Black Twitter Representations of #Kavanaugh Hearings

Home , Black Twitter, Christine Blasey Ford

Journal of Research on Women and Gender Volume 10, Pages 43-70

Dorothy Bland and Mia Moody-Ramirez

Abstract This study employs Black Feminist and Critical Race theories to examine tweets that emerged on Black Twitter during the 2018 Kavanaugh Hearings. The primary frame that surfaced was Brett Kavanaugh’s appointment to the post of Supreme Court Justice would be a step backward for both women and Black people. Twitter users voiced support for Blasey Ford while expressing concerns about a racial/political divide, white privilege, and flashbacks to the controversial SCOTUS hearing involving Clarence Thomas and Anita Hill in 1991. Calls to action encouraged people to protest and express their displeasure when they voted in future elections. Study implications provide support for the use of alternative platforms, such as Black Twitter, for women and marginalized groups, as traditional media outlets frequently overlook racial disparities. In this case, Black Twitter offered a viable and visible platform to not only express such concerns, but to also offer directives and solutions for how Black people might play a role in politics. Keywords Black Twitter, sexual assault, Black Feminist theory, Critical Race Theory, framing theory, #MeToo movement, Kavanaugh hearings, Supreme Court

Introduction assaulted by Brett Kavanaugh as a teen. At uch of the nation was riveted, and the time of her testimony, he was an millions of people reacted quickly appellate court judge and nominee for the Mon social media as Christine Supreme Court of the United States. On Blasey Ford, a psychology professor, Sept. 27, 2018, the day that Blasey Ford testified at a 2018 U.S. Senate hearing that testified that she was “100 percent” sure she was sexually she had been sexually assaulted by Kavanaugh in Maryland as a teen, he

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 44 vehemently denied the allegations in a perpetuated by journalistic accounts, such nationally televised U.S. Senate hearing. as the portrayal of survivors according to a Her testimony was followed by Kavanaugh, “Madonna-whore” dichotomy that invites who was sworn in as the 114th justice to audiences to interrogate victim behaviors. serve on the SCOTUS on Oct. 6, 2018. This frame also includes the representation Reactions and news of the of perpetrators as isolated examples of Kavanaugh hearings quickly trended on abnormal behavior despite evidence their Twitter and other social media platforms. actions conformed to socially sanctioned The Kavanaugh hearings took on gender norms (Moody, Lewis & Murray, heightened significance given the #MeToo 2015). Other studies have looked at the Movement and the avalanche of situational factors in blaming rape victims accusations that have emerged, pointing including victim attractiveness, dress, fingers at powerful media figures, high- alcohol intake and timing of resistance to profile politicians, actors, journalists and sexual advances (Moody, Lewis & Murray, executives. Since December 2016, more 2015; Brown, Testa & Messman-Moore, than 400 high-profile executives and others 2007, O’Hara, 2012; Durham, 2013). For “have been outed” by the #MeToo instance, Brown & Testa’s (2007) study Movement for sexual harassment or other indicated that “exposure to negative social misconduct (Green, 2018). reactions toward a rape victim reduced A variety of communication, willingness to provide emotional support to sociology, psychology and women’s studies that victim” (pp. 490-92). scholars including Tuchman et al. (1978), Previous studies and reports Barker-Plummer (1995), Byerly and Ross highlighted offer a great foundation for (2006), Creedon (2003), Armstrong (2014), studies on rape and media coverage; and Vickery and Everbach (2018) have however, there appears to be a gap in the documented feminist gender inequities in literature on articles that explore how social the workplace, objectification and media and user-generated content have subjugation of women. Byerly and Ross changed the dynamics of media framing of (2006) use feminism and its derivative rape particularly in highly political arenas. feminist to reference “social movements The feminist literature must be expanded through which women in various times and using new media platforms and different places have sought not only to obtain their theoretical designs. To address these gaps equal rights with men, but also the ability to in the literature, this qualitative study enter into public deliberation, institution- explores key themes and sentiments that building, and other processes associated emerged on Black Twitter. Black Twitter’s with citizenship in their societies” (p. 100). presence was noteworthy during the Studies of the sexual assault culture Kavanaugh Hearings, as many users took have generally focused on media framing of to the platform to voice their concerns the act, victim blaming and media framing regarding Kavanaugh’s pending SCOTUS of gender and race (Benedict, 1992; confirmation. The continued study of O’Hara, 2013; Barnett, 2012; Worthington, Black Twitter is an important and timely 2013). Conclusions frequently confirm contribution to the literature, as scholars findings from Benedict’s (1992) landmark are encouraged to look at issues through study that identified persistent rape myths diverse viewpoints and methodologies.

