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Home , Ganga (goddess), Ganges, Indus River, Sarasvati River

– Historical, cultural and socioeconomic attributes Dilip Kumar C-9/9698, Vasant Kunj, New 110070, Corresponding author: [email protected]

The River Ganges (also referred to as ) is a symbol of faith, hope, culture and sanity, as well as a source of livelihood for millions since time immemorial. She is the centre of social and religious tradition in the Indian sub- and particularly sacred in . The very special faith and respect for the River Ganges in India are as old as Indian culture itself. These are amply reflected in such ancient Indian scriptures as: , , , and several others. In fact, respect for Ganga is a part of Indian identity and the very symbol of Indian culture. The history of Ganga in nurturing culture and civilizations is appreciated through fostering native culture in its basin, shifting of the Indus-Sarasvati basin civilization into its fold, and promoting integration of cultures to develop Indian civilization. The Ganges alone drains an area of over a million square kilometers. Its extensive basin accounts for one-fourth of India’s water resources and is home to more than 407 million Indians, or some one-third of India’s population. The , with its fertile soil, is a significant contributor to the agricultural economies of both India and . The Ganges and its provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area, in addition to recharging the groundwater table all along their course. By supporting , animal husbandry and fisheries, tourism, river-based and transport, the river contributes significantly to the livelihood, food and nutritional security of about one-third of Indian and two-thirds of the Bangladeshi population. This article attempts to present a macro view of the Ganges and provide a broader context encompassing its historical, spiritual, cultural and socioeconomic attributes and considerations which often remain untouched in scientific papers.

Keywords: Indus-Saravasti civilization, river basin, agriculture, fisheries, livelihood

Introduction intricately tied with almost all aspects of life and the livelihoods of the people living in its environs. The Ganges, or Ganga as it is locally known, is The river is also considered as “the lifeline of much more than a mere natural resource. It is a India,” as it delivers wide-ranging services encom- major river of the and widely passing the transitions of water to food, energy to acclaimed for its great cultural, spiritual, economic ecology, lives to livelihoods, social concerns to and ecological significance, which far transcends economic, and cultural considerations to spiritual. the national borders and boundaries of its vast Ganga is the most sacred river for , who span of basin and delta. Ganga has also been a cra- call it Ma Ganga (mother Ganga) possibly because dle of human civilization. Since time immemorial, it holds and nurtures billions of lives, including it has been influencing humankind, as it has been humans and other terrestrial, aquatic, and

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Aquatic Health & Management, 20(1–2):8–20, 2017. Copyright Ó 2017 AEHMS. ISSN: 1463-4988 print / 1539-4077 online DOI: 10.1080/14634988.2017.1304129

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amphibious entities. The many symbolic meanings information thus generated is documented in vari- of the river across the Indian subcontinent are ous reports prepared by the Irrigation Commission reflected by the two inspiring quotes of Pandit of the Government of India (1972). Certain highly Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of the relevant information related to other aspects of the Republic of India, in his book “Discovery of river are also available: Khosla (1977); Rao India” (Nehru, 1946): (1975); GOI (1976); IARI (1977); Gole and Patter- gar (1978); FAO (1978); UN (1996); Lal (1998). Significant eco-biological and environment- “The Ganga, especially, is the river of India, beloved related information has also been a major focus of of her people, round which are intertwined her mem- research with the growing awareness of environ- ories, her hopes and fears, her songs of triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a symbol of mental, fisheries, biodiversity and socioeconomic India’s age-long culture and civilization, ever chang- concerns: Bilgrami and Dutta Munshi (1979); ing, ever flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga. Singh et al. (1983); Jhingran, A. G. (1989a, 1989b); Jhingran, V. G. (1991); Bilgrami (1991); The Ganga to me is the symbol of India’s memorable et al. (1991); MRAG (1996); Sinha past which has been flowing into the present and con- et al. (1999); Payne et al. (2004); CIFRI (2008); tinues to flow towards the ocean of the future.” Vass et al. (2008, 2010); GOI (2009); Singh et al. (2010); Nautiyal (2010); IIT, (2011); Originating in the and flowing into WWF (2011b, 2011c, 2012). The ecological the Bay of , the river negotiates a course of aspects of the Ganges river have been studied by a over 2,500 km through the northern highlands and number of authors, especially after the initiation of of north and and Bangladesh. The the Ganga Action Plan (GAP- Phase I: of Govt. Ganga basin, which also extends into parts of of India). The team of researchers at Gurukula , and Bangladesh, encompasses Kangri University, , intensively worked extraordinary variations in altitude, climate, land to achieve the objectives outlined by the Govern- use, flora and fauna, as well as the social and cul- ment of India. Important contributions include tural life of the indigenous people. The basin papers by Joshi et al., (1992a, 1992b, 1993a, accounts for nearly 26 percent of India’s landmass, 1993b, 1993c), which describe the fluctuations 30 percent of its water resources, and over 40 per- found in various biotic and abiotic constituents of cent of its population. Because of its unique the River Ganga. Riverbed quarrying/mining is importance ascribed to reasons that are geographi- causing considerable and diversified problems cal, historical, spiritual, ecological, sociocultural, with regard to the quality, diversity, and loss to ter- and economic, the Government of India, on 20 tiary products, including fish seed (Joshi and Shah, February 2009, declared Ganga as the National 2011). A detailed account of about 30 parameters River of India and created the National Ganga of ecobiological importance has also been River Basin Authority (NGRBA) to safeguard the described by Joshi and Sharma (2011). The current basin by protecting it from pollution and overuse status of phyto-planktonic communities and the (GOI, 2009). The runoff generated by the Himala- impact of mass bathing during grand festivals on yan feeds several of ’s greatest the bank of the River Ganga at Haridwar have including Ganga (Ganges), Sindhu (Indus), and been reported by Bhadula and Joshi (2012) and Brahmaputra, providing water and supporting the Sharma et al. (2012). production of food for over two billion people (WWF, 2005, 2011a). Water from these rivers also feeds “hotspot” of biodiversity with some Source and course of the Ganges 10,000 plant species, an estimated 300 mammals, River and almost 1,000 types of birds (Conservation International, 2008). The Ganga commences in the Himalayas at the Though the river Ganga has been extensively confluence of the rivers Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, investigated, major areas of studies have been Mandakini, Pindar and finally Bhagirathi at focused around its hydrological features, and Devaprayag. Bhagirathi is considered to be the assessment of its potential for hydropower genera- main source stream. (‘Gou’ means ‘cow’ tion, irrigation, and flood control. Valuable and ‘mukh’ means ‘face’), the terminus of the

