Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/venv20

Environmental Justice and Transformations to Sustainability

Adrian Martin , M. Teresa Armijos , Brendan Coolsaet , Neil Dawson , Gareth A. S. Edwards , Roger Few , Nicole Gross-Camp , Iokiñe Rodriguez , Heike Schroeder , Mark G. L. Tebboth & Carole S. White

To cite this article: Adrian Martin , M. Teresa Armijos , Brendan Coolsaet , Neil Dawson , Gareth A. S. Edwards , Roger Few , Nicole Gross-Camp , Iokiñe Rodriguez , Heike Schroeder , Mark G. L. Tebboth & Carole S. White (2020) Environmental Justice and Transformations to Sustainability, Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 62:6, 19-30, DOI: 10.1080/00139157.2020.1820294 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00139157.2020.1820294

© 2020 The Authors. Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Published online: 16 Nov 2020.

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by Adrian Martin, M. Teresa Armijos, Brendan Coolsaet, Neil Dawson, Gareth A. S. Edwards, Roger Few, Nicole Gross-Camp, Iokiñe Rodriguez, Heike Schroeder, Mark G. L. Tebboth, and Carole S. White

An informal settlement on hazardous terrain in Colombia.

XXXX/XXXXNOVEMBER 2020/DECEMBER 2020 WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV ENVIRONMENT 19 lobal carbon emissions to rebuild shattered economies is pres­ justice at the heart of transformative continue to rise,1 rates of suring leaders to fire up their economies change. We seek “just transformations” global biodiversity loss again. On March 26, 2020, for example, to sustainability. This will require giv­ continue to increase,2 and the U.S. Environmental Protection ing special attention to the treatment social and economic Agency (EPA) announced temporary of those most vulnerable to the impacts inequalities continue to widen.3 Signi­ deregulation of enforcement of air pol­ of the climate and ecological crises and Gficant global social movements such as lution standards,4 an action intended to to those who are vulnerable to the Fridays for Future are declaring this ease financial costs for businesses but at actions to address these crises. The situation an “emergency,” regarding it as the price of increasing health risks for consequences of failing to pursue just a crime against humanity in which vulnerable populations. On the other transformations are increasingly clear. political and business leaders stand hand, this time of systemic breakdown There is a moral consequence, because accused of ignoring the plight of current provides an opportunity to rebuild soci­ it would be unfair to allow dispropor­ and future vulnerable people. eties in new ways, mobilizing new under­ tionate burdens to continue to fall on This association between environ­ standings of vulnerability and resilience, already marginalized groups (current mental crises and social injustice is now and exploring ways to build and connect or future), or to suppress their voices widely accepted. Many feel that time is the potentially transformative networks and values. This principle is enshrined running out for incremental approaches of compassion and resistance emerging in the central, stated commitment of to prove effective and that there is an in neighborhoods and communities the Sustainable Development Goals inescapable need for a radical, transfor­ around the world. We must ensure that (SDGs): “leaving no one behind.”5 mative change that combines sustainabil­ vigorous efforts to resolve environmental There are also practical consequences. ity and justice. crises are connected to our resolve to First, efforts to bring about sustainability The COVID-19 pandemic provides a tackle social crises such as racism. will only succeed—and will only them­ potentially crucial setting for how such a Our primary purpose here is to selves be sustained—if they are widely change might play out. The urgency underline the importance of placing seen to be both fair and legitimate. We Nicole Gross-Camp

A Tanzanian villager shares local forest knowledge passed down from her mother and grandmother.

