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Sample Chapter Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 Contents Figures xiii Reason 30 Boxes xiv Justice 32 Preface to the sixth edition xvii Toleration 33 Acknowledgements xix Liberalism, government and democracy 34 1 Political Ideologies and Why Th e liberal state 34 They Matter 1 Constitutionalism 36 Liberal democracy 39 Preview 1 Classical liberalism 42 Th e role of ideas 2 Natural rights 43 Views of ideology 3 Utilitarianism 45 Marxist views 5 Economic liberalism 45 Non-Marxist views 7 Social Darwinism 48 Contours of ideology 10 Modern liberalism 48 Fusing understanding and Individuality 49 commitment 11 Positive freedom 50 Fusing thought and action 12 Social liberalism 51 Ideology, truth and power 14 Economic management 54 Left and right 15 Liberalism in a global age 56 New ideologies for old? 17 Questions for discussion 61 Using this book 21 Further reading 61 Questions for discussion 23 Further reading 23 3 Conservatism 62 2 Liberalism 24 Preview 62 Preview 24 Origins and development 63 Origins and development 25 Core themes: the desire to Core themes: the primacy conserve 64 of the individual 26 Tradition 65 Individualism 27 Human imperfection 67 Freedom 28 Organic society 69 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 x CONTENTS Hierarchy and authority 70 Neo-revisionism and the Property 72 ‘third way’ 130 Authoritarian conservatism 74 Socialism in a global age 133 Paternalistic conservatism 75 Questions for discussion 136 One Nation conservatism 76 Further reading 136 Libertarian conservatism 78 Christian democracy 80 5 Anarchism 137 Social market economy 81 Federalism 82 Preview 137 New Right 82 Origins and development 138 Neoliberalism 83 Core themes: against Neoconservatism 88 statist politics 139 Conservatism in a global age 91 Anti-statism 140 Questions for discussion 94 Natural order 143 Further reading 94 Anti-clericalism 144 Economic freedom 145 4 Socialism 95 Collectivist anarchism 146 Mutualism 148 Preview 95 Anarcho-syndicalism 148 Origins and development 96 Anarcho-communism 150 Core themes: no man is Individualist anarchism 151 an island 98 Egoism 154 Community 98 Libertarianism 154 Cooperation 100 Anarcho-capitalism 155 Equality 101 Roads to anarchy 157 Class politics 103 Revolutionary violence 157 Common ownership 105 Direct action 158 Roads to socialism 107 Anarcho-pacifism 159 Revolutionary socialism 108 Anarchism in a global age 160 Evolutionary socialism 110 Questions for discussion 162 The inevitability of Further reading 162 gradualism? 111 Communism 114 6 Nationalism 163 Classical Marxism 115 Orthodox communism 119 Preview 163 Neo-Marxism 121 Origins and development 164 The death of Marxism? 122 Core themes: for the love Social democracy 123 of country 167 Ethical socialism 124 The nation 168 Revisionist socialism 126 Organic community 171 The crisis of social Self-determination 172 democracy 129 Culturalism 174 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 CONTENTS xi Types of nationalism 176 Types of feminism 230 Liberal nationalism 177 Liberal feminism 231 Conservative nationalism 180 Socialist feminism 233 Expansionist nationalism 182 Radical feminism 235 Anti-colonial and Developments in modern postcolonial nationalism 187 feminism 240 Nationalism in a global age 190 Feminism in a global age 242 Questions for discussion 193 Questions for discussion 244 Further reading 193 Further reading 244 7 Fascism 194 9 Green Ideology 245 Preview 194 Preview 245 Origins and development 195 Origins and development 246 Core themes: strength Core themes: return to nature 247 through unity 196 Ecology 248 Anti-rationalism 197 Holism 251 Struggle 199 Sustainability 254 Leadership and elitism 200 Environmental ethics 257 Socialism 202 From having to being 258 Ultranationalism 203 Types of green ideology 260 Fascism and the state 204 Modernist ecology 260 The totalitarian ideal 205 Social ecology 263 Corporatism 207 Deep ecology 268 Modernization 208 Green ideology in a global age 270 Fascism and racism 209 Questions for discussion 273 The politics of race 209 Further reading 273 Nazi race theories 211 Peasant ideology 215 10 Multiculturalism 274 Fascism in a global age 216 Questions for discussion 218 Preview 274 Further reading 218 Origins and development 275 Core themes: diversity 8 Feminism 219 within unity 276 Politics of recognition 277 Preview 219 Culture and identity 280 Origins and development 220 Minority rights 283 Core themes: the politics Diversity 285 of the personal 222 Types of multiculturalism 286 Redefining ‘the political’ 222 Liberal multiculturalism 287 Patriarchy 224 Pluralist multiculturalism 287 Sex and gender 225 Cosmopolitan Equality and difference 229 multiculturalism 291 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 xii CONTENTS Critiques of Shia Islamism 318 multiculturalism 294 ‘Moderate’ or ‘conservative’ Multiculturalism in a global Islamism 320 age 297 Islamism in a global age 321 Questions for discussion 298 Questions for discussion 323 Further reading 298 Further reading 323 11 Islamism 299 12 Ideology Without End? 324 Preview 299 Preview 324 Origins and development 300 Endism 325 Core themes: religion as End of ideology? 