International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications ISSN: 2456-9992

Floor-Type Characterization, Temperature And Humidity Tolerance For Infestation In Igbokoda, Ondo State, Nigeria.

Victor. N Enwemiwe

Delta State University, Department of and Environmental Biology, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria. PH-2347031882676 [email protected]

Abstract: Tunga penetrans, the jigger is causal agent of the skin inflammatory disease so-called tungiasis which is considered common with unhygienic, poor and indigent residents of communities in the world. This study illustrates the various floor type characteristics and designated key environmental factors that buoy up infestations in endemic foci. Sand were sampled using a clean white cloth laid on floors of house and verandas and environmental variables determined using EOSUN electronic device for temperature cum relative humidity measures. Result divulge that majority of the fleas were obtained from inside house of Zion (36 fleas) and verandas of Kofawe (29 fleas). Inside the house of the various locations, unpaved floor types accounted for 52.8% and 70% of the sampled fleas in Zion and Kofawe respectively and 50% of the sampled in both paved and paved floors with cracks in Laranda while in verandas, 36.7% and 62.1% of the sampled fleas were from unpaved floor types in Zion and Kofawe and 54.2% of the fleas recorded in paved floors with cracks in Laranda. Temperature ranges of 28.00C-35.60C and relative humidity ranges of 50.0%-88% were reported for this study. Since the various floor-type characteristics and selected environmental conditions are optimum for flea population growth, targeting the temperature and relative humidity tolerance level through manipulation for species and paving the unpaved and amending the paved with cracks floor types is recommended to discourage infestations.

Keywords: Floor-type characterization, temperature, humidity tolerance, Tunga penetrans and Igbokoda

1. Introduction Tungiasis is an ectodermal skin membrane parasitosis a requirement for female flea completion of ovarian cycle common within the scope of exposed bodily parts in contact and once completed, eggs are released prolifically through with infected soil. Infected soil could be in unpaved houses, uncovered keratin by evacuated stools on the host epidermal paved houses with cracks, and even untarred streets where surface which slides down the surrounding when contacted residents move with unprotected feet. The penetration of with soil (Bitam et al., 2010; Pampiglione et al., 2009; female sand flea into the exposed skin cause the disease Veraldi et al., 2013). that bath and bask during tungiasis. The attack of Tunga penetrans has long been warm periods especially chickens pigs, dogs, goats and cats known to cause many pathognomonic problems among are at high risk of infestation serving as animal reservoir of residents of poor and indigent territories rendering them T. penetrans infestations but pigs were reported and disable and even visiting tourists to endemic areas are confirmed the major animal reservoir hosts of the infection infested though with a mild-moderate case. In Italy alone, an (Mutebi et al., 2015; Ugbomoiko et al., 2008). The world approximate of about 50 cases have been reported from prevalence of the disease have been reported to be between tourist attacks of T. penetrans in recent decades not to lay 15.7 and 54.8% (Ade-Serrano and Ejezie. 1981, Chadee emphasis on the other 20 cases reported in past decades 1994, Heukelbach et al., 2001, Wilcke et al., 2002, Carvalho (Veraldi & Valsecchi, 2007). The disease history was dated et al., 2003, Ehrenberg and Ault. 2005). This disease is back to Fernandez de Oviedo Gonzalez who in 1525 reported considered neglected due to the attitude of medical that Spanish armies in the native indigenous populations practitioners towards the infestation and cannot be neglected from Haiti frequently suffered from the sand flea disease as blood loss observed in severely infested individuals could (Heukelbach et al., 2001). Early references were reported in lead to death if precautions are neglected. Life-threatening Africa during the first half of the 18th century, probably with sequels commonly associated with this debilitating and the first case appearing in Senegal and subsequently in severe re-occurring morbidity in endemic areas includes Gabon, Angola and many African countries were they are acute and chronic inflammation of toes and heels, considered endemic presently (Hoeppli, 1963). The sand flea deformation and loss of nail on toes, ulceration and is cogitated the smallest organism in the world with a length abscesses, painful fissures and lymphoedema (Matias. 1989, range of below 1mm -10mm and lacking defined compound Heukelbach et al., 2001; Wilcke et al., 2002; Feldmeier et al., eyes (Bitam et al., 2010). This sight deficiency cause them to 2003; Joseph et al., 2006; Ugbomoiko et al., 2007; Kehr et attack only body parts at proximities to their habitation. The al., 2007; Feldmeier and Keysers. 2013). Although, super- lacinia and epipharynx of the female are developed due to infection by bacteria is ever present in non-vaccinated the characteristics of neosomy, tachygenesis, and burrowing individuals causing inflammation to increase, tetanus and into host to complete their life cycle (Nagy et al., 2007; gangrene, leading to intense pain, difficulty in walking and Bitam et al., 2010). During dry periods of peak reproduction, death in rare cases (Obengui. 1989; Tonge. 1989; Litvoc et fertilized eggs are expelled into the environment only after al., 1991; Mashek et al., 1997; Heukelbach et al., 2001; female sand flea penetrates host and copulation with male in Feldmeier et al., 2002; Feldmeier et al., 2004; Feldmeier et situ. Host identification strategies and penetration al., 2006; Ugbomoiko et al., 2007; Feldmeier et al., 2009). A mechanisms are unknown. On a general basis, blood meal is variety of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria have also been