20 ENVIRONMENT WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV VOLUME 62 NUMBER 6 and nature based on continuous growth in material consumption.8,9 This distinction can be illustrated through two ways of responding to con­ Adrian MartinAdrian cerns about global food security. A reformist approach might conclude that the basic arrangements underlying the current food system are satisfactory. What is needed is to adapt this system to increasing demand for food crops and to ecological constraints through technical interventions that promote sustainable intensification of food production along­ side reductions in food waste. A trans­ formative approach is likely to examine underlying drivers of the problem. It might point to the way in which the global economy (as currently arranged) is predicted to double the demand for food crops between 2005 and 2050,10 including use for biofuels. And it might Dwellings and forest coalesce in a sacred location in northern Laos. also argue that if you really want to tackle food insecurity you need to also address often see justice barriers to environmen­ important insights from environmental the reasons why 500 million Sub-Saharan tal policy where perceived unfairness justice scholarship to help us better Africans continue to live in extreme 11 leads to insufficient acceptance. For understand how to make progress on just poverty. example, green taxes on fuel were met transformations to sustainability. Even before the COVID-19 pan­ with intense resistance in France, partly demic, the need for transformative rather because of very specific fairness concerns than reformist change increasingly was related to the disproportionate costs fall­ accepted in global environmental policy ing on rural, working-class people, and Transformations to bodies such as the Intergovernmental partly because of larger frustrations with Sustainability: Why and How? Science Policy Platform on Biodiversity a political system that was seen to disem­ and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate power these groups. If we are to build a One of the persistent debates within Change (IPCC), the United Nations shared vision and constituency for trans­ modern environmentalism is between Environment Programme (UNEP), and formative change, it must have justice at the reformist and transformative app­ the UN SDGs. For example, the IPBES its heart. Second, if we fail to provide roaches. The reformist approach aims to Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity justice for marginalized groups, we will maintain existing political and economic and Ecosystem Services calls for transfor­ lose capacity to resolve the environmen­ arrangements of societies while adapting them to ecological constraints. By con­ mative change that enables “visions of a tal crisis. For example, indigenous peo­ good quality of life that do not entail trast, the transformative approach is pre­ ples make a huge contribution to ever-increasing material consumption,” mised on the need to change societal protecting global biodiversity, yet this that lowers “total consumption and arrangements profoundly, transforming vital role is threatened by failure to rec­ waste,” and that addresses “inequalities, 6 relationships between humans as a nec­ ognize and appreciate their territories. especially regarding income and gen­ We begin by briefly addressing the essary condition for required changes in der.”2 Such changes to the everyday goals mean­ing of transformations to susta-­ relationships between humans and of society, to the indicators of societal 7 ina­bility. Coming at this from a justice nature. For many political ecologists, progress, and to what we all owe to each angle, we emphasize the challenge of the primary societal arrangement that other, are the kinds of things we consider addressing not only the unequal out­ needs transforming is global capita­lism, as transformative changes to society. comes of environmental change, but also because it structures relationships bet­ While agreement is growing that the underlying distributions of power ween humans in a way that perpetuates change will need to be transformative, that produce these inequalities. Hence, uneven accumulation of wealth and there is less agreement about how this can we combine transformations with envi­ deepening inequalities and because it be directed. Researchers are studying ronmental justice. We then review four requires a relationship between humans how transformative change has happened

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2020 WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV ENVIRONMENT 21 Iokiñe Rodriguez

Pemon indigenous peoples protesting the building of a high voltage power line through their ancestral lands (Canaima National Park, Venezuela) in June 1997. historically, in order to find clues about com­petitive energy technology required little Davids is very much a transfor­ how it can be governed in the future.12 nurturing and protection by states, mative action, but it won’t produce One important school of thought holds assisted by a political landscape that transformation unless there are parallel that we should focus our attention on included growing public demand to act efforts to curb Goliath’s power. trying to understand the conditions on the climate crisis, even when opposed This multilevel perspective has been under which small-scale and local inno­ by the fossil fuel lobby. developed through studies of transitions vations become the seeds that grow into One of the crucial lessons here is that in particular sectors (energy, food, mobil­ more profound societal change.13 This is transformative change requires inter­ ity, etc.) and is therefore said to have a commonly known as the multilevel per­ vention to weaken the prevailing regime midscale focus.16 By contrast, researchers spective: Local-level innovations such as and its powers to resist change. For in political ecology and development alternative food networks gain momen­ example, Newell et al.15 show that studies, including work on climate tum to a point where they start to disrupt attempts to promote climate smart agri­ change vulnerability and adaptation, tend and transform middle-level sectoral culture as a radical and innovative con­ to place greater emphasis on society-level regimes such as the agribusiness-led food tribution to sustainability have faltered change, including redistributing power in system. At the same time, momentum is because the prevailing agribusiness favor of currently marginalized social facilitated by change to slower moving regime retained sufficient power to groups.17–19 It is this insight—that trans­ societal-level (or landscape-level) vari­ keep it out of the public debate. Large formative environmental change needs to ables including cultural and political agribusiness players used their domi­ be premised on redistribution of power— values: “In a nutshell the core logic is that nance to weaken the more radical activ­ that brings matters of justice clearly into niche-innovations build up internal ities of climate smart agriculture and the picture. Redistribution of power momentum …; changes at the landscape then incorporate what remained into requires the removal of forms of discrim­ level create pressure on the regime; and their regime. This capacity of powerful ination based on social divisions such as destabilisation of the regime creates win­ regimes to resist, weaken, or coopt rad­ gender and race, as well as divisions dows of opportunity for the diffusion of ical innovation is why Geels14 portrays across geographical space and across gen­ niche-innovations.”14 For example, the the struggle for sustainability as a David erations. This is of course something emergence of wind turbines as a and Goliath encounter. Nurturing the desirable in its own right. But it is also