325 ideology 304 End of history? 325 Fundamentalism and Beyond left and right? 327 modernity 305 Triumph of reason? 328 Islamism and Islam 307 Th e resilience of ideology 330 Revolt against the West 309 Questions for discussion 332 Th e Islamic state 311 Further reading 332 Jihadism 313 Types of Islamism 315 Bibliography 333 Sunni Islamism 316 Index 348 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 CHAPTER Political 1 Ideologies and Why They Matter Preview 1 Preview ll people are political thinkers. Whether they know it or The role of ideas 2 Anot, people use political ideas and concepts whenever Views of ideology 3 they express their opinion or speak their mind. Everyday language is littered with terms such as ‘freedom’, ‘fair- Contours of ideology 10 ness’, ‘equality’, ‘justice’ and ‘rights’. In the same way, Ideology, truth and words such as ‘conservative’, ‘liberal’, ‘socialist’, ‘commu- power 14 nist’ and ‘fascist’ are regularly employed by people either to describe their own views, or those of others. However, Left and right 15 even though such terms are familiar, even commonplace, New ideologies for old? 17 they are seldom used with any precision or a clear grasp of their meaning. What, for instance, is ‘equality’? What Using this book 21 does it mean to say that all people are equal? Are people Questions for discussion 23 born equal; should they be treated by society as if they are equal? Should people have equal rights, equal oppor- Further reading 23 tunities, equal political infl uence, equal wages? Similarly, words such as ‘socialist’ or ‘fascist’ are commonly mis- used. What does it mean to call someone a ‘fascist’? What values or beliefs do fascists hold, and why do they hold them? How do socialist views differ from those of, say, liberals, conservatives or anarchists? This book examines the substantive ideas and beliefs of the major political ideologies. This introductory chapter refl ects on the nature of political ideology. It does so by exam- ining the role of ideas in politics, the life and (sometimes convoluted) times of the concept of ideology, the structure of ideological thought, the extent to which ideologies conform to a left/right divide, and the changing landscape of political ideologies. In the process, it discusses issues such as why and when a body of political thought should be classifi ed as an ideology (as well as what this implies) and whether there is evidence that so-called ‘new’ ideologies are in the process of displacing the ‘classical’ ideologies of old. The notion of the end of ideology is examined in Chapter 12. Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 Copyrighted material – 9781137606013 2 CHAPTER 1 The role of ideas Not all political thinkers have accepted that ideas and ideologies are of much importance. Politics has sometimes been thought to be little more than a naked struggle for power. If this is true, political ideas are mere propaganda, a form of words or collection of slogans designed to win votes or attract popular support. Ideas and ideologies are therefore simply ‘window dressing’, used to conceal the deeper realities of political life. The opposite argument has also been put, however. The UK economist John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946), for example, argued that the world is ruled by little other than the ideas of economic theorists and political philosophers. As he put it in the closing pages of his General Theory: Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellec- tual influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct economist. Madmen in authority, who hear voices in the air, are distilling their frenzy from some academic scribbler of a few years back. (Keynes [1936] 1963) This position highlights the degree to which beliefs and theories provide the wellspring of human action. The world is ultimately ruled by ‘academic scribblers’. Such a view suggests, for instance, that modern capitalism (see p. 97) developed, in important respects, out of the classical economics of Adam Smith (see p. 52) and David Ricardo (1772–1823), that Soviet communism was shaped significantly by the writing of Karl Marx (see p. 124) and V. I. Lenin (see p. 124), and that the history of Nazi Germany can only be understood by reference to the doctrines advanced in Adolf Hitler’s
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