Volume 1 Issue 6, December 2017 37 www.ijarp.org International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications ISSN: 2456-9992 isolated from embedded sand fleas (Fischer et al., 2002, humidity were measured using E-OSUN temperature -relative Heukelbach et al., 2004). Environment factors such as humidity digital device. Temperature and relative humidity temperature and humidity are reported to encourage egg was taken at early hours of the day bi-weekly for the 12 hatches into cracks in floors of house dwellings or in nests weeks. and beddings at about two to twelve days (Bitam et al., 2010). The temperature and humidity tolerance ranges were 2.2. Data analysis not reported and are considered lacking for flea infestations Data was entered in an Ms Excel package 2013, checked for in endemic areas. Apart from the confirmed DNA sequence errors and a single factor ANOVA was used to determine data available for the discrimination of non-neosomic T. significant difference for fleas inside house and verandas of penetrans and T. trimamillata (Luchetti et al., 2005) and the classified floor types. Similar for temperature and genetic variability of T. penetrans (Siphonaptera, Tungidae) humidity tolerance. sand fleas across South America and Africa (Luchetti et al., 2005), detailed DNA information on genetic diversity and 3.0. Results composition are lacking. Hence more scientific interventions Flea sampling in relations to floor type, with temperature and are needed for the infestation. But first the habitat structure, relative humidity tolerance level for flea infestations was temperature and humidity tolerance is needed to justify the determined within all the sampled site for 12 weeks. Floor biology of the vector agent. types were characterized as paved for cemented floors, unpaved for sandy, muddy or dusty floors, and paved with 2. Methodology cracks for cemented floors with mild, moderate or severe cracks to harbour fleas. 2.0. Experimental area and population The study was performed in three communities, Zion, 3.1. Floor type and fleas Laranda and Kofawe Igbokoda, Ondo State, Nigeria. The villages are traditional fishing communities and were 3.1.1. Floor type and fleas inside the house relatively sequestered until recently with Laranda being In total, 36 fleas in Zion, 8 fleas in Laranda and 10 fleas in 50meter apart from Zion and 50km apart from Kofawe. The Kofawe was recorded inside the houses comprising of 19, 0 communities are inhabited by an approximately 125 families and 7 fleas sampled from within the unpaved floor type, 4, 4 each with an estimated total population of 820 each with a and 3 fleas recorded in paved floors with cracks and a total little fluctuations. Houses are located in large sandy of 13, 4 and 0 fleas sampled from paved floor types in Zion, compounds with thatched fences in some and lacking in Laranda and Kofawe respectively (Table 3.1.1). Within Zion, others. Only a single dilapidated health care center is 52.8% of the sampled fleas were from unpaved floor types available in Zion and lacking in the other two sites. while 11.1% of fleas were obtained from paved floor type with crack. The range of fleas encountered for Zion was 7 2.1. Study design with a maximum of 7 fleas encountered in a floor type and in The randomized field sampling of sand fleas and a null flea in others. There was a high significant difference environmental factor measurement from the three sites were (F(2,29)=12.23, P<0.05) between sand fleas sampled inside carried out between 8th of March and 8th June, 2017 which house in Zion. Equal flea percentage were recorded in both coincides with the dry season when infestations of sand fleas paved and paved floors with cracks in Laranda. The sampled were ranked at peak. A total of 30 houses were randomly fleas is at the range of 2 and the maximum fleas sampled is 2 selected to determine floor type characteristics of resident for the floor types. There was no significant difference and sampled for the presence of flea in the three mapped (F(3,29)=1.89, P>0.05) between sand fleas sampled inside locations. At least 6 – 10 houses were sampled weekly either houses. A greater percent (70%) of sampled fleas were those classified as paved, paved with cracks or unpaved encountered in unpaved floor type and none in paved floors. houses. Fleas were sampled by laying a clean white cloth A very high significant difference (F(2,29)=16.68, P<0.05) half-way the floor of rooms in each paved or paved houses exist for fleas sampled in rooms of Kofawe. Majority of the with cracks and using a broom to sweep towards the white houses in Zion were not paved compared to those in Laranda cloth. The white cloth was observed carefully for the and Kofawe as shown in figure 3.1.1 below. In contrast, presence of flea, present fleas were recorded for both greater percent of the inside house of Laranda and Kofawe sampled rooms and verandas. The unpaved houses were were paved compared to those recorded in Zion. However, sampled by first over wetting the sandy floors and a shovel paved floors with cracks were common in Laranda than in scoop of sand emptied into a bucket of water half-filled with Zion and Kofawe. water and the floating fleas were collected, viewed and counted. Prior to house sampling, head of household consented to the study. Houses were also swept weekly in the mornings and evenings to obtain sands in house and veranda. Sands were placed in a dark cellophane bag containing 10ml of 10% formaldehyde flea. During sweeping, sands on floor of houses were crushed repeatedly to inactivate the flea before sands were gathered to avoid penetration of researcher. Gathered sand were transported to the Department of Biological Sciences laboratory, Osustech, to be viewed under a microscope, counted and recorded for both inside rooms and verandas. Temperature and relative