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Gangotri , situated at a height of 4255 m Ganga (Bhimgaura Barrage located just and about 18 km from the town of , is the upstream of Haridwar), Madhya Ganga Canal (Bij- precise source of the . Alaknanda, nore Barrage, essentially a floodwater or kharif another main in the mountainous stretch, canal system) and Lower Ganga Canal (Narora Bar- rises beyond Manna Pass at an altitude of 3123 m rage). A substantial amount of flow is also aug- and about 8 km from . From Devaprayag mented through a feeder canal originating from the onwards, the river is known as Ganga in the Indian barrage at Kalagarh on the river . This is states of , and . At introduced into the river Ganga just downstream of , near , Ganga starts diverting to to ensure sufficient quantities of form its , Bhagirathi-Hoogly, which water for the Narora Atomic Power Plant. The con- goes on to form the Hoogly River, while the main fluences of Ramganga at Kusumkher, at Kan- branch of Ganga enters Bangladesh as Padma. In nauj, and at also augment the Bangladesh, it flows 212 km further east to join flow in the river (GOI, 2010). Thus, river flow and with Jamuna at Gualando. It then continues as the water quality are the key concerns in this segment, for another 100 km to its confluence in addition to the general degradation of the river with at Chandpur, before merging system, encroachment of the river bed, gravel/sand into the by forming a 354 km wide mining, river-bed farming, pollution, overfishing delta (FAO, 1999). The Ganga traverses a distance and destructive fishing activities. of »2510 km within India from its source to its In the lower segment, the River Ganga receives mouth (Ganga Sagar) in the Bay of Bengal, drain- water from three categories of rivers. The first cate- ing eleven states of the country as it passes through gory consists of perennial rivers originating in the (Figure 1). In her course, she is joined by many Himalayas and carrying -fed flows with signif- tributaries, the most important being Bhilangana, icant in the non- season. These Alaknanda, Ramganga, Kali, Yamuna, Gomti, include the Kosi, Gandak, Karnali (Ghaghra) and Ghagra, Gandak, Kosi and Sone (GOI, 2010). Mahakali (Sharda) river systems. In the second cat- The entire stretch of the river Ganga () egory, rivers originate in the midlands of the can be viewed as three major segments: (a) Upper Mahabharat range of mountains and are fed by pre- Ganga, Gaumukh to Haridwar (»294km),(b),Mid- cipitation as well as groundwater, including springs. dle Ganga, Haridwar to (»1082 km) and The Mechi, Kankalm, Kamla, Bagmati, West Rapti (c) Lower Ganga, Varanasi to Ganga Sagar (»1134 and Babai Rivers fall under this category. Although km). Ganga flows through the to reach these rivers are also perennial, they are commonly the town of Haridwar. In the Upper Ganga Segment characterized by wide seasonal fluctuations in dis- (UGS), from Gaumukh to Haridwar/, the charge. The third category of rivers includes a large river flows mostly on a steep bed with an average number of small rivers in the terrain which origi- approximate slope of 1 in 70. The river has a turbu- nate from the southern Shiwalik range of hills. lent flow and high velocities in most part of this seg- These rivers are seasonal, with low flow during the ment. The habitat is stony, intermingled with dry season but characterized by flash floods during pebbles and sand (GOI, 2010). With limited monsoon. This part of the basin is the alluvial belt. nutrients in the water body, growth of phytoplank- There is spilling of river banks and drainage con- ton and other aquatic plants is limited. Fish, primar- gestion because of peculiar deltaic formation of ily and occasionally Catfish, predominate the soil. This is due to the massive amount of silt car- grazing food chain in this . Mahasheer and ried along by the flow. , drought and water- Trout are also seen in many places. As the river logging occur frequently. Although the land is very enters into the plains (upper segment), its bed ini- fertile, floods pose a constant menace and agricul- tially consists of boulders, gravel, and sand, but sub- ture is badly affected (GOI, 2010). sequently becomes only fine sand. The river bed is essentially flat (slope »1 in 5000) and the river meanders, bifurcates into several channels Ganga’s role in history and in some parts, and consists of dynamic systems of nurturing of civilizations pools and rivulets. A substantial portion of the river flow is diverted to support agricultural activities The history of the Ganga in nurturing culture through a system of , including the Upper and civilizations can be viewed from three

