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Univerza V Ljubljani Fakulteta Za Družbene Vede UNIVERZA V LJUBLJANI FAKULTETA ZA DRUŽBENE VEDE Matjaž Šušteršič Mentor: red. prof. dr. Bojko Bučar Somentor: izr. prof. dr. Mitja Saje VPLIV AMERIŠKE ZUNANJE POLITIKE NA TIBETANSKO UPORNIŠKO GIBANJE Magistrsko delo Ljubljana, 2007 2 KAZALO UVOD .............................................................................................................................. 7 1. ZGODOVINA TIBETA ........................................................................................... 12 1.1. HEROJSKO OBDOBJE VERSKIH KRALJEV ................................................................ 12 1.2. VLADAVINA MONGOLOV IN REDA SAKYA ............................................................ 14 1.2.1. Ustanovitev dinastije Yuan in njene posledice ............................................. 15 1.3. KRATKO OBDOBJE MIRU ........................................................................................ 16 1.4. DALAJLAME, MONGOLSKA PLEMENA IN DINASTIJA QING ...................................... 17 1.5. POJAV AMBANOV IN PONOVNI SPOPADI S TUJIMI SILAMI ....................................... 19 1.6. SINO-TIBETANSKI ODNOS V 19. STOLETJU ............................................................. 22 1.7. V IGRO VSTOPI BRITANSKI IMPERIJ ........................................................................ 23 1.7.1. Younghusbandova misija in njene posledice ................................................ 24 1.8. RAZGLASITEV NEODVISNOSTI TIBETA .................................................................. 26 1.9. NADALJNJI ODMIK OD REPUBLIKE KITAJSKE ........................................................ 28 1.10. ZUNANJEPOLITIČNO ISKANJE PRIZNANJA NEODVISNOSTI .................................... 30 2. TIBETANSKO-AMERIŠKI ODNOSI DO LETA 1950 ....................................... 31 2.1. ZGODNJA AMERIŠKA POLITIKA NAPRAM TIBETU ................................................... 32 2.1.1. Ozadje ameriške politike napram Tibetu ...................................................... 32 2.1.2. Prvi konkretni stiki med ZDA in Tibetom ..................................................... 34 2.2. ZGODNJI TIBETANSKI INTERESI NAPRAM ZDA ...................................................... 37 2.3. NASTANEK LR KITAJSKE IN PRIČAKOVANJA V TIBETU ......................................... 38 3. ROJSTVO IN RAST UPORNIŠKEGA DUHÁ (1950-56) .................................... 39 3.1. TRIKOTNIK VELESIL .............................................................................................. 39 3.2. PRIPRAVE NA ZASEDBO VZHODNOTIBETANSKIH PROVINC AMDO IN KHAM ........... 40 3.2.1. Pomen korejske vojne ................................................................................... 41 3.3. ZASEDBA KHAMA, ROJSTVO UPORNIŠKEGA DUHÁ IN PRVI UPORI V TIBETU .......... 43 3.3.1. Tibetanska armada ....................................................................................... 43 3.3.1.1. Obramba Khama ................................................................................... 44 3.3.2. Odziv ZDA in mednarodne skupnosti ........................................................... 46 3.3.3. Razmere v osrednjem Tibetu ......................................................................... 48 3.3.3.1. Podpis 17-točkovnega sporazuma in odziv ZDA ................................... 48 3.3.3.2. Zasedba osrednjega Tibeta in pojav ljudskih gibanj ............................. 51 3.3.4. Prvi lokalni upori v vzhodnem Tibetu ........................................................... 53 3 3.3.4.1. Družina Pandatsang in zametki uporov ................................................ 54 3.3.4.2. Reforme sprožijo prve upore ................................................................. 55 3.3.4.3. Upor v Kandingu/Dartsedu ................................................................... 57 3.3.4.4. Iskanje pomoči v tujini ........................................................................... 58 3.3.5. Mimang Tsongdu in rast uporniškega duhá v osrednjem Tibetu ................. 61 4. OBDOBJE INTENZIVNEGA SODELOVANJA (1957-66) ................................. 64 4.1. OBDOBJE OD 1957 DO 1961 .................................................................................. 64 4.1.1. Vzpostavitev tajnih komunikacijskih kanalov ............................................... 64 4.1.1.1. Thubten Jigme Norbu ............................................................................ 65 4.1.1.2. Gyalo Thondup ...................................................................................... 66 4.1.2. Organiziranje uporniških aktivnosti zunaj in znotraj Tibeta ........................ 67 4.1.2.1. Saipanska skupina – ST Circus ............................................................. 