22 ENVIRONMENT WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV VOLUME 62 NUMBER 6 distribution concern) and the impossi­ bility of participating in consultation processes on equal terms (proce­ 24 Adrian MartinAdrian dural). But for the Standing Rock Sioux tribe, there was a larger story of 150 years of U.S. settler colonialism that has defined the status of indigenous peoples in a manner that consciously or tacitly condones the domination of their knowledge, culture, and gover­ nance systems. This is the underlying cause of environmental injustice for the Dakota Access Pipeline (and for many cases involving indigenous peoples): a form of misrecognition, with historical roots in coloniality and racism, which undermines attempts to promote more sustainable relations with nature. Environmental justice scholarship explores the distribution of winners and losers and the reasons for this spread. We An Extinction Rebellion environmental protest in London in 2019. suggest this kind of analysis must be cen­ tral to any transformation to sustainabil­ instrumental to transformations to sus­ existing social inequalities and distribu­ ity because interventions to bring about tainability, facilitating better decision tion conflicts. In fact, the patterns of win­ transformative change cannot be assumed making, greater legitimacy for environ­ ners and losers often reveal underlying to have homogeneous effects across mental policy, and movements with lines of discrimination across social cat­ diverse groups of people. First, different broader bases. For example, promoting egories such as race, wealth, gender, and groups and individuals within society will equality of status across different social coloniality, as well as location in place vary in their values and objectives for groups opens up wider alternatives, such and time. development and therefore will experi­ as fresh ideas about the meaning of Environmental justice scholars have ence change differently. Second, efforts to human development or well-being. The tended to break down the idea of justice accelerate transformative change will current environmental crisis will not be into different dimensions of concern.23 inevitably involve trade-offs between resolved by suppressing radical alterna­ Distributive justice refers to the alloca­ conflicting outcomes, and in the context tives to the status quo.20–22 tion of environmental costs and bene­ of unequal power, there is a danger that fits. Procedural justice refers to the conflicts of interest are settled in ways decision-making process—in particu­ that disproportionately impact already lar, who gets to participate. Justice as marginalized or vulnerable groups.25 For ‘Just’ Transformations to recognition refers to the political and example, there is evidence that protected Sustainability: Why and How? cultural status afforded to identity area conservation has frequently repro­ groups defined by social characteristics duced and enhanced the vulnerabilities Environmental justice analysis emp­ such as gender, ethnicity, or worldview, of the most marginalized.26–28 Many are hasizes the unequal distribution of envi­ intersecting with spatial and historical concerned that imposed energy transi­ ronmental costs, benefits, and associated contexts. These concerns are typically tions place the burdens of change on well-being outcomes and seeks to under­ linked, for example, where failures to those working classes whose employment stand both the proximate and underlying respect territorial rights of access to and is threatened29 and on rural populations drivers of this inequality. Why, for exam­ control over natural resources (ostensi­ whose land is repurposed for bioenergy ple, are some social groups regularly bly concerns about distribution and crops. This can increase incentives for more vulnerable to environmental dis­ procedure) have roots in more systemic land grabs and potentially worsen local asters such as flooding or to zoonotic failures of recognition. Kyle Whyte food security.30 This is not to suggest that coronaviruses such as COVID-19? The describes how protestors against the we want to delay the energy transition, or critical insight from environmental jus­ Dakota Access Pipeline often high­ even that biofuels have no role to play in tice is that the patterns of environmental lighted injustices arising from the pol­ this transition. Rather, transitions that fail inequality observed are associated with lution risks falling to local people (a to embrace justice as a fundamental goal

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2020 WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV ENVIRONMENT 23 iStock/hadynyah

Kibera slum, Kenya: 500,000 people still live in extreme poverty in Africa. will not enable long-term, sustainable All three forms of intervention can be lens orients us toward a particular con­ transformation. considered as some kind of trans­ ception of transformation. We illustrate the connection between formation. However, that does not mean a transformative approach and justice that each can be considered a socially just Just Transformation: Four through the example of adaptation to transformation. For example, resettle­ Insights From Environmental climate change risks. Few et al. identify ment of populations from low-lying three types of intended outcomes in the urban areas at risk from sea-level rise and Justice Research climate change literature.31 First, there coastal storm surges might be classed as are interventions that they describe as an adaptation measure that fundamen­ We have to appreciate that in practice “instrumental” that aim for genera­ tally alters how we manage that risk. An many actions purporting to be in the lized mitigation of risk, mainly through instrumental approach could entail blan­ name of sustainability are perceived to be technical measures such as flood ket restrictions on all habitation within unjust. Existing literatures on transfor­ defences. Second, there are interven­ an at-risk zone. A progressive approach mative change, especially from political tions described as “progressive” that to resettlement could actively seek to ecology and development studies (such as the ‘safe and just’ spaces) already rec­ specifically seek to mitigate risks for the help poorer groups move out through 36,37 most vulnerable people by employing incentives and help to access services in ognize this concern, which we non-technical actions such as those to alternative sites. A radical approach develop more fully below. ensure people have access to adaptation could institutionalize legal measures that opportunities. Third, they identify free up privately held vacant land in Multidimensional Environmental “radical” interventions that target the high-value city center sites. Justice, there­ Justice underlying causes of vulnerability, fore, comes into consideration more seeking to change the underlying social clearly in a progressive approach, and it While global environmental gover­ structures and power configurations lies at the core of the ideals of a radical nance commitments such as the 2015 that produce vulnerability.32–35 approach to transformation. A justice SDGs incorporate some reference to

