Volume 23, Number 3 ■ July, 2008

Center for the Study of the First Americans Department of Anthropology Texas A&M University 4352 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-4352 www.centerfirstamericans.com A Bull’s-eye in Chile Quebrada Santa Julia wasn’t a lucky find. Archaeologists Donald Jackson and César Méndez of the University of Chile–Santiago studied paleo landforms and chose an ancient ravine that drains into the nearby Pacific Ocean as a likely site to find evidence of terminal-Pleistocene human occupation. After a dig more than 30 ft deep (the photo shows Dr. Jackson beside the impressive stratigraphic profile) they found an occupa- tion floor that dates to the end of the Clovis culture in North America. Here Paleo- americans also chipped fluted points—but of quartz, not chert—and despite their proximity to the ocean chose a subsistence based largely on the horse instead of marine life. There are more surprises, too, in our story that starts on page 10. CLAUDIA CONTRERAS AND GLORIA ROMÁN

he Center for the Study of the First Americans fosters research and public T interest in the Peopling of the Americas. The Center, an integral part of the Department of Anthropology at Texas A&M University, promotes interdisciplinary scholarly dialogue among physical, geological, biological and social scientists. The Mammoth Trumpet, news magazine of the Center, seeks to involve you in the peopling of the Americas by reporting on developments in all pertinent areas of knowledge. Volume 23, Number 3 Center for the Study of the First Americans Department of Anthropology July, 2008 Texas A&M University, 4352 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-4352 ISSN 8755-6898 World Wide Web site http://centerfirstamericans.org and http://anthropology.tamu.edu

4 Calibrating the genetic clock DNA from the remains of an early American found in a cave on an island off the Alaska coast is a godsend to geneticist Brian Kemp, for it proves that our estimate of the rate of mutation was much too slow. 10 Chilean Clovis contemporaries Their points aren’t Clovis or fishtails. One thing is certain about Quebrada Santa Julia, investigators Jackson and Méndez assure us: It isn’t any- thing like Monte Verde. 14 Cashing in on obsidian’s special property

ALL PHOTOS: ASHLEY SMALLWOOD Unlike chert, obsidian absorbs water over time. Using hydration by Ashley Smallwood Dan Joyce of Kenosha Museum describes dating, three Western scientists disarticulated mammoth bones and are revising the dating of Great Basin points. HE TIMING AND NATURE of the peo- associated lithic tools from the Schaefer pling of the Americas remain conten- site, evidence of pre-Clovis human 18 An unholy heavenly visitor Ttious issues. With more and more evi- presence in Wisconsin. for Clovis people and Ice Age dence of potential pre-Clovis occupations in megafauna? North America, archaeologists recognize for the Study of the First Americans, Texas North America may already have the critical need to establish evidentiary Archeological Research Laboratory (TARL), suffered the nightmare of nuclear winter. Evidence collected by and methodological criteria that will ensure Southeastern Paleo American Survey, and geophysicist Allen West’s team a higher level of confidence in early sites. the Smithsonian Institution, the workshop points to a continent-shaking This was the primary goal of the Paleo- reviewed specific early-occupation sites, cometary impact. american Origins Workshop, held last Feb- models for the peopling of the Americas, 8 Remembering Robert Weber ruary 14–16 in Austin, Texas. Researchers and rules of evidence necessary to confi- from around the world, convened bearing a dently verify human presence. wide spectrum of views, open minds ready The workshop was organized by Tom organization that conducts archaeo- to evaluate the body of evidence, and a Pertierra, a co-organizer of the Southeast- logical conferences and workshops. scholarly discourse to constructively ad- ern Paleo American Survey (SEPAS) and SEPAS.Inc. also provides logistical dress broad issues. Hosted by the Center founder of SEPAS.Inc., a citizens support support to archaeological projects 2 Volume 23 ■ Number 3

that promote public education and coop- each site based on the rules of evidence: debate, appears to have taken place after eration between professional, avoca- the artifact assemblages, geologic con- the last glacial maximum by subhaplo- tional, and amateur archaeologists. Per- text, and the reliability of their dates. groups genetically distinct from Siberian tierra had high hopes for the conference. Ted Goebel, Associate Director of groups. In sum, the genetic signature of “Our goal for the conference,” he re- CSFA, presented recent evidence from the First Americans didn’t evolve until marks, “was to bring together key re- molecular genetics that southern Siberia after humans spread out of Siberia. searchers directly involved with the Peo- is the ancient homeland of the First Tom Stafford (Stafford Research pling of the Americas to collectively share Americans. Their dispersal from Siberia Laboratories) called for a “moratorium on and consider their evidence in a collegial into Beringia was a single major founding complaining” and urged that every site be atmosphere and to establish acceptable migration. Furthermore, dispersal into excavated as if it had the archaeological evidentiary criteria for evaluation of pro- America from Beringia, the leg of the trip potential for occupation earlier than posed early sites.” It’s high time scholars that largely appeals to the Paleoamerican Clovis. take stock of the current base of knowl- edge. “Frankly,” says Pertierra, “it was time for proponents and critics to openly discuss the early-entry issue face-to-face.” The 3-day workshop was an intense evaluation of the state of the Paleo- american origins debate. On days 1 and 2, researchers gave 40-minute presenta- tions, each followed by a 40-minute dis-

The Mammoth Trumpet (ISSN 8755-6898) is published quarterly by the Center for the Study of the First Americans, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4352. Phone (979) 845-4046; fax (979) 845-4070; e-mail [email protected]. Periodical postage paid at College Station, TX 77843-4352 and at additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: Mammoth Trumpet Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University 4352 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-4352 Copyright © 2008 Center for the Study of the First Americans. Permission is hereby given to any non-profit or educational organization or institution to reproduce without cost any materials from the Mammoth Trumpet so long as they are then distributed at no more than actual cost. The Center further requests that notification of reproduction of materials under these conditions be sent to the Center. Address correspondence to the editor of Mammoth Trumpet, 2122 Scout Road, Lenoir, NC 28645. Michael R. Waters Director and General Editor e-mail: [email protected] Ted Goebel Associate Director and Editor, Current Research in Andy Hemmings of TARL has an interest- the Pleistocene ing use for a Clovis shaft wrench. e-mail: [email protected] James M. Chandler Editor, Mammoth Trumpet cussion period, giving scholars the e-mail: [email protected] unique opportunity to present and dis- Laurie Lind Office Manager cuss face-to-face archaeological evidence C & C Wordsmiths Layout and Design from specific sites that elude the tradi- World Wide Web site http://centerfirstamericans.com tional Clovis-first model. The Center for the Study of the First Americans is a non-profit organization. Sub- scription to the Mammoth Trumpet is by membership in the Center. Day 1: Plotting the course and taking stock Mammoth Trumpet, Statement of Our Policy A brief introduction by Michael Collins, Many years may pass between the time an important discovery is made and the acceptance of research TARL, welcomed speakers and guests to results by the scientific community. To facilitate communication among all parties interested in staying the exciting event. Then it was straight to abreast of breaking news in First Americans studies, the Mammoth Trumpet, a science news magazine, provides a forum for reporting and discussing new and potentially controversial information important the facts. Michael Waters, Director of to understanding the peopling of the Americas. We encourage submission of articles to the Managing the Center for the Study of the First Editor and letters to the Editor. Views published in the Mammoth Trumpet are the views of Americans (CSFA), encouraged research- contributors, and do not reflect the views of the editor or Center personnel. ers to thoroughly evaluate and discuss –Michael R. Waters, Director July ■ 2008 3