Volume 1 Issue 6, December 2017 38 www.ijarp.org International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications ISSN: 2456-9992

Table 3.1.1. Show the summary of total flea number sampled inside the house in the sampled site (n= 30 houses each)

Zion Laranda Kofawe Floor type Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Paved 13 (36.1%) 0.57±0.99 4 (0-4) 4 (50%) 0.17±0.49 2 (0-2) 0 (0%) 0.00±0.00 0 (0-0) Paved with cracks 4 (11.1%) 4.00±0.00 0 (0-4) 4 (50%) 0.80±0.84 2 (0-2) 3 (30%) 1.50±0.71 1 (1-2) Unpaved 19 (52.8%) 3.17±2.14 6 (1-7) 0 (0%) 0.00±0.00 0 (0-0) 7 (70%) 1.40±1.14 3 (0-3) Total 36 (100%) 1.20±1.71 7 (0-7) 8 (100%) 0.27±0.58 2 (0-2) 10 (100%) 0.33±0.76 3 (0-3) N.B: M±SD implies Mean± Standard deviation and R (m-M) implies range of values (minimum-maximum values)

Fig. 3.1.1. Show percentage occurrence of floor types inside the house in the sampled site

3.1.2. Floor type and fleas in veranda of sampled of the fleas were recorded in paved floors with cracks and a houses least percent (8.3%) in paved floor type. The sampled fleas is In the veranda of houses sample, a total of 24 sand fleas in at the range of 3 and the maximum fleas sampled is 3 for the Zion, 24 fleas in Laranda and 29 fleas in Kofawe was floor types. There was a very high significant difference recorded in veranda outside the houses comprising of 11, 9 (F(2,28)=10.46, P<0.05) between sand fleas sampled in the and 18 fleas sampled from unpaved floor type, 7, 13 and 10 veranda of houses. A greater percent (62.1%) of sampled fleas recorded in paved floors with cracks and a total of 6, 2 fleas were encountered in unpaved floor type and a least and 1 flea sampled from paved floor types in Zion, Laranda (3.5%) in paved floors. A very high significant difference and Kofawe respectively (Table 3.1.2). Within Zion, a (F(2,25)=16.29, P<0.05) exist for fleas sampled in veranda greater percent (36.7%) of the sampled fleas were from outside houses in Kofawe. More than 50% of verandas in unpaved floor types while the least (25.0%) of fleas was Zion were paved compared to other locations sampled for obtained from paved floor type. Flea sampled range at 6 with sand fleas. Verandas in Kofawe sampled were often not a maximum of 6 fleas encountered in a floor type and in a paved compared to tother two locations as shown in figure null flea in others. There was a high significant difference 3.1.2 below while cracked verandas were common in also to (F(2,23)=5.27, P<0.05) between sand fleas sampled in veranda Laranda than in Zion and Kofawe. outside house in Zion. In Laranda, a greater percent (54.2%)