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Figure 1. Line diagram of the Ganges River and its major tributaries and location of water management structures. Adapted from IIT, Kanpur (2011).

angles—the fostering of native culture in its basin, recent discovery of Mesolithic culture in the allu- the shifting of the Indus-Sarasvati basin civiliza- vial of Ganga is highly significant in this tion into its fold, and the promoting of cultural regard. River systems have been the birthplace of integration to develop Indian civilization. The civilizations all over the world. For centuries,

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water and the nature and course of rivers have grains, fruits, vegetables, and . In addition, defined the rise and fall of civilizations. Ancient the Indus provided grazing lands for herd animals civilizations, like those of the Indus (Har- and, of course, a steady supply of fresh water. All appan), Mesopotamia, Egypt and China emerged of these local-level knowledge and practices, and flourished along important rivers—the Indus- together with agro-climatic conditions, were con- Sarasvati, and , and the Yel- ducive to providing critical ingredients for the low River, respectively. These rivers provided development of the valley civilization their human populations with the means to both in the middle of the third millennium BC, more survive and expand. Consequently, the rivers than a thousand years before the civilization of became an essential part of the sociocultural and China. Climatic catastrophe and the disappearance economic fabric of the local societies and pene- of the , together with a number of trated deep into the psyche of the people living in other factors, are considered to be the cause of the the surrounding areas. Nowhere is this phenome- collapse of civilization in the Indus Val- non more pronounced than in India, where the ley. After the collapse of Harappa, the plains of Ganga, Indus, Narmada, , and other rivers the Indus were bypassed in favor of the far lusher represent the cultural identity transmitted through and more extensive lands in the basin of the the ages and across generations. Ganges River network to the east. The history of the Ganga River is as old as Indian civilization. For thousands of years, Ganga has been the only witness of the myriad changes Archaeology of the Ganga plain: that have shaped Indian history, culture, and the Cultural–historical dimensions life of its people. It was in this plain that the great kingdoms of , Gupta, and Mughals found During the last three decades there has been a their home. It was also the place which witnessed phenomenal increase in research in the archeology the creation of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and of the Ganga Plain. The discovery of Mesolithic Sikhism, as well as the seeds of democracy sown culture in the alluvial plain of the Ganga going by the establishment of the first-ever republic state back to 10,000 BC constitutes a distinct contribu- in the world at Viashali. tion to our knowledge. Excavations carried out at a number of sites in the mid-Ganga Valley have shown that the Mesolithic people of the Vidhyas Shifting of the centre of civilization from lived in huts made of trees, branches, and leaves. Indus–Sarasvati to Ganga basin They exploited the edible wild grains for their con- sumption, which is evident not only from a good The disintegration of the Harappan civilization, number of grinding stones from the excavated in the early second millennium BC, marks the Mesolithic sites of the Ganga Plain and the point when the center of Indian civilization shifted Vindhyas, but also from the evidence of wild rice from the Indus basin to the Ganges basin from Chopani Mando. Recent discoveries of (Mclntosh, 2008). The Late Harappan period, the early farming culture of the region have proved from about 1900 to1300 BC, saw the spread of that the Ganga basin was one of the early centres Harappan settlement eastward from the Indus of agriculture in the world (Pal, 2006). The discov- River basin to the Ganges–Yamuna . There ery also highlights the fact that Jhusi has been a seems to be a cross link between the Late Harap- cradle of human civilization from the Mesolithic pan settlement of the Ganges basin and the archae- age through to the blossoming of the urban phase ological culture known as “Cemetery H,” the of the culture of this region. The contemporary Indo-Aryan people and the . The excavations at Jhusi verify that civilization was importance of the rivers is reflected by the fact born and developed at its own epicenter, the mid- that even as early as 3000 BC, the pre-Harappan Ganga Valley. Outside influences incidental to peoples living in the Indus–Sarasvati river basin the shifting of the Indus Valley civilization and cultivated and barley, and had developed the invasion of Aryans are therefore considered to sophisticated agricultural implements and crop- be an interactive rather than original contribution ping techniques (IWHP, 2007). This river system towards development of culture in the Ganga basin provided fertile grounds for raising crops of food region. The later Vedas and other Sanskritic