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Black Twitter topics frequently dominate Internet or mobile devices to harass the top ten trending topics in the United someone as well as touching or brushing States, and polls indicate Black people have up against someone without consent. displayed relatively high levels of Twitter Everbach (2014) wrote that rape and other use since the company began tracking the sex crimes are often underrepresented in service as a stand-alone platform. The the media. She added (RAINN, 2013, p. Kavanaugh Hearings and the abundance of 22): content emphasizing the incident on Black The truth is that someone is Twitter offered a unique opportunity to sexually assaulted in the United States every look at a multifaceted case though both a two minutes and 54 percent of cases are not CRT and Black feminist lens. reported to police, according to the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network Literature Review (RAINN), a nonprofit organization committed to ending sexual violence. Forty- Brooks and Hebert (2006) wrote, four percent of those sexually assaulted are “A feminist critique is rooted in the younger than 18 and nine out of 10 people struggle to end sexist oppression” (p. 298). who are sexually assaulted are female. Over the last half-century, feminist activists have led efforts to move sexual The topic has also been studied assault and harassment from the feminist from the perspective of activism. Byerly & agenda to become part of the public Ross (2006) investigated women’s media agenda. Bevacqua (2000) credited female activism among 90 self-defined feminist legislators with pushing for more anti-rape media activists in the United States, policies and pro-victim legislation such as United Kingdom, South Africa, India, the Privacy Protection for Rape Victims among 16 other nations. Byerly and Ross Act, which became law in 1978. The law identified four pathways for women severely limits the admission of evidence activists to form female spheres of about the reputation or opinion about a influence or power. The first was victim’s past sexual behavior (Bevacqua, described as the “politics to media” path p. 214). Terms such as “sexual assault, in which female activists moved from acquaintance/date rape, wife battering, being activists to producing some type of domestic violence, sexual harassment, and media. The second path was the “media rape/incest survivor…did not exist before profession to politics,” which described feminists coined them and gave them women trained in the media industry who definitions” (Byerly & Hill, 2012, p. 10). use their “vantage point as insiders” to GfK’s national online survey in 2018 impact content or reform an industry’s about sexual assault and harassment found policies for women (p. 125). The third about 81% of women and 43% of men path was known as the “advocate change reported sexual assault or harassment agent,” and this way involved using (Kearl, 2018), and sexual assault is defined research or mobilizing a group to write as a “sexual act that someone was forced letters or take some action to effect to do against their will and consent” (p. 6). change externally, and the fourth path was In addition to sexual harassment being called “women’s media enterprises” in verbal, it can include the use of the which women were creating their own

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 46 business or news networks (pp. 126-127). Particularly noteworthy was the Byerly and Ross posited the four paths to sentencing of entertainment icon Bill female activism, which served four Cosby to a 3- to 10-years Pennsylvania functions to impact change: ritualistic, prison sentence for sexual assault the same connective, educational and social week of the Kavanaugh hearings alignment. (Roebuck & McCrystal, 2018). Other The #MeToo movement has been prominent figures accused in recent sex the most visible form of female activism scandals have included former Fox TV in this decade. Tarana Burke, an African- host Bill O’Reilly, former CBS This American social activist and community Morning anchor Charlie Rose, actor Kevin organizer who was named the top Spacey, U.S. President Donald Trump, influencer on The Root 100’s 2018 list of former NPR executive Michael Oreskes most influential African Americans, is and actress/director Asia Argento. credited with being a founder of the Entertainment executive and film MeToo Movement as early as 2006 producer Harvey Weinstein, who faced (theroot.com, 2018) on MySpace after a felony charges related to sexual assault and 13-year-old sexual assault victim confided rape in New York City (Patten, 2019), was in her. The phrase went viral in 2017 after convicted and is serving a 23-year prison actress Alyssa Milano encouraged the use sentence. Les Moonves, the former CBS of the #MeToo to call attention to sexual chief executive, resigned from the assault and harassment. On May 25, 2018, company in 2018 after multiple sexual the day that Weinstein was arrested and assault and harassment allegations charged with rape, Milano wrote on surfaced (Farrow, 2018). Twitter, “Harvey Weinstein shattered the The #MeToo movement was lives of an untold number of women. We significant during the Kavanaugh stand with them, and remain in solidarity hearings, which occurred weeks before the with women everywhere who have faced 2018 midterm elections. Although Blasey unsafe and abusive workplaces. We look Ford was reluctant to come forward with forward to seeing justice prevail.” her decades-old claims, #MeToo activists According to the Guardian.com, and women across the country the #MeToo Movement is active in 85 immediately supported her. Blasey Ford countries (Sayej, 2017). The #MeToo testified that the memory had traumatized movement has raised consciousness her repeatedly over the years. The memory around the globe as largely privileged men was one of forced silence: Kavanaugh, a of power have been accused of sexual 17-year-old high school athlete, putting assault by women they met or worked his hand over her mouth to muffle her with years ago. Given the rise of the screams for help as he pinned her to a bed #MeToo Movement, sexual assault and assaulted her (Zernike & Steele, 2018). allegations have captured a plethora of The partisan fight over Kavanaugh’s media coverage over the last two years. Of nomination that ensued offers an those accused, 193 were fired or left their illustration of how the dynamics of the jobs, and 122 were suspended or under #MeToo movement has begun to thread investigation, according to Green (2018). its way into American life.

