are 2 species of Coral- and Gulf Coasts of the USA, in 10 ft tall and 23 ft wide in Alaska liidae found in Hawaii (Grigg 2002, Hawaii, and on seamounts. Some (Krieger and Wing 2002), and have Baco and Shank 2005). Corals in bamboo corals are bioluminescent, been known to fishermen in the Gulf this family also occur on seamounts emitting blue light when disturbed.5 of Maine since the 1800s (Watling In the family Paragorgiidae, the in the Gulf of Alaska (Baco and and Auster 2005). Fig. 2.6: Bubblegum coral Shirley 2005, Heifetz et al. 2005), bubblegum coral () in Alaska (Figure 2.6) is found primarily in 3 NOAA Ocean Explorer Mountains in the Sea 2003 Photo credit: A. Lindner, on Davidson seamount off California Expedition: http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/ courtesy of NMFS (deVogeleare et al. 2005), and on the temperate regions of the USA in 03mountains/logs/jul16/jul16.html 4 NOAA Ocean Explorer Mountains in the Sea 2004 3 New England seamounts. Their both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Expedition: http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/ colonies are generally less than 2 ft It is found in submarine canyons explorations/04mountains/logs/may12/may12.html 5 NOAA Ocean Explorer Gulf of Alaska 2004 Expedition in height, with a loosely spaced, rigid and seamounts in the Gulf of Maine http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04alaska/ background/bamboo/bamboo.html branching structure. (Watling and Auster 2005), on 6 NOAA Ocean Explorer Exploring Alaska’s Seamount Bamboo corals in the family seamounts in the Gulf of Alaska, Expedition: http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/ explorations/02alaska/logs/jul15/media/paragorgia.html Isididae are so named because their around the Aleutian Islands in Alaska (Heifetz et al. 2005), in Hawaii, and along the US West Coast (Etnoyer

23 Hydrocorals (Stylasterina) and is often densely concentrated analysis reveals that hydrocorals (Wing and Barnard 2004). evolved in the deep sea and later Hydrocoral is the general term applied Hydrocorals are distributed moved into shallow water, a unique to corals in the orders Milleporina throughout the USA. The exception- pattern not documented in other (tropical fire corals) and Stylasterina, ally high species diversity of hydro- marine species (Lindner 2005). within the class Hydrozoa. Stylaster- corals in the Aleutian Islands—20 Off the east coast of Florida and ines are typically quite delicate, with species or subspecies have been found along the southwest Florida shelf, rigid but brittle calcium carbonate Black coral (Antipatharia) on in the island chain—has led to hydrocorals are common in some the Davidson Seamount at skeletons. As with other cnidarians 5,016 ft depth. suggestions that this area may be an locations (Reed et al. 2005b). They they contain stinging cells, but Photo credit: NOAA/MBARI evolutionary center of origin for the are one of the most abundant taxa on the hydrozoan body plan is quite “Today’s trawlers are capable of group (Heifetz et al. 2005). Recent lithoherms in the northeast Straits of fishing deep-sea canyons and different from that of the other taxa rough seafloor that was once of deep sea corals discussed in this avoided for fear of damaging report (which are in the class nets. To capture one or two target ). Hydrozoan feeding and commercial species, deep-sea stinging polyps form groupings bottom trawl fishing vessels drag huge nets armed with steel plates called cyclosystems, which are and heavy rollers across the sea- arranged in species-specific patterns bed, plowing up and pulverizing over the surface of the skeleton and everything in their path. For a give hydrocorals a bumpy appearance Gulf of Mexico FMC South Atlantic FMC few commercial target species, thousands of tons of coral are superficially similar to the polyps of Florida hauled up only to be thrown back stony corals. There are several genera, dead or dying, along with huge but the genus Stylaster is one of the quantities of unwanted bycatch. most common. Hydrocorals can be In a matter of a few weeks or months, bottom trawl fishing a variety of colors, including purple, can destroy what took many orange, pink, and white. One of the thousands of years to create.” largest species, Stylaster cancellatus, Deepsea Conservation Coalition can grow to a height of almost 3.5 ft April, 2006

Map 3: Waters of the southeastern USA are home to many taxa of deep seal corals. The Oculina Bank HAPC (white area) off the east coast of Florida is closed to bottom fishing to protect deep sea corals. Corals:l stony corals, l gold corals, l gorgonian corals, l hydrocorals. n HAPC. Black line is US EEZ.

24 Florida, occurring at densities of over S.W. Ross et al. unpublished data). They come in various shapes and 8 to 10 colonies per yd2 (Messing Many sponges and gorgonian corals sizes, from massive reefs miles long to et al. 1990). Further south and west, are found within hydrocoral-domi- single bush-shaped individuals many on the bioherms of the Pourtales nated coral gardens of the Aleutian feet tall. Our understanding of their Terrace, there are dense fields of Islands (Figure 2.7), and black corals distribution is currently limited and hydrocorals, growing to heights of are often seen in fields of bamboo varies greatly by region. Because of 10 inches, and reaching concentra- coral in the Gulf of Mexico (S. differences in data collection, it is tions of up to 96 colonies per yd2 Brooke, U. Oregon, pers. comm.). difficult to compare coral distribu- (Reed et al. 2005b). Sponges are an important tions from one region to the next. component of most deep sea coral The quantity of data available may Deep Sea Coral and ecosystems and their abundance and be significantly biased toward those Sponge Assemblages diversity can equal or exceed that of geographic areas and depth zones the corals. Glass sponges (Hexactinel- where fishing or oil and gas explora- Coral colonies of the same species lidae) are a diverse group of sponges tion and development activities occur. often form nearly exclusive group- found in the deep sea. With the The vast majority of the seafloor Fig. 2.7, Top: Sponge-gorgonian ings, with representatives of other coral assemblage in Alaska recent expansion of research into has not been surveyed for deep sea Photo credit: R. Stone, NMFS corals present at lower densities. deep sea coral habitats, scientists have coral occurrences. Present data show Bottom: Hydrocoral (Stylaster However, in some cases deep seafloor discovered an astounding variety that deep sea corals are widely distri- filogranus) with Choristida assemblages can contain a wide vase sponge in the foreground of sponges, including many new buted, but are often very localized in at a southern Florida bioherm diversity and abundance of sponges to science (Lehnert et al. 2005). their concentration. They are gener- Photo credit: J. Reed, HBOI and deep sea corals. For example, However, we still know virtually ally found in areas with hard seafloor the waters of the southeastern USA, nothing about the biology and substrates and appropriate currents, “Sponges are an important from Georgia to South Carolina, and of these significant compo- such as the seaward edge of the component of most along the Florida-Hatteras slope, deep sea coral ecosystems nents of deep sea coral ecosystems. continental shelf (an area also know contain many taxa of deep sea corals and their abundance and as the shelf break), around the edges (Map 3). In many places sponges, diversity can equal or exceed Summary of submarine canyons, and on gorgonian corals, and black corals are that of the corals” offshore banks and seamounts. found at high densities within This report focuses on 5 taxa of deep Lophelia reefs (Reed 2002a, sea corals found in US waters: stony corals, gold corals, black corals, gorgonian corals, and hydrocorals.

25 A number of human activities pose

a threat to deep sea corals.

Most of these activities are poorly

known due to insufficient study

and lack of adequate monitoring.

26 Threats to Deep Sea Corals Research Council 2002). Bottom or break through obstructions and trawl fishing gear, which targets fish keep the net from snagging and Despite their diversity, all deep sea living on or just above the seafloor, tearing on the seafloor (Figure 3.1). corals share an important character- breaks and smashes deep sea corals The damage caused by bottom istic —their vulnerability to human (Fosså et al. 2002, Hall-Spencer et al. trawling has been compared to forest activities that damage the seafloor 2002, Puglise et al. 2005). Damaged clear-cutting (Watling and Norse or alter the deep ocean environment colonies that do survive bottom 1998), and it is considered by (Freiwald et al. 2004, Guinotte et al. Black coral (Trissopathes sp.) trawling may be unable to success- scientists, managers, and fishing 2006, Kahng and Grigg 2005, Roberts and deep sea octopus fully reproduce (Waller and Tyler professionals to be the most ecolog- on Davidson Seamount at et al. 2006, Rogers 1999). These 2005). Large bottom trawling gear ically destructive fishing method 6,510 ft depth activities threaten the health and Photo: NOAA/MBARI can weigh several tons (Merrett and (Chuenpagdee et al. 2003, Morgan survival of deep sea corals worldwide: Haedrich 1997), and the groundline, and Chuenpagdee 2003). • Fishing, especially bottom trawling which keeps the net in close contact Because bottom trawling occurs • Oil and gas exploration and “The most notorious non-selective with the seafloor, is often weighted all over the world, there are many extraction equipment includes nets large and modified with large, heavy discs, international examples of coral • Coral exploitation and trade enough to envelop twelve 747 tires, or rollers designed to ride over, damage caused by this fishing • Introductions of invasive species airliners and capable of catching

• Increasing atmospheric CO2 up to 200,000 pounds of • Cable laying fish at each setting; and lines • Waste disposal up to 80 miles long that • Mineral extraction carry some 3,000 hooks.” • Bioprospecting United Nations Earth Summit + 5, June 1997

Bottom Trawl Fishing In recent years, many reports have documented the impacts of different Opposite page: The California hydrocoral ( Stylaster californicus) fishing methods on seafloor habitats at Point Lobos often had purple (Barnes and Thomas 2005, Benaka or red sea urchins (shown here 1999, Kaiser et al. 2006, National Strongylocentrotus franciscanus) associated with them. Photo credit: Steve Lonhart/MBNMS Fig. 3.1: Depiction of bottom trawl gear as it drags along the seafloor damaging everything in its path.