24 ENVIRONMENT WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV VOLUME 62 NUMBER 6 equality, it is narrowly conceived, with­ systems.39 However, environmental jus­ protected areas. Again, this is a sector that out any explicit attention to justice and tice analysis has revealed that REDD + has has incorporated commitment to social not well incorporated into goals and tar­ supported existing power asymmetries,40 equity in recent decades, from the weaker gets.38 We suggest that it would be bene­ narrowed power over program design “do no harm” to more progressive calls to ficial to incorporate a broader and more and implementation to central state be “pro-poor.”44,45 However, political ecol­ explicit conception of environmental­ agencies and international actors, and ogy and justice scholars find that prac­ justice that covers the different dimen­ limited recognition or empowerment of tices that exclude local populations sions of concern mentioned above (dis­ local actors.41 This failure to address persist.46,47 Rather than recognizing ter­ tribution, procedure, and recognition). underlying power relations (a matter of ritorial claims and local institutions gov­ One example relates to climate change both procedure and recognition) has erning natural resources (i.e., attending via the UN Framework Convention on resulted in limited support among indig­ to justice dimensions of recognition and Climate Change (UNFCCC) Reducing enous peoples and grassroots social procedure), trends toward more equitable Emissions from Deforestation and forest movements42 and has been linked to fail­ conservation have mainly focused on dis­ Degradation (REDD+) mechanism. This ures to demonstrate environmental tributional issues such as sharing of tour­ reflects some important negotiated gains. For example, Sikor and Cam43 ism revenues, compensation for wildlife global norms for climate change mitiga­ show how a pilot REDD + project in damage, and alternative livelihoods. This tion. One of these is “Common but Vietnam was undermined by concerns narrow approach has led to claims that Differentiated Responsibilities”—the about distribution, procedure, and rec­ concepts like equity are being coopted idea that the greatest polluters bear the ognition. The original project designated to legitimize old regimes based on greatest responsibility. The other is a set 400 hectares of dense forest for protec­ exclusionary models of conservation.48 of social safeguards to ensure the full and tion, but due to emerging justice con­ However, a growing body of evidence effective participation of local commu­ cerns was relocated to “protect” an area indicates that alternatives that embrace nities, by means of their free, prior, and of barren rocks, with hardly any trees. social justice more fully, such as provision informed consent, equitable benefit shar­ A second example related to biodiver­ of territorial rights of Indigenous peoples ing, and respect for customary tenure sity conservation is the expansion of and local communities, and enabling Максим Шмаков Максим iStock/

In March 2020, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency announced temporary weakening of enforcement of pollution regulations. Air pollution disproportionately affects poorer communities, marking a central issue in environmental justice.

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2020 WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV ENVIRONMENT 25 iStock/joeynick

Some social groups are both more exposed to environmental hazards and more vulnerable to their impacts. local stewardship, are the most effective, governance approaches.51 More widely, Environmental Justice as Conflict ethical, and cost-efficient way to conserve we are witnessing the emergence of an Transformation or restore habitats.49,50 ever-growing nongovernmental sector There is strong evidence for a trou­ The failure to reorient environmental becoming active in sustainability and cli­ bling association between environmental governance toward a wider understand­ mate change community governance,52 injustice, conflict, and transformation. ing of justice principles has served as a supporting transformations in cities This is most noticeably visible in the barrier to progress toward sustainability. while building innovative partnerships 3000+ cases of environmental conflict However, the positive side is that we also that foster entrepreneurship for change.53 reported in the Environmental Justice see evidence that attention to procedure In the private sector, financial organiza­ Atlas.57 These cases provide compelling and recognition is, in some areas, begin­ tions have begun to take account of ESG ning to foster more transformative evidence that mobilization for environ­ (ethical, sustainable, and governance) change. There are seeds of such change mental protection is most often initiated benchmarks, divest from fossil fuels, and to be seen in the emerging post-2020 by local communities and indigenous even refuse insurance coverage to fossil peoples and frequently takes the form of Biodiversity Framework, including the 54 Convention on Biological Diversity fuel businesses. While more urgent resistance to forms of resource extraction (CBD) and International Union for the change is clearly needed, the influence of that are regarded as both unjust and Conservation of Nature (IUCN) recogni­ climate justice activists in winning the unsustainable. These conflict-based tion of alternatives to traditional protec­ argument for divestment is contributing struggles for environmental justice form 55 tionist conservation models, for example, to the transition to green energy. These a major part of the environmentalism of under the collective banner of other might be small steps, but they suggest the poor.58 effective area-based conservation mea­ that the mobilization of more holistic In recent years, environmental justice sures (OECMs). Similarly, the 2015 Paris justice goals can help to enable transfor­ scholars have incorporated insights from Agreement includes a shift toward recog­ mations that transcend lock-ins to unsus­ the field of peace and conflict studies to nizing and advocating community-level tainable pathways.56 better understand the links between