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Critics of Blasey Ford and other sexual reported sexual assault cases over 10 years assault victims often ask why people do found that less than 6% were coded as not report experiences of alleged sexual false allegations (Lisak, Gardinier, Nicksa harassment and assault sooner. In addition & Cote, 2010). to self-blame and shame being primary While Kavanaugh disputed Blasey reasons, “Many people who have been Ford’s allegations, between September raped don’t recognize it as a rape even 27th, 2018 (the day that Blasey Ford and when it fits the legal definition, a finding Kavanaugh testified before the U.S. revealed in a review of 28 academic Senate Judiciary Committee) and studies” (Ordway, 2018, para. 6). Given September 30th, 2018, the Rape Abuse & the intense interest in the Kavanaugh Incest National Network saw a 338% hearings, it is worth noting that The New increase in hotline traffic (RAINN, 2018). York Times initially posted a Twitter poll According to RAINN, “28,509 survivors to ask Twitter users about Blasey Ford’s and their loved ones, an average of 950 credibility, but quickly yanked it the same each day” contacted the hotline in morning of the September 27th hearing September 2018 (para. 2). This issue is not after the Times received huge public likely to go away as April is recognized as backlash (Forgey, 2018). The news Sexual Assault Awareness Month, and the organization was widely criticized for the National Sexual Violence Resource Center Twitter poll being in poor taste and speaks typically helps organize events across the to concerns about sexual assault survivors nation to build awareness (Palumbo, often not being believed or being re- 2018). victimized when they go public. A 15-month study by the Women’s Wilson & Miller (2016) reviewed Media Center of 15,228 news pieces in 14 28 studies involving 5,917 women who of the nation’s largest circulated had been raped after age 14 and found that newspapers found more than a 30% 60.4% of the women “did not increase in news articles published about acknowledge that they had been raped, sexual assault between May 2017 and despite the fact that their experience could August 2018 (Women’s Media Center, defined as rape” (p. 154). Rape is an 2018). In the words of Julie Burton, unwanted sexual experience without president of the Women’s Media Center consent. Weiss (2013) found teens who (p. 1): experience unwanted contact rarely report The #MeToo Movement has it because of uncertainty about whether it revealed previously hidden patterns of sexual is a crime worth reporting and “adaptive harassment, wage discrimination, and hiring indifference” that allows teens to remain policies that excluded and intimidated loyal to their friends and peers in an effort women. By exposing horrible individual and to avoid stigma or ostracism. A Centers institutional practice, we see an opportunity for Disease Control report based on the for a new transparency and permanent National Intimate Partner and Sexual changes aimed at greater equality and power Violence Survey found that 40.8% of for women. female rape victims reported being raped by an acquaintance (Black et al., 2011). It is worth noting that an analysis of 136