Table 3.1.2. Show the summary of total flea number sampled in verandas of house in the sampled site (n= 30 houses each)

Zion Laranda Kofawe Floor type Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Total (%) M±SD R (m-M) Paved 6 (25.0%) 0.46±0.97 3 (0-3) 2 (8.3%) 0.18±0.41 1 (0-1) 1 (3.5%) 0.11±0.33 1 (0-1) Paved with cracks 7 (29.2%) 3.50±3.54 5 (1-6) 13 (54.2%) 1.08±0.79 3 (0-3) 10 (34.5%) 1.40±1.14 3 (0-3) Unpaved 11 (36.7%) 1.22±1.09 3 (0-3) 9 (37.5%) 1.50±0.55 1 (0-1) 18 (62.1%) 1.80±0.63 2 (1-3) Total 24 (100%) 0.80±1.38 6 (0-6) 24 (100%) 0.80±0.81 3 (0-3) 29 (100%) 0.97±1.00 3 (0-3) N.B: M±SD implies Mean± Standard deviation and R (m-M) implies range of values (minimum-maximum values)

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Fig. 3.2. Show percentage occurrence of veranda outside house in the sampled site

3.2. Temperature determination for fleas cracks (33.10C) compared to those recorded in paved and Floor temperature ranges in total were highest in Laranda unpaved floor types (32.90C) respectively. There was no 0 (32.9 C) with a little low fluctuations in Zion and Kofawe significant difference (F(2,29)=0.36, P>0.05) in the (32.6 and 32.30C) respectively. Within Zion community, temperature recorded in the various floor types in Laranda. paved floor type has the lowest temperature (32.40C) in The highest mean temperature was reported in unpaved comparison to paved floors with cracks (34.50C) (Table 3.2). floors (33.50C) compared to the little fluctuations in paved There was no significant difference (F(2,29)=0.63, P>0.05) in and paved floor types with cracks. There was no significant the temperature recorded in the various floor types in Zion. difference (F(2,29)=1.71, P>0.05) in the temperature recorded The highest mean temperatures was recorded in floors with in the various floor types in Kofawe.

Table 3.2. Temperature values in houses sampled in the various sites (n= 30 houses each)

Zion Laranda Kofawe Temperature M±SD R (m-M) M±SD R (m-M) M±SD R (m-M) Paved 32.4±1.81 6.6 (29.0-35.6) 32.9±1.29 5.6 (29-34.6) 32.0±1.76 5.5 (29-34.5) Paved with cracks 34.5±0.00 0 (34.5-34.5) 33.1±0.74 2 (31.9-33.9) 33.2±0.07 0.1 (33.1-33.2) Unpaved 32.8±2.40 6.3 (28-34.3) 32.9±4.38 6.2 (29-35.2) 33.5±1.60 4.3 (30.8-35.1) Total 32.6±1.91 7.6 (28-35.6) 32.9±1.43 6.2 (29-35.2) 32.3±1.75 6.1 (29.0-35.1) N.B: M±SD implies Mean± Standard deviation and R (m-M) implies range of values (minimum-maximum values)