26 ENVIRONMENT WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV VOLUME 62 NUMBER 6 conflict transformation and transforma­ statements.21,58 The promotion of “alter­ prioritize material growth while destroy­ tions to sustainability and, in particular, natives” to dominant development models ing the diversity of ancient and modern the role that justice plays here.59 This is viewed increasingly as an important wisdom that offers alternatives. These work shows how the pursuit of justice is strategy for promoting just transforma­ failures to recognize knowledge diversity fundamental to the pursuit of peace as tions. Naomi Klein encapsulates this view become institutionalized in education part of a transformative process. The in the book title No Is Not Enough—mean­ systems, government, and even environ­ basic premise is that conflict is rooted in ing that it is not sufficient to criticize cur­ mental organizations, ignoring deep cul­ situations that are perceived as unjust, rent models; we also need to articulate tural values and constraining policy and that by uncovering these injustices, better ways. For example, the appeal to learning.72 conflicts become catalysts for social alternative ways of knowing and valuing In this light, some environmental jus­ change.60,61 Conflict transformation also nature—the assertion of sacredness—was tice researchers are now aligning with engages with the underlying roots of dis­ central to the successful struggle by India’s social movements such as Black Lives putes, seeking justice through the recti­ Kondh people to gain the Supreme Court’s Matter in demanding the decolonization fication of wrongs and the creation of backing to stop bauxite mining in the of knowledge. This is a call to transform respectful, equitable, and intercultural Niyamgiri hills in Odisha.63 environmentalism itself, in ways that relationships.62 recognize and promote alternative con­ Conflict transformation scholars con­ Plural and Decolonized ceptions of justice, progress, nature, and 67,70,73 ceive power not only as a negative (oppres­ Environmental Justice culture. A more plural, inclusive, sive) force but also as a positive decolonized environmentalism will need (empowering) force that can enable local Environmental justice advocates a to be part of the justice agenda for trans­ people to transform environmental con­ pluralist approach to both defining jus­ formations to sustainability. For exam­ flicts and achieve justice.59 Exploring these tice and recognizing worldviews.64 Its ple, visioning and scenario building are dual forces of power can help us to under­ scholarly traditions have historically popular academic tools for exploring the stand why justice is achieved or denied lacked diversity, drawing mainly on kind of futures we want and possible within particular environmental conflicts. Western traditions of liberalism and crit­ pathways toward these. We must always Most importantly, it provides evidence of ical theory.65,66 However, engagement be asking whose visions are repre­ the kinds of interventions that are tried with feminist and postcolonial scholar­ sented22 and following inclusive pro­ and tested in many real-world struggles ship has been growing. This includes cesses that ensure that we are not for just sustainability and that have con­ Latin American decolonial theory that restricting which ways of valuing and tributed demonstrably to empowerment pays special attention to how legacies of knowing nature are taken seriously. toward transformative change. This is colonial dominance continue to contam­ There is still a long way to go, but it is starting to be achieved through close inate development and conservation encouraging to see progress toward a examination of the strategies used by pow­ practice throughout the world.59,67–69 more diverse environmentalism. IPBES erful actors in environmental conflicts to This persistent coloniality remains viru­ revised its conceptual framework to give retain power and also by environmental lent in the realm of ideas. In particular, a recognition to alternative ways of know­ justice movements to resist, weaken, or multitude of indigenous and local ways ing and valuing nature and referred to bypass such incumbent powers. There is of knowing and relating to nature (the Mother Earth and “systems of life.” much still to learn, for example, about “pluriverse,” as Kothari et al. put it70) con­ Where its predecessor the Millennium what kind of interventions are linked to tinue to be forcibly suppressed and Assessment envisioned the purpose of what outcomes and in what contexts. replaced by reductionist and anthropo­ sustainability as “human wellbeing,” What we have already learned from the centric ways of valuing nature. IPBES added “living well in balance and cases in the Environmental Justice Atlas is While global institutions such as the harmony with Mother Earth.”74 This that communities often seek justice UNFCCC and the CBD now formally approach was pushed by countries such through official complaint channels but acknowledge indigenous and local alter­ as Bolivia and Ecuador, where constitu­ complement this with street mobilization, natives to mainstream, modernist knowl­ tions have been rewritten to recognize building alliances with nongovernmental edge, in practice these knowledge forms these worldviews. Widening the knowl­ org­anizations or trade unions, media cam­ remain suppressed.71 This is a form of edge base is already playing a role in paigning, and legal advocacy. Furthermore, domination that serves to exclude many challenging dominant environmental contesting knowledge is often a central groups of people from participation worldviews and critiquing the science of strategy, with efforts to revitalize local unless they assimilate dominant world­ conservation without playing into the culture and knowledge, to produce alter­ views. This is clearly an injustice based hands of antiscience agendas.75 This in native knowledge products, to advocate on a failure of recognition. It also has turn will provide a more nuanced for alternative models of development, severe consequences for the availability understanding of justice than currently and to launch technical challenges of pathways to sustainability, because it deployed in interpretations of sustainable against developers’ environ­mental impact elevates ways of knowing the world that development or safe and just futures.