The rest of day 1 was devoted to presentations Michael Collins (left) of TARL describing the empirical or archaeological evi- confers with Mike Waters of CSFA. dence on review. The first group of sites pre- sented included sites once positioned along the ring. Allen West (GeoScience glacier ice margin. Dan Joyce (Kenosha Public Consulting) and Jim Kennet (De- Museum) described his reevaluation of the mam- partment of Geological Sciences, moth remains from Schaefer site, Wisconsin. He University of California–Santa Bar- suggests that the disarticulated mammoth and bara) presented evidence of spikes associated lithic remains were found in a low- in the incidence of extraterrestrial energy pond deposit that dates to 12,300–12,500 particles that suggest a comet im- RCYBP. (A study by Waters and Stafford pub- pact with North America at about lished in Science in 2007 defines the span of the 11,000 RCYBP. The fiery airburst, Clovis culture from about 11,100 to 10,765 RCYBP, they argue, halted ocean circula- or about 13,125 to 12,925 CALYBP.) Eileen tion in the North Atlantic, led to Johnson (Director of Lubbock Lake Landmark, Texas) dis- widespread megafauna extinctions, and triggered the collapse cussed the Mud Lake and Hebior sites, two other sites along the of the Clovis culture. ice margin in Wisconsin dated between 12,500 and 13,500 RCYBP. Based on plotted bone distributions and detailed analysis Day 2: Pre-Clovis evidence show-and-tell of cutmarks, she proposes that both sites have animals disarticu- Day 2 began with an evaluation of the early record from eastern lated by humans. Finally, Mike Waters updated the group on North America. Jim Dunbar (Bureau of Archaeological Re- the Manis Mastodon search for the State of Florida) reported evidence site in Washington; he for human occupation at the Page-Ladson site in notes that CT scans the Aucilla and Wacissa river basins of western confirm that the object Florida. According to Dunbar, an older, intact lodged in the animal is component (Unit 3) contains disarticulated mast- a penetrating bone pro- jectile point that had Most authorities agree that the scratches on split at the tip. this mammoth leg bone from the Mud Lake After a constructive site in Wisconsin are man-made cutmarks. discussion on sites Purified collagen from the bone dates to along the ice margin, 13,530 RCYBP. the focus turned to the preliminary report of Dennis Jenkins (Museum of Anthropol- odon remains with potential cutmarks and an associated lithic ogy, University of Oregon) on the archaeology and geo- assemblage. Page-Ladson and Suwanee points, among the arti- archaeology of Paisley Cave 5. Three human coprolites dating facts displaced from Unit 3, are thought to be potentially associ- older than 12,000 RCYBP offer strong evidence for an early ated with the megafauna. Mike Johnson (Fairfax County Park human occupation in Oregon. Geneticist Eske Willerslev (De- Authority) reviewed archaeological evidence dated to about partment of Evolutionary Biology, University of Copenhagen) 16,000 RCYBP from Cactus Hill, Virginia, then introduced a was eager to present his analysis of the predictive model for locating early human oc- Paisley Cave coprolites. The team plans cupations in the Nottoway River Valley. He to conduct more DNA testing and obtain plans to use his model to systematically locate additional dates on component materi- summer occupations for Clovis and poten- als from the human coprolites. tially earlier groups. Shifting the focus from North Pushing the human occupation record back America, Ruth Gruhn (emerita An- even further in time, Steve Holen (Denver thropology professor, University of Museum of Nature & Science) presented evi- Alberta), a longtime proponent of South America’s role in the peopling of the Dennis Jenkins, discoverer of pre-Clovis Americas, had the challenging task of human coprolites in Paisley Cave in presenting decades of research on early Oregon (left), and Steve Holen of the South American sites. With Alan Denver Museum of Nature & Science Bryan (emeritus Anthropology profes- examine a specimen on display. sor, University of Alberta) ready to field questions, Gruhn emphasized the need to take into account dence of human bone processing and quarrying at the La Sena, early sites in the Southern Hemisphere. The occupation at Nebraska, and Lovewell, Kansas, sites. Bone beds contain con- Taima-taima in Venezuela, for example, has been dated to ap- centrations of highly fragmented bones, spiral-fractured mam- proximately 13,000 RCYBP. moth femurs, and displaced rib bones, some specimens dating The final presentation of the day was perhaps the most stir- continued on page 16 4 Volume 23 ■ Number 3 Early-Holocene Caveman Sinks His Teeth into Genetics

NCIENT REMAINS of a young man found in 1996 in On Your Knees Cave on Prince of Wales Island in south- Aern Alaska were radiocarbon-dated to 10,300 yr B.P., making this one of the oldest widely accepted archaeological sites with human remains in North America. It turns out this Early American has secrets to share with us, for molecular analysis of two molars from the remains reveals an additional founding lineage for the Americas, implying linguistics, mathematics, and statistics, and by subsequent greater genetic diversity than we thought. This led Brian studies of other molecular anthropologists. Kemp, a Washington State University molecular anthro- pologist, to postulate that dates previously de- About haplogroups and haplotypes rived from genetic evidence were likely too The terms haplogroup and haplotype can be confusing. In terms old. Previous molecular studies place the of mitochondrial DNA, a haplotype is a unique mitochon- peopling of the Americas drial lineage, different from all other lineages by at earlier than 30,000 yr least one mutation. A haplogroup is a group of B.P., a date far older than closely related haplotypes. The terminology, how- any physical evidence sup- ever, is relative, which means that a haplotype can ports. Those studies, be referred to as a haplogroup in that it contains however, used a all the descendant haplotypes. On Your calibration rate for Knees Cave By studying mitochondrial varia- the first hyper- Klunk Mound tion in contemporary and prehis- variable region (HVRI) of Chumash toric Native Americans and sorting n=4 the mitochondrial DNA out haplogroups, haplotypes, sub- Mex-Am Mexican (mtDNA) that Dr. Kemp n=4 haplotypes and sub-subhaplotypes, has discovered is two to scientists collect important clues about Nahua four times too slow. His Tarahumara the origin of the First Americans, when findings are supported by evi- Zapotec they first arrived in the New dence from the fields of archaeology, Brazilian World, and even the route they Cayapa may have taken. Individuals bearing the haplotype of the n=26 Early American found in On Your Knees To understand genetic science, Cave are found all the way from the far Quechua think printers north to the southernmost tip of the If the concepts of alleles and hyper- Americas. All samples are living Native Mapuche variable regions are foreign to you, look at Americans except for the Klunk Mound n=2 the whole thing with a detective’s eye. Let’s sample (1300 yr B.P.) and the Tierra Del Fuego say a memo was issued at the sample (400 yr B.P.). The population at Tierra company where you work, but Tierra del Fuego del Fuego is extinct. The sample size at each Yaghan n=2 no one signed it and no one location is 1 unless otherwise noted. n=2 knows its origin. July ■ 2008 5

Your company has three different printers. (For our anal- If, however, you know the memo’s exact original date of ogy, a printer corresponds to a haplogroup.) One is a color issue, you can calculate the copy rate to a high degree of printer, one is a black-and-white laser printer, and one is an old accuracy instead of estimating it. Kemp realized that knowing dot-matrix printer that uses continuous-feed paper. By examin- the “date of issue” for the On Your Knees Cave remains (10,300 ing the memo, you can ascertain which printer produced it, or RCYBP) and the variations between those alleles (the “original if it matches none of the three known printers you can deduce memo”) and the descendants’ alleles (the 47 individuals that fit that an additional, previously unknown printer is in the build- into haplogroup D4H3) gave him a unique opportunity to ing. In addition, if copies of the memo have been made, there recalibrate the molecular clock as it relates to the HVRI of the will likely be artifacts and degradation noticeable in the later mtDNA. By plugging in a known value and calculating the copies. Examine a second-, or third-, or twelfth-generation average rate of mutation, the accepted standard mutation rate photocopy of a document and you may find the copy eventually can be tested. That’s exactly what Kemp did. so altered that characters are reduced to a series of dots, with (We hope our analogy of printers and blurred type helps you an occasional word totally annihilated by a rogue glob of toner. understand the principles of genetics. Our analogy is an impre- cise fit in one important respect, though, because it supposes that all mutations degrade genetic informa- tion. In fact, mutations are random occurrences that may benefit the organism, have a negative effect, or produce no noticeable effect at all. Any mutation is passed on to future generations unless it impairs the organism’s ability to produce offspring; then the muta- * tion is lost forever when the individual dies. In the HVRI region of the genome discussed below, a special in- * stance, mutations are believed to be uniformly neutral in gia Berin their consequences.) g of plin peo ial The tick-tock of mutation Init “The ultimate source of all biological variation is muta- tion,” Kemp explains. “When DNA is copied mistakes get made. That is where new variation arises.” Al- though mutations are random occurrences, they occur

This marvelous illustration shows maternal gene flows in and out of Beringia. Gray shades of the arrows correspond to approximate timing of the events shown on the time bar at the bottom. The initial peopling of Beringia was followed by a standstill, after which the ancestors of Native Americans spread swiftly all over the New World while some of the Beringian maternal lineages (C1a) spread westward. More recent genetic exchange (*) is manifested by back-migration of A2a into Siberia and the spread of D2a into 25 20 15 10 northeastern America, which postdated the initial peopling of the New World. AFTER TAMM ET AL.

Those omissions and additions on a photocopy correspond to at a predictably regular rate. Kemp’s special interest is muta- mutations that result in alleles. tions in the HVRI, a region in the genome that does not code for If you determine that photocopy integrity degrades by 10 a protein. The mitochondrial genome is the genetic material of percent with each successive copy you can estimate, from the the mitochondria; it consists of a circular DNA molecule, about cumulative amount the copy varies from its original, how many 16.5k nucleotides in length, that carries all the genes. Random successive copies have been made. Suppose you reason, by mutations occurring in HVRI can accumulate diversity without examining a number of factors, that the memo must have been known consequences. “So if we can take a guess at how quickly originally produced between January 3 and February 10. Since mutations accumulate,” says Kemp, “we can know how long you know approximately how many times it has been copied, ago two lineages diverged.” The more recently two lineages you can therefore estimate the average rate of how often the shared a common ancestor, the fewer mutational differences memo was copied. This copy rate corresponds to the mutation will be evident because mutations will have had less time to rate, the rate of molecular evolution. accumulate. 6 Volume 23 ■ Number 3

A Haplogroup The haplotype identification system had to evolve to A2 keep up with the whole-genome sequencing. Haplotype Haplotype

Haplotypes are designated first by the common A2a haplogroup letter, then by a number. Each time a new Subhaplotype Subhaplotype Subhaplotype

variant of a haplotype is discovered, a number or a A2a1 A2a2 A2a3 A2a4 letter is added in outline form to specify it. Sub-subhaplotype Sub-subhaplotype Sub-subhaplotype Sub-subhaplotype