27 “At present, scientists studying deep-sea corals are in an unfortunate race with commercial method. In Norway, 30 to 50% of time, suggesting that corals have fishermen, who are pre-existing Lophelia reefs have been been removed by fishing and are not trawling these corals into oblivion.” destroyed by trawling (Fosså et al. recovering (Gass and Willison 2005). –Dr Martin Willison, Dalhousie University, Halifax 2002). Trawl damage to Lophelia In the southern hemisphere, trawling reefs in Irish waters has also been has reduced coral coverage on one

documented (Hall-Spencer et al. Tasmanian seamount from 90% to 2002). Bottom trawling that occurs 5% (Koslow et al. 2000). In just a in Atlantic Canada breaks deep sea single hour of trawling for orange corals that inevitably end up in fish- roughy, trawlers off New Zealand ing nets (Mortensen et al. 2005). removed 1.6 tons of corals (Anderson Canadian fishermen have observed and Clark 2003). Untrawled a decrease in deep sea corals over

Figure 3.2a: Untrawled Oculina reefs. Groupers were abundant on deep sea Oculina reefs off Florida before trawling began; legal and illegal trawling has nearly eliminated the corals and large fishes in this ecosystem Photo credit: R.G. Gilmore

New York Georges Bank

Georges Bank

Washington D.C.

Trawled Map 4a: Deep sea corals and fishing intensity by bottom trawl in the New England and Mid-Atlantic fishery management Figure 3.2b: Trawled Oculina reefs. council regions. Total bottom trawl trips for the years 1995–2001: n 51–389, n 390–993, n 994–2045, n 2046–5172 Corals: l stony corals, l gorgonian corals. Photo credit: L. Horn, NURC/UNCW

28 In the USA, fishing is the most in protecting deep sea corals is the protect the confidentiality of fisher- widespread activity directly impact- incomplete knowledge of their distri- men. Through government and ing deep sea corals. In recent years, bution and threats. Here, we review museum efforts and data mining managers and conservation organiza- the spatial overlap of available coral by Etnoyer and Morgan (2003) tions have begun to analyze the distribution and fishing intensity data and Watling and Auster (2005) spatial overlap of fishing and deep by region (see Map 1 for the extent some regional deep sea coral sea coral distributions (Morgan et al. of the 8 regions). We obtained fishing datasets have been made readily 2005). However, the detailed data data from the National Marine available (see Appendix). required to conduct these studies Fisheries Service (NMFS), but in are difficult to obtain and are often many cases, detailed data on fishing New England and Mid-Atlantic Regions of insufficient quality for rigorous locations were withheld in order to The fishing grounds in the New analyses. One of the largest hurdles England and Mid-Atlantic regions (Map 4a, 4b) have been heavily exploited for centuries, although trawling was not intensive until the last half of the 20th century. Fishing intensity varies throughout this region and across gear types. New York Georges Bank However, bottom trawling gear is the most widely used fishing gear (Map 4a, previous page). A 1996 study estimated that the entire Georges Bank seafloor is trawled 3–4 times annually (Auster et al. 1996). Georges Bank is the main New England fishing ground, located approximately 60 miles offshore. It is

Black coral on New England seamount Map 4b: Deep sea corals and fishing intensity by bottom gillnet trips in the New England and Mid-Atlantic fishery manage- Photo credit: Deep Atlantic Stepping Stones Science Team/ ment council regions. Total bottom gillnet trips for the years 1995–2001: n 1–75, n 26–275, n 276–750, n 751–3831 IFE/URI-IAO/NOAA Corals: l stony corals, l gorgonian corals.

29 oval in shape, and measures approxi- coast of Florida, is the best known, Gulf of Mexico Region mately 150 by 75 miles — slightly most significantly degraded deep sea In the Gulf of Mexico, there is some larger than the state of Massachu- coral habitat in US waters. Since the cause for concern over bottom trawl setts. Corals have been recorded in 1970s, live Oculina varicosa coral fisheries that target . Bottom this region since 1874 (Watling and cover in the 122 mi 2 Experimental trawling for royal red shrimp is Auster 2005, Yale Peabody Mu- Oculina Reseach Reserve has been potentially problematic because it seum1), but scientists suspect that the reduced by over 90%; by far the Rosy rockfish (Sebastes rosaceus) can occur to depths of 2,400 ft. Photo credit: Chad King/MBNMS distribution of deep sea corals greatest cause of this devestation has Though this deep water shrimp observed today has been altered by been bottom trawling (Koenig et al. fishery is very limited, just one trawl bottom fishing, and that many of the 2005, Reed et al. 2006) (Figures 3.2a pass can result in decimation of a corals in historical records have since and 3.2b, page 28). deep sea Lophelia reef. In general, been destroyed by fishing (Watling and Auster 2005).

South Atlantic Region In the US South Atlantic region,

Callogorgia americana with a bottom trawls are widely used in newly discovered species of shallow waters along the continental New Orleans ophiuroid (Asteroschema sp.) shelf to catch shrimp, but only in in the Gulf of Mexico. Photo credit: S. Brooke et al. courtesy Florida does the trawl fishery for Minerals Management Service. rock shrimp significantly interact

with deep sea coral reefs. Currently Gulf of Mexico FMC there is little other commercial bottom trawl fishing that could impact corals. The Oculina Banks, a series of coral mounds that stretches for some 100 miles along the eastern

1 Peabody Museum Invertebrate Zoology Collection: http://www.peabody.yale.edu/collections/iz/ Map 5: Deep sea coral occurrences and bottom trawl intensity data from NMFS for the Gulf of Mexico. Shrimp (total tons) years 2001–2004: n 320–2500, n 2501–5000, n 5001–30000, n 30001–55862 Corals: l stony corals, l gorgonian corals, and l hydrocorals. Black line is US EEZ.

30 it is difficult to assess the impact of Virgin Islands, and Navassa Island Enallopsammia rostata, Lophelia fishing in this region because the (an uninhabited US territory located pertusa, Maderopora carolina, Madre- NMFS data from the shrimp trawl between Haiti and Jamaica). No pora oculata (Ginsberg and Lutz in fishery are summarized into large active bottom trawl fisheries occur in prep.), and these observations hint spatial blocks that are too coarse this region. Thus far, few occurrences at the presence of deep sea banks relative to known deep sea coral of deep sea corals are known from or lithoherms. locations (Map 5). this region, and therefore no manage- ment is in place for their protection. North Pacific Region Caribbean Region However, several major structure- In the North Pacific region, bottom The Caribbean region includes the forming coral species have been trawling is intense in the Bering Sea EEZ waters of Puerto Rico, US observed in the region, including and Aleutian Islands and to a lesser extent in the Gulf of Alaska. Between 1997 and 2001, an average of 81.5 tons of coral was uprooted every year Fig. 3.3a, Top: An intact coral- by commercial fishing in the North sponge ecosystem in the Bering Sea Pacific; 97% of this was attributed Aleutian Islands. Fig 3.3b, Bottom: An area to bottom trawls (NMFS 2004, damaged by traps used for North Pacific Fishery Management catching gold king crabs. Gulf of Mexico FMC South Atlantic FMC Photo credit: R. Stone, NMFS Council 2003). In the Aleutian Islands, there is an extraordinary diversity of deep sea corals; among the 69 known species and subspecies of corals there, 25 are endemic— found nowhere else in the world (Heifetz et al. 2005). Bottom trawl Alaska fishing targeting Atka mackerel and a variety of rockfishes overlaps with deep sea coral occurrences in the Aleutian Islands (Map 6). One cause Map 6: Bottom trawl closures in the Aleutian Islands (hatched areas) prevent the further expansion of the fishing fleet, but intensive trawl fishing continues in areas with deep sea corals (non-hatched areas). Observed bottom trawl trips, 2001–2003: n2–10, n 11–50, n 51–100, n 101–250, n 251–682. Bowers Ridge Habitat Conservation Zone, Aleutian Islands Habitat Conservation Area, Corals: l hydrocorals, l gorgonian corals.

31 of this overlap is that many deep sea prevented them from maintaining commonly weighted in order to coral records were reported by fishery established colonies. stay on the seafloor, causing damage observers documenting bycatch. to corals, and during retrieval they Only recently have researchers begun Western Pacific Region are dragged along the floor, often to examine areas outside of historical In US waters around Hawaii and snagging and breaking corals fishing grounds for the presence of other islands of the Pacific (Guam, (Mortensen et al. 2005). deep sea corals. Marinas, America Samoa and several In the North Pacific FMC additional islands) managed by the region, pots for crabs and fishes and Pacific Region Western Pacific Fishery Management longlines for cod may also damage Along the US West Coast from Council, bottom trawling and corals (Stone and Wing 2001). Washington to California, bottom dredging are prohibited and there- Although bycatch from these gears is fishing for groundfish species occurs fore do not affect deep sea corals. significantly lower than that from on the continental shelf. While bottom trawls, pots are typically several gear types are used in this Other Commercial Fishing Gears deployed on long lines and often snag corals on recovery, significantly fishery, bottom trawling affects the Other commercial fishing gears also damaging them (Figures 3.3a and largest area and leaves the largest pose a threat to fragile deep sea corals 3.3b, previous page). Bottom long- ecological footprint (Morgan et al. (Morgan and Chuenpagdee 2003, lines have been documented snagging 2005). In , the Morgan et al. 2005, Mortensen et and knocking over coral colonies in bottom trawl fishery occurs in areas al. 2005). All bottom tending gears the Gulf of Alaska (Krieger 2001). with deep sea corals, but most have the potential to snag or break Off the east coast of Florida, of the coral records are from the deep sea corals. In Atlantic Canada, longline gear was found entangling continental shelf break, where fishing fishing gears such as longlines and an O. varicosa colony at Sebastian intensity is currently low (Morgan gillnets that target demersal fishes Pinnacles, at a depth of 260 ft (Reed et al. 2005). Without historical coral (e.g., halibut, cod, and monkfish) et al. 2005a). In the New England distribution data it is difficult to entangle and damage delicate deep and Mid-Atlantic regions (Map 4b, know whether or not this pattern sea gorgonian corals (Mortensen et page 29), bottom gillnet fishing is the result of decades of fishing al. 2005). These nets and lines are pressure on the shelf that may overlaps with known deep sea coral have removed deep sea corals and locations (Watling et al. 2003).