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Amidst the heated #MeToo Movement, information can be spread like wildfire and the Kavanaugh nomination appeared as manipulated online. According to a Pew controversial as the televised showdown Research Center (2017) study, about two- between Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas thirds of Americans get some news on in his 1991 confirmation hearing. Both social media, and nonwhites (about 74%) Hill and Thomas are African Americans, are more likely than whites (64%) to get and Blasey Ford and Kavanaugh are both news on social media sites (Bialik & Matsa, Anglo Americans. However, both 2017, para. 4-5). It is also interesting to note hearings involved college-educated, that the overall percentage of U.S. adults working women accusing SCOTUS using Twitter has shown a steady increase nominees of inappropriate sexual from about 13% in 2012 to about 24% in behavior. Hill (2018) wrote, “That the 2018. Senate Judiciary Committee still lacks a According to the Pew Research protocol for vetting sexual and assault Center Social Media Fact Sheet (2018), claims that surface during a confirmation about 67% of Twitter users are under the hearing suggests that the committee has age of 50, and Blacks outpace whites in learned little from the Thomas hearing, terms of usage. As for the impact that social much less the more recent #MeToo media has on people better understanding movement” (para. 2). While the Thomas current events, results are mixed. Nearly hearings were televised in 1991, Twitter half of those in a Pew study said it does not did not exist at that time. In 2018, Twitter have much effect while more than a third users posted a variety of hashtags, and The “who get news on social media say it has Wrap reported all ten U.S. Twitter trends helped them better understand current on September 27th were about the events” (Matsa & Shearer, 2018, para. 23). Kavanaugh hearings with much Another Pew Research Center survey on an discussion about sexual assault, politics activism and social media survey showed and credibility issues. that the majority see value in social media “helping to give a voice to Impact of Social Media, Black Twitter underrepresented groups; highlighting and Critical Race Theory important issues that might otherwise go unnoticed; or helping hold powerful people Given the long-term effect of mass accountable for their actions” (Pew media’s marginalization of women, the Research Center, 2018). growth of echo chambers and audience In contrast to the convenience of fragmentation on the Internet, there social media, an Amnesty International remains widespread concern that misogyny study in partnership with Element AI continues to persist (Vickery & Everbach, found Twitter to be a “toxic place for 2018). Social media platforms such as women” because of online abuse (Haynes, Facebook, YouTube and Twitter have 2018, para. 1). The Amnesty’s International broadened news consumption patterns and AI study analyzed millions of tweets among U.S. consumers. Among the sent to 778 female journalists and unfortunate consequences of the social politicians in the United States and United media explosion is the disruption of Kingdom. Researchers found about 1 in 15 traditional media as well as how quickly tweets received by White women were

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“problematic or abusive,” and tweets to virtual community that participates in “women of color (Black, Asian, Latinx and continuous real-time conversations. mixed-race women) were 34% more likely Manjoo (2010) documented “How Black to be mentioned in abusive or problematic People Use Twitter” for Slate. The article tweets than white women” (Amnesty traced the origins of particular tweets and International, 2018, para. 6). hashtags, in particular, Although people of color tend to be #wordsthatleadtotrouble. Call underrepresented in traditional media, #wordsthatleadtotrouble a “blacktag,”a Black people’s use of Twitter has outpaced trending topic initiated by a young African- that of white users (Clark, 2014), and that is American woman in Hollywood, that why this study focuses on Black Twitter. pushed to a wider audience by a Black The term, “Black Twitter,” has evolved to woman in South Africa, and then pushed include user-generated content shared by over the top by thousands of contributions Black people on social media sites, such as from users who appear to be Black Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram. teenagers all over the United States. Williams (2015) added: The murders of In a report commissioned by the Trayvon Martin and Mike Brown, the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation, reality of street harassment, the racial crisis the researchers (Freelon, Lopez, Clark, & brewing in the Dominican Republic—were Jackson, 2017) helped explain the complex all stories that became of major importance interactions between journalists and three because Black Twitter made sure the world specific Twitter subcultures: Black Twitter, understood what was happening. Feminist Twitter and Asian-American More recently, Dates and Moody Twitter. The report indicated that defining (2018) looked at humor on Black Twitter, “community” online has never been an and Moody and Cole (2018) looked at exact science. The scholars concluded news image repair theory on the platform. Black organizations posted to Black Twitter Twitter is a cultural identity consisting of hashtags most often (33,579 tweets), then "Black" Twitter users from around the Feminist Twitter (5,965 tweets), then Asian world on the Twitter social network American Twitter (2,816 tweets). focused on issues of interest to the Black For Black Twitter, news accounts community, particularly in the United were interested in a variety of topics, States. On Twitter, the role of audience including activism (#blacklivesmatter, members, or users, overlaps with those of #sayhername, #concernedstudent1950), content creators. Because of this political/cultural commentary interactivity and flexibility, new media offer (#oscarssowhite, greater influence and convenience for #famousmelaniatrumpquotes), and formal users. Many use Twitter to disseminate and informal celebrations of blackness information on serious topics such as (#betawards, #blackgirlmagic). Greene, et. police brutality, colorism, racism and al (2019) explored the similarities and sexism. differences between the Black Lives Matter According to Feminista Jones and #MeToo movements. Both (2013), “Black Twitter” can be described as movements were started by Black women, a “collective of active, primarily African- but the scholars point out that Black American Twitter users who have created a women’s voices are often not as prominent