Beringian standstill Peopling of the Americas”). The team created the Beringian Whole genome sequencing is now allowing scientists to define Isolation Model (BIM) as the most parsimonious explanation of subhaplotypes and sub-subhaplotypes. Smith says the haplo- this population, given the new archaeological and genetic evi- type identification system has had to evolve to keep up. “To dence. According to the BIM, ancestors of the Native Ameri- designate haplotypes,” he explains, “we start with the common cans populated Beringia before the Last Glacial Maximum and haplogroup letter (A, B, C, or D) and then we give them a remained isolated there owing to ecological or other barriers number, like A2. Then A2 gets split down in to A2a or A2b, etc. until about 15,000 RCYBP, when they entered the Americas and It is like an outline, so each time you discover a new variant of rapidly spread along the coast. a haplotype you add a number or a letter to specify it.” Whole mtDNA genomes Projected A rapid migration along the Pacific coast number were examined in detail in of stocks Molecular anthropologist David “Beringian Standstill and 160 Smith says the rapid migration is evi- Spread of Native American dent from the relatively even distri- 140 Founders,” a paper published bution of the new D haplotype along in September 2007. Erika 120 the Pacific coast. It exhibits closely

Tamm of the Department of 100 related members all along the Pa- Evolutionary Biology at the AFTER DANIEL NETTLE cific coast of the Americas, from the University of Tartu in Estonia, 80 far north to the far south. 60 When the first Americans began to move inland, migration rates Expected number of stocks in a 40 continent plotted against time slowed because time was needed to depth of human habitation. 20 create new subsistence strategies 0 and technologies. The ecological molecular anthropologist Ripan 0 20406080100learning curve for a coastal people Malhi of the University of Illi- Time depth (Kyr) moving inland is much more sub- nois at Urbana-Champaign, and their colleagues undertook a stantial than for moving along a coastline. As a result the study to “investigate the pioneering phase in the Americas.” genetic haplotypes became more nested farther inland. They analyzed 623 complete mtDNAs from the Americas and Asia; 20 from the Americas and 7 from Asia, they found, were When did the migration take place? completely new. In compiling this new dataset the team discov- Kemp’s study argues for a much faster rate of molecular evolu- ered three new subclades (subgroups) of haplogroup C: C1b, tion in the control region of the HVRI of the mtDNA than C1c, and C1d as well as an additional variant of haplogroup D, previously estimated—two to four times the previous rate. D4h3 (the same new founding haplotype discovered from the What’s the significance? Dating. Previous estimates dating the individual in On Your Knees Cave), and C4c in modern-day peopling of the Americas were too old. Applying the rate populations of Native Americans. A suggested by the study of coalescence study of the mtDNA in the individual in On Your the new dataset yields a date of Knees Cave to past sce- 13,900 ± 2,700 calendar years ago. narios produces a date Recent archaeological excava- much more in line with tions place Homo sapiens in north- physical archaeological eastern Siberia at the Yana AFTER DANIEL NETTLE evidence. Rhinoceros Horn site as early as Archaeology isn’t the 30,000 RCYBP (MT 19-3 ff., “Yana only field producing evi- River, Siberia: Implications for the dence consistent with Kemp’s conclusions. In The language families of North the past, many scientists and South America, the last great reasoned that the ex- land masses settled by humans, treme linguistic diversity are the youngest and have the of the Americas could fewest members. only be achieved by a July ■ 2008 7

great time depth (earlier than 35,000 RCYBP) of in situ evolu- Kennewick Man, “The morphologists made their best guess tion; however, Daniel Nettle’s paper “Linguistic Diversity of given the data they had, but my bet is that if DNA can ever be the Americas Can Be Reconciled with a Recent Colonization” extracted it will show to be derived from Asian ancestors. published in the March 1999 Proceedings of the National Acad- Kennewick is not European.” emy of Sciences, Vol. 96, objectively con- You might ask, What cludes that linguistic diversity doesn’t about the X haplotype support the argument for an early date. found in the Americas? This means a fairly recent (11,000– Isn’t X European? Doesn’t 15,000 RCYBP) colonization can no that mean the Americas longer be ruled out on the basis of must have had European linguistic diversity. By comparing lan- immigrants at some guage stocks of the major continents, point? The answer is that Dr. Nettle demonstrates that, if any- although X is found in Eu- thing, the converse is true, that greater rope, X didn’t originate in time depth leads to less diversity. Europe. An ancient popu- Mathematics, too, provides compel- lation (founding haplo- ling evidence for the need to recalibrate group X) is the common the molecular clock. In February 2006, ancestor between Europe while getting his doctorate at Oxford, biologist and computer scientist Simon Kemp in the lab.

Y. W. Ho wrote a paper with Greger TYLER TJOMSLAND Larson that posits a curve in the rate of molecular evolution. Dr. and the Americas. It split a long time ago, with some of the Ho mathematically demonstrates that “instead of a simple di- population going to Asia and some going to Europe. The X chotomy between fast (recent) rates and slow (older) found in the Americas is not European and does not source rates . . . there exists a measurable transition between the two.” from Europe. He describes this transition as a “vertically translated exponen- What about the B haplogroup? Haplogroup B is extant tial decay curve.” Although the exact causes of this phenomenon throughout Polynesia (in some areas 100 percent of the people are not clear, Ho believes it could be linked to a combination of are haplogroup B). But B is rare in East Asia and Siberia. Kari natural selection and saturation. Kemp doesn’t even try to ex- Schroeder, a student of Smith’s, believes geneticists need to plain the details of what he called Ho’s “mathematical wizardry,” look to south-central Asia as a possible source for the First saying only that it utilizes statistics and divergence times in a Americans. Her hypothesis, which implies a deeper split be- linear model. Unknowns can be plugged into the model to get an tween the Native American founders and the Asian population, estimated mutation rate. Kemp was ecstatic to find that the lends even more weight to the Beringian Incubation Model, BIM, model almost precisely mimicked his own estimated rate of since haplogroup B is more prevalent in South Asia. Just as the mutation for 10,000 years of evolution. presence of haplogroup X doesn’t imply immigration from Eu- rope, the presence of haplogroup B in the Observed No European or rate Americas doesn’t argue for a transpacific mi- Polynesian settlers gration by Polynesians. Rather, it points to a Some think Kennewick Mutation rate

Man looks like actor AFTER SIMON HO The rate of molecular mutation, Simon Ho

Patrick Stewart, the Faster discovered, underwent a radical change at captain on the televi- about the time of the onset of the Quater- sion show Star Trek: nary. This molecular-rate curve shows the Substitution rate The Next Generation. transition between the instantaneous (Actually, when you put mutation rate and the long-term substitu- hair on Kennewick tion rate, passing through a critical region

Man the resemblance 1–2 Myr Older at about 1–2 Myr. instantly diminishes.) Time before present Nevertheless, Kennewick Man originally caused many people to common, perhaps South Asian, ancestor. Moreover, speculate that Europeans may have settled the Americas. Ar- haplogroup B has been recorded in Native American remains chaeologists have tried to correct this misconception for years dating to more than 8,000 years ago, long before Polynesia was and would dearly love to put it finally to rest. For those wonder- settled. ing where Europeans fit into the migration story—they don’t. Smith points out that the two dozen oldest remains in both North An emerging consensus America and Asia show an astonishing range of morphological According to current genetic evidence, all clues point to a single variation; Kennewick Man’s features, “more than being source population. Smith says, “A consensus is emerging to- Caucasoid, were atypical of most modern Native Americans.” ward the single migration or single source out of Beringia, Kemp notes that several tries have been made to get DNA out of clearly one single source. Science is very conservative, of 8 Volume 23 ■ Number 3