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sources, such as the Puranas (literally, “old , as well as parts of Bihar and Orissa writings”—an encyclopedic collection of Hindu in India. Its location between the middle Ganga legends, myths and genealogy), also indicate an Pains and the provided regu- eastward movement from the Indus Valley into the lar access to the Ganga basin in the west and the Ganga Valley and southward at least as far as the northeastern parts of India. Geography and human in central India. Due to integration activities in this deltaic area of the Ganga were of the two cultures, a social and political system largely shaped by the hydrography of this region. evolved in which the Aryans dominated, but vari- This is the only true Samudrahimachala region ous indigenous peoples and ideas were accommo- (stretching from the Himalayas to the sea) in the dated and absorbed. The transition from the entire Indian subcontinent. The Ganga Delta open- nomadic to the settled life, which began sometime ing out to the Bay of Bengal made the region the in the seventh millennium BC in the Ganga Val- only conduit of the landlocked Ganga Valley to ley, was largely the result of an economic revolu- the sea. These geographical features considerably tion based on the cultivation of certain food grains influenced movements of men and merchandise in like wheat, barley, and rice, and the domestication early Bengal. It is important to note that complex of animals like cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and buf- economic life in Bengal, including sedentary agri- falo. Further, the introduction of copper in about culture, diversified crafts and trade, growing trade, 3000 BC resulted in a spurt of development in and urban development did not emerge prior to the every walk of life and a significant increase in the fourth century BC, or before the emergence of the number and size of settlements. This has been . amply demonstrated in the excavation of more than three dozen sites in different parts of the Ganga Valley (Singh, 2010). Ancient institutions of higher learning The Gangetic Plain became the centre of suc- cessive powerful states, from the Maurya Empire The Indus and Ganga basins are also known for to the (Wink, 2002). The first as centres of higher learning. A comprehensive sur- European traveler to mention the Ganges was vey of in ancient India—of the amazing . He became an ambassador of Chan- oral tradition of India’s literary heritage and its dragupta Maurya in , India. Mega- impact on Indian life—is documented by Scharfe sthenes (ca. 350–290 BC) was also the author of (2002). Takshashila was flourishing at least several the book . In his book, he mentioned that centuries BC, and continued to attract students from India possesses many rivers both large and naviga- around the until the destruction of the city ble, which, having their sources in the mountains in the fifth century. At its height, Takshashila’s pri- that stretch along the northern frontier, traverse mary concern was not with elementary, but rather the level country, and not a few of these, after unit- higher education. The Vedas and the Eighteen Sil- ing with each other, fall into the river called the pas or Arts, which included skills such as archery, Ganges. hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to the institution’s law school, medical school, and school of science. Takshashila is perhaps Early trade and commerce in Bengal best known because of its association with Chana- kya, also known as Kautilya, the strategist who Bengal’s strategic location in the Ganga basin guided and assisted in the helped this area to achieve prosperity through founding of the Mauryan Empire. The trade and commerce from time immemorial. The ( for The Knowledge of Economics) of Ganges River system provided easy communica- is said to have been composed in Taksha- tion for internal trade and Bengal’s location on the shila itself. Vikramsila was another ancient Bud- Bay of Bengal offered her the opportunity of par- dhist university founded by Pala King Dharmapala ticipating in seaborne trade and commerce, the tra- in the late eighth or early ninth century AD in the dition of which seems to have been built up from vicinity of Ganga. It prospered for about four centu- as early as the second millennium BC. In the early ries before it was destroyed, along with the other period of history, Bengal was a territory that major centres of Buddhism in India around 1200 encompassed the present areas of Bangladesh and AD, during fighting between by Bakhtiyar Khilji