32 Recreational Fishing pipelines. This results in permanent greater than 1,640 ft (Glover and Deep sea coral reefs, such as the alteration to seafloor habitat and Smith 2003), and the oil and gas Oculina Banks and deeper Lophelia causes short-term resuspension of industry has drilled wells at depths reefs off the southeastern USA and sediment, both of which are detri- of almost 6,500 ft. Thus, oil drilling in the Gulf of Mexico, sometimes mental to deep sea corals (Freiwald and production is taking place at support a number of valuable sport et al. 2004). Disturbance arising depths where deep sea corals occur from oil exploration and extraction (Avent 2004). The northern conti- fish species, especially large groupers A brittle star wraps its arms and wreckfish. As the details of these includes drilling; anchoring; place- nental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico is around the branches ment of pipelines; potential leakage already densely covered by more than of a gorgonian coral colony reef locations are circulated and (Metallogorgia sp). with the use of today’s navigational of drilling fluids, muds, and chemi- 6,000 oil platforms and pipelines Photo credit: the Deep Atlantic cals; dumping of drill cuttings; and (Map 7, next page). In fact, some Stepping Stones Science Party, electronics, these areas will see IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA additional fishing pressure from oil spills from platforms and pipe- coral colonies are surrounded by sportsmen. This may result in lines. These activities can smother, networks of pipelines. Coral commu- entanglement by that contaminate, and remove corals and nities growing on salt domes in the can break off pieces of the coral.2 alter the local ecosystem through Flower Garden Banks, a National Deep water hook-and-line fishing organic enrichment (Freiwald et al. Marine Sanctuary in the northwest- to 2,000 ft, also called deep-drop 2004, Glover and Smith 2003). ern Gulf, are within a mile of the fishing, targets deep water snappers, During the process of laying pipe- nearest platform. As the need for groupers, and wreckfish that are lines, ships use 4 heavy anchors in energy supplies increases, oil and gas found on Lophelia reefs and mounds a stepwise progression that leaves a exploration will likely expand into (S. Lutz, pers. comm.). large footprint on the seafloor. deeper water (Glover and Smith Bubblegum coral (Paragorgia sp.) The Gulf of Mexico is the 2003), potentially threatening from Aleutian Islands, AK. Photo credit: A. Lindner, Oil and Gas Exploration and Extraction world’s most active region for deep vulnerable coral communities that courtesy of NMFS water drilling and as such is the thrive in high concentrations along The exploration for and development region where deep sea corals are the continental shelf break and slope. of petroleum products involves most vulnerable to damage by oil In the Gulf of Mexico and US Opposite page: Bubblegum coral drilling and construction on the and gas development activities. South Atlantic regions, expansion of (Paragorgia arborea) 8 feet in seafloor, including the laying of height were not uncommon at the Approximately 50 production liquefied natural gas (LNG) pipelines crest of the Davidson Seamount;

2 Deep Treasure, Florida Sportsman, August 2005: http:// platforms are operational at depths and terminals is also a potential here shown at 4,150 ft. www.floridasportsman.com/sportfish/grouper/050844/ Photo credit: NOAA/MBARI index.html, accessed April 5, 2006 threat to deep sea corals. The US

33 Department of Energy forecasts that referred to generically as precious destructive and unsustainable, and by 2010, a terminal and pipeline corals. In the USA, no longer occurs in US waters. supplying the Florida market will be collection occurs only in Hawaii Pink corals were first discovered constructed between the Bahamas (Map 8, Figure 3.4). Precious corals in Hawaii in 1900, and commercial and the east coast of Florida, poten- in shallower waters are typically exploitation began in the 1960s tially cutting across some important collected by scuba divers, while (Grigg 2002). Pink coral beds found deep sea coral beds (Energy Informa- deeper species are collected by on the Emperor Seamount at a tion Administration 2003). manned submersibles, by remotely depth of 1,312 ft supported a coral In the Pacific region, smaller- operated vehicles (ROVs), or by fishery for 20 years. During this scale oil and gas activities occur off dragging iron bars and chains across period, corals were collected by the southern California coast where the seafloor to break and ensnare dragging entangling gear along the a new species of deep sea coral — the corals. This last practice is highly seafloor, with up to 440,000 lbs of Christmas tree coral — was recently described (Opresko 2005). Throughout the waters of the USA, reserves of oil, gas, and miner- als exist that may eventually be valuable enough to offset the cost of exploration and extraction. If current New Orleans trends continue in the global oil and gas markets, other regions may come under pressure as the demand for energy grows and the USA looks to Gulf of Mexico FMC its own waters to supply these needs.

Coral Exploitation and Trade Several species of deep sea corals, including pink, red, bamboo, black, and gold corals, are collected for use in jewelry. These species are often Map 7: The northern continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico is densely covered by oil and gas platforms and pipelines. l platforms, – pipelines, l stony corals, l gorgonian corals. Black line is US EEZ.

34 corals collected annually by Japanese 2000 season, 2,675 lbs of pink coral, While there are no large-scale and Taiwanese fishermen (Grigg 730 lbs of gold coral, and 134 lbs of directed coral harvests at present, this 2002). Another pink coral fishery red coral were collected in Hawaii may change with market forces. Deep operated in the 1970s off Oahu at a (Grigg 2002). Hawaii also supports sea corals, including precious corals, depth of 1,300 ft. Gold and bamboo a fishery for black corals that started are not well studied, and a better corals were also discovered in 1970 in 1958. The main black coral bed is assessment of their status is needed to and collected by manned submers- found off Maui at depths of 130 to shape collection guidelines. Recently Fig. 3.4: Jewelry made of ibles and ROVs. Fishing for red, 250 ft. Between 1981 and 1997, an the non-governmental organization precious coral. pink, and gold corals has been average of 2,235 lbs of black coral SeaWeb petitioned the US Fish and Photo credit: F. Tsao, MCBI intermittent since 1999, owing to were collected per year. This fishery Wildlife Service to request that the “If you wish, you can go to the permit requirements, weather, and continues today, primarily conducted United States submit a proposal to middle of the ocean and fish high costs. However, in the 1999– by scuba divers (Grigg 2001). include Corallium spp. in Appendix on a seamount for any species, II of the Convention of International and you are accountable to no Trade in Endangered Species of Wild one—even if that destroys all Fauna and Flora (CITES) citing of the fish and all of the corals concerns over declining populations and all of the sea life.” Kauai (P. Debenham, SeaWeb, pers. comm.). Dr. Michael Hirshfield, Oceana’s chief and North America Oahu vice president for policy Invasive Species Makapuu Introduced non-native species can Precious Maui Coral Bed invade the habitat of native deep sea

Black corals, greatly reducing populations. Coral Bed Colonies of black corals in the Au’au Cross Seamount Channel between the islands of Precious Keahole Pt Hawaii Coral Bed Precious Maui and Lanai are declining Coral Bed because of the invasion of the non- Opposite page: Lophelia pertusa native snowflake coral Carijoa( riisei). colony and squat lobster, This species was accidentally intro- Gulf of Mexico. Photo credit: S. Brook et al., duced to the Hawaiian Islands in courtesy MMS.

Map 8: Pink, red, bamboo, gold, and black corals have been collected in Hawaii for the jewelry trade. Corals: l stony corals, l black corals, l gorgonian corals, and l hydrocorals.

35 1972, probably by boats visiting organisms use carbonate ions from though specific ranges and thresholds Pearl Harbor from the Indo-Pacific, the surrounding water to build their are not yet known. Changes in the and has continued to spread through- skeletons and protective shells. As the salinity of the world’s oceans as out the main islands. It overgrows oceans become more acidic, the freshwater (ice melt) inputs to high- and smothers black corals in this calcification mechanisms of many latitude waters increase may slow region, most severely at depths of marine organisms may be impaired, down water circulation, reduce 260 to 340 ft. In one study, over resulting in weaker skeletons (a , and alter current patterns Fig. 3.5: White snowflake coral partially overgrowing an 60% of all black corals observed were process similar to osteoporosis in (Bryden et al. 2005). These changes orange-colored black coral colony at least partially overgrown (Figure ), slower growth rates, or will probably alter surface productiv- at a depth of about 311 ft in the Au’au Channel between 3.5), and in some areas 90% of black both (Buddemeier and Smith 1999, ity and the delivery of food to the the islands of Maui and Lanai corals had already been killed (Kahng Gattuso et al. 1999, Guinotte et al. seafloor, which could have a serious in Hawaii. Photo credit: HURL and Grigg 2005). 2003, Kleypas et al. 1999). Because impact on the distribution of deep deep sea corals also obtain nourish- sea corals.

Increasing Atmospheric CO2 ment from capturing , some “Key areas for protection are deep The oceans are changing both of which build calcium carbonate Other Threats sea coral reefs and seamounts shells, these changes in seawater which are being strip-mined by chemically and physically as a Additional threats to deep sea corals chemistry may also alter the produc- bottom trawl fishing.” result of the (CO2) include cable laying, waste dumping tivity of coral prey (Riebesell 2004, Simon Cripps, Director, Global released from the burning of fossil and pollution, mineral extraction, Marine Programme, WWF fuels (Kleypas et al. 1999, Feely et al. Riebesell et al. 2000, Orr et al. 2005). and bioprospecting. The effects of 2004, Orr et al. 2005). Shallow water these activities on deep sea corals Warming Waters and deep sea corals and other marine have not been quantitatively studied, species that need to build calcium Global temperatures are rising in but their general impacts on the carbonate skeletons will be harmed the deep sea owing to an influx of seafloor are discussed below.

as oceans become more acidic. anthropogenic CO2 to the atmo- sphere (Barnett et al. 2005). Rising Cable Laying Changing Seawater Chemistry sea temperatures will probably influ- Installation of telecommunication ence deep sea coral calcification rates, The influx of CO2 to the atmosphere and electricity cables on the seafloor physiology, and biochemistry, even and uptake of CO2 into the world’s requires digging a ditch for the cable oceans is causing the sea to become to be buried in. This procedure and more acidic. Corals and other marine subsequent maintenance repairs will

