Copyright by Marisol Cortes Rincon 2007
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Copyright by Marisol Cortes Rincon 2007 The Dissertation Committee for Marisol Cortes Rincon Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: A Comparative Study of Fortification Developments Throughout The Maya Region and Implications of Warfare Committee: Fred Valdez, Jr., Supervisor Samuel Wilson Enrique Rodriguez-Alegria Peter H. Dana Palma J. Buttles Traci Ardren A Comparative Study of Fortification Developments Throughout The Maya Region and Implications of Warfare by Marisol Cortes Rincon, B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August, 2007 Dedication To My Beloved Husband, Steven Rincon and My Mother, Margarita Galvis Acknowledgements I was lucky enough to have the support of many people in the production of this dissertation. I would like to acknowledge my family for their undying support throughout this venture. A large part of the success of this research was due to an exceptionally supportive dissertation committee. First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Fred Valdez Jr. He has been an incredible mentor, and an intellectual giant, and his influence of my career and as an archaeology student has been immense. I will always remember him for his kind heart, and patience he always displays towards all of his students. He truly has a passion for teaching, and getting to know his advisees. Dr. Valdez’s contributions to my education, field experience, and my dissertation are immeasurable. The other committee members must also be mentioned - Drs. Samuel Wilson, Enrique Rodriguez-Alegria, Peter H. Dana, Palma J. Buttles, and Traci Ardren have been incredibly supportive of my endeavors. I cannot thank them enough for their kind words and for taking the time out of their busy schedules to serve on my committee. Additionally, Dr. T. Kam Manahan, Co-Project Director of the Proyecto Arqueologico Xuenkal, graciously served on my dissertation committee as an official reader. He provided me a wealth of information, and priceless editorial assistance. Furthermore, he guided me in the right direction throughout my field research at Xuenkal. I am indebted to both Drs. T. Kam Manahan and Traci Ardren for inviting me to join their Proyecto Arqueologico Xuenkal during the 2006 spring and summer seasons. Dr. Manahan has been an incredible source of information. I cannot thank them enough for all their help. v Dr. Peter H. Dana assisted with my Geographical Information Systems (GIS) analysis and queries. He always answered my relentless technical questions with infinite patience. I would have never been able to complete my GIS queries if it had not been for all of his help and encouragement to keep working on the GIS database and spatial analysis, and his most frequent advice: “keep it simple”. Dr. Palma J Buttles provided editorial help. She always made time to answer all my questions and provided me with an infinite number of references. Dr. Sam Wilson assisted me when I first began to put together a database of fortified sites. He helped out in organizing all of the information and statistical analysis. Dr. Enrique Rodriguez- Alegria always challenged me to investigate warfare from many different angles, and to stay on top of the newest research in the Maya lowlands. He made the time to edit my first draft, even though he was heading off to the field. I would also like to thank Drs. Nikolai Grube, Brian Stross, Julia Guernsey, James Denbow, Martha Menchaca, Claud Bramblett, Thomas Hester, James Neely, Peter Dana, Fred Valdez Jr., and Sam Wilson for providing excellent graduate seminars at the University of Texas. I have often said I have been spoiled rotten with my advisors. Dr. Timothy Renner was my advisor as an undergraduate student at Montclair State University. Dr. Renner assisted me with learning Classical Greek, and Classical Latin. Dr. Stanley Walling introduced me to field archaeology at a historic field school in central New Jersey. During that same year, he invited me to join the Programme for Belize Archaeological Project in northwestern Belize. Dr. Walling always encouraged me to push myself harder and most importantly not to settle for anything less than perfection. He has been a supportive advisor, and one of my most cherished friends. I probably would not have pursued a graduate career, if it was not for his constant encouragement. vi Conversations and mutual support from my fellow graduate students helped to stimulate new insights of my research, and provided needed encouragement along the way. At the University of Texas at Austin, Grant Aylesworth, Micaela Obledo, Ann Scott, Elizabeth Reed, Sandra Dias, and most importantly my dearest and closest friend: Rissa Trachmann. She has been a wonderful friend, and provided me with so much help to get through this process. She has been a true friend, and offered a supportive shoulder to lean on. Rissa even went as far to help me out with last minute details, and kept me from losing my very last shred of sanity. I would have never met my deadline without her assistance. Melissa DeVito, a graduate student from Montclair State University, has joined me on the field in Belize, where we shared many great memories. She is my dearest best friend, and has encouraged me all the way throughout graduate school. My childhood friend, Jarrod Feliciano, has offered both editorial assistance, and moral support throughout the way. Most important of all, I would like to thank my family for their undying support - My mother, Margarita, for all her kind of words, and for supporting my career choices. She stayed up with me to make photocopies of my first draft, and assisted with the final edits on the dissertation. Both my mother and husband provided me with an endless font of love and support. My beloved husband has been my rock, the one who kept me going through it all, and believed in me, even when I did not. Thank you for encouraging me every step of the way, for putting up with me through this dissertation process, for being a source of inspiration, and keeping me semi-sane. Thanks for not divorcing me, and for always being there, when I came back from those long lengthy field seasons. vii A Comparative Study of Fortification Developments Throughout The Maya Region and Implications of Warfare Publication No._____________ Marisol Cortes Rincon, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2007 Supervisor: Fred Valdez, Jr. This dissertation presents data to support the continuity of warfare throughout the Maya lowlands, and adjacent regions. I discuss the current problems with the archaeology of warfare, the continuity of conflict beginning with the Late Preclassic through the Terminal Classic. Additionally, I emphasize the influence that Teotihuacan had during the Early Classic throughout Mesoamerica, while in some areas there is evidence of diplomatic and economic relations, there is also clear evidence of forced relations at other sites. Conflict is identified on the archaeological record through the heterarchical analysis of a variety of data encompassing defensive features, settlement patterns, epigraphy, iconography, and forensic data. I examine data from San Jose Mogote, Monte Alban, viii Montana, Izapa, Kaminaljuyu, and sites located within the northern, central, and southern lowlands. The primary goal is to present a cohesive series of war-related events per lowland zone, and chronological time period. Some of the primary questions deal with how land use, and economic trade relations transform political relations and alliances throughout time. Additionally, how do changes in political alliances affect trade routes? By recognizing the important role warfare played in the lowlands, we also recognize how these events affected the elites and their interaction with other polities, and most importantly how these events affected the commoner populace. In the process of investigating conflict throughout the Preclassic and the Classic periods, we can attempt to pinpoint continuities, political and economic changes, and the sociopolitical responses undertaken by polities in a time of war. ix Table of Contents Acknowledgments....................................................................................................v List of Tables .........................................................................................................xv List of Figures...................................................................................................... xvi Chapter 1 Introduction ...........................................................................................1 The Problem and Significance of the Research ..............................................2 Organization of the Volume............................................................................4 Study of Warfare.............................................................................................5 Traditional Views of Maya Warfare...............................................................7 Theoretical Models of Maya Warfare.............................................................8 Indicators of Warfare ...................................................................................11 Forensic................................................................................................12 Structural..............................................................................................12