68 4.1.2.1.1. Dalajlamov obisk Indije .................................................................. 68 4.1.2.1.2. Izbor pilotne skupine na pobudo CIA in pojav Andrutsangov ....... 69 4.1.2.1.3. Usposabljanje in ST-Barnum .......................................................... 73 4.1.2.2. Vpliv razmer na mednarodnem političnem prizorišču .......................... 75 4.1.2.3. Organiziranje upornikov v enotno gibanje ............................................ 77 4.1.2.3.1. Razmere v osrednjem Tibetu in Khamu ......................................... 77 4.1.2.3.2. Pomen zlatega prestola ................................................................... 78 4.1.2.3.3. Ustanovitev NPOA ......................................................................... 79 4.1.3. Začetne aktivnosti NPOA in pomoč CIA ...................................................... 81 4.1.3.1. Problem pomanjkljive oborožitve .......................................................... 81 4.1.3.2. Selitev proti Khamu in prve bitke NPOA ............................................... 84 4.1.3.3. Usposabljanje prvih gverilcev v ZDA .................................................... 86 4.1.4. Prelomni dogodki v marcu 1959 .................................................................. 88 4.1.4.1. Pobeg dalajlame in izbruh nasilja v Lhasi ............................................ 88 4.1.4.2. Ofenziva LOA in beg NPOA .................................................................. 91 4.1.5. Politične aktivnosti v Indiji ........................................................................... 92 4.1.6. Nove oblike upora ......................................................................................... 94 4.1.6.1. CIA na prelomnici ................................................................................. 94 4.1.6.2. Ponovna pomoč upornikom ................................................................... 96 4.1.6.3. Poskus ponovne vzpostavitve gibanja znotraj Tibeta ............................ 98 4.1.6.4. Leto mirovanja ....................................................................................... 99 4.1.6.5. Neuspešna operacija Markham ........................................................... 103 4.1.7. Organiziranje uporniških aktivnosti zunaj Tibeta ...................................... 104 4 4.1.7.1. Operacija Mustang .............................................................................. 104 4.1.7.1.1. Tibetanska zaplemba dokumentov ............................................... 107 4.1.7.2. Črni oblaki nad TTF konec leta 1961 .................................................. 109 4.2. OBDOBJE OD 1962 DO 1966 ................................................................................ 110 4.2.1. Indijsko-kitajska vojna in njene posledice .................................................. 111 4.2.1.1. Napad LOA na sporni obmejni območji .............................................. 112 4.2.1.2. Ustanovitev Special Frontier Force (SFF) .......................................... 113 4.2.1.3. Ameriška pomoč Indiji in iskanje nove vloge tibetanskih upornikov .. 113 4.2.2. Vzpostavitev trisa vzporednih operacij ....................................................... 115 4.2.2.1. Operacija Vzpostavitev uporniškega gibanja znotraj Tibeta .............. 116 4.2.2.2. Skupni operacijski center ..................................................................... 117 4.2.2.3. SFF postane Operacija Establishment 22 ........................................... 118 4.2.2.4. Nadaljevanje operacije Mustang ......................................................... 119 4.2.3. Črni oblaki nad operacijami ....................................................................... 120 4.2.3.1. Dokumentarni film Raid into Tibet in zapleti v Mustangu .................. 123 4.2.3.2. Usode posamičnih ekip ........................................................................ 124 4.2.3.4. Odmikanje ZDA od tibetanskih operacij ............................................. 126 4.2.3.5. Velika proletarska kulturna revolucija ................................................ 128 5. ZATON UPORNIŠKEGA GIBANJA (1967-74) ................................................. 129 5.1. JOHNSONOVO NAPORNO LETO ............................................................................. 129 5.2. OPERACIJA RED STONE IN ZBIRANJE PODATKOV ................................................. 131 5.3. POVRATEK WANGDU GYATOTSANGA ................................................................. 133 5.4. ZDA V V NOVI SMERI – UMIK PODPORE TIBETANCEM ......................................... 134 5.4.1. Novi predsednik Nixon ................................................................................ 134 5.4.2. Ameriški umik iz Mustanga ........................................................................
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