36 inevitably overturn organisms in the and may expand in the coming Bioprospecting Table 3.1: Examples of regional cable’s path, resuspend sediment, and decades to help dispose of greenhouse challenges in deep sea coral conservation Bioprospecting removes coral disturb the seafloor environment. gases (Glover and Smith 2003). This colonies from the deep sea for Region Challenges Cables that are not buried deeply process acidifies the seawater and biotechnology and pharmaceutical New England Widespread bottom enough, or that are exposed, can be alters water pressure at the disposal — Mid-Atlantic fishing research and development. Collection Significant overlaps of snagged and broken by fishing gears. site, potentially affecting the health of long-lived corals is a concern, but trawl fisheries and deep Broken cables can sway on the sea- and changing the behavior of deep sea corals the amounts needed to analyze are South Atlantic Illegal trawling and floor with passing currents, causing sea species (Glover and Smith 2003). usually small (1–2 lbs.). Bioprospect- poor enforcement of continuous disturbance to the local the Oculina Bank ing in US waters currently only takes Continuing development environment (Freiwald et al. 2004). Mineral Extraction of deep sea fisheries place in the South Atlantic Bight Recreational fishing tar- Extraction of minerals from the and Gulf of Mexico. Coral collection geting deep water species Waste Disposal and Pollution deep sea is an expanding industry, in these areas requires a permit and Potential LNG pipeline from Bahamas to Florida Various nations and international targeting several kinds of minerals is overseen by the regional fishery Gulf of Mexico Oil, gas, and LNG bodies have considered the deep for multiple purposes. For example, management councils. It is unknown development Recreational fishing tar- sea as a disposal location for waste, manganese nodules and crusts are how other regions will regulate geting deep water species including obsolete military ammu- extracted for the cobalt, copper, bioprospecting. Caribbean Lack of data North Pacific Significant overlaps of nition, radioactive waste, sewage and nickel that they contain, while trawl fisheries and deep sea corals sludge, dredge spoil, and CO2. polymetalic sulfides are taken for Summary Other bottom fishing However, significant waste disposal their gold and silver components. A number of human activities pose gears is not currently underway (Glover Methane hydrate extraction from Pacific Significant overlaps of a threat to deep sea corals. Most of trawl fisheries and deep and Smith 2003). Leakage of con- the deep sea is being developed as an sea corals these activities are poorly known taminants, toxic substances, and energy source. Most of these mineral Oil and gas development due to insufficient study and lack of off California heavy metals can pollute deep sea resources are found in international adequate monitoring. Nevertheless, Western Pacific Invasive species life. Increases in organic material can waters, although further exploration Precious coral trade bottom trawling is the greatest also pollute the deep sea and cause is likely to occur in US waters. All regions Baseline lack of scientific current threat posed to deep sea understanding localized oxygen depletion that is Commercial extraction is likely to corals because it takes place over Future energy exploration sometimes fatal to deep sea organ- increase in the next several decades and development extensive areas where corals occur. Insufficient fishing effort isms. CO2 sequestration, the injec- (Glover and Smith 2003); damage to data for coral management Climate change tion of CO2 in liquid form to the seafloor communities is an expected Pollution deep sea, is under experimental study, side effect at any mining site.

37 Current ocean management is

insufficient to protect vulnerable and

unique deep sea coral habitats.

Fisheries management provides limited

protection under existing laws.

38 Current Management numerous species of deep sea corals. with resource protection, but have in of Deep Sea Corals The US exclusive economic zone large measure deferred to NMFS and (EEZ) covers an area nearly 25% the regional councils in the manage- Throughout the world, many nations larger than the lands of the USA. ment of fish and fish habitat within have recognized the value of deep sea The management of the US EEZ their borders (Chandler and Gillelan corals and taken steps to provide falls to multiple government agen- 2004). MMS oversees mineral and them with greater protection. The cies, most of them focused on either energy exploration and extraction European Union, Norway, Canada, Juvenile sharpchin rockfish extraction or utilization of natural in federal waters and is responsible in a gorgonian red-tree New Zealand, and Australia have resources. Federal agencies in the for assessing the environmental coral community. all taken steps to prohibit bottom Photo credit: V. O’Connell, ADFG USA with the authority to manage impacts of these activities on natural trawling in certain coral areas. These deep sea corals include the National resources, including deep sea corals, actions range from comprehensive “Everyone must be aware [that] Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and limiting or mitigating these legislation in Norway, which now without intact coral reefs, in consultation with 8 regional impacts. Despite increased research restricts trawling in known coral warm and cold water reefs, fishery management councils (FMC); and mapping there is still a lack of areas, to protection of some limited you will not be able to the National Marine Sanctuary dedicated research funding for deep seamount areas in Australia and restore fish stocks fully.” Program (NMSP) of the National sea corals. Conservation of deep sea Dr. Klaus Töpfer, New Zealand, to fishing closures of Ocean Service, both within the corals is hampered by insufficient Executive Director, relatively small known coral locations United Nations Environment Department of Commerce, and the information, ongoing threats, weak Programme (UNEP), in Canada and the European Union. World Oceans Day 2004 Minerals Management Service (MMS), management, insufficient legal As of 2006, New Zealand is also in the Department of the Interior. mandates for protection, minimal considering a Benthic Protected NMFS and the regional fishery enforcement, and insufficient Areas proposal that would prohibit management councils can protect penalties for resource violations. bottom trawling and dredging in corals by adopting regulations that 31% of its waters, potentially restrict fishing gear types or access to NMFS and Regional Fishery protecting some key coral habitats.1 fishing grounds. Until now, national Management Councils Within the 4.4 million mi2 of marine sanctuaries have generally ocean under US jurisdiction there are Most legal protections for deep sea Opposite page: A gorgonian been designed to manage designated corals have been adopted in accor- coral colony on a seamount 1 Deepwater Trawling: Navigating Troubled Waters. areas for multiple uses compatible off New England. Clement and Associates Limited. February 2006: http:// dance with the Magnuson-Stevens Photo credit: the Deep Atlantic www.seafood.co.nz/doclibrary/news/DeepwaterTrawlingSo Fishery Conservation and Manage- Stepping Stones Science Party, IFE, lutions140206.pdf and World’s largest EEZ marine URI-IAO, and NOAA conservation measure proposed. New Zealand Government Website. February 14, 2006: http://www.beehive.govt.nz/ ViewDocument.aspx?DocumentID=24902

39 Box 4.1: Essential Fish ment Act (Magnuson-Stevens Act or area is designated as EFH, the MSA the fishery management plan to ban Habitat and Habitat Areas MSA). Under the MSA, NMFS and does not require any specific protec- monkfish fishing using bottom trawls of Particular Concern the regional fishery management tions to limit damage caused by and bottom gillnets in Oceanogra- The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conserva- councils (see Map 1 for boundaries) destructive fishing practices, but pher and Lydonia Canyons on the tion and Management Act (MSA) requires are required to identify and minimize NMFS is required to assess the southern edge of Georges Bank (Map fishery managers to designate essential fish habitat (EFH) in all federal fishery impacts on essential fish habitat adverse impacts of fishing (or other 4). This affords some protection for management plans. The MSA defines EFH (EFH) for each fishery (see Box 4.1 activities) and adopt protective deep sea corals, however, this ban as “those waters and substrate necessary for explanation of EFH). However, measures to minimize bycatch of does not cover bottom gears that to fish for spawning, breeding, feeding, or the extent to which NMFS and the corals or crushing of corals by target other fish. The monkfish growth to maturity.” The purpose of EFH regional fishery management councils fishing gear. fishery management plan amend- is to identify areas required to support sustainable fisheries and ecosystems protect deep sea coral areas under the National standard 9 of the MSA ment also limits rollers on bottom and to minimize adverse effects to the EFH provisions is highly variable. requires NMFS and the councils to trawls in the monkfish fishery to a extent practicable. Habitat Areas of Some councils identify corals as a adopt measures that “to the extent six-inch diameter in the southern half Particular Concern (HAPC) can also be type of EFH for managed fish practicable, minimize bycatch and of the region. A pending proposal designated and are defined by their important ecological function, sensitivity species, while others consider deep to the extent that bycatch cannot be seeks to protect additional submarine to human-induced degradation, degree of sea corals themselves to be managed avoided, minimize mortality of such canyons. In the Mid-Atlantic region stress, and rarity of habitat type (Pautzke species. Thus, some councils desig- bycatch.” This applies to deep sea Hudson Canyon contains deep sea 2005). However, the MSA does not require nate EFH specifically for deep sea corals, and is a separate authority corals, and is included in a habitat protective regulations for EFH or HAPC, and the HAPC designation only signifies corals, while others only include from EFH provisions. Below are the area of particular concern (HAPC) that the HAPC area is a higher priority deep sea corals as EFH if a federally highlights of fishery management for tilefish, but there are no regula- for conservation.2 managed species can be shown to council actions to protect deep tions to protect corals. have a strong relationship with the sea corals. 2 NOAA Office of Habitat Conservation: corals. Often deep sea corals are not South Atlantic Region http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/ habitatprotection/efh/index_b.htm New England and Mid-Atlantic Regions considered in EFH designations In the US South Atlantic region, because councils have insufficient In the New England and Mid-Atlantic deep sea corals are considered data on the location of corals in their regions, the councils recently declared managed species, and their desig- regions, or they do not have sufficient EFH for groundfish, and amended nated EFH is defined as “hard information on the nature of the substrate in subtidal to outer shelf relationship between deep sea corals depths” throughout the region. As and managed fish species. Once an