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 50 in mainstream media coverage. For this matrix a “politic of domination” and example, comedian Bette Midler garnered described how it operates along national news coverage in the Washington interlocking axes of race, class, and gender Post and USA Today after she tweeted that oppression. Black Feminist ideology Kavanaugh’s appointment was evidence explores these axes. Little (2014) wrote, that “Women are the n-word of the world” “The question of intersectionality predates and the “most disrespected creature on hashtags and Twitter feminism and goes all earth.” After backlash, Midler apologized the way back to impasses such as the one within hours of the tweet. In response to between Black journalist Ida B. Wells and Midler’s tweet, another tweet emphasized white suffragist Frances Willard.” Wells that Kavanaugh’s appointment was crusaded against lynchings while Willard inevitable on October 2018, ""Black argued they were justified in the early 20th Twitter" could have baked cookies for century. In the late 20th century and even Bette and Kavanaugh would have gotten in. today, Black female feminists such as The fix was in from day one" (t b, 2018 hooks (1981, 1984), Collins (2000), October 7). Cooper (2018), and Jones (2019) have argued that intersectional racism, sexism, and classism continue to be challenges that Black Feminist Theory and Black have been ignored by many men as well as Twitter many white feminists. In her 2018 book, CRT examines how messages Cooper argues (pp. 184-185), portray underlying ideologies that reflect social relations of domination based on a White feminism has worked hard to pervasive yet unobtrusive racial hierarchy make the world safer for white women, but (Crenshaw, 1998). In direct opposition to it has stridently refused to call out the ways emerging discourses that assert we live in a that white women’s sexuality and femininity colorblind and a post-racial society, critical is used not just as a tool of patriarchy but race theorists argue that social relations are also as a tool for the maintenance of white fundamentally raced due to legal, social, supremacy. and historical foundations among other forces (Bell, 1992). CRT’s main tenets are Once thought to be a passing fad, that “racism is a common, everyday lived Black Twitter has held its own and has experience for people of color,” and proven to be an important platform in “individuals and their specific roles in moving the needle on important issues and society are socially constructed based on a movements. It has been particularly useful system of power relations that favors the for Black Feminist causes. Popular hashtag majority” (Crenshaw, 1998). campaigns emerged in the 2010s. For Because of obvious differences in instance, #YouOKSis raised awareness for experiences, hooks (1981) evoked the street harassment, while concepts of “interlocking identities” and #BringBackOurGirls focused on the “interlocking oppressions.” She asserts that abduction of nearly 300 Nigerian school Black women’s understandings of various girls. #Blackgirlmagic is a hashtag that issues are not separable from their emphasizes the accomplishments of Black experience of racism. hooks (1981) labeled women and encourages them not to be

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 51 afraid to shine. Citizens also used the scale than ever before. Using both CRT and platform to share messages such as “Stay Black feminist lenses, this study expands Mad Abby,” which highlighted Abigail the literature on Black Twitter’s impact on Fisher, whose case against affirmative race, gender, and political communication action was argued in front of the U.S. issues on social media by addressing the Supreme Court after Fisher was rejected following research questions: from the University of Texas at Austin in 1) How did Black Twitter users respond to 2008. She claimed that she was rejected the Kavanaugh hearings? because she was white. In the present socio-political 2) What topics emerged in Kavanaugh- climate, social media continues to grow in themed tweets on Black Twitter? importance, particularly regarding issues 3) How does this analysis of Kavanaugh- related to politics. Studies such as this one themed tweets extend Critical Race Theory are important because social media and Black Feminist Theory literature? platforms arm average citizens with a tool to share their thoughts on a much grander

Table 1. Tweets captured by key words using NVivo 1

Black Twitter, Kavanaugh, Ford since: 2018-09-04 until:2018-10-06 3,900 Tweets captured

Black Twitter, Brett Kavanaugh since: 2018-09-04 until:2018-10-06 3,569 Tweets captured

Black Twitter, Christine Blasey Ford since: 2018-09-04 until:2018-10-06 696 Tweets captured