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2020 WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV ENVIRONMENT 27 The Capabilities Approach to However, while the adoption of a sustainable) technologies, knowledge, Environmental Justice capabilities approach appears to offer a values, and so on, against resistance from way in for an explicit and multidimen­ incumbent interests, and interventions in The capabilities approach to justice sional consideration of justice concerns, law and social movements to empower has become a prominent alternative to recent work to elaborate capabilities previously marginalized groups to resist traditional economic-based measures of within an environmental justice frame­ discrimination and act for justice and development.76–79 At its heart, capabilities work has raised questions about sustainability. For the SDGs, enabling is a liberal, freedom-oriented theory of how transformative capabilities-based sustainability requires overcoming forms comparative justice, which asserts that approaches to justice actually are. As it of discrimination that include “race, justice does not lie in an equality of mate­ stands, the capabilities approach gener­ colour, sex, language, religion, political or rial goods, but rather in the ability of indi­ ally focusses on minimum social require­ other opinion, national or social origin, viduals to live lives they consider ments for justice and for empowerment property, birth, disability or other sta­ meaningful. The focus has therefore been for transformative change. But this focus tu s .” 3, p.viii on whether people have the capability to on minimum thresholds lacks attention Just transformation is a challenging achieve particular functionings that they to either ecological limits or to associated agenda, requiring forms of action that have reason to value. For example, having upper limits on possessions, consump­ remove symptoms of inequality (such as a bicycle does not in itself bring mobility tion, or the like.82 For a capabilities uneven distribution of risks), as well as or other desired functionings; that is framework to help define the outcome actions to change society itself.31 Justice dependent on a bundle of physical and parameters of a safe and just space for must be conceived as multidimensional in social capabilities, including gendered humanity, it might need to be put to this terms of the types of moral concern that norms, for example. In this sense, mate­ additional task of establishing capability are routinely incorporated into policy and rial goods are only ever means rather than ceilings and thereby attending to under­ practice This requires attending to justice ends. Because of this, capabilities-based lying sustainability challenges of con­ outcomes, such as the maldistribution of approaches to environmental justice must sumption and inequality. risks, but also attending to underlying necessarily engage much more strongly causes, such as institutionalized cultures with well-being than has been common of discrimination based on failures of rec­ in the literature so far.78,80,81 Conclusion ognition. More singular conceptions of From the current perspective, the justice, such as the emphasis on distribu­ capabilities approach is important In The State of Exception, Giorgio tive equity that dominates current envi­ because it has been very influential as a Agamben warns how states exploit crises ronmental interventions (payments for way of defining well-being, and this and emergencies to legitimize undemo­ ecosystem services schemes, fair trade, 83 offers a possible way in for introducing cratically conceived policies. We cur­ compensation schemes, revenue-sharing and framing environmental justice in a rently face a combination of environmental schemes, etc.) will not in themselves way that is broad-based and incorpo­ crises for which failure to act decisively is ensure that such transformation is just. rates multiple dimensions such as distri­ a massive injustice for many current and How can just transformation be sup­ bution, procedure, and recognition. The future humans and non-human life. But at ported? The study of environmental con­ capabilities approach has been influen­ the same time, there is the danger that flicts reveals that transformative change is tial in global policymaking, informing powerful actors will seek to justify unjust pursued through strategies to reduce the various iterations of the World policies on the back of exceptional circum­ repressive forms of power while enhanc­ Development Report since the approach stances. Our contention here is that if it ing community agency. This is pursued was proposed. More recently, it has also isn’t a just transformation, then it isn’t a through a range of strategies, depending been taken up in the Global Sustainable transformation to sustainability. on the target for change, including politi­ Development Report,3 which includes What will a just transformation look cal protest, engagement with formal gov­ human well-being and capabilities as an like? The starting point has been to iden­ ernment procedures, and the nurturing of entry point for transformation and pro­ tify a radical but increasingly widely held local and alternative values and knowl­ poses that transformative change to pro­ premise that transformative change needs edge. As academics and practitioners, we tect the planet will “require expanding to address underlying causes of unsus­ can acknowledge and support the role of human capabilities far beyond the tainability, including roots in political civil society at the vanguard of establishing thresholds of extreme poverty … so that economies that are dependent on con­ moral direction for just transformations. people are empowered and equipped to sumption growth and inequality. Tackling We can do this through analysis and advo­ bring about change” (p. xxiii). This is an these underlying causes will require cacy in support of environmental protec­ example of how thresholds of justice are redistribution of power. This can seem a tion efforts that are socially progressive implicitly being defined in terms of forlorn hope, but there are achievable in their distributional outcomes. We can capabilities, in this case the minimum steps that we see taken, including protec­ also do this through actions to ensure that capabilities to live a valued life. tion of alternative (potentially more a greater plurality of environmental