N FEBRUARY 19, 2008, New Mexico sites—he recorded them meticulously, de- inable, covering more than 1100 m by lost one of the people most re- veloping his own numbering system, cata- 550 m of Mockingbird Gap at a 1-ft con- Osponsible for bringing to profes- loguing all collected specimens, and tour interval. This involved mapping a sional archaeological attention the rich precisely locating them on topographic relief of more than 15 vertical ft that record of Paleoindian occupation in the maps. He was also incredibly generous with encompassed ridges, complex dune west-central part of the state. Robert his collection, freely sharing it with archae- forms, eroded swales, and recent cultural (Bob) Weber was a professional geolo- ologists and students; contacting Bob to features, along with Clovis artifacts and gist, earning a Ph.D. from the University of Arizona in 1950 and spending the next 35 years at the New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources at New Mexico Tech in Socorro. His varied geo- Remembering logical interests included the Quaternary period, and a boyhood love of collecting arrowheads and rocks in his native Ohio led him to look for prehistoric archaeo- logical sites in central New Mexico. Much Robert H.Weber could be written about Bob and his con- tributions to many aspects of geology, history, and post-Paleoindian archaeol-   ogy, but we focus on his Paleoindian – work and his generosity to those of us who were privileged to work with him. Those interested in Weber’s varied ca- see his collections was one of those “must- excavation area locations, from over 20 reer can consult Alexander (1997) for his do” things for archaeologists visiting individual mapping stations. He enlisted biography. Socorro. Three of us—Amick, LeTourneau, his wife, Margaret, and his daughter, A couple of years ago, in responding and Hamilton—were privileged to use por- Lynn, in the effort; if no one was available to a question about how he got started tions of the collection in our dissertation he occasionally worked alone, propping looking for Paleoindian sites, he said that research. up the stadia rod with a tripod, shooting the close resemblance of much of Bob was keenly aware of the importance distance and elevation, and then moving Socorro and Catron counties to the Plains of lithic raw material sources to prehistoric the rod to the next shot location. The made him think that those wide-ranging societies, and due to his geological training effort spanned at least 35 years. folks ought to have found this country he was able to locate several lithic material In 1966–68, Bob collaborated with attractive. From 1950 onward, he de- sources in Socorro County. His near-ency- George Agogino to excavate a portion of voted much of his free time to the search, clopedic knowledge of raw materials and the site with the Eastern New Mexico establishing beyond any doubt that their geological contexts he also readily University summer field school. A few Paleoindians had indeed appreciated shared, helping to flesh out patterns of published results are available from that what the country had to offer at the close movement and aspects of lithic technologi- work (Weber and Agogino 1997; Weber of the Pleistocene and early Holocene. cal organization. 1997). Bob also explored the soil-strati- Bob’s understanding of landscapes Identifying any one of Bob’s many con- graphic record of the on-site deposits and the geomorphic processes that had tributions as the most significant is difficult, and that of the adjacent Chupadera Wash affected them over time gave him the but certainly his discovery of the Mocking- floodplain. He documented the incred- keys to find sites in parts of the Plains of bird Gap Clovis site ranks high on the list. ible depth of accumulation of sediments San Agustin, the northern end of the This remarkable locale extends over some along the wash, even obtaining a Clovis- Jornada del Muerto, and the Rio Grande 800 m along Chupadera Wash, and is a age radiocarbon date from sediments Valley. It is safe to say that he discovered repeatedly occupied camp that consists of several m below the modern floodplain hundreds of Clovis, Folsom, and later more than a dozen localized, high-density surface. Beginning in 2004, Bob fully sup- Paleoindian sites, not to mention Archaic artifact concentrations. Some of them are ported, and stayed involved with, new and younger ones. His collection in- largely surficial while others are shallowly geological and archaeological research at cluded not only points but also tools and buried. Bob collected some 300 Clovis the site and along the wash by Holliday in some instances debitage; he appreci- points and point preforms, as well as hun- and Huckell, including excavations by the ated the value of all classes of lithic arti- dreds of scrapers, gravers, and other flake University of New Mexico summer ar- facts and developed keen insights into tools. He also produced one of the most chaeological field school in 2007 (Huckell lithic technology. Bob did not merely find remarkably detailed plane table maps imag- et al. 2006, 2007, in review). course, and it just takes time. As more BIM. She discusses a mutation that is glo- suggest “a pattern unique to the Americas work is done and as more models fit those bally extremely rare but pervasive in the that was also likely found in the ancestral inferences I think it comes to be a consen- Americas (MT 22-4, “Genetic Discovery population of Native Americans.” An iso- sus.” Refines Our View of the Peopling of the lated ancestral Beringian population Schroeder’s recently published paper Americas”). Dr. Malhi explains that would explain the absence of this muta- in Biology Letters further supports the Schroeder’s findings at locus D9S1120 tion in northeast Asia. July ■ 2008 9

While many are aware of Bob’s work ing the original site context. In 2006 Hill this minuscule flake, which represented on Clovis, he also developed a robust began a systematic survey of Paleoindian basal pressure retouch that removed the record of Folsom in the Central Rio sites in the northern San Agustin Plains, lateral ridge of the flute on a Folsom Grande Valley and San Agustin Plains. linking Bob’s superb field maps of paleo- perform. Bob was project geologist during work lake levels with his carefully documented LeTourneau also utilized Bob’s on the Ake Folsom site (Weber 1980) at collections from the area in order to under- Folsom materials for his dissertation re- the northern end of the San Agustin stand Paleoindian adaptations to the rap- search, beginning in 1995. From 2002 to idly changing land- the time of his death, LeTourneau scape in the basin. worked closely with Bob and his collec- This project is sadly tion. This research, primarily concerned on hold. with Folsom lithic technology and In the summer of toolstone use (LeTourneau and Weber 1991, Bob gener- 2004a and b), also included Cody and the ously shared his earliest Archaic. central New Mexico Bob was an expert in many different data with Amick for areas. But unlike many experts, he was his regional studies humble, generous, and genuinely en- of Folsom land use joyed sharing his extensive experience and mobility. Those and knowledge. He once said that he data provided the didn’t view his collection as his own critical linkage for property, but something that ultimately modeling the Fol- belonged to the people of New Mexico. som archaeological With his passing, this unparalleled collec- record throughout tion will be donated to the state of New the Rio Grande Val- Mexico. Bob’s many contributions to ley of New Mexico. Paleoindian research in New Mexico and He also shared his across the country are only beginning to knowledge of local be realized with his passing; we will Bob Weber (right) and Vance Haynes at the lithic resources and sorely miss him but count ourselves for- Mockingbird Gap Clovis site, June 2004. was keen to learn tunate to have come to know and work

BRUCE HUCKELL what had been with such an outstanding man. Plains, the only Paleoindian excavation found outside his field research area. The conducted in that part of New Mexico. remarkable depth of Bob’s understanding –Bruce B. Huckell, Vance T. Holliday, Bob’s insights resulted in realizing that of lithic technology was reflected in one of Daniel S. Amick, Philippe D. LeTourneau, the Folsom materials were redeposited in the small waste flakes he collected. Many Matthew E. Hill, C. Vance Haynes, the middle Holocene, and also in identify- might have overlooked the significance of Marcus J. Hamilton

the Mockingbird Gap Clovis Site: Results New Mexico. Current Research in the Suggested Readings of the 2006 Field Season. Current Research Pleistocene 21:60–62. in the Pleistocene 24: 102–04. Alexander, L. E. 1997 A Biography of Weber, R. H. 1980 Geology of the Ake Robert Harrison Weber. In Layers of Huckell, B. B., V. T. Holliday, M. Hamilton, site. In The Ake Site: Collection and Ex- Time, Papers in Honor of Robert H. We- C. Sinkovec, C. Merriman, M. S. Shackley, cavation of LA 13423, Catron County, ber, edited by M. S. Duran and D. T. R. H. Weber 2008 (in review) The Mock- New Mexico, edited by P.H. Beckett, pp. Kirkpatrick, pp. 1–12. The Archaeologi- ingbird Gap Clovis Site: 2007 Investiga- 221–38. New Mexico State University, cal Society of New Mexico 23, Albu- tions. Current Research in the Pleistocene Department of Sociology and Anthro- querque. 25. pology, Cultural Resources Manage- Huckell, B. B., V. T. Holliday, R. H. Weber, ment Division Report 357, Las Cruces. LeTourneau, P., and R. H. Weber 2004a and J. H. Mayer 2006 Archaeological ——— 1997 Geology of Mockingbird and Geological Test Investigations at the Folsom Occupation in Socorro County, New Mexico. Paper presented at the 69th Gap Site in Central New Mexico. In Lay- Mockingbird Gap Clovis Site, Central ers of Time, Papers in Honor of Robert H. New Mexico. Current Research in the Annual Meeting of the Society for Ameri- can Archaeology, Montreal. Weber, edited by M. S. Duran and D. T. Pleistocene 23:115–16. Kirkpatrick, pp. 115–22. The Archaeo- Huckell, B. B., V. T. Holliday, and R. H. ——— 2004b Distribution of Edwards logical Society of New Mexico 23, Albu- Weber 2007 Test Investigations at Chert Folsom Artifacts in Socorro County, querque.

Totally separate fields of expertise all It will take some time for solidly set ideas movements of people and when they oc- point to the possibility of a relatively re- regarding the rate of molecular evolu- curred. Genetics and archaeology are cent colonization of the Americas. Kemp tion to be reconsidered. Kemp con- coming together. Now we are putting is confident anthropology is getting its cludes, “Ask me in 20 years if I haven’t fine scale detail on it, like the peopling of brain around human prehistory and mi- completely revised this, but I think we the Americas.” grations. Science, however, is cautious. pretty much have it down—the major continued on page 16 10 Volume 23 ■ Number 3 PaleoamericansPaleoamericans inin ChileChile TheThe EvidenceEvidence fromfrom QuebradaQuebrada SantaSanta JuliaJulia

Méndez drawing the profile of the Quebrada Santa Julia excavation. DONALD JACKSON

ESPITE MORE THAN A CENTURY OF RESEARCH, our Quebrada Santa Julia, yielded deeply buried cultural remains understanding of the initial peopling of South America dating to approximately 13,000 CALYBP—just about the same remains tantalizingly incomplete. It’s not just that the time that the Clovis culture in North America was coming to an Dcontinent offers surprises like Monte Verde, which suggest that end. our New World colonization models may be overdue for a paradigm shift; there are also substantial chronological and Science, not serendipity geographical gaps in the archaeological record. But thanks to Several years before Quebrada Santa Julia was discovered, Donald Jackson, César Méndez, and their colleagues, we now Jackson and Méndez published a paper pointing out that all have a much better idea of who some of the first South Ameri- Pleistocene archaeological sites in Chile had, up to that point, cans were. been discovered fortuitously. “Therefore, we thought that Dr. Jackson and Dr. Méndez, both of the Department of chance was leading our knowledge of the early peopling of this Anthropology at the University of Chile’s Santiago campus, area,” Méndez points out. “We believe this scenario isn’t par- specialize in the early peopling of Chile’s semiarid northern ticular to Chile. Talking to foreign colleagues and reading their Pacific coast. Until recently, not a single indisputable Paleo- papers has corroborated [the idea] that the situation in the american site was known in that region—mostly, they say, southern cone is pretty similar to the one we observed. In the because of a lack of appropriate re- paper, we called for a search strategies. In 2003 they set out to research strategy in change that, assembling a crack team of which archaeological investigators who initiated a search pro- problems led our gram using relic Pleistocene landforms searches; only in that as their guide. Aiding them were con- manner would we be servationist Roxana Seguel, geologist able to develop strate- Gabriel Vargas, and Antonio Maldo- gies that searched for nado, a specialist in arid-zone ecologies. sites deliberately, It wasn’t long before they identified sev- rather than just found eral promising sites in a 29-km2 area in them accidentally.” the Los Vilos region. One of these sites, Based on regional knowledge obtained Field crew excavating the over several decades Paleoamerican occupation level at of work, it became Quebrada Santa Julia during the clear to Jackson and