40 41

early as 1984, the South Atlantic Gulf of Mexico Region Caribbean Region Box 4.2: Freezing the Fishery Management Council took Footprint of Bottom Trawling In the Gulf of Mexico, corals are In this region corals are also a steps to protect deep sea corals from In 2005, the North Pacific Fishery considered a managed species. EFH managed species. No active bottom trawling by establishing the Oculina Management Council unanimously and HAPCs have been designated for trawl fisheries currently occur in Bank HAPC (Koenig et al. 2005). adopted an EFH amendment to close a coral areas at shallower depths (< 660 this region. Deep sea corals, such 366,961 mi2 area to bottom trawling. This 397 mi2 HAPC off Florida ft ) under the 2005 EFH amend- as Lophelia pertusa and other stony A similar strategy was also unanimously now prohibits bottom fishing, but ment. Areas designated as HAPCs corals, are known from this region, adopted by the Pacific Fishery Manage- enforcement remains weak despite ment Council for waters off California, include , McGrail, but no regulations are in place for implementation of vessel monitor- Oregon, and Washington. In both of Stetson, and East and West Flower their protection. these cases the closures were put in place ing in 2002.3 Trawlers have fished Garden Banks, in addition to several to prevent trawling from expanding illegally for rock shrimp in the small hard-bottom areas scattered on North Pacific Region into waters not yet fished. This has the Oculina Bank HAPC as recently as effect of freezing the footprint of bottom the northern shelf of the Gulf, and 2004,4 and recreational fishermen In Alaska, deep sea coral areas are trawling. It also reverses the burden of large hard-bottom areas off the west proof, requiring research to ensure that frequent the still intact areas of the considered essential fish habitat for coast of Florida. Regulations to ban groundfish (Witherell and Coon bottom trawling in an untrawled area Oculina Bank (S. Brooke, U. Oregon, is compatible with the habitat found in anchoring and the use of bottom 2001). Deep sea coral and sponge pers. comm.). Currently under the area before fishing can be allowed. trawls, bottom longlines, buoy gear, development, the council’s draft areas have been designated as HAPCs While preventing the expansion of bottom and traps and pots are being consid- Comprehensive Fishery Ecosystem for groundfish, and fishing is regu- trawling is an important first step towards ered for some of the reef HAPCs. protecting deep sea corals, this measure Plan Amendment would designate lated by gear and location in order to These regulations do not cover the does not protect corals from other additional HAPCs for known areas protect deep sea corals. Around the known deep sea Lophelia reefs in the fishing gears that can also snag and of deep sea corals, including the Aleutian Islands, the 2005 EFH regu- crush vulnerable coral colonies. region. One additional regulation Lophelia banks off Cape Lookout, lations prohibit bottom trawling in a Additionally most of the area closed requires a weak link in the tickler 2 to trawling is far too deep to be fished Cape Fear, Stetson Reef, the 366,961 mi area to address concerns chain of bottom trawls on all habitats with current technology. Savannah and Southwest Florida about damage to seafloor habitat, throughout the Gulf of Mexico EEZ. lithoherms, Miami Terrace, and particularly deep sea corals (Box 4.2, The weak link is designed to break Pourtales Terrace. Map 9, next page). Additional if the trawl net becomes hung up on protections for deep sea corals are in

3 uneven seafloor or snags on corals. Amendment 5 of the Shrimp Fishery Management Plan, place in the HAPC at Bowers Ridge, http://www.safmc.net/Library/Shrimp/tabid/413/Default.aspx 4 Commercial and recreational fishermen fined for Oculina where mobile bottom gear is prohib- Bank violations. NOAA Fisheries news release, December ited, and in 6 small Coral Garden 8, 2004: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/ole/news/news_SED_ 120804.htm

41 Marine Reserves (a total of 146 mi2) of 20% of the seafloor is closed to Southeast Alaska Trawl Closure closed to all bottom gears. Also, all bottom gear. The 2005 EFH amend- prohibits bottom trawling, and the fishing vessels in the Aleutians with ment prohibits bottom trawling for small (3.3 mi2) Sitka Pinnacle Marine bottom tending gear are required to groundfish in 10 areas thought to Reserve in southeast Alaska prohibits carry a vessel monitoring system contain high-relief bottom and coral all bottom fishing and anchoring. (VMS) device, which allows for communities. Bottom gear is prohib- better tracking of fishing effort and ited in all of the 16 named seamounts Pacific Region provides for better monitoring and designated as HAPCs. Three areas In 2005, the Pacific Fishery Manage- enforcement of the closed areas. of red-tree coral off southeast Alaska ment Council designated EFH for In the Gulf of Alaska, a total are also identified as HAPCs. The groundfish species that will restrict bottom trawling in a number of regions including canyons, banks, and seamounts, including Thompson Seamount and Heceta and Daisy Banks. The EFH designation, partially approved by NMFS in Alaska 2006, will also place additional restrictions on bottom contact fishing Bering Sea gears in a number of areas, including Davidson Seamount and Cordell Bank. The action also freezes the current bottom trawl fishing foot- print in waters between the depths of 4,200 and 11,500 ft (Map 10). Pacific Ocean In addition to this management action, which is similar to that instituted by the North Pacific FMC, the Pacific FMC uses time and area Map 9: Recent essential fish habitat designations by the North Pacific Fishery Management Council, including closures to bottom trawling. At this scale Aleutian Island Habitat Conservation Areas are misleading; significant coral areas are subject closures to restrict fishing for ground- to bottom trawling in this region. See Map 6 for detailed view. n Aleutian Island Coral Gardens , n Aleutian Island Habitat Conservation Area, n Alaska Seamounts Marine Preserve, n Bowers Ridge Habitat Conservation Zone, n Gulf of Alaska Habitat Conservation Area. Corals: l black corals, l gorgonian corals, and l hydrocorals. Black line is US EEZ.

42 fish species and allow them to recover Coral Management Plan that restricts National Marine Sanctuary Program from overfishing. In the Rockfish non-selective gears such as tangle The National Marine Sanctuary Conservation Areas, bottom trawling nets. There is no active fishing for Program manages 13 multiple-use is prohibited; however, the boundar- precious corals in federal waters. sanctuaries (covering a total area less ies vary by season and fishery, and Fishing for black coral occurs in the than 0.5% of the US EEZ) and the are modified based on bycatch data state waters of Hawaii. Should Northwestern Hawaiian Islands reported by log books and fishery precious corals become more valuable Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, which The base of a living bamboo coral, observers. In the 2 Cowcod Conser- in the future, a fishery may resume sp., from Warwick Sea- is being considered for sanctuary vation Areas off southern California, in federal waters. mount. Notice the long tentacles, status. The Northwestern Hawaiian referred to as “hula skirts,” trawling is prohibited year round. Islands Reserve likely has done the because scientists don’t know These closures potentially prevent exactly what they are. They may be defensive “sweeper” tentacles. trawl damage to corals, but they Photo credit: Gulf of Alaska 2004 could also shift the intensity of research team, NOAA OE trawling effort to coral areas that “At present, scientists studying have not been as intensively fished. deep-sea corals are in an The potential of area closures to unfortunate race with backfire provides a strong argument commercial fishermen, for freezing the footprint of bottom who are trawling these trawling as part of a comprehensive corals into oblivion.” EFH plan. Dr Martin Willison, Dalhousie University, Halifax Western Pacific Region In 1986, bottom trawling and bottom gillnetting were prohibited Davidson Seamount Opposite page: The white ruffle sponge ( Ferrea sp.) blanketed by the Western Pacific FMC in all large areas, at or near the crests, of the Davidson Seamount US-managed western Pacific waters (shown here at 4,593 feet depth). to protect all types of coral (shallow Several species were often found living on or within the sponge and deep). Coral fisheries in the fields; including crabs; basket stars; sea stars; and brittle stars. region are managed under a Precious Map 10: Recent essential fish habitat designations by the Pacific Fishery Management Council Photo credit: NOAA/MBARI n Essential Fish Habitat (< 3,500 m), closed to bottom trawl gear, n Closed to all bottom gear, n Open to bottom gear Black line is US EEZ.

43 most to protect corals, as a 2000 this are no-fishing marine reserves for providing scientific and technical Executive Order prohibited taking of within the Florida Keys National information to support decisions on deep sea precious corals throughout Marine Sanctuary and the Channel the offshore energy and hard miner- the area. Islands National Marine Sanctuary. als programs; the extraction of which Unlike the Northwestern None of these reserves extend into has the potential to damage the Hawaiian Islands Reserve, several significant deep sea coral habitats. seafloor. Following the sale of lease other sanctuaries with known deep For the most part, sanctuaries are in blocks, MMS monitors resource sea corals do not protect corals from shallower coastal waters, and because development to determine the extent fishing. A number of sanctuaries con- they do not use their legal authority and duration of environmental effects tain deep sea corals, but also allow to regulate incompatible fishing prac- and to identify potential mitigation bottom trawling. When scientists tices, sanctuaries are not currently an measures. MMS is also required to found a L. pertusa colony in the effective mechanism for protecting collect and make available to the Olympic Coast Sanctuary, they deep sea corals. public any information needed to also observed trawl tracks nearby analyze, discuss, and guide future (Hyland et al. 2005). The Monterey Minerals Management Service decisions on exploration, develop- Bay, Cordell Bank and Gulf of the The Minerals Management Service ment, production, and proposed Farallones National Marine Sanctu- (MMS), within the US Department lease sales. aries all encompass deep sea coral of the Interior, manages the nation’s A number of MMS research habitats; portions of these sanctuaries energy and mineral resources in programs are underway to study fall within EFH designations. These federal offshore waters of the US deep sea communities in the Gulf EFH designations carry varying EEZ. Currently these activities of Mexico, the primary region of oil fishing restrictions, but this protec- primarily occur in 3 regions of the and gas development in the USA. tion is implemented under the MSA USA— the Gulf of Mexico, southern One mechanism used by MMS to rather than the Sanctuaries Act. As California, and Alaska— but may mitigate impacts is to send a Notice previously noted, sanctuaries have expand under current pressure to to Lessees (NTL), that requires a mostly left fishery regulation within develop more oil and gas reserves and minimum separation distance their boundaries to NMFS and the explore ways to harness energy from between the biological feature such regional fishery management coun- wind and waves. MMS is responsible as a deep sea coral reef and proposed cils. This is not required, but it is seafloor disturbances. This has been current practice. Two exceptions to used to protect deepwater chemosyn-