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and members of the . A description of Descent of Mother Ganga Vikramshila is available in the writings of Tarana- tha, the Tibetan monk historian of the sixteenth and There are several legends and common beliefs seventeenth centuries (Dutt, 1962). was associated with the descent of Mother Ganga. also an ancient centre of higher learning in the According to one legend, Mother Ganga is consid- Ganga basin. It was a Buddhist centre of learning ered to be the daughter of King Meru, who is the from the fifth or sixth century AD to 1197 AD. At personification of the Himalayas. Meru had two its peak, the university attracted scholars and stu- daughters—Ganga and Uma, the consort of Lord dents from as far away as , China, Greece, and . Another legend says that Ganga is the sacred Persia. water in ’s water pot. Lord Brahma washed the lotus feet of Lord and collected this water in his . Hence, Ganga is also Ganga in culture, religion and called“Vishnupadi.”Beingtouchedbytwomem- bers of the (Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh), mythology Ganga became very holy. According to the Purans, The cultural and religious significance of the Goddess Ganga used to exist only in . In Ganga is enormous. She is the centre of social and order to bring down the River Ganges from heaven religious tradition in the Indian subcontinent and for salvation for the souls of his ancestors who were particularly sacred in Hinduism (Adel, 2001). The cursed by a sage, King offered prayers very special faith and respect for River Ganga in to Lord Shiva and his prayers were granted. This is India are as old as the Indian culture itself, which is why Ganga is also known as Bhagirathi. Ganga is clearly evident from the descriptions in ancient also called Jahnavi for the penances of Sage . Indian scriptures such as the Vedas, Puranas, In Mahabharatha, she is portrayed as the wife of Upnishad, Ramayana and Mahabharata.TheVedas King as well as the mother of . were written earlier than Puranas,andtheRigveda is the oldest among all of the Vedas, composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BC. The Indus and Ganga: Pure and purifying the Sarasvati were considered as major sacred rivers during the Early Vedic Age of the .Ganga The River Ganga has been respected by fol- is mentioned in the Nadistuti (Rigveda 10.75), lowers of all religions in India. People also have which lists the rivers flowing from east to west. In immense faith in the powers of Ganga water in RV 6.45.31, there is clear mention of the word healing and regeneration. The Mughal emperor Ganga, while RV 3.58.6 says that “your ancient ’s preference for “the water of immortality” home, your auspicious friendship, O Heroes, your from Ganga for drinking and cooking is described wealth is on the banks of the Jahnavi.” at length in the Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl. Besides In RV 1.116.18–19, there is mention of Jahnavi using Ganga water for his own consumption, and the Gangetic in two adjacent verses. Emporer Akbar also ensured that only Ganga Later, three Vedas give much more importance to water was served to guests at weddings and special the Ganges (Thapar, 1971). This is in conformity festivals because of its soft and sweet taste. He with the shifting of civilization from the Indus to made sure he had a ready supply of Ganga water the Ganga Valley. In the Rig Veda the geographi- in his court and during his travels. The water cal focus was the Sapta-Sindhu (the Indus Valley would be collected from the river and sent in and the ) with Sarasvati as the sacred river, sealed jars to his fort at Agra or Fatehpur Sikri. but within a few centuries, Ganga became the The practice continued and expanded under sacred river. The mythology of Hindu tradition Akbar’s successors, even after the Mughal empire and the sacred topography of the land of India began its slow disintegration. Several other kings flow inseparably together. The Ganga is both god- and princes, including Maharaja of Jaipur, carried dess and river (Eck, 1998). In fact, the respect for Gangajal in massive urns for their own personal Ganga is a part of Indian identity and the very use and during travel (Ibaradio, 2007). symbol of Indian culture. Nothing else would According to , the Ganga qualify as a better symbol of the “Heritage of River came down to Earth from the , and India” than the Ganga. as such, the river symbolizes purification to