2005 field season. CÉSAR MÉNDEZ Méndez that there July ■ 2008 11

were two basic types of ever found at all—and it might not have been, if the early archaeological team hadn’t been specifically looking for sites just sites in Chile: surface like it. “palimpsests,” signifi- cantly deflated sites with Perseverance rewarded poor integrity that are While serendipity had little to do with Quebrada easily visible and easily Santa Julia’s discovery, you have to give Mother Na- discovered; and deeply ture credit for a little help. The site was so deeply buried sites with intact buried that it was protected from the ravages of time contextual integrity. The for millennia, but it’s cur- latter are obviously the rently located on the edge of a more valuable, because ravine that drains to the Pa- they’re easier to date and cific Ocean just 3.5 km (2.1 mi) to the west. Erosion had Excavating the stake imprint feature ▲ prepared a complete 10-m in the Paleoamerican occupation level profile with classic layer-cake at Quebrada Santa Julia. stratigraphy, which a close ▲ In situ quartz instrument. examination proved con- tained not only Pleistocene interpret; but they’re also vastly more difficult to discover, faunal remains but diagnostic since they’re basically invisible from the surface and impos- artifacts as well. sible to find without a great deal of effort. These sites 05 Quebrada Santa Julia is a require the application of a good predictive model to be cm superb example of an occupa-

discovered at all. BOTH: CLAUDIA CONTRERAS AND GLORIA ROMÁN tion that was quickly and ef- Hence the Los Vilos survey program, which focused on iden- fectively sealed away by fluvial deposits, and then even more tifying and investigating old Pleistocene landscapes. Their sur- vey model was rewarded with 24 sites that produced Pleistocene faunal remains. Three sites—El Membrillo, Quereo, and Quebrada Santa Julia—yielded cultural materials along with the bones. El Membrillo offers a radiocarbon date of 16,000 CALYBP in association with lithic artifacts; but it’s one of those deflated palimpsest sites, so its integrity is suspect. Of the two remaining sites, only Quebrada Santa Julia produced diagnostic Paleo- american artifacts, in this case from a cultural deposit fully 10 m (33 ft) below the surface. Considering the great depth, it seems a miracle the site was

● Archaeological site ▲ Pollen profile ■ Lithic source Relic dune field 1 Quebrada Santa Julia 2 Quereo 3 El Membrillo 4 Nagué I and II 5 Palo Colorado 6 Caimanes 7 Taguatagua

completely buried by repeated flooding. Apparently the site originated on the shores of a small lake. Although there’s evi- dence of a high-energy event at one point—this is indicated by a poorly sorted cobbly layer about 8 m down—the fluvial environ- ment was mostly a gentle one: The majority of the deposits are fine-grained flood couplets interleaved with organic peat layers. AFTER CÉSAR MÉNDEZ As a result, preservation and contextual integrity are excellent. 12 Volume 23 ■ Number 3

▲ Processed horse remains

Quebrada Santa Julia artifacts: Fluted quartz preform. were also collected from the Retouched silicified tuff flake in situ. ▲ occupation zone. No cut- marks were observed on the “Regarding the site-formation Equus bone, but the way the processes,” says Jackson, “we bones were fractured and the would have to say that these fact that they were in close are not only unique in terms association with a hearth of the large sediment deposit suggest they resulted from covering the Pleistocene oc- food processing. The lack of cupation, but also because of visible rodent and carnivore the high integrity of the re- disturbances further indi- mains we found. This integ- cates that these articles were 02 rity is especially manifested in CLAUDIA CONTRERAS AND GLORIA ROMÁN still in primary context when cm

the resolution of associations, which clearly show a distinct MARCELA ROUBILLAR found (and, incidentally, that activity area with artifacts, extinct faunal bones, a hearth and the site was quickly buried). The hearth itself contained char- other features.” coal, unburnt wood, a small amount of burnt bone, and a sharp- An 8-cm-thick layer of peat forms the Paleoamerican occupa- ened wooden artifact—possibly a stake. Perhaps even more tion level. Among the artifacts recovered from it were expedient intriguing, if only because of their great rarity, were several stone tools made from coarse-grained silicified tuff: a retouched associated soil features; given their morphology, contours, and flake, several other flakes, a scraper, a graver, and a unidirec- depth, they may be post molds. This leads one to wonder, Was tional core. Most of the lithic assemblage, however, consisted of the wooden artifact once embedded in one of the observed soil chipped quartz crystal, including a bifacial projectile-point blank features, before one of the occupants removed it and tossed it that apparently snapped in two during the fluting process. A into the remains of the fire? And what type of structure might it partial fluting flake that refitted to the blank was found nearby, have been a part of? along with more than 190 quartz flakes. Interestingly, the near- Jackson and Méndez remain noncommittal on this point. est source of quartz is the Caimanes area, 30 km (18 mi) inland; “Both the features and the wooden artifact were found in close this strongly suggests a rather wide-ranging resource procure- proximity to each other, and to the hearth,” they report. “Never- ment area for the people who occupied the site. But why quartz? theless, it’s very difficult to be certain of a particular function, “We’re far from knowing the real motivations for their lithic until further excavations report more meaningful evidence or resource selection, besides such commonly discussed at- similar artifacts. The more plausible scenarios are that these tributes as knapping quality, abundance, and avail- ability,” say Jackson and Méndez. “Nevertheless, it’s interesting to note that several early projectile point specimens along the western slope of the Andes are manufactured on quartz and quartz crystal. For in- stance, sites in northern Perú, ascribed to the Paiján complex, are known for the use of this raw material in projectile-point production. Also, in central Chile, Lautaro Núñez identified fishtail projectile points manufactured with quartz at the Taguatagua site, where several mastodons were butchered. Though we can’t yet ascertain symbolic reasons in stone tool production, we shouldn’t disregard the possibility of such factors in the cultural trends of early Ameri- cans.” The preform itself closely resembles a Clovis blank. Especially interesting is the biface style of manufacture: As with most Clovis points, a “nipple” was prepared at the base before the channel flake was struck off. This is extremely uncommon in regional Paeloamerican points, which tend toward the fishtail type in any case.

The lower portion of the Quebrada Santa Julia stratigraphic profile, showing radiocarbon ages for the bottommost strata (including the

Paleoamerican occupation level). CÉSAR MÉNDEZ July ■ 2008 13

were part of the stakes holding up a light habitation, or some said, the discovery of Caimanes just before the occupation of kind of structure associated with the function of the hearth.” Quebrada Santa Julia isn’t beyond the realm of possibility; it had to have occurred at some point. Not quite oceanfront property Right now it’s hard to say exactly who the Santa Julians Although Quebrada Santa Julia is located relatively near the actually were, and whom they derived from. One thing Jackson modern coast, that doesn’t signify much. Remember, this is and Méndez are sure of is that Quebrada Santa Julia isn’t related where the site is lo- in any way to Monte Verde, the famous cated relative to the pre-Clovis site in south-central Chile, ocean today, during a because the chronologies and artifact warm interglacial pe- assemblages don’t match. Otherwise, riod. Back in the ter- they say, “It’s too soon yet for establish- minal Pleistocene, a ing direct cultural affinities; Santa Julia great deal of the and the other new sites should be stud- world’s water was se- ied more. We plan to continue our re- questered in the search in the coming years, excavating great continental ice the sites with new research questions in sheets, so the sea mind.” level was substan- Obviously Quebrada Santa Julia is tially depressed. During the site’s ini- Conservationist Roxana Seguel (right) tial occupation, the and student excavating.

oceans were about CLAUDIA CONTRERAS AND GLORIA ROMÁN 70 m below their present level and Quebrada Santa Julia was as contemporary with Clovis; the recorded age of the occupation much as 8 km (4.8 mi) away from the ocean, which probably level proves that. Given the fluted biface and its Clovis affinities, explains the lack of evidence for maritime food resources or the it’s tempting to posit a Clovis link—either through direct immi- technology used to exploit them. gration from the north, or by means of cultural diffusion. Could The earliest known coastal adaptation in the region, the we be looking at a Clovis outlier this far south? Huentelauquén complex, was an Like all good scientists, Jack- early-Holocene manifestation—one son, Méndez, and their team are that Jackson and Méndez don’t be- cautious about reading too lieve was related at all, either tempo- much into the possibility; as rally or culturally, to the occupation they point out, it’s always best to at Quebrada Santa Julia. Further- sit tight and wait for whatever more, sites of the Huentelauquén the new evidence tells us. It’s complex are clearly oriented toward too easy to jump to the wrong exploiting maritime resources; they conclusions with only rudimen- display a specialized technology and tary data. In this case, if wishes show evidence of intense consump- were horses, Clovis would tion of mollusks, fish, seabirds, and ride—all the way to South sea lions by the occupants. This is America. not the case for Quebrada Santa –Floyd Largent Julia, where horse was on the menu. “Most probably,” Jackson and Jackson during Quebrada Méndez suspect, “the occupants had Santa Julia site discovery.