44 thetic communities (NTL 88-11) in Wing 2002, Stone 2006). Grant habitat resulting from coral removal the Gulf of Mexico from oil explora- Gilmore, Christopher Koenig, John likely have influenced the survival tions activities. MMS is also consid- Reed and others have shown similar and behavior of fishes (Sainsbury et ering an NTL to protect Lophelia associations between fish andOculina al. 1997). Thus, current research reefs in the Gulf (T. Ahlfeld, MMS, coral off Florida (Gilmore and Jones on fish-habitat associations in these pers. comm.). Deep sea coral research 1992, Koenig et al. 2005, Reed et al. altered ecosystems may not accurately programs are especially important 2005a). However, other studies have reflect the nature of these associations Fig. 4.1 Rockfish intermingled because the expansion of oil and gas been less conclusive. in an intact deep sea coral community. with Christmas tree corals into deep water suggests the potential Many fish and fisheries co-occur In the Gulf of Maine, the density near Santa Cruz Island, CA. Photo credit: L. Snook for greater conflicts with deep sea with deep sea coral habitats, but the of fish does not seem to be affected corals in the future (see Chapter 3 precise nature of the association is by the presence of corals. Thus far, “A vast expanse of the planet’s and Map 7). unclear. The standard of scientific the only fish in the Gulf of Maine unexplored, and potentially proof required by scientists and known to demonstrate a preference most promising, ocean beyond Undetermined Habitat Value managers to designate deep sea for coral areas over other structures the legal boundaries of nations of Corals Limits Protection coral habitats as EFH is unclear and for shelter and feeding grounds is the is being exposed to the reckless Although EFH is currently the main appears to vary by region. In a few oreo, Neocyttus helgae (Auster 2005, plunder of marauding deep mechanism used to provide protec- cases, fish appear to prefer three- Auster et al. 2005). However, since sea fishing trawlers.” dimensional structures, but do not it is almost certain that fishing has Jean-Michel Cousteau, tion for deep sea corals, it has signi- Founder and President, ficant limitations. In many coral differentiate between corals and other altered deep sea corals in this region, Ocean Futures Society areas, a dependence on coral habitats living or nonliving structures (Auster the correlation between fish and by commercial fish species or their 2005, Tissot et al. 2006). Further- corals may also have been changed prey has not yet been scientifically more, fish of different sizes, ages and (Watling and Auster 2005). documented; therefore, these areas species behave differently, and may Within and surrounding the may not qualify as essential fish respond to an ROV by swimming Christmas tree coral colonies off habitat. Bob Stone, Jon Heifetz and away or hiding, making them southern California (Figure 4.1), colleagues at NMFS have document- difficult to observe. These factors scientists observed large invertebrates Opposite page: A white complicate scientists’ observations and fishes, but the abundance of gorgonian coral tree ( Paragorgia ed this dependence in the waters off sp.) with a large brisingid star of how fishes use coral habitats and on a seamount off New England. Alaska (Heifetz 2002, Krieger and Photo credit: the Deep Atlantic whether they depend on them. What Stepping Stones Science Party, scientists do know is that changes in IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA

45 these animals was low (Tissot et al. 2006). Only 8 of the 106 observed fish species showed higher concentra- tions inside the coral area as opposed to outside (Tissot et al. 2006). Possible explanations for the lack of a fish-coral association include the relatively small size (< 20 in.), low number or sparse density of observed corals, all factors which may alter the abundance of associated animals. In and around black coral beds in the Main Hawaiian Islands (164–240 ft depths), researchers observed 40 fish taxa, suggesting that the tree-shaped corals (approximately 30 in high) may be an important fish habitat. One fish species (Oxycirrhites typus) was found exclusively in the coral beds, and 4 others used the corals as shelter to evade human divers (Boland and Parrish 2005). Some fish species use the corals more at night than during the day (Boland and Parrish 2005). The necessity to prove functional relationships between fish and deep sea corals prior to EFH designation

46 is squarely at odds with official bottom-tending gears and bottom is generally inadequate. Expansion assertions that require managers to trawls not targeting monkfish can of vessel monitoring systems like manage in a precautionary manner still be used to catch other species those currently used in the North and on an ecosystem basis. Until in those same canyons, potentially Pacific region would likely strengthen this issue is clarified, it will present damaging deep sea corals. Seasonal enforcement in other regions. a barrier to EFH designation and rockfish closures along the US West protective regulation in some council Coast are only designed to reduce Summary Rockfish in deep sea sponge and regions, and a hindrance to the bycatch of certain depleted fishes, so Current ocean management is coral community Photo credit: R. Stone, NMFS conservation of deep sea corals under while the closures temporarily restrict insufficient to protect vulnerable US jurisdiction. trawling, they cannot be expected and unique deep sea coral habitats. to protect deep sea corals because Fisheries management provides Current Protection for trawling occurs during other seasons. limited protection under existing Deep Sea Coral is Inadequate Bottom trawling must be laws, primarily through the designa- Deep sea coral protection must not properly managed in order to deal tion of essential fish habitat (EFH) be solely predicated on their value with the immediate and widespread for federally managed species. Deep to commercial fisheries, but current threat to deep sea corals. However, sea corals can be protected if the ocean management, policies and even where areas are closed to bottom designation of EFH includes restric- trawling with the clear purpose of practices limit comprehensive pro- tions on fishing, but such provisions A large brisingid sea star from tection for deep sea coral habitats protecting corals, the protection is are not a requirement. The National Manning Seamount Photo credit: Jon Moore and ecosystems. Steps have been limited if other fishing gears continue Marine Sanctuary Program, the main taken to protect deep sea corals under to be used. Many of the complete gear program charged with protecting the existing authorities of the MSA, closures designated for deep sea corals special ocean ecosystems, has the but most management actions are are small, piecemeal, and opportunis- legal ability to regulate seafloor neither comprehensive nor focused tic. Freezing the trawl footprint may damaging fishing practices, but rarely on deep sea corals. In most cases, close vast areas, but these areas may uses it. Minerals Management Service EFH designations and closures are not contain the most important coral can mitigate impacts of energy gear or species specific. For example, habitats. In addition, experience production by establishing buffer shows that enforcement of closures although trawling and gillnetting for zones around deep sea coral commu- Opposite page: Lingcod in monkfish are prohibited in 2 subma- nities, but has yet to do so. hydrocoral bed in SE Alaska Photo credit: V. O’Connell, ADFG rine canyons in New England, other

47 Until we make protecting ecosystems,

rather than exploiting resources,

the overarching goal of management,

we will continue to fall short of

protecting deep sea corals.

48 Status and Recommendations deep sea coral management in Experimental Oculina Research for Deep Sea Coral Protection the USA. Reserve over 90% has been destroyed by fishing (Box 5.1), despite aware- Deep sea corals are widespread in US Current Status of Deep Sea Corals ness for over 20 years of this area and waters, but threats to these organisms the impact of bottom trawl fishing. are also widespread, especially the Ideally, a status assessment would be In almost every other location dominant threat of bottom trawl based on a comprehensive examina- in the USA, specific assessments are fishing. Current management has tion of coral distributions, the health Mushroom soft coral (Anthomas- difficult to make. The detailed tus sp.) on Davidson Seamount limited ability to protect deep sea of coral populations, and the activi- studies needed to document impacts at 4,823 ft depth. corals because it focuses on commer- ties threatening them. The informa- Photo credit: NOAA/MBARI are few and far between and are often cially important fish rather than on tion that has been gathered in recent focused on narrow transects (< 25 ft “Towing a heavy trawl net through protecting habitats. Where deep sea years by a variety of government, in width) across banks or ridges. a cold-water coral reef is a bit corals are protected, regulations are academic, and conservation organi- Although the level of our under- like driving a bulldozer through a seldom comprehensive, or if compre- zations provides us with the first nature reserve. The only practical standing at present does not allow hensive, do not extend over large opportunity to examine the distri- way of protecting these reefs is us to examine many areas or species areas. Given that deep sea corals are bution of and threats to deep sea therefore to find out where they in detail, general trends regarding extremely long-lived, are important corals. However, significant data are and then prevent boats from the impact of human activities on habitats for other species, and are gaps still exist. trawling over them. We know deep sea corals can be identified. that most fishing boat skippers valuable in their own right, the It is no coincidence that the It is clear from videotape footage would rather steer clear of coral protection of deep sea corals is an deep sea coral area that is thought to and photographs that fishing gears reefs, as the reefs can damage under-appreciated but key compo- be the most damaged and threatened, their gear, so producing accurate that contact the seafloor are currently nent of sustainable fisheries and the Oculina Bank off Florida, is at maps will actually help them to the greatest immediate threat to healthy ecosystems. relatively shallow depths— roughly avoid these areas.” corals and that focus on limiting In this chapter we summarize 150 to 300 ft— and is relatively close David Griffith, General bottom trawling is the correct first Secretary of ICES the status of deep sea corals, taking to shore. Its proximity to humans (International Council for step. Damage to corals from fishing into account the spatial proximity of makes it both vulnerable to fishing the Exploration of the Sea) has been shown to occur in multiple corals and threats and the quality of activities and relatively easy to study. locations throughout the USA—from information available. We conclude It is one of the few places about the Aleutian Islands to the banks of Opposite page: Live coral with recommendations to improve which we have extensive information, polyps in colonial coral. yet the prognosis for corals in this Florida. We know that bottom trawl- Photo credit: Collection of Dr. James P. McVey, NOAA Sea Grant Program area is relatively bleak. Within the

49 ing and other fishing activities destroy in other regions, such as the still activities that are global in scale corals and that these activities are intact Lophelia reefs of the south- and hence exceedingly difficult to widespread along the continental eastern USA. Steps are underway by manage. One thing is clear—man- shelves of the USA. Only in the the South Atlantic FMC to protect agement can address the impacts of island regions of the Caribbean and some of these known habitats. fishing, the most well recognized Hawaii, therefore areas without As we gain greater knowledge and certain threat to deep sea corals. continental shelves, is bottom of coral locations, protecting coral trawling not an immediate threat habitats within currently fished Recommendations to Improve to deep sea corals. Fishing activity grounds will be a challenge for Deep Sea Coral Conservation and deep sea coral distributions managers. Future protections for It is clear that we should protect deep substantially overlap in many regions, deep sea corals will need to be sea corals from further destruction. especially in the waters off Alaska, comprehensive, protecting them not In this report we have identified key the US West Coast, and New only from bottom trawls, but from threats and obstacles affecting the England. There are also significant entanglement in bottom longlines conservation and management of data gaps regarding the location and or gillnets and from being crushed deep sea corals, including: wide- intensity of fishing. Without more under crab or fish pots. Despite spread bottom fishing in areas with detailed recording of fishing effort, regulations that freeze the footprint deep sea corals; an institutionally bycatch, and landings, it is very of bottom trawling in the Pacific constrained management focus on difficult to determine the exact Ocean, the amount of known deep commercially important species nature of the threat. sea coral habitat that is entirely (rather than habitat protection); With the current trend towards off limits to all types of bottom a lack of data on deep sea coral fishing in deeper waters as coastal fishing is relatively small. distribution, ecology, and biology; fisheries are depleted, there is a need Finally, fishing is not the only gaps in monitoring and analysis to stem the expansion of fishing into human activity affecting the deep sea. of current and potential threats, the deep sea. The first step, to freeze Other activities undoubtedly have especially fishing; insufficient use the footprint of trawling, has been impacts; however, many of these of closed area management (marine taken by the North Pacific and Pacific are restricted to much smaller areas, protected areas); and weak enforce- fishery management councils. The are limited in scale, or, like climate ment of regulations. To remedy next step is to limit fishery impacts change and increasing ocean acidifi- cation, are the result of widespread