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millions of Hindus. They believe that the very paper published by E. Hanbury Hankin in the sight and touch of Ganga are so powerful that all French journal Annales de Institut Pasteur in 1896, the sins of many past births are destroyed, and tak- it is stated that the bacterium which causes the ing a dip in Ganga is a sure way to gain the devo- deadly disease could be killed within three tion of the Supreme Lord. It is a well-known hours of being treated with water from Ganga. Han- Hindu belief that dying at the banks of Ganga is kin also suggested that the water of this river and its way to reach heavenly abodes. It is due to this tributary Yamuna were responsible for containing belief that performed at the banks of the spread of cholera in the region in those days. River Ganga or floating the cremation ashes of the This unique factor present in Gangajal is now deceased in the river are common practices, and known to be a (Gurudev, 2008). In a Ganga (banks) of Varanasi and Hardwar are landmark judgment, the on the most popular funeral sites of the Hindus. 19 March accorded the status of “living human Gangajal or Ganga water is one of the important entities” to the Ganga and Yamuna, two of India’s ingredients in Vedic rituals. Gangajal is held so most sacred rivers (PTI, 20 March 2017). sacred and holy that no Hindu ever dares to dis- honor it and is obliged to speak truth if he holds the water. Many Hindus keep water from the Festivity and rituals Ganga in glass bottles as a sacred relic or for use in religious ceremonies. In Narada Purana,itis The Ganga basin is the centre of Hindu and declared that in the present Yuga of Kali, Ganga is Buddhist and culture and the site of of utmost importance and worship of Ganga is wide-ranging festivities and rituals. Several impor- sure path to salvation. For Hindus, the water flow- tant centres of spiritual learning have flourished ing in Ganga is “Gangajal,” not meant for mere for centuries along the Ganga’s banks and tributar- drinking, domestic use, irrigation, or fisheries and ies. At the headwaters of the Ganga in the Hima- hence not needing to meet any criteria or standards layas, sacred shrines at , Gomukh, set by WHO or MoEF (Agarwal, 2008). Ganga Bhojbasa, and Gangotri mark the sources of her water has often been observed to remain fresh for power. The shrines of and Badrinath long periods of time and her unique, natural char- also celebrate their position in the upper reaches acteristics have made her a fascinating subject of of the watershed. Farther downstream in the Hima- study for many scientific inquiries. The putrefac- layas are Uttarkashi and Rishikesh, and along the tion-resisting, selectively bactericidal qualities, and plains lie Haridwar, Rishikesh, Allahabad the capacity for speedy self-purification are some (Prayag), Banaras (Kashi), , Sonepur, unique qualities of Ganga water. These qualities Sultanpur, Nadia, Kalighat and Gangasagar. Sev- are not merely believed to be factual, but have eral sacred complexes are also located along the been personally experienced by most Indians and river Yamuna, including Mathura and Vrindavan. can be easily verified, quantified, and compared in spiritual centre of Vindyachal and the analytical laboratories. Unfortunately, very little Buddhist sites of , Gaya, Rajgir and scientific research has been carried out to test and Nalanda lye inland within the basin. On important verify the widely believed pollution-removing and holidays of the , millions of people self-cleansing powers of Gangajal, probably due to converge on the river at selected cities to pray and apprehensions that any findings supporting such bathe in the waters. People congregate in large beliefs shall go against “Modernity,” while a nega- numbers on occasions like Kumbh , Kartik tion might rock the foundational beliefs of the Purnima, Makar Sakranti, Chath , etc. Kumbh masses. Mela, the largest religious gathering on Earth, The British physician Dr. C. E. Nelson observed takes place once every 12 years at two places on and recorded that even samples taken from the the banks of the Ganga River. Over 10 million dirtiest sections of Ganga, remained fresh during people from around the globe congregate to take a the long journey back to England. The East holy dip in the Ganga. This is similar to the pil- India Company also preferred using Gangajal for grimage to Mecca for or Jerusalem for the three-month journey back to England in the Jews. In January 2007, over 60 million people company’s early days, as they found that the water made a pilgrimage to the city of Allahabad, mak- stayed “sweet and fresh” (Gurudev, 2008). In a ing it the largest gathering in the world.

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Ganga: Socioeconomic exceeded 104.7 billion m3 per year as of 2008 and significance accounted for nearly 50 percent of the groundwa- ter irrigated area of the entire country. Apart from The Ganga basin is one of the most populous irrigation, groundwater resources are also being regions on Earth, sustaining over 450 million peo- heavily tapped for industrial and domestic uses ple. The average population density in the Ganga covering both urban and rural areas (GOI, 2008). basin is 520 persons per square km, as compared Bangladesh, which is situated mainly on the del- to 312 for the rest of India (GOI, 2001). In the tas of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers, is highly delta zone, the population density rises to over 900 dependent upon the Ganges for its economy. Over people km¡2. The basin has 1949 cities and towns, 60% of the country’s total land area is cultivated. with an estimated population of 125 million. Con- Although half of the nation’s gross domestic prod- sequently, there is strong demand and competition uct comes from the services sector, about 63% of for natural resources, especially water for irriga- the economically active population subsists on tion, domestic consumption, industry, and a large agriculture. Bangladesh takes pride in being recog- number of vast and varied . To meet nized as a nation of fish and rice—“Mache Bhate the demand for water, the basin is also marked by Bengali.” Bumper harvests of rice from its fertile a large number of irrigation canals and barrages river basin and fish from its vast network of river along the Ganga and its tributaries. Fisheries along and floodplains help the people derive the river are of considerable economic value and their identity. Similarly, because of the richness of their output makes a major contribution to regional the land that takes on a golden hue when the rice nutritional needs, in addition to providing liveli- crop is ready for harvesting, the Land of the Royal hood to a large number of poor rural communities. and the fish (Hilsa) bring the country pride in being known as Sonar Bangla (Golden Bengal). The Ganga River carries the Agriculture and allied activities highest silt load of any river in the world and the deposition of this material in the delta region The Ganga basin, with its fertile soil, is the enriches the forests of the Gangetic delta major contributor to the agricultural economies of known as Sundarban. The Sundarban is the world’s India and Bangladesh. The Ganga and its tributar- largest remaining contiguous, biodiversity-rich ies have formed a large flat and fertile plain in mangrove ecosystem featuring habitats for fish, extending over an area of shrimp, birds, and other wildlife, including the 1,086,000 km (Jain et al., 2007). The fertile allu- Bengal tiger. The forest also has immense protec- vial soil not only covers more than 52% of the tive and productive functions. Constituting 51% of basin, but also extends over a sizable portion of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh, the the peninsular foreland. The nutrient-rich alluvial mangrove ecosystem contributes about 41% of formation has yielded annual harvests of crops for total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of the past thousands of years with little significant all timber and fuel wood output of the country deterioration. The river and its tributaries provide (Walkey et al, 1999). A number of industries (e.g., a perennial source of irrigation for cultivation of newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat rice, wheat, , , oil seeds, and pota- building, furniture making) are based on the raw toes. The presence of and lakes along the material obtained from the Sundarban ecosystem. banks of the river provide a rich growing area for Various non-timber forest products and plantations crops such as legumes, chilies, mustard, sesame, help generate considerable employment and vegetables, and jute. The basin is one of the most income-generation opportunities for at least half a extensively irrigated areas in the world. As of million poor coastal population. Besides the for- 2008, the net irrigated area in the states comprising est’s production functions, it provides natural pro- the Ganga basin was some 361,100 km2, constitut- tection for life and property of the coastal ing over 57% of the net irrigated area of India as a population in cyclone-prone Bangladesh. In 1987, whole (GOI, 2008). The basin also has a vast res- the Sundarban National Park in India, and in 1997, ervoir of groundwater, which is replenished every parts of the Sundarban in Bangladesh, were year at a very high rate. The groundwater usage inscribed on the World Heritage list (IUCN, 1997) for irrigation in the states in the Ganga basin and thereafter have received more attention.