28 ENVIRONMENT WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/VENV VOLUME 62 NUMBER 6 knowledge and worldviews is recognized justice and human wellbeing. He mainly applies his © 2020 The Authors. Published with license by Taylor & work to governance of protected areas, integrated con­ Francis Group, LLC. and respected. This is increasingly viewed servation and development, participatory forestry, and as a “decolonizing” agenda, something rural livelihoods. M. Teresa Armijos is a lecturer at the This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms that is fundamentally transformative School of International Development at UEA. Her of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http:// research focuses on disaster risk reduction and environ­ creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits because to rebalance the status of different mental justice using arts-based participatory methods to unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any worldviews is also to redistribute power in generate dialogue and change with and for communities medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ways that serves both justice and sustain­ at risk. Brendan Coolsaet is associate professor at the European School of Political and Social Sciences at Lille ability. For one thing, greater recognition Catholic University and a member of the Global of diverse values will facilitate richer dia­ Environmental Justice research group at the University NOTES logue about human well-being and the of East Anglia. He works on environmental justice, bio­ capabilities that are considered necessary diversity governance and food politics. Neil Dawson is 1. UNEP, Emissions Gap Report 2019 (United a research fellow with the Global Environmental Justice Nations Environment Programme, 2019). for a “safe and just” future. Group at the University of East Anglia, chair of the 2. S. Díaz et al., Summary for Policymakers of the Attention to justice requires reflection Human Wellbeing and Sustainable Livelihoods Theme Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem for the IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic Services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on whether the knowledge produced & Social Policy, and a postdoc at the European School of on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, https://ipbes. under the banner of environmental justice Political and Social Sciences in Lille. Gareth A. S. net/global-assessment (2019). is in danger of replicating power inequal­ Edwards is a senior lecturer at the School of 3. P. Messerli et al., Global Sustainable Development International Development, UEA. His research is posi­ Report 2019: The Future Is Now—Science for Achieving ities. Thus, we need to design a radical tioned at the interface between political ecology and Sustainable Development, https://sdgs.un.org/publications/ research and engagement process that environmental justice, and has addressed issues includ­ future-now-science-achieving-sustainable-development- 24576 (2019). truly incorporates many different voices ing the urban governance of climate change, the neolib­ eralization of water governance, the politics of climate 4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Announces Enforcement Discretion Policy for COVID-19 and cultures. This calls for a stronger shift justice, and the political ecology of coal in the context of Pandemic, https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/enforce­ toward forms of research that engage with climate change. Roger Few is a professor in the School ment-policy-guidance-publications (2020). of International Development at University of East activists, communities, and other actors in 5. United Nations, Leave No One Behind: Equality ways that help to transform power rela­ Anglia. His research centers on vulnerability and adap­ and Non-Discrimination at the Heart of Sustainable tation to environmental hazards, and the justice dimen­ Development, Report No. 1780449283 (New York, NY: tions, strengthen their capabilities, and sions that influence, promote, and constrain people’s United Nations, 2017). overcome the increasing vulnerabilities to susceptibility to risk and their recovery from disaster 6. W. S. Walker et al., "The role of Forest Conversion, events. Nicole Gross-Camp is an environmental scien­ Degradation, and Disturbance in the Carbon Dynamics which they are subjected in the face of the tist whose work focuses on the intersections of biodiver­ of Amazon Indigenous Territories and Protected Areas," current global climate and ecological crisis. sity conservation, governance, and