3.3. Humidity determination for fleas houses with unpaved floors (74.5%) compared to those The mean relative humidity ranges was generally high in recorded in paved and paved floor types with cracks (68.6 Kofawe (70.0%) with a little low fluctuations in Zion and and 68.0%) respectively. There was no significant difference Laranda (68.6% and 68.9%) respectively. In Zion (F(2,29)=0.53, P>0.05) in the humidity recorded in the various community, houses with cracking paved floor type has the houses with floor types in Laranda. The highest mean highest humidity (73.0%) in comparison to paved and humidity was reported in houses with paved floors (70.9%) unpaved floors (68.9 % and 69.2%) (Table 3.3). There was compared to the little fluctuations in houses with unpaved no significant difference (F(2,29)=0.063, P>0.05) in the and paved floor types with cracks. There was no significant humidity recorded in the house sampled with various floor difference (F(2,29)=1.93, P>0.05) in the humidity recorded in types in Zion. The highest mean humidity was recorded in the various houses with floor types in Kofawe.

Table 3.3. Show the different humidity values recorded in the sampled site (n= 30 houses each)

Zion Laranda Kofawe Humidity M±SD R (m-M) M±SD R (m-M) M±SD R (m-M) Paved 68.9±11.85 38 (50.0-88.0) 68.6±7.52 30 (54.0-84.0) 70.9±10.69 34 (54.0-88.0) Paved with cracks 73.0±0.00 0 (73.0-73.0) 68.0±9.43 24 (59.0-83.0) 57.0±4.24 6 (54.0-60.0) Unpaved 69.2±9.43 25 (59.0-84.0) 74.5±13.44 19 (65.0-84.0) 64.8±13.22 33 (55.0-88.0) Total 68.6±10.89 38 (50.0-88.0) 68.9±27.61 152 (54.0-84.0) 70.0±11.28 34 (54.0-88.0) N.B: M±SD implies Mean± Standard deviation and R (m-M) implies range of values (minimum-maximum values)