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Fisheries seenghala, Eutropichthys vacha and Rita rita spe- cifically at Allahabad. Hilsa is the traditional com- A comprehensive study of the fisheries of the ponent of the Bangladesh fisheries, with the recent Ganga River basin was conducted by MRAG in fish production trends showing a contribution of 1996, and is still largely valid even today. Fisher- about 30% to the total fish production of Bangla- ies and aquaculture are major activities along the desh. About 40% of fishermen (or 2% of the total Ganges River, its tributaries, and distributaries, as population of the country) depend on Hilsa fishery well as in the delta region. The social and eco- directly or indirectly. Therefore, the economic con- nomic structure of the fisheries is strongly influ- tribution of this single species is highly significant enced by culture, faith, and tradition within the in the agricultural-based country of Bangladesh. basin. Interestingly, socioreligious pressures influ- During the mid-1990s, Hilsa contributed 40–60% ence access to and participation in the local fisher- of river catches in Bangladesh, 1% at and ies. Vegetarianism in the Hindu faith influence 0.6% at Allahabad. Spawn and fry collection of fishing and allied activities. By contrast, the Carp is now limited to certain patches only. people of Bengal in the delta—both east Bengal A socioeconomic study at Allahabad showed (Bangladesh) and West Bengal (India)—are that almost 90% of fishers owned or had access to renowned eaters of fish and provides the a boat, which is not necessarily the case in other biggest market. In Bengal, the demand for fish is types of floodplains. Investment cost can limit widespread and markets are much more diffuse. access. Gill nets and seine nets constituted the There are also considerable social restrictions as to most common fishing gear, and more than 50% of who should participate in the fisheries. Within the fishers were full-time. Average catches for India and Bangladesh, it is caste fishermen who do boat users were 12.05 kg per day (MRAG, 1996). the fishing. The same is also true in Nepal, A policy paper prepared by CIFRI in 2007 indi- although divisions are less distinct. In Bangladesh, cated some disturbing trends in the riverine sector. the Muslim majority traditionally do not fish and The total average fish landing in the Ganga River leave this activity to sectors of the residual Hindu system declined from 85.21 t during 1959 to 62.48 population. However, rising population pressure t during 2004. This contrasts sharply with the rest forces many rural dwellers, including Muslims, to of the country, since India’s inland fish yield went resort to fishing to feed their families (MRAG, up by eight times in the last four decades. Tradi- 1996). tional riverine fisherfolk are badly impacted by Fishing occurs in the upland regions of both this decrease. CIFRI carried out a study on the sta- India and Nepal, wherever markets exist. Markets tus of fishers along the Ganga, which showed that depend upon local centres of population or where on an average, fishers spent 66% on food and 34% roads cross or run alongside rivers. The torrential on non-food items. The major food item of the nature of most rivers in the upland region makes expenditure was cereals (37%), followed by vege- fishing very difficult and has led to considerable tables (7%). Among non-food items, the highest ingenuity in the development of fishing methods. expenses were medical (9%), followed by intoxi- There is a clear trend for fishermen from lowland cants (8%). Several other limitations also contrib- areas of the marshy, lowland belt of both India ute to the current neglect of the river. The Census and Nepal to move into the upland fisheries. This of India does not have clear classification of the appears to be due to increasing pressures on the riverine fisherfolk. A large chunk of the 387 com- lowland fisheries. Immigrant fishermen are usually munities of fisherfolk, which the Anthropological full-time professionals and can dominate a fishery. Survey of India has identified, is involved in Major Carp species are the most commonly caught, inland fishing (Das et al., 2007). however they represent a relatively small contribu- tion to the overall annual catch, being 13% at Allahabad, 4% at Patna, and 7% in Bangladesh. River-based navigation and transport The first two values are substantially less than in system earlier years. The most abundant species in the fisheries are the smaller riverine species, including The large number of rivers and the annual Clupisomagarua, Oxygaster spp., S. phasa and flooding hazard make it difficult to build and A. aor in the general upland regions, and Mystus maintain adequate land-based transportation