Total Tweets 8,165 Tweets captured

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types of tweets they encompass are Methodology explored in the next section. Tweets containing various search terms were collected between September 4, Findings and Discussion 2018, when the Senate Judiciary Committee began Kavanaugh's Of the thousands of tweets that confirmation hearing, to October 10, four emerged during the Kavanaugh Hearings, days after the Senate voted 50–48 to we focused on those that had a direct confirm Kavanaugh's nomination to the correlation with the Black Twitter Supreme Court. Using Critical Race Theory community, meaning they included the and Black Feminist Theory as a lens, the #BlackTwitter hashtag. The tweets framing of Kavanaugh and Ford was primarily offered support for Blasey-Ford, reviewed to understand how Black Twitter followed by calls to action for Black people users discussed the Kavanaugh Hearings to make their voices heard. The overall tone during the chosen timeframe. of most tweets was negative with Twitter Using NVivo 12, qualitative users expressing anger over how the research software, we coded data and hearings were handled, Blasey-Ford was illuminated themes surrounding the treated, and the prevalence of white framing of the incident (Appendix B). In privilege. this case, NVivo 12 captured 8,165 total Tweets using our originally designated Call to Action keywords: “Black Twitter,” “Brett Kavanaugh,” and “Christine Blasey Ford,” Black Twitter users encouraged “Ford,” and “Kavanaugh.” However, there readers to respond to the atrocities revealed was some overlap in the tweets collected; during the Kavanaugh hearings by voicing therefore, we chose to look at the first their opinion on Twitter. Using the subset of tweets. The final sample included hashtags, #BlackTwitter, #IBelieveHer, 3,900 tweets and focused on the search #IBelieveChristineBlaseyFord, terms “Black Twitter,” “Kavanaugh,” and #BlackWomen, #BlaseyFord, Black “Ford.” The keywords and frequencies women were particularly vocal on Twitter from NVivo 12 provided a starting point expressing solidarity for Blasey-Ford. for establishing the common categories in Tweets included messages encouraging Kavanaugh-themed tweets (Appendix B). Americans to “stay woke,” pay attention to Using this information, we analyzed tweets what is going on around them, and to vote through the lens of Critical Race Theory in the upcoming election. The general and Black Feminist Theory to help develop consensus shared by Black Twitter users overall themes in the sample. was if they banned together and voted, they Based on this analysis, the two might make a difference—if not in the primary researchers established that five Kavanaugh appointment—possibly future major themes existed in Kavanaugh- political issues. themed tweets shared on Black Twitter: call Calls to action from the Black to action, history repeating itself, steep Twitter community highlighted getting out racial/political divides, White privilege, and the vote, protesting and using other informational tweets. Each theme and the methods to speak up. Black Twitter users

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 53 shared information on voting locations and Press, Washington Post and Los Angeles candidates running for office. They also Times frequently overlook racial disparities used the platform to help educate and focus largely on gender (Branigin, audiences on government and politics. 2018). In this case, Black Twitter offered a Several posts noted that there are three viable and visible platform to not only branches of government—one is express concerns about gender,but also appointed and two are voted in. The about race. Black Twitter users did more overarching theme in these tweets was than complain about Kavanaugh’s alleged although Blasey-Ford is a white woman, the sexual assault on Blasey Ford; they offered Black community cared about her and was directives and solutions for how Black willing to take a stand. BlackPressRadio on people might make a difference by banning October 7, 2018 tweeted (Figure 1): together and making their voices heard in an impactful collective community. There PLEASE GO TO was an overwhelming show of support for https://www.270towin.com/2018-senate- Blasey Ford with Black activists, such as election/ … to learn more about YOUR Tarana Burke, weighing in on the issue, and state and who is running. Do what you can voicing their concerns about Kavanaugh’s to get the RIGHT PERSON for your appointment and Blasey Ford’s family and values elected. #BlackTwitter mistreatment. On Sept. 22, 2018, #Vote #BlackVote #TaylorSwift TaranaBurke posted the following: #iHeartOnCW #TheWalkingDead “We believe Dr. Blasey Ford. We believe #90DayFiance #Kavanaughpic. survivors. Join us for a national walkout in solidarity w/ survivors of sexual violence

on Mon., Sept. 24 @ 1PM EST by wearing black and posting a message to say #BelieveSurvivors #MeToomvmt

Steep Racial/Political Divides

A national Quinnipiac University poll of 1,111 self-identified registered voters released on Oct. 1, 2018, highlighted steep racial/political divides in how people viewed Kavanaugh (Figure 1). It indicated Black and Hispanic voters strongly