50 Box 5.1: Last Corals Standing — Protection of the Oculina Banks Table 5.1: Current deep sea coral management actions and their limitations. “We are protecting less than one percent of our oceans. The Oculina varicosa banks off central Florida are one of the relatively Current Management Action Limitations Remedy well-studied coral ecosystems in US waters. These reefs were first docu- If we are to protect this priceless Designating selected EFH designation is A national mandate mented in 1963 based on commercial fishermen’s reports, and scientists coral areas as EFH for subject to interpretation to define and protect natural heritage for future have surveyed the area multiple times since the 1970s. The area was commercial fish species by councils. Definitions deep sea corals com- generations, we must learn prehensively through listed as a candidate site by the National Marine Sanctuary Program in (e.g., Oceanographer vary by region. Canyon in the ecosystem-based to value marine life less as 1983, but never designated. However in the following year Oculina Bank New England region) management (EBM). Habitat Area of Particular Concern (HAPC) was created by the SAFMC, commodities and more as EFH is not required A national mandate to part of the natural world on and closed to bottom trawl and dredge fishing gear. In 1994, theOculina to have conservation define and protect deep Bank HAPC was closed to all bottom fishing gear. In 2000, the HAPC regulations. sea corals comprehen- which we too depend.” boundaries were expanded to 397 mi2 in order to protect a large portion sively through EBM. Dr Sylvia Earle, of the remaining Oculina reefs. In 2003 the closure and its regulations Where fish dependence Research and mapping, Executive Director of Conservation were extended indefinitely. on corals has not been precautionary approach International’s Global Marine Divi- Despite the attention of management for nearly a quarter century, established, deep sea to management that sion and Explorer-in-Residence at the corals are not protected. will protect all deep sea National Geographic Society protections have proven to be ineffective. A survey in 2001 found 90% coral concentrations. of the areas designated in 1984 contained only coral rubble, and only 0.3 Areas closed to bottom Increase research efforts mi2 (or 9.5 baseball fields) of intact deep sea coral reefs remain. Nearly Freezing the footprint of bottom trawling trawling may encompass to map known coral all the corals had been demolished by trawl gears. Furthermore, Oculina (e.g., around the Aleutian fewer deep sea corals or concentrations in areas reefs outside the HAPC are being demolished; a mound off Cape Canav- Islands in the North corals that are not open to trawling. Pacific region) currently threatened. eral that was 100% covered by live O. varicosa colonies in 1976 retained only a few scattered colonies in 2001, a year after it became part of the Setting up protected Enforcement and Increase the use of Oculina HAPC. areas specifically for deep monitoring of closure in vessel monitoring sea corals (e.g., Oculina offshore areas is systems (VMS) and Bottom trawling for rock shrimp is the primary threat to the Oculina Bank in the South challenging. onboard observers. reefs, and illegal trawling has occurred in the Oculina HAPC as recently Atlantic region) as 2004. Abandoned longlines and trawl nets that entangle corals, trawl Prohibiting bottom Could push fishing A national mandate to tracks on the seafloor, and sightings of trawlers in the protected area are fishing to restore effort from low coral define and protect deep evidence that fishing activities are destroying the fragileOculina reefs. depleted fish populations abundance areas to high sea corals comprehen- coral abundance areas. sively through EBM. Obviously enforcement has been poor. with incidental effect of protecting deep sea Through the last 3 decades of research on the Oculina reefs, scientists corals (e.g., Rockfish have demonstrated that the reefs are breeding and feeding grounds for Conservation Area in the Pacific region) groupers and snappers; measured the reefs’ slow growth rate (0.6 in per year); discovered reefs that are 1,500 years old; and identified many National Marine The Sanctuaries Act A national mandate to locations of Oculina occurrences. Our understanding of O. varicosa Sanctuary Program (e.g., allows multiple uses to define and protect deep Opposite page: sea corals comprehen- Olympic Coast National occur in a sanctuary, (Gorgonocephalus eucnemis) far exceeds that of other deep sea coral species. However, none of this Marine Sanctuary in the many of which are sively through EBM. perched atop a yellow sponge has prevented the devastation of the Oculina reefs. Immediate action Pacific region) incompatible with coral Better use of existing conservation. authority to regulate (Staurocalyptus sp.) on to make deep sea coral protection a national priority, coupled with bottom contact gear the Davidson Seamount strict enforcement, heavy penalties, and further research, monitoring, damage to corals. (4,469 ft depth). outreach and education, is the remaining corals’ only hope for survival. Photo credit: NOAA/MBARI

Sources: Reed et al. 2005a, Koenig et al. 2005

51 Box 5.2: Bottom Trawl and Deep Sea Coral Habitat Act of 2005 these problems we provide the bottom gillnets. Essential Fish following recommendations for Habitat and Habitat Areas of Particu- As proposed, the Bottom Trawl and Deep Sea Coral Habitat Act deep sea coral protection: lar Concern designations must be would provide significant protection for fragile and ecologically sig- accompanied by restrictions on all nificant ocean habitats by changing the way deep sea coral habitats are Recommendation 1: Use and fishing gears that affect seafloor managed. Specifically, the Act would allow bottom trawls to be used enforce existing laws to protect habitats and deep sea corals. Closed in almost all areas where the gear has been used in the past 7 years for deep sea corals. areas should also be surrounded by a which records are available, while establishing a national mandate for buffer zone that prevents inadvertent deep sea coral protection. The Act contains the following provisions: Recommendation 2: Establish damage from fishing activity, and n Temporarily bans the use of bottom trawl gear in unstudied areas a national mandate to protect fishing permits must require vessel (any area in which records indicate that mobile bottom tending fish- deep sea corals. monitoring systems (VMS). In ing gears have not been used) until research determines whether deep addition, deep sea coral closures sea coral ecosystems are present. If no deep sea coral ecosystems are Recommendation 3: Expand should be accompanied by research found in an area, that area could be opened for the use of bottom scientific research (basic and and monitoring plans as well as trawls and designated a Bottom Trawl Zone. applied) of deep sea corals. education and outreach activities. As noted for Oculina Bank n Permanently bans bottom trawling in Coral Habitat Conservation Recommendation 4: Implement HAPC (Box 5.1), enforcement of Zones where deep sea coral ecosystems are known to exist. ecosystem-based management. existing regulations remains a n Requires monitoring of coral bycatch. High bycatch levels are an challenge. Authorities should exam- indicator of the presence of deep sea coral ecosystems. Areas that Recommendation 1: ine additional means of enforcement, produce high bycatch levels would be studied for potential designa- Use and Enforce Existing Laws including event data recorders, vessel tion as Coral Habitat Conservation Zones under the authority of Current laws and federal fishing monitoring, and at-sea surveillance. the Secretary of Commerce. regulations allow fishery manage- We recommend that all fishery ment councils to enact spatial management councils adopt a pre- n Requires all bottom trawl vessels fishing in waters deeper than cautionary approach to management 50 m (~165 ft) to carry a vessel monitoring system (VMS) device. closures (marine protected areas) to protect deep sea corals from trawling that will restrict expansion of fisheries n Provides for penalties and enforcement of the Act. and other potentially damaging until they demonstrate that the gear fishing gears, including longlines, used is compatible with sustainable n Authorizes $15,000,000 a year to carry out the provisions of dredges, fish traps, crab pots, and the Act.

52 fishing, habitat protection, and mainte- Bottom Trawl and Deep Sea Coral its regional science centers have nance of healthy ecosystems. Habitat Act of 2005 (introduced in undertaken excellent small-scale The National Marine Sanctuaries the House and Senate as H.R. 3778 studies of coral and fish habitats. Program should re-examine and use and S. 1635) could be used as an The National Undersea Research its mandate to manage all habitats amendment to the MSA or as new Centers and other academic centers within sanctuary boundaries, and legislation. Modeled on the actions have also provided valuable research. regulate uses incompatible with taken in the Pacific and North Pacific NOAA’s Office of Ocean Exploration resource protection. FMC regions, the bill would freeze has sponsored a series of research The Minerals Management the footprint of bottom trawlers and cruises in recent years to better under- Service should act on existing protect deep sea corals that have not stand deep sea coral distribution information on the locations of yet been demolished, while allowing and ecology. These cruises explored deep sea coral and provide suitably bottom trawlers to continue to fish seamounts off California, New sized buffers between deep sea in areas where they have historically England and the Gulf of Alaska, coral areas and exploration, drilling, fished. The bill would also provide as well as the Lophelia and Oculina and other extraction and energy for the implementation of vessel reefs of the southeastern USA, the production activities. monitoring and for increased coral coral gardens of the Aleutian Islands, research efforts in the deep sea. The and several other areas. On these Recommendation 2: provisions of the bill are summarized explorations, manned submersibles Establish a National Mandate in Box 5.2. and ROVs captured images of deep to Protect Deep Sea Corals sea corals and collected samples for further analyses. This provided a Limitations to current laws, includ- Recommendation 3: ing the Magnuson-Stevens Act Expand Science and Research detailed look at selected deep sea coral communities and documented (MSA) and the National Marine Continued research is critical to the locations of corals. However, Sanctuaries Act, prevent comprehen- furthering our understanding of each study covered only a small area sive protection of deep sea coral deep sea corals and improving their or a few narrow transects. ecosystems. This suggests that a new management. The quality of infor- mandate from Congress is needed. mation on the distribution of deep At this time the MSA is undergoing Red vermillion crab ( Paralomis verrilli) dangling off sea corals varies from one region to a yellow sponge (Staurocalyptus sp.); amidst a white reauthorization by Congress, and the ruffle sponge ( Farrea sp.); white branched sponges another because of different research (Asbestopluma sp.); shrimp; brittle stars; and an methods and priorities. NMFS and isopod on the Davidson Seamount (4,462 ft depth). Photo credit: NOAA/MBARI

53 effort and landings to facilitate the assessment of the threat of fishing to deep sea corals;