an inland resource exploitation and MARCELA LUCERO settlement pattern, despite the proximity to the coast.” They do believe, however, that the Santa Julians were the first How to contact the principals of this article: settlers of the region; this is consistent with both their research Donald Jackson and César Méndez experience and the very early dates for the peat in which the Departamento de Antropología artifacts were embedded. “All the evidence we’ve found at Facultad de Ciencias Sociales Quebrada Santa Julia,” they say, “is consistent with the expecta- Universidad de Chile tions for an initial occupation; among other things, there’s a Av. Ignacio Carrera Pinto 1045 discrete occupation, no site redundancy, expedient use of local Santiago, Chile 6850331 lithic materials, and a transportable artifact kit.” It can be ar- e-mail: [email protected] [email protected] gued, of course, that the Santa Julians were already well estab- lished in the Los Vilos region by then; lacking a preexisting trade Roxana Seguel network to tap into, they must have been familiar enough with Centro Nacional de Conservación y Restauración, DIBAM the area to be aware of the quartz deposits at Caimanes. That e-mail: [email protected] 14 Volume 23 ■ Number 3

BSIDIAN IS VOLCANIC GLASS, usually black. When Western Stemmed points are usually large lanceolate fractured, it yields shards with edges more than 100 points with prominent hafting stems and round, square, or times sharper than a steel scalpel. Like flint, obsidian sometimes slightly concave bases (they are often referred to Ocan be chipped into lethal projectile points of varying shapes as “indented”). Lithics authority C. Melvin Aikens notes that and sizes. Fortunately for archaeologists, the age of a point varieties of these points are “found everywhere west of the chipped from obsidian can be determined by gauging the Rockies” and date from 10,500 to 7500 RCYBP (about 12,300– amount of water absorbed into anciently fractured surfaces. 8500 CALYBP). Washington’s Kennewick Man (MT 17-3, -4, Archaeologist Daron Duke of Far Western Anthropological “When Science and Politics Collide”) and Nevada’s Spirit Research Group, Inc., Tim Carpenter of ArchaeoMetrics in Cave Man (MT 12-2, “Remarkable Discovery”) date to California, and David this period. Indeed, Page of the Desert Re- Kennewick Man has search Institute in Ne- what is likely a Western vada have applied ob- Through a Glass Darkly: Stemmed point lodged in sidian hydration dating his pelvis. to a sample of more than A similar style of point 400 spear points from with a stem divided into western Utah—Topaz two segments, or lobes, is Mountain is the largest called a Pinto point. Some 05 single source of obsidian cm researchers have argued in their study—and that Pinto points are part they’ve made surprising of a separate, later cul- discoveries about the tural tradition, while oth- relative ages of various ers think they should be types of points. One type, included within the West- known as the Pinto point, ern Stemmed Tradition. turns out to be consider- ably older than generally Determining the age thought. DARON DUKE ABCD of stone tools In order to establish the Western Stemmed (A, B) and Pinto (C, D) artifacts with thin- Morphology defines age of a particular style of section cuts made for hydration analysis. the point spear point, arrowhead, The changing patterns or knife made of flint, the of function and style blade must be found in a make spear points use- reliable context, such as a ful indicators of cultural Dating Obsidian Points secure level, or stratum, change over time and within an archaeological across space. Clovis site. The level must also points, for example, are recognized as one of the earliest contain, in close association with the point, organic material widespread types of spear points in North America. They such as charcoal or bone, which can be dated using radiocarbon have been found in sites from Alaska to northern Mexico technology. The resulting radiocarbon date can be applied to all ranging in age from 13,250 to 12,800 CALYBP (MT 22-3, artifacts, including chipped-flint points, found in that level. “Clovis Dethroned”). Artifacts made from obsidian, unlike flint, don’t suffer from In the Great Basin, a this limitation. Because of a number of other point types special property of obsidian, have been defined based tools chipped from it can be primarily on the character- dated directly using a tech- istics of their bases, which nique known as obsidian hydra- reflect differences in how tion dating. the point was hafted to the Despite its glassy, brittle sur- spear shaft—or knife face, obsidian has this in com- handle, since blades can be mon with a sponge: It absorbs used as knives as effectively water over time. By knocking as spear tips. Many of the off a flake from a block, or core, earliest varieties of Great Basin points are lumped to- Tim Carpenter at the micro- gether in what has come to scope making digital hydration be known as the Western measurements on computer

Stemmed Tradition. TIM CARPENTER screen enlargement. July ■ 2008 15

a flintknapper (in this case, an obsidian- the early readings according to the local chronology.) knapper) exposes a fresh surface of obsid- Since most of these artifacts were surface finds, wind- ian to air. Once new material is exposed, blown sand will have abraded the hydration layer in water molecules begin slowly to diffuse into most cases. Duke and his colleagues the obsidian, creating an ever-increasing therefore took their samples from a kind of layer, or rind. The thickness of the rind is a flake scar along the artifact edge known as measure of elapsed time. a step fracture, which protected the sur- Unfortunately, the rate at which the wa- face from direct exposure to wind. This ter absorbs into the obsidian isn’t fixed or precautionary measure helped prevent the constant. Instead, it depends on a variety of effects of wind abrasion from skewing the factors. According to Alexander Rogers of date of an artifact exposed to the elements the Maturango Museum in Ridgecrest, for long periods of time. California, the rate of absorption, or hydra- They found that Western Stemmed tion, depends on the chemistry of the ob- points had an average hydration layer sidian (the “intrinsic water content of the thickness of 9 microns, about 0.0004 inch. glass”) and the temperature and relative That translates to an age of between 10,000 humidity of the environment. By taking and 8500 RCYBP. Although Pinto points these variables into account, scientists can had a slightly greater average thickness, a calculate the age of an obsidian artifact from the thickness of the much smaller sample and larger standard deviation make the hydration layer, or at least confidently sort them in relative measurement less reliable than that for Western Stemmed temporal order. points. In fact, based on the current sample, Pinto points may even be slightly older than the Western Stemmed Tradition. Applying obsidian hydration dating to Paleoindian It’s clear, however, that Western Stemmed and Pinto points points were more or less contemporaneous in the Great Basin. Duke, Carpenter, and Page decided to take advantage of the That the two point types were approximately coeval is special nature of obsidian to significant because it means that, in this case, the two distinc- work out the ages of various tive types of spear points don’t reflect changing styles styles of spear points found in through time. Possibly they represent different social groups, the Great Basin. Their re- DARON DUKE each possessing a unique spear point. But if that were the sults, reported in the 2007 case, then you’d expect to find each type restricted to an area volume of Current Research that was the home range of the proprietary group. Since the in the Pleistocene, provide “a two types are similarly distributed, however, it suggests the much-needed clarification of same group used the two kinds of points for specialized Paleoindian point typology” Step purposes. Perhaps, for example, one type was used as a knife, in this region. fracture the other to tip a spear. They obtained obsidian hy- Duke, Carpenter, dration dates for over 400 and Page conclude Western Stemmed and Pinto their paper with the

points, making it the largest TIM CARPENTER observation that collection of early Great Ba- “work continues to- sin points so far assembled ward increasing our for this purpose. Obsidian from sample and finding Utah’s Topaz Mountain constituted functional reasons for the largest single source of material the concurrent usage represented in the sample. Points of these two distinct made from this source included 164 morphological Proximal Western Stemmed, 36 Pinto, 22 types.” Future re- cross section Elko, 37 Rosegate, and 7 Desert. search may help (Elko, Rosegate, and Desert points clarify the issues of postdate the Paleoindians and were used to situate age and function. Nevertheless Duke, Carpenter, and Page In this cross section of the edge of a Western have demonstrated Stemmed point, windblown sand has eroded that Pinto points are the hydration band on the exposed edge of every bit as old as the step fracture. But in the protected area, Western Stemmed the remnant of the attached flake has pre- points. served the pristine surface. –Bradley Lepper 16 Volume 23 ■ Number 3

How to contact the principals of this article: Suggested Readings Daron Duke Aikens, C. M. 2006 Paleo-Indian: West. Handbook of North Ameri- can Indians, volume 3, edited by Douglas Ubelaker, pp. 194–207. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. P.O. Box 758 Duke, D. 2008 Obsidian Hydration Chronologies for the Great Salt Virginia City, NV 89440 Lake Desert. In The Archaeology of Shifting Environments in the e-mail: [email protected] Great Salt Lake Desert: A Geoarchaeological Sensitivity Model and Relative Chronology for the Cultural Resources of the US Air Force Tim Carpenter Utah Test and Training Range, edited by D. C. Young, pp. 73–98. ArchaeoMetrics Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis. Submit- 414 Buena Tierra ted to Select Engineering Services, Inc., Roy, and Hill Air Force Base, Utah. [The vast majority of the points reviewed in Current Woodland, CA 95695-4719 Research in the Pleistocene, vol. 24, were originally studied for this e-mail: [email protected] article.] David Page Duke, D., T. Carpenter, and D. Page 2007 New Obsidian Hydra- tion Findings Suggest the Use of Split-Stem Points by Great Basin Desert Research Institute Paleoindians. Current Research in the Pleistocene, 24:80–82. 2215 Raggio Parkway Rogers, A. K. 2007 Effective Hydration Temperature of Obsidian: Reno, NV 89512 A Diffusion Theory Analysis of Time-Dependent Hydration Rates. e-mail: [email protected] Journal of Archaeological Science, 34(4): 656–65.