Figure 1. Kavanaugh-themed tweet opposed his appointment to the Supreme that contains call to action. Court. Specifically, the poll found 51% of white voters supported confirmation of As mentioned in the literature Kavanaugh to SCOTUS while 81% of review, alternative platforms such as Black Black voters and 65% of Hispanic voters Twitter are important for women in opposed the appointment. Posts in our marginalized groups, as studies have noted sample frequently overlapped with the that traditional media outlets including The steep racial divides theme, as Twitter users New York Times, CNN, the Associated emphasized race and the need to act. In one

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 54 post, the Twitter user stated, “We are NOT circumstances and pondered why it was out post-racial. Diversity is more important of line to look into the juvenile record of a than ever. We must stand up, fight back & SCOTUS nomination, but justified for an VOTE in EVERY election. Our very unarmed black man killed by a white police future depends on it. The Kavanaugh sham officer. is only the latest evidence that we are not Illustrating the tenets of CRT, race- post racial.” Rep. Maxine Waters posted: related issues were noted in many of the tweets. Black Twitter users highlighted #MaxineWaters NOT Happy- Kavanaugh’s stance on issues such as Vows #Kavanaugh Will NEVER Rest Affirmative Action and school #JusticeKavanaugh Has ALL busing,often referring to Kavanaugh #Women/#BlackWomen #Law Clerks! documents released by Cory Booker #Moms #WomeninMedicine (Appendix A). The tweets stated the emails #WomeninBusiness #BlackTwitter reflect Kavanaugh’s views on the Black #Hispanic #Latinos #Hispanics #girls community. One tweet, stated, “Wow, #Students #LA #OrangeCounty racists aren't even trying to hide it anymore. #LosAngeles #SoCal #Cali Also, notice how he acknowledges that to #Democratshttps them “Conservative” simply means “racist” now. He's saying “Look, women & Another tweet highlighted a video minorities are who you'll get with featuring Louis Farrakhan expressing his Democrats! How terrifying!” Another support for Blasey Ford (Figure 2). On tweet highlighted Trump’s support for the October 17, Chin. chin·wag /CHin waɡ/a. execution of five Black boys for a crime change posted “@LouisFarrakhan Speaks they didn’t commit, while supporting on Kavanaugh, Blasey Ford, & the Catholic Kavanaugh who Blasey Ford accused of Church on the Anniversary of the Million sexual assault (Figure 3). Man March 10/14 #EverybodyTalks #EverybodyHasAVoice #BlackTwitter #RetweetsAreLegal

Figure 2. Kavanaugh-themed tweets Figure 3. Tweet illustrating steep racial express support for Blasey Ford. divides

Once again, the overarching theme Black Twitter users also questioned was Black people support Dr. Christine the appointment of Kavanaugh from a civil Blasey Ford. Black Twitter reflected on the rights viewpoint highlighting his track treatment of Black men in similar record, views on race and racial profiling.

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On August 31, 2018, Cheer-Up posted, “Kavanaugh has defended the mass surveillance of Americans’ phone records https://goo.gl/7uUgp1 #maddow @LindseyGrahamSC @randpaul #tlot #TheResistance #Occupy #blacktwitter #BlackLivesMatter #Millennials #inners #MarchForOurLives #bluewave #p2 #topprog #libcrib #progressives.” Other tweets called out Trump for being racist and selecting Kavanaugh as a Supreme Court Justice nominee (Figure 3). On October 8 2018, Black Jesus com posted, “#Hardball #msnbc #Blacktwitter Figure 4. Blame for Black Twitter in #cnn Racist Trump calls Kavanaugh Kavanaugh-themed tweets innocent with no proof but says Central Park 5 are still guilty despite DNA proof History Repeating Itself exonerating them http://nbcnews.to/2d02t8g.” Tweets encouraged readers to At one point, Twitter users blamed #BelieveWomen, #BelieveSurvivors and Black Twitter for Kavanaugh’s to #resist. #MeToo was referenced to appointment (Figure 4). On Oct. 7, 2018, inspire the group to discuss this issue. Georger A posted: “kavanaugh will be Tweets emphasized the parallel between nominated bc black twitter freaked the circumstances surrounding Brett out”???!!...bruh.” In response to this subset Kavanaugh’s Supreme Court nomination of tweets, users explained that Black and those of Clarence Thomas, 27 years Twitter was not the impetus for earlier. In both cases, late-breaking Kavanaugh’s appointment. On October 7, allegations threatened but failed to derail Coddiwomple posted, “Wtf? How in the the confirmation process. Both nominees fucknuts is Kavanaugh’s nomination the defended themselves with passionate fault of black twitter? White people led the denials of wrongdoing. Don Lemon, the charge on Kavanaugh & a white woman CNN anchor, shared his MeToo made sure it happened but... sure... blame experience as well as others in response to black twitter ’cause, you know, they called the allegations against Kavanaugh. out a racist quote.” Comedian DL Hughley also weighed in on The consensus on Black Twitter the hearings when he wrote, "If you'll rape highlighted the idea that the appointment a woman you have no respect for a woman of Kavanaugh to the post of a supreme or her body, and you shouldn't be making court justice would be a step backward for life time decisions.” the black community and for women. They Others were hopeful that the were deeply concerned that his Kavanaugh hearings would end differently. appointment would provide no value to An optimistic post stated, “Maybe now the Black people and would be a slap in the face outcome will be different with the for women of all races.