6. Research impacts of all fishing gears on seafloor habitats, as well as the recovery of these areas from fishing;

7. Fund research in basic taxon-

Fig. 5.1: Map of Bear Seamount (foreground) and Physalia Seamount (background), in the New England seamount omy of deep sea corals; chain, produced with multi-beam sonar shows detailed Image credit: Mountains in the Sea research group/NOAA/WHOI 8. Substantially improve deep sea coral identification training Greater use of multibeam sonar 1. Fund further exploration work to for fishery observers; mapping of the seafloor will facilitate identify coral concentrations; scientific exploration (Figure 5.1). 9. Use fishermen’s knowledge 2. Develop high-resolution multi- Unlike trawl surveys, seafloor to augment data on deep sea beam mapping of continental shelves mapping will provide much greater coral occurrences. and slopes with ground truthing spatial resolution of potential coral from ROVs or manned submersibles; locations. When paired with ground- Recommendation 4: truthing efforts using ROVs or 3. Develop and fund new tools such Implement Ecosystem-Based Management manned submersibles to confirm as autonomous underwater vehicles The challenges of deep sea coral the presence of deep sea corals, this (AUVs) for sampling and mapping conservation exemplify the multiple technique will offer a much more environmental factors; conflicting uses of marine resources, precise and accurate understanding from fishing and petroleum activities 4. Develop models to predict deep of coral distribution (Schroeder et to harbor dredging and anchoring. sea coral distribution based on al. 2005). Management cannot succeed when hydrography and geology; Future research should continue multiple agencies operate under to identify coral communities for 5. Produce higher resolution, different, often conflicting mandates protection. A comprehensive research spatially explicit maps of fishing that only address individual pieces of program for deep sea corals needs to: a larger ecosystem. Habitat conserva-

54 tion will not occur without a coher- protection from fishing as opposed the habitat of a particular area before ent approach to management that to the haphazard, piecemeal case-by- fishing is allowed there. As scientific focuses on maintaining the structure case and gear-by-gear management understanding progresses and and function of the ecosystem. actions that have taken place so ecosystem components and their Implementation of ecosystem- far. EBM would also benefit other functions are better understood, based management (EBM) for an cnidarians and sponges, which play management can adapt and regulate entire region will markedly improve important roles in structuring activities that are either compatible The manned submersible Johnson- the conservation and management the seafloor. or incompatible with specific eco- Sea-Link contributed greatly to of deep sea corals for 3 reasons. First, Second, EBM integrates the system properties. Given that new our understanding of the Oculina Banks and Lophelia deep sea EBM addresses more than commer- management not only of fishing locations and species of deep sea coral reefs. cially valuable species and seeks to activities but also of other human coral are discovered every year and Photo credit: HBOI maintain habitats and ecosystem impacts on the ecosystem (Rosenberg deep sea coral research is expanding function (Pikitch et al. 2004, Mu- and McLeod 2005). It provides a at a fast pace, adaptive management “The deep ocean, ranging in depths up to 10,000 meters, rawski 2005). In EBM, deep sea framework for assessing the conse- is a suitable approach for integrating is an amazing cradle for an corals do not have to be proven quences for deep sea corals of energy new research findings into the estimated 500,000 to essential for commercial fishes before development, waste dumping, cable crafting of protection measures. 10 million species, many of receiving protection. The habitat laying, climate change, and other In recent years, managers of them still undiscovered.” complexity that deep sea corals activities. More important, EBM commercial fisheries in the USA have Jean-Michel Cousteau, contribute to the seafloor is enjoyed allows us to evaluate and manage begun to recognize the intercon- Founder and President, Ocean Futures Society by commercial and noncommercial the synergistic impacts of all these nectedness of exploited species and fishes alike, and EBM lends itself to threats combined. their supporting ecosystems. NMFS protecting all parts of the ecosystem Third, EBM bases adaptive appears to be committed to viewing regardless of their commercial value. management on the precautionary fishery management as more than EBM departs from the single-species principle. EBM places the burden the sum of multiple fishery stock approach to fisheries management of proof on those whose activities assessments (Murawski 2005). This and limits collateral damage of affect the ecosystem (Murawski is very good news to those concerned fishing on the ecosystem. Deep sea 2005, Pikitch et al. 2004). Under with biodiversity conservation, corals will thus gain comprehensive EBM, the would be but current laws continue to do a Opposite page: Big white required to prove that fishing does coral (Family Primnoidae) not result in detrimental effects on Photo credit: NOAA/MBARI

55 disservice to marine organisms that are not “proven” contributors to commercial fisheries. Comprehensive ocean zoning offers a means of implementing EBM that will help manage multiple uses (Norse 2003, 2005, Pew Oceans Commission 2003, Pikitch et al. 2004). Ocean zoning provides for multiple uses within a defined area, combining compatible activities and avoiding overlap of incompatible ones. In order to protect deep sea corals, zoning must start with the clear conservation goal of allowing activities compatible with the main- tenance of ecosystem structure and function, but severely restricting activities that harm the seafloor. Of course, for zoning to prove effective it will need to address all human

Left: An eight foot tall spiraling colony of gorgonian coral ( Iridogorgia sp). Scientists using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to study seamounts off New England in 2005 captured this image with a high-definition video camera. Scientists visited 10 seamounts in the northwest Atlantic with the ROV; mapped the seafloor with multibeam sonar; collected over 337 samples of corals, sponges and associated fauna; identified and documented the habitat and foraging behavior of dozens of fish species; and took thousands of digital still images and frame captures of seamount landscapes. Photo credit: Deep Atlantic Stepping Stones Science Party, IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA

56 activities. This will require an exten- 2004 that bottom fishing, especially tools to protect deep sea corals and sive commitment to research and bottom trawling, is a major threat curtail any further expansion of mapping as well as discussion and to deep sea corals. These bodies bottom trawling unless it can be negotiations about the best uses recommend stricter protection of shown that trawling will not damage of particular . One vulnerable coral habitats. Similarly, seafloor habitats. Second, a national opportunity on the horizon is the the President’s 2004 Ocean Action mandate to protect deep sea corals idea of designating allowable fishing Plan emphasized deep sea coral is necessary. Third, government- zones. This would be in line with a conservation and called for further funded research should devote precautionary approach to manage- identification and protection of resources to achieving a better ment, whereby selected areas would deep sea coral areas. Despite these scientific understanding of where be open to fishing based on the encouraging signs, progress towards deep sea coral communities are compatibility of gears with particular increased deep sea coral protection found and of their ecological roles. habitat types. Because the future has been slow. Freezing the footprint Last, managers must develop a will undoubtedly see greater human of bottom trawling under fishery comprehensive framework to activity at sea, it is time to bring management council regulations manage all human activities based ecosystem and zoning concepts into limits the expansion of fishing on their compatibility with different ocean management. fleets, but does not protect known ocean habitats (i.e., ecosystem-based coral locations in currently fished management and ocean zoning). Conclusions areas. The deep sea coral areas Until we make protecting ecosystems, Deep sea corals are threatened by a that have been comprehensively rather than exploiting resources, the number of human activities, but the protected are small in relation to overarching goal of management, we largest and most immediate threat the overall need. will continue to fall short of protect- comes from bottom trawl fishing. The recommendations of this ing deep sea corals, sustaining healthy This conclusion echoes recent report seek primarily to address fisheries, and maintaining the oceans’ findings by the National Research the most significant threat to deep productivity and biological diversity. Council in 2002, the Pew Oceans sea corals—bottom trawling— and Commission in 2003, and the US to address additional impacts in Commission on Ocean Policy in a stepwise manner. First, fishery management councils and national Right: Iridigorgia sp. collected at Kelvin Seamount. marine sanctuaries must use existing Photo courtesy of M. Grady.

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63 Appendix: Smithsonian Institution Thank you to those who helped us with Data Sources for Maps Scripps Institution of Oceanography images and information Peter Auster, Erica Burton, Stephen Cairns, Patty Debenham, Bathymetry: Fishing Catch and Effort data: Elizabeth Flynn Neely, Kim Iverson, Alberto ETOPO-2 — seafloor data between latitudes Lindner, Milton Love, Catalina Martinez, Tom Hourigan, NMFS 64° North and 72° South. These data were Sally McGee, José Montañez, Kerry O’Malley, John Olson, NMFS derived from satellite altimetry observations John Reed, Doug Rader, Bob Stone, Brian David Stevenson, NMFS and shipboard echo-sounding measurements. Tissot, Les Watling, and Julie-anne Wilce. For more information see Smith, W.H.F. We are deeply indebted to Bill Chandler, EEZ Boundaries: and D.T. Sandwell, 1997. Global sea floor Hannah Goldstein, Jennifer Maresh, Elliott General Dynamics Global Maritime topography from satellite altimetry and Norse, Jennifer Palmer and Sara Maxwell Boundaries Database ship depth soundings. Science 277 (5334): for their valuable insights, constructive 1956–1962. comments, warm encouragement and tireless Gulf of Mexico Oil Platform and Pipelines: re-reading and editing. Deep Sea Coral Records: US Minerals Management Service We are grateful to the individuals Etnoyer and Morgan 2003 who reviewed all or portions of this report: Grigg 2001 and 2002 Essential Fish Habitat Boundaries: Sandra Brooke, Robert George, Tom Hourigan, Steven Lutz, Margaret Pizer, Schroeder et al. 2005 North Pacific Fishery Management Council Alison Rieser, Steve Ross, Margot Stiles, Tissot et al. 2006 Pacific Fishery Management Council Bob Stone, and Les Watling. We thank Watling et al. 2003 South Atlantic Fishery Management Council Stephen Cairns, Smithsonian Institution Richard Garnas and Patty Holden for their help in the design, layout and production. Peter Etnoyer, Aquanautix Consulting Data sets used with permission. MCBI received generous support from André Freiwald, University of Erlangen Available from MCBI by request. Jon Heifetz, NMFS (RACEBase) ESRI conservation program for software. John Reed, Harbor Branch Finally, we are grateful for the financial Oceanographic Institution Acknowledgments support of the Richard and Rhoda Goldman Fund, Bullitt Foundation, National Fish John Warrenchuk, Oceana A number of individuals and agencies shared and Wildlife Foundation, Curtis and Edith California Academy of Sciences data with us for this work including Stephen Munson Foundation, J.M. Kaplan Fund, Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory Cairns, Peter Etnoyer, André Freiwald, and Oak Foundation for our continued Aquarium Research Institute Daphne Fautin, Margot Stiles, Jon Warren- work to study and conserve deep sea corals. Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary chuk, John Olson, Tom Hourigan, Beth Lumsden, Bob Stone and Les Watling.

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