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facilities in Bangladesh and parts of India like occupied by the two great river systems—the Bihar, Bengal, and Assam. Consequently, river- Ganga and the Indus–Sarasvati—in the develop- based waterways are the important means of trans- ment of Indian civilization. The great kingdoms of portation of goods and people. There are five main Magadha, Gupta and the Mughals found their river ports in Bangladesh—, , home in the Ganga basin. It was also the place Chandpur, Barisal and Khulna. The inland water which created the essence of Hinduism, system has 8,372 km of navigable waterways, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. However, despite including 2,575 km of main cargo routes. Simi- its iconic status, religious and cultural heritage, larly, river-based transport for people and goods and huge socioeconomic benefits, Ganga today is are also common in eastern parts of UP, Bihar, facing formidable pollution pressures and associ- West Bengal and Assam. ated threats to its biodiversity and environmental sustainability. An ever-growing population, inadequately planned urbanization, and industriali- Tourism zation have affected flow, volume, and quality of water in the river, resulting in a growing threat to tourism to holy places (-)is fisheries and aquatic biodiversity. All these exhibit an ancient and continuing religious tradition of the the dynamics of the nexus of water, land, and culture of Hindus. In recent times, tourism has poverty in the present state of the Indo-Ganges become an engine for economic development and (IG) basin. Considering and treating Ganga as the plays a large part in socioeconomic changes. The “Heritage of India” is the only way to preserve important forms of tourism in the basin include and protect the river for future generations. religious, heritage, adventure, sports, and ecosys- tem-based tourism. There are a number of towns, cities, and spots which are holy to Hindus, Bud- References dhists, Jainists and Sikhs. Hindu arrive at these towns to take a dip in the Ganges, which is Adel, M.M., 2001. Effect on Water Resources from Upstream Water Diversion in the Ganges Basin. J. Environ. Qual. 30, believed to cleanse a person of sins and help attain 356–368. salvation. Similarly, Budhists from around the Agarwal, G.D., 2008. A Critique of Hydroelectric Projects on world come to visit places like Bodhgaya, Rajgir, River Bhagirathi. [Web log] Retrieved from http://tapasya- , Sarnath, Patna and Kushinagar. Jainists bhagirathi.blogspot.ca/2008/05/critique-of-hydroelectric- and Sikhs visit Pawapuri and Patna Saeb, respec- projects-on.html (Accessed May 17, 2008). tively. Religious tourism has a distinct edge over Bhadula, S. and Joshi, B.D., 2012. Studies on phytoplanktonic diversity of river Ganga within Haridwar city, Uttarakhand. other kinds of tourism due to the pull of huge Jour. Env. BioSci. 26(1), 139–142. crowds (Chattopadhyay, 2006) and generates reve- Bilgrami, K.S., 1991. The Living Ganga. Narendra Publishing nue in a way no other kind of tourism does. The House, . rapids of the Ganges are also a popular river raft- Bilgrami, K.S. and Datta Munshi, J.S., 1979. In Limnological ing area, attracting hundreds of adventure seekers survey and impact of human activates on the river Ganges, in the summer months. Adventure tourism, such as Technical report MAB. Project – 5 (UNESCO), P.G. riverside camping, whitewater rafting, and kayak- Departments of Botany and Zoology, University. Chattopadhyay, M., 2006. Religious Tourism-An Introduction. ing on the River Ganga in the state of Uttarakhand, The ICFAI University Press, Hyderabad, India. is fast becoming the one of most popular forms of CIFRI, 2008. Annual Report for the year 2007. CIFRI, Barrak- tourism in the area with the influx of young people pore, India. and sports lovers (Farooqee et al., 2008). Images Conservation International, 2008. Biological diversity in the of such activities are also increasingly used for Himalayas. August 22. http://www.biodiversityhotspots. advertising in both print and electronic media. org/xp/hotspots/himalaya/Pages/biodiversity Das, M. K., Samanta, S, and Saha, P.K., 2007. Riverine Health and Impact on Fisheries in India; Policy Paper No. 01; Cen- tral Inland Fisheries Research Institute, , India. Conclusions Dutt, S., 1962. Buddhist Monks And Monasteries Of India: Despite the centrality of rivers to Indian history, Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London. hardly any attempt has been made to construct an Eck, D.L., 1998. Ganga: The Goddess Ganges in Hindu Sacred account of how Indian culture was shaped by its Geography. In: J. S. Hawley, D.M. Wulff (Eds.), Devı: rivers. However, many are familiar with the place Goddesses of India, Berkeley and Los Angeles, pp. 137–

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