human well-being in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117 East Africa with an emphasis on local voices. Iokiñe (2020): 3015–3025. Rodríguez is a Venezuelan sociologist and has special­ 7. A. Gorz, Ecology as Politics (Portland, OR: Black ized in environmental conflict transformation in Latin Rose Books Ltd., 1980). America using participatory action research. She has 8. J. Hickel and G. Kallis, "Is Green Growth ORCID worked in Venezuela, Guyana, Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia, Possible?," New Political Economy 25 (2020): 469–486. and Colombia, building local and institutional capacity 9. D. Harvey, The Enigma of Capital and the crises of Adrian Martin http://orcid. to transform environmental conflicts. She is currently a capitalism (London, UK: Profile Books, 2010). org/0000-0003-2916-7712 senior lecturer in Environment and Development at the 10. D. Tilman, C. Balzer, J. Hill, and B. L. Befort, University of East Anglia, where she forms part of the "Global Food Demand and the Sustainable Intensification M. Teresa Armijos https://orcid. Global Environmental Justice Group. Heike Schroeder of Agriculture," Proceedings of the National Academy of org/0000-0003-1020-6056 is professor of environmental governance at the School Sciences 108(2011): 20260–20264. Brendan Coolsaet http://orcid. of International Development, University of East Anglia. 11. W. Bank, Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2018: Her work focuses on forest governance and REDD+, the Piecing Together the Poverty Puzzle, Report no. org/0000-0001-8800-3609 international climate negotiations, nonstate actors, 1464809585 (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2018). Gareth A. S. Edwards https:// indigenous peoples/knowledge and sustainable develop­ 12. J. Patterson, et al., "Exploring the Governance and ment, transformative learning, trust, and sustainable Politics of Transformations Towards Sustainability," orcid.org/0000-0002-0552-1206 Environmental Innovations and Societal Transformations food governance. Mark G. L. Tebboth is a lecturer in 24 (2017): 1–16. Roger Few https://orcid.org/0000- environment in the School of International Development, UEA. His research focuses on how popu­ 13. E. M. Bennett et al., "Bright Spots: Seeds of a Good 0001-6653-1400 Anthropocene," Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment lations respond and adapt to risks arising primarily from Nicole Gross-Camp https://orcid. 14 (2016); 441–448. global environmental change, and he specializes in 14. F. W. Geels, "Regime Resistance Against Low- org/0000-0003-4606-5873 issues linked to human migration. Carole S. White is a Carbon Transitions: Introducing Politics and Power Into Iokiñe Rodriguez https://orcid. research fellow in the Global Environmental Justice the Multi-Level Perspective," Theory, Culture and Society org/0000-0002-7003-5394 Group at the School for International Development, 31 (2014): 21–40. University of East Anglia. Her research focuses on Heike Schroeder https://orcid. 15. P. Newell, O. Taylor, and C. Touni, "Governing well-being and transformations in coastal fishing com­ Food and Agriculture in a Warming World," Global org/0000-0003-2342-2030 munities, across the Caribbean, Pacific, India, United Environmental Politics 18 (2018): 53–71. Mark G. L. Tebboth https://orcid. Kingdom, and Europe. She is also a senior social 16. K. Hölscher, J. M. Wittmayer, and D. Loorbach, researcher in the UK Government Department for "Transition Versus Transformation: What’s the org/0000-0003-1193-8080 Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Difference?," Environmental Innovation and Societal Carole S. White https://orcid. Transitions 27 (2018): 1–3. org/0000-0001-7741-0444 This work was supported by the UK GCRF-ESRC and 17. I. Scoones, M. Leach, and P. Newell, The Politics of Universidad de Manizales under grant ES/P004326/1 Green Transformations (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2015). (Armijos); by the International Social Science Council 18. I. Scoones et al., Transformations to Sustainability and Swedish International Development Cooperation (Sussex, UK: STEPS Working Paper 104, 2018). Adrian Martin is a professor of environment and devel­ Agency under grant ISSC2015-TKN150317115354 19. M. Pelling, K. O’Brien, and D. J. C. C. Matyas, opment at the University of East Anglia (UEA) who spe­ (Rodríguez, Martin); and by the UK ESRC under grant "Adaptation and Transformation," Climatic Change 133 cializes in interdisciplinary research into environmental ES/R010404/1 (White). (2015): 113–127.

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