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4. Discussion case in some other regions where temperature is suitable 0 0 This study recorded high flea population in Zion Igbokoda for the growth in flea population. 25 C-35 C and 65-75% with 52.8% of the sampled fleas from unpaved floor types of moisture level are reported optimum for survival. while 11.1% of fleas obtained from paved floor type with Researches on jigger infestations has not addressed the crack. This flea population sampled from Zion is linked to biological cause of flea spread. The presence of vulnerable the fact that 76% of the houses sampled were unpaved and host who do not take precautions amongst those listed for remain sandy for the sampled location compared to the environmental conditions are among factors aiding the other two sampled locations. Although, the different reproduction and spread of the causal agents. When these paved floor types with cracks may serve mainly as temperatures are increased through high-temperature-fume suitable hideouts for adult sand fleas, development nest of sprays or when floor of houses are cleaned for paved or immature stages that slide and glides off host infested sites constantly watered by thorough sprinkling, the flea and even a reservoir area for re-infestation during dry population off host may be targeted. While as authors periods when the infestation is reported to peak in have addressed, the use of personal protective equipment individuals inhabiting houses with suitable loose, dry, and insecticide sprays on the other hand would and use of sandy soil. Even in Laranda and Kofawe, greater flea repellent-based extracts would target on-host species that percentage were recorded in paved floors with cracks and may act as reservoir to spread of fleas in an area. Organic unpaved floor type than in paved floors. Flea occurrence matter availability in litters and waste dumps close to in paved floors may be a probability occurrence from house have been linked to sand flea abundance (Bitam et those species that cling to hairs, furs and every other al., 2010). Since the larvae of sand fleas have been tagged separable materials for flea transport into houses with free living organic feeders as feeding on human fecal paved floors. There was high significant differences in the waste is reportedly common in some species (Krasnov, flea populations sampled from Zion and Kofawe may be 2008). Even rearing birds close to residential area can lead due to the greater percentage of the unpaved floor type to a great abundance in flea population due to high were must have encouraged the habitation of fleas and accumulates of organic matter. On a general note, flea developmental stages. The development of female sand development from eggs to larvae is dependent on flea from eggs which hatch into legless and eyeless larvae, environmental factors (Dobler and Pfeffer 2011) and the pupating into matured dark-brown adult with biting and manipulation of temperature and relative humidity from sucking mouth parts is within 1–2 weeks (Linardi et al., those optimal for development will create a tool for 2014; Pampiglione et al., 2009). The considerable flea population control. It is reported that seasonal fluctuations population recorded in verandas of the house sampled influences the sand flea infestation rate and frequent from the different locations is linked to floor types as occurrence as high jigger prevalence is during the dry greater percentage of verandas in Kofawe were not paved season (Heukelbach, 2005). The significant decrease as well as a 20-35% of the verandas in kofawe and Zion. infestation rate during rainy periods may be linked to Even with floors of verandas, a greater percent (36.7% lower temperature and rise in moisture level tolerance for and 62.1%) of sampled fleas were encountered in unpaved jigger development. It was noticed in the semi-arid floor type in Zion and Kofawe while a greater percent Northeast Brazil that flea infestation decrease as soon as (54.2%) of the fleas were recorded in paved floors with the rainy season begins and increased again in drier cracks in Laranda. The life cycle assessment of sand fleas conditions (Winter et al., 2009). Seasonal variation of is hinged on varying environmental factors such as infestation rates is determined by sandy or muddy nature temperature and relative humidity along with floor type of the soil which is the environmental determinant of off- characteristics to act as bed for development when all host propagation patterns and development of sand flea environmental conditions are tolerable. In this study, (Linardi et al., 2010). The nature of floor of abode of these paved floor type has the lowest temperature (32.40C) in endemic populations provide a suitable habitat condition comparison to paved floors with cracks (34.50C) in Zion, for T. penetrans development. The floor types in endemic highest mean temperatures was recorded in floors with foci could take the predictably form of being unpaved, cracks (33.10C) compared to those recorded in paved and muddy, dirty or possessing a fractured solid floor or even unpaved floor types (32.90C) respectively in Laranda and ground covered with broken tiles. In an urban slum, in Kofawe, highest mean temperature was reported in residential areas, roads and streets not paved with waste unpaved floors (33.50C) compared to the little fluctuations dumps around area were reported to encourage flea in paved and paved floor types with cracks. There was no habitation (Feldmeier and Heukelbach 2009). Haven significant differences (P> 0.05) in temperature ranges for identified that floor type and environmental conditions can floor types in the different locations sampled. In contrast, raise the risk and chances of flea growth, the proper mean relative humidity ranges was generally high in pavement of sandy or clayey floors in a severely affected Kofawe (70.0%) with a little low fluctuations in Zion and communities would reduce in-house infestation and re- Laranda respectively. Zion sampled houses with cracking infestation. However, cementing floors of severely paved floor type has the highest humidity (73.0%), highest affected community in western Nigeria was reported to mean humidity was recorded in Laranda houses with reduce transmission rates and prevalence of tungiasis by unpaved floors (74.5%), and highest mean humidity was almost 75% (Ugbomoiko et al., 2006). Conclusively, it is reported in houses with paved floors (70.9) in Kofawe. known that floor type and environmental tolerance levels Also there was no significant difference (P> 0.05) in the can encourage flea populations in endemic foci. relative humidity reported in the various sampled Controlling sand flea population apart from the use of locations. The temperature and relative humidity reported insecticide sprays and surgical manipulation of infested in this study is equal to those reported to be optimum for feet is possible by targeting the temperature and relative insect survival, fecundity and growth. This may be the humidity tolerance level for species or mending floor Volume 1 Issue 6, December 2017 41 www.ijarp.org International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications ISSN: 2456-9992 types reported to encourage infestations. More studies are 1758) correlates with intensity of infestation,‖ therefore needed on aerial sprays of high temperature Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 101, Pp 65–69. 2006. moist fumes on infected soils to target fleas than the conventional use of insecticide that would in time develop [11]. Feldmeier, H. and Keysers, A. ―Tungiasis–a resistance and present a difficult state in controlling the Janus-faced parasitic skin disease,‖ Travel species. medicine and infectious disease, 11(6), Pp 357- 365. 2013. Acknowledgements I am grateful to residents of the community who allowed [12]. Feldmeier, H., Heukelbach, J., Eisele, M., Sousa, me sample their houses of fleas and Pastor Eniomodun, A.Q., Barbosa, L.M., Carvalho, C.B. ―Bacterial Proprietor of Achievers’ Academy, Igbokoda for superinfection in human tungiasis,‖ Trop. Med. assistance rendered. Int. Health 7, Pp 559—564. 2002.

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