Caveman Sinks His Teeth into Genetics Pullman, WA 99164-4910 [email protected] continued from page 9 David Glenn Smith It takes courage to make such a bold predictive statement, Molecular Anthropology Laboratory but Kemp, a scientist, knows even if all these assertions and Department of Anthropology conclusions are someday revised or even reversed, they won’t University of California have been produced in vain. Science builds upon science, new One Shields Avenue conclusions generate new questions, and there is no misdirec- Davis, CA 95616 tion, only exploration. Newton, Copernicus and Edison would [email protected] all certainly agree. Ripan Malhi –Dale Graham Assistant Professor Department of Anthropology How to contact the principals of this article: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Brian M. Kemp 185 Davenport Hall Assistant Professor 607 Matthews Ave. Department of Anthropology Urbana, IL 61801 Washington State University [email protected]

lithic evidence of a potential human occupation below the rich Paleoamerican Origins Workshop Clovis component at the Gault site in central Texas, where artifacts associated with biface manufacture were found below a continued from page 3 stratigraphic unconformity dated to 13,310 ± 830 RCYBP. On to approximately 18,000 RCYBP. Al Goodyear (Director of neighboring property the Texas A&M excavation team also SEPAS, University of South Carolina) reported evidence for an recovered evidence to support early occupation in Texas; Mike early occupation at the Topper site. Topper’s flaked-tool assem- Waters reported a biface tip and fragment found in brown clay blage, dominated by a bend-break technology, is associated with stratigraphically below the Clovis component at the Buttermilk dates ranging from 15,000 to as early as 50,000 RCYBP. Creek site. At the Burnham site in Oklahoma, Don Wycoff (Sam Launching brief updates on the excavation status at sites with Nobel Oklahoma Museum) cited evidence that’s small but sig- potential pre-Clovis-age components was Dennis Stanford nificant: a component with 51 small flakes that are possible (Smithsonian Institution), whose presentation stimulated inter- remnants of tool retouch flaking, 4 of them associated with a est in the Eastern shoreline. He reports that three sites on the bison skull. The site has been generally dated to before Clovis at Delmarva Peninsula (Five Miles Point, Paw Paw Cove, and 22,000–35,000 RCYBP. Jefferson Island) have diagnostic Clovis artifacts. At Five Miles Mike Collins reminded scholars not to overlook Monte Point in particular there is evidence of a blade and biface technol- Verde I as early evidence of human occupation in Chile. He ogy in a stratigraphic unit below the Clovis component. Moving reiterated that humans, following a coastal entry, may have been back down to the Southern Plains, Michael Collins described the agents that produced the basalt core and flakes and two July ■ 2008 17

hammerstones recovered from the pre-Clovis-age component (Department of Anthropology, Oregon State University) cited from Monte Verde I. Andrei Tabarev, visiting from the Insti- evidence supporting a Pacific coastal entry, reviewed alterna- tute of Archaeology at the Russian Academy of Sciences, gave tive models for an early human coastal entry, and encouraged scholars a view of the Far East. Reviewing both bifacial and a geoarchaeological perspective for testing coastal sites for unifacial technologies, he pointed out commonalities in the pre-Clovis-age components. In the final presentation, Dennis Clovis record from North America and the Paleolithic record Stanford and Bruce Bradley (University of Exeter) revisited from Siberia that sup- their theory of an Iberian connection, offering evi- port an early-entry dence from the Atlantic coastline. Stanford suggested model via Beringia. In that the progenitor of Clovis was a Solutrean technol- the final presentation ogy from northern Spain. of the day, Doug The final, and possibly the critical, portion of the Owsley (National Mu- conference was an open discussion. Under the mod- seum of Natural His- eration of Collins, Goebel, Goodyear, Stanford, tory, Smithsonian In- and Waters, scholars had the opportunity to voice stitution) reported on skeletal evidence. Cra- Neal Lopinot (left), co-investigator of the Big Eddy nial morphometric site in Missouri, banters with Smithsonian comparisons, he ar- archaeologist Dennis Stanford. gues, suggest that Paleoamericans show greater morphological affinities to their interpretations of potential pre-Clovis sites and to explore Polynesians, Europeans, and the Ainu than to modern American the broader context of early human occupation in the New Indian populations. World. Not only did scholars hear evidence for early human occupa- tion, they also got the chance to examine firsthand assemblages Peering into the future from potential pre-Clovis-age sites. Among the extensive assem- It seems the tide has turned. Difficult though it is to reach blages on display were cutmarks on Mud Lake mammoth long consensus among scholars, the members of this esteemed con- bones; a conical core found at Five Miles Point, Delmarva vocation unanimously agreed that today every archaeologist Peninsula; a graver spur on a bend-break flake and a large flake must dig deeper. As Clovis becomes securely defined and poten- core from the Topper site, South Carolina; Gainey points from tial pre-Clovis sites are identified, it is now our obligation as the Big Eddy site, Missouri; a biface found below Clovis deposits scientists to continue testing to find answers to the questions, at Buttermilk Creek, Texas; blade-like flakes from Cactus Hill, Who were the First Americans? When did they arrive in the New Virginia; small flakes from buried deposits at the Burnham World? To answer these significant questions we must go be- Bison site, Oklahoma; a collection of possible artifacts from yond what we know and start looking for what we don’t know. Calico Hills, California; and slides Scholars are encouragingly optimis- showing extraterrestrial particles col- tic about the future of First Ameri- lected as evidence for a catastrophic cans studies. Such sites as Paisley Pleistocene/Holocene transition. Cave in Oregon and the Hebior and Schaefer sites of Wisconsin have Day 3: Model building caught their attention. Presenters discussed migration mod- The Paleoamerican Origins confer- els, then assessed how well reported ence, by informing scientists of pre- sites fit models explaining the peo- pling of the Americas. Our author/photographer, Ashley Gary Haynes (University of Ne- Smallwood, and Tom Pertierra, who vada at Reno) and Stuart Fiedel organized the workshop. (Louis Berger Group), both steadfast critics of theories that purport pre-Clovis human presence, ques- Clovis evidence already in hand, promises exciting discoveries tioned why the first human dispersal into the Americas is still so in the future. To find conclusive proof of human presence in the poorly understood. For Fiedel, potential pre-Clovis sites still New World prior to the Clovis people, we have to open our lack credible stratigraphic and artifactual evidence to argue the minds, maintain a critical eye, and keep searching. case for early occupation in the New World. Mike Collins, quick to disagree, countered that evidence of early human entry About the author Ashley Smallwood, a doctoral candidate can be found and that dispersal models should recognize that in Anthropology at Texas A&M University, is a supervisor on humans concentrate subsistence efforts on ecotones and water- the Clovis Hillside excavation at the Topper site in South way edges. To account for a pre-Clovis occupation, Collins Carolina. The quarry-related site allows her to pursue her turned his attention to human entry by watercraft along “edges” interests in Clovis technology and mobility. The principal or by routes along the northern coastal margins of North goal of her dissertation is to study site-level data to evaluate America. Expanding on possible entry routes, Loren Davis Clovis dispersion in the American Southeast. 18 Volume 23 ■ Number 3

HAT WOULD HAPPEN if a comet struck the Earth? It’s widespread famine even after the worst effects had passed. an unsettling thought, made even more so by abundant Although the concept of a nuclear winter received plenty of Wgeological evidence that it has, in fact, happened be- criticism in its early years, later real-world experience showed fore—and not just once or twice, but many times throughout that it was valid. When Saddam Hussein lit off 526 Kuwaiti oil our planet’s history. Indeed, according to a study recently wells during Gulf War I, tons of particulate matter released into published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci- the atmosphere rendered the region pitch-black at noon and ences, the last such impact may have occurred just 12,900 years dropped local temperatures as much as 10 degrees. ago—practically yesterday, in geologic terms. If that time The nuclear-winter theory was later expanded and refined frame sounds auspicious, it should: It coincides with the de- by scientists working in a variety of fields. Volcanologists, for mise of the last great Pleistocene megafauna and the end of the example, have collected copious data demonstrating that cata- clysmic volcanic eruptions, like the 1883 Krakatoa explosion, do indeed affect the climate; and now there’s evidence that a significant extraterrestrial (ET) impact, by injecting massive amounts of vaporized rock and soil into the atmosphere, would produce exactly the same effect. A firestorm THE would follow, caused by the initial thermal pulse and the scattering of burning debris from the crater. The fires would pump even more particulates into the air in the form of smoke and soot, which winds of the upper atmosphere would spread far and wide. If CLOVIS COMET the impact were large enough (like the one implicated in the extinction of the dino- saurs), the atmospheric contamination could result in years of icy darkness. Even Part III: after the sun came out again, the ecological impact could last for decades or centuries— The Implications or perhaps longer.

