National Library Bibliothèque nationale 1*1 of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant a la National Lïbrary of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distriiute or sell reproduire, prêter, distibuer ou copies of this thesis in microfom, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la fome de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fkom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or othenivise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. ABSTRACT Child labours constituted a visible and important element of the urban landscape in late 19th centuq Saint John, New Brunswick. Hundreds of children found employment selling newspapers, taking in sewing. driving teams or working in one of the cityfs numerous factories or retail establishments. Working-class boys and girls went to work because their families needed their earnings to make ends meet and because employers required a cheap and productive workforce. The visibility of urban child labourers and their harsh working conditions attracted the attention of local progressive-minded reformers. These men and women endorsed a collectivist philosophy which downplayed individual rights and stressed the need for state intervention in the private sphere to improve social conditions. Among them were the trade unionist Peter C. Sharkey, the businessman W. Franklin Hatheway and the woman's rights activist Enma S. Fiske who respectively represented the Saint John Trades and Labour Council, the Fabian League and the Local Council of Women. Their combined and persistent pressure upon the provincial government headed by Premier Lemuel J. Tweedie and Attorney- General William Pugsley was largely responsible for the enactment of the Factories Act in 1905. Although the legislation fel1 short of the ref ormers ' obj ectives the Factories Act of 1905 constituted the basis for child labour and occupational health and saf ety laws in the province. By securing the passage of this and other social legislation the reformers succeeded in forcing the New Brunswick government to take at least partial responsibility for its citizens' welfare. In this, they contributed to the construction of the welfare state in early 20th century Canada. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAETER ONE: Child Labour in Saint John, 1880-1905 ...................18 CHAPTER TWO: The Saint John Refomers and the Origins of the Campaign for Child Factory Legislation, 1890-1904................ 80 CHAPTER THRF.E: Progressivism and Politics: The Making of the New Brunswick Factory Act, 1904-1905 ..............-151 SELECTED BIBLIOGWHY .................................-229 Abbreviat ions AFL American Federation of Labor NCW The National Council of Women of Canada NBM New Brunswick Museum PANB Provincial Archives of New Bmswick PANS Public Archives of Nova Scotia CIHM Canadian Institute for Historicai Microreproductions SPCA Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals TLC Trades and Labor Congress of Canada WCTU Wornen's Christian Temperance Union wF.A Womenfs Enfranchisement Association YMCA Young Men's Christian Association YWCA Young Women's Christian Association List of Tables Table One Industries in Saint John City and County Employing Children in 1881 and 1891 .,.,-,.,,.....--e--.-.39 Acknowledgements The preparation of a thesis is a three-part process . The candidate begins with a topic or a question. Next, that subject is thoroughly investigated. Lastly, writing and editing skills are engaged to produce a manuscript. Fortunately, 1 have encouitered a number of people through- out the course of my studies whose encouragement, guidance and assistance have enabled me to pass successfully through each stage of this process. First and foremost I wish to thank the members of my family for seeing me through this project from begiming to end. Their encouragement and support has been invaluable, particularly during the moments when the ultimate goal faded f rom view. During my undergraduate and graduate days at the University of New Brunswick, mernbers of the Department of History have offered their guidance and support. 1 would especially like to thank Professors Bill Acheson, Ernest Forbes, Gary Waite, Beverley Lemire and Gai1 Campbell for advising me as 1 pursued various projects and honed research and writing skills. This thesis began as a gleam in the eye of an enthusiastic third-year undergraduate and was initially formulated with advice from her equally enthusi- astic professor, Ernest Forbes. 1 am indebted to him for encouraging me to investigate the subject of child factory labour legislation and for instilling within me an interest vii in the late 19th century reform movement. This study combines both areas of research. Researching has been a delight owing in large measure to assistance received from members of archival and library staffs. A special thank you is extended to the New Brunswick Museum Archives team for making my research trips to Saint John both enjoyable and productive. Likewise, the professional help and guidance rendered by the staffs of the Provincial Archives of New Brunswick and University of New Brunswick Archives (Harriet Irving Library) made this researcher's task easier. 1 also owe a debt of gratitude to Sylvia Guidry of the Harriet Irving Library, Microfilms/ Microforma Department. Sylvia often went above and beyond the cal1 of duty to assist me as 1 "reeledn my way through numerous editions of newspapers. I am sincerely grateful to everyone , As thesis writers know, preparing a manuscript is a challenge. To my supervisor, David Frank, 1 offer a special thank you for exercising his fine editorial skills on the various drafts of this t-ext. Eric Tucker and Eugene Derenyi contributed to the end product by tracking dom the elusive New Zealand factory laws, and David Bell agreed willingly to review my interpretations of provincial statutes. The comments, suggestions and encouragement offered by colleagues and friends contributed greatly to the successful completion of this thesis. My hope is that the end result viii is worthy of our combined efforts. Introduction During the second half of the 19th centuq North American society underwent rapid economic and social change as a consequence of industrialization and urbanization. Urban residents, concerned about the growth of slums, unsafe working conditions, child labour and the perceived rise in crime, disease, child and wif e abuse, prostitution, intemperance and juvenile delinquency, unfurled the reform banner and marched together to solve these pressing social problems. A sense of Christian duty motivated many to take up reform causes. Drawing upon ideas expressed by religious leaders, scientists, urban sociologists and socialistic thinkers, and imbued with optimisrn and a sense of urgency, progressive reformers campaigned for compulsory education, temperance legislation, factory laws, woman's suffrage, health and safety standards, reformatories and playgrounds among other reforms. Urban professionals, businessmen, clergymen, middle class women, labour leaders and politicians formed the core of the movement. Not surprisingly, many reform-minded individuals supported several causes since their ultimate goal was the transformation of society. Women took a prominent role in the movement, particularly in the areas of temperance, child welfare, health, education, social purity and suffrage. Many women argued that they needed the franchise so they might vote for leaders who would effect social change. Other suffragists argued that as citizens women should have the right to vote on an equal basis with men. Those women who adopted the laeter position could also be found among the ranks of social activists who pressed for moral, social and labour reforms. Progressives shared the belief that the unsavoury urban environment and, conse- quently, urban society could be altered for the better and that legislation held the key to social improvement. Since children represented hope for the future, often refomers concentrated their efforts upon improving the lives of the nation's youngest citizens.' For decades, American and Canadian scholars have examined and debated various aspects of the progressive reform movement which commenced in the second half of the 19th century and waned about the end of the First World War, Robert Wiebe identified its leaders as members of a "new middle class comprised primarily of urban prof essionals . For an early discussion of this point see: Harold Underwood Faulkner, The Ouest for Social Justice 1898-1914 (1931; New York: MacMillan, 1939), Chapter 8. See also: Veronica Strong-Boag, The Parliament of Women: The National Council of Women of Canada 1893-1929 (Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1976); Andrew Jones and Leonard Rutman, In the Children's Aid: J, J. Kelso and Child Welfare in Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981) and Neil Sutherland, Children in Enslish-Canadian Society: Framina the Tweatieth-Centurv Consensus