Over in a flash According to the Clovis Comet theory, the Clovis culture—the first widespread, archaeologically distinct highly fragmented object that hit the Earth almost 13,000 years human occupation in North America. ago was relatively small—at most, 3–4 kilometers across be- Parts I and II of this series outlined the basics of the Clovis fore it broke up far out in space. Unfortunately, it happened to Comet theory and discussed more than a dozen converging impact the kilometers-thick Laurentide ice sheet of eastern lines of evidence that led to its development by geophysicist Canada, kicking off a thousand-year cooling event called the Allen West, physicist Richard Firestone, archaeologist Al Younger Dryas Interval. Aside from its horrific short-term Goodyear, and a multidisciplinary team of 24 effects, “the conditions of other scientists. In this installment, we’ll the impact itself triggered take a closer look at the implications of the long-term changes,” points purported comet strike. out Dr. West. “The Younger Dryas is an example of the A long, cold winter latter. Fresh water from the In the early 1980s, astrophysicist Carl Sagan ice sheet melted into the and several of his colleagues published a North Atlantic, and the study in which they argued that even a lim- pulse of water basically shut ited nuclear war would leave a pall of soot down ocean circulation. and dust in the atmosphere that would linger This caused the cooling to for months, possibly years. Their climatic go on for a thousand years.” models predicted a long, dark “nuclear win- The short-term effects ter,” in which average global temperatures devastated anything living might drop as much as 20–30 degrees— in the region. Regardless of enough to kill staple food crops, resulting in whether the comet im- pacted Earth or exploded Comet Encke: A surviving before hitting the ground, fragment of the Clovis Comet? NASA shock waves radiated July ■ 2008 19

through the atmosphere in all directions, generating high For humans who survived the canopy of fire, the immediate winds that shredded vegetation, literally blew away people and effects were over in less than a day. But because of enormous animals within hundreds of miles of the impact, and possibly volumes of supersaturated soot, steam, and dust kicked up into scooped out the series of elliptical depressions in the American the atmosphere by an ET impact of this scale, it remained cloudy Southeast known as the Carolina Bays (their axes all point and dark for weeks or months afterward—and it likely got very toward eastern Canada). Soon thereafter, the atmosphere cold. Many survivors of the impact doubtless succumbed soon rushing out of the impact area came roaring back in a second- to the brutal environmental conditions. “They would have been facing day-to-day life in what was essentially a nuclear ho- Clovis Points The Redstones locaust environment,” says ~13,125–12,925 CALYBP ~12,900–12,500 CALYBP West. “The water was tainted, most animals and plants were killed, and the comet intro- duced relatively high levels of arsenic, radioactive thorium, and other poisons into the en- vironment.” Given this grim scenario, it’s reasonable to assume that the Clovis culture was severely affected by the event. Humanity may even

, 2006, VOL. 10, NO. 2, “THE SOUTHEASTERN have been rendered locally extinct in some parts of LEGACY North America. Although it appears that Clovis was im- mediately succeeded by PALEOAMERICAN SURVEY.” ART WORK BY JAMES LEGG AND DARBY ERD. PUBLISHED IN daughter cultures like Fol- Clovis and post-Clovis Redstone point distributions, showing som and Plainview in some Western regions, there’s evidence reduced number of post-Clovis points in South Carolina. that even these cultures were severely depopulated compared with Clovis. In some parts of the continent, several hundred ary shock wave with similar effects. The fireball produced by years may have passed before the human population re- the impact or air burst emitted a thermal pulse that flash-fried bounded to archaeologically significant levels. This appears to the environment for hundreds of miles around. “The combina- be the case for the American Southeast, where archaeologist tion of heat and shock wave was enough to set fires all over the Albert Goodyear has found evidence that the human popula- place,” West says. “At every place we have looked there is a tion was spread much thinner after the beginning of the peak of charcoal at the beginning of the Younger Dryas era.” Younger Dryas than it had been before. Charcoal peaks have been found in terminal Clovis sediments throughout North America, and even as far away as Belgium. A clear demographic break Several years ago, Dr. Goodyear—who is probably best known A grim fate for his work at the Topper Paleoamerican site in South Caro- Many Clovis individuals and bands doubtless survived the lina—was working to clarify the place of Redstone fluted pro- comet impact, but apparently their culture as a whole did not, jectile points within the South Carolina Paleoindian Point largely because the ecology collapsed around them. According Database. “I was reclassifying certain fluted points as Redstone to West, most of the megafauna probably went extinct within a that had previously been misclassified as Clovis,” he recalls. matter of weeks. “There were grass and tree fires on a huge Redstone is the point type thought to come immediately after scale,” he explains. “Imagine what would happen if you had Clovis in the mid-South region. Although Redstones closely millions of animals without grass and leaves to eat. The most resemble Clovis points, several technological features distin- significant kill mechanism was probably starvation.” Add to guish them from their immediate ancestors. Redstone bases that over-predation on the last surviving large herbivores (by are much more distinctly concave, the points are less humans and other hunters), disease, and the sudden climate excurvate (resulting in a more triangular shape), and the tips change, and the surviving megafaunal populations eventually tend to be sharper. Furthermore, the fluting technique of crashed, leaving species like elk, bison, caribou, and deer as Redstones is fundamentally different from that used to make the largest targets for hunters. Some evidence shows that even Clovis points. Small “guide flutes” found parallel to the main surviving large-animal populations suffered sharp declines. flute in most Redstones suggest these points were fluted using Even if, as some researchers argue, the Clovis people weren’t some kind of instrument-assisted method, rather than by fanatically devoted big-game hunters, they nevertheless faced means of the direct-percussion method favored by Clovis a tragic shortage of food. knappers. Thus, while Redstones are morphologically similar 20 Volume 23 ■ Number 3

to Clovis points in many ways, it’s clear they were made using ever, technologically a Redstone is essentially a Gainey-Vail- a different lithic-reduction strategy. This suggests, in turn, that Debert-type point. Those sites yield almost pure instrument- they were created by another culture—probably a daughter assisted fluted assemblages. In the case of Debert, it dates to culture of Clovis, but distinctly different. 10,590 RCYBP, and in the case of Vail, to 10,518 RCYBP. To put it After completing his reassessment, Goodyear says, “I found another way, a Gainey is a Yankee Redstone, or a Redstone is a that I had from four to five times more Clovis points than Southern Gainey. They’re virtually indistinguishable.” Redstones. This seemed odd, as no other Paleo point is known to If the Gainey-Vail-Debert continuum of points and Redstone occur with any frequency in the Carolinas after Clovis and before points are in fact synchronous types—perhaps even the same Dalton.” Points of the Dalton culture, which manifests itself widespread type—then they date from a period commencing throughout the American Southeast and has been firmly dated about 300 years after Clovis, suggesting that human populations took a very long time in-

0 4 deed to rebound after the cm Clovis Comet event. What- ever the case, “the dramatic drop in numbers of Red- stones (and Gaineys) after Clovis is an intriguing pat- tern that can be observed from Wisconsin to Florida,” Goodyear observes. “As such, it’s at least suggestive of a population decline over the eastern U.S. I can’t say it’s direct archaeological evidence of a catastrophic impact on human popula- SEPAS SEPAS R. MICHAEL GRAMLY JACK H. RAY

JACK H. RAY tions, but it is a pattern that ABC D E needs to be explained.” Even if (as the evidence A, Clovis point from South Carolina. Post-Clovis points: strongly suggests) there really was a post-Clovis population B, Redstone from North Carolina; C, Gainey from Missouri1; crash, that doesn’t necessarily mean it was caused by a D, Vail from Maine; E, Sedgwick from Missouri2. According to cometary impact. An alternative explanation might be that Neal Lopinot, “Gainey and Redstone are probably one in the post-Clovis peoples in the East migrated to the Plains, possibly same, at least technologically, although they have been named because of climatic considerations, and participated in what we differently in the midcontinent and Southeast, respectively.” know as the Folsom culture. “It would be important, however, to see if there are occupational hiatuses between Clovis and to 10,500–10,000 RCYBP, are up to 20 times more common than Folsom sites, which might indicate some demographic disloca- Redstones in the Carolinas. “I examined the North Carolina and tion,” Goodyear says. “And, most importantly, we need to see if Virginia data,” he says, “and found essentially the same thing: there’s a drop in the number of Folsom sites that date in the more Clovis points, and much fewer deeply concave-based two or three centuries following the end of Clovis. If this is the Redstone fluted points.” case, it suggests that some kind of decline occurred from the Goodyear reached the conclusion that the human population Rockies to the Atlantic Ocean.” of the entire region abruptly crashed at the end of the Clovis era, In the next issue we’ll conclude the Clovis Comet series possibly as the result of a catastrophic event that killed or forced with a look at mixed responses to the theory in “The Clovis out almost everyone—though he is careful to point out that this Comet, Part IV: Reactions to the Theory.” is by no means a certainty. For one thing, the age of the culture –Floyd Largent that made the Redstone points hasn’t yet been solidly deter- mined by radiometric dating. Based on significant technological How to contact the principals of this article: differences, Goodyear considers the Redstone manufacturing Allen West style to be “post-Clovis” and infers that Redstone points date GeoScience Consulting from after 10,900 RCYBP. “Although first named in the Southeast, Dewey, AZ 86327 they haven’t been excavated or dated there,” he notes. “How- e-mail: [email protected]

1 Ray, Jack H. 2000 Nonexcavated Collections from Big Eddy and Nearby Albert Goodyear Sites. In The 1999 Excavations at the Big Eddy Site (23CE426), edited by South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology Neal H. Lopinot, Jack H. Ray, and Michael D. Conner, pp. 37–68. Special University of South Carolina Publication No. 3. Center for Archaeological Research, Southwest Mis- souri State University, Springfield. Figure 4.3. Columbia, SC 29208 2 ———. Figure 4.2. e-mail: [email protected]