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Kavanaugh hearings and his accuser, Dr. Ford. I met Anita Hill last Spring when this picture was taken, She is still a credible force of change. And her courage speaks to the trail she blazed way back in 1991. #BlackTwitter.” Still others inserted humor and popular culture references into their posts. One person posted, “Ummm Imma need #oliviapope to come up out of retirement for this one folks. @shondarhimes @kerrywashington

Investigations need to be had…” Figure 6. Kavanaugh-themed tweet illustrating the white privilege frame. White privilege Black Twitter users also made Tweets containing the white references to Kavanaugh’s behavior during privilege theme emphasized the difference the hearings and how he appeared to be in how black defendants and disadvantaged overacting. Tweets referred to him crying individuals were required two act (Figure while on the stand and called him out on 6). They characterized Kavanaugh and this type of behavior that would be deemed Republican cabinet members as elite and inappropriate for a woman. One tweet out of touch. Morehouse College President stated, “@BrettKavanaugh is the David Thomas provides context for why quintessential angry white man! Yelling like many of Black Twitter users voiced a mad man during his testimony, solely concerns about white privilege and the because a woman would dare tell the truth double standards facing blacks. “Men of about him & that America would dare color are often treated as guilty until proven question his white privilege! He is angry & innocent of an accusation or crime. Their guilty. #MeToo #BlackTwitter.” punishment is swift and severe. The loss of their college and career. Dreams. Informational Tweets Imprisonment. Death” he wrote in a column for Diverse Issues of Higher Informational tweets provided facts Education (Thomas, 2018). An example about the Kavanaugh Hearings, and his from the Twitter study period follows: final nomination. They were void of judgement and frequently linked to stories @Yamiche @CapehartJ published by newspapers and blogs. Three @realDonaldTrump supporters #Republican examples pulled from Twitter during the always screaming abt #Elite s yet #Kavanaugh study period included: #Kavanaughvote member of elite all male dinner club. @amjoyshow @CNN @MSNBC • Trump nominates Brett Kavanaugh @FoxNews as well as #Trump #cabinet full of to Supreme Court extreme wealth and corporate influence. #BlackTwitter. #Corruption • White House Withholds 100,000 Pages of Judge Brett Kavanaugh’s

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Records https://nyti.ms/2Caj0s4 #blacktwitter .@ Conclusion

• CoryBooker released Kavanaugh’s Using Black Feminist and Critical emails about racial profiling. #BlackTwitter Race theories, this study analyzed how Black Twitter users framed the 2018

Kavanaugh hearings. Specifically, we Our analysis illustrates how looked at the framing of the Kavanaugh Kavanaugh-themed memes served as a new incident in thousands of tweets that avenue for supporting women (e.g., hooks, emerged between September 27, 2018, 1992; Collins, 2004). From a feminist when the Senate Judiciary Committee perspective, individual tweets often began televised testimony from Blasey highlighted the idea that women should Ford and Kavanaugh until four days after support women. Others focused on the the Senate confirmed his nomination on betrayal of Blasey Ford by women. Smith Oct. 10, 2018. (2018) wrote that the U.S. vote of U.S. Sen. As with any study, this one had Susan Collins, R-Maine, supporting limitations. The purposive sample in the Kavanaugh was the “ultimate betrayal” and Twitterverse was limited to the search time evidence that “white women are not their frame as documented earlier. Therefore, allies.” CBS’s John Dickerson (2018) wrote findings may not be generalized as there are there were no winners as both Blasey Ford more than 500 million tweets posted per and Kavanaugh’s lives were scrutinized and day (Aslam, 2019). The comments analyzed vilified in the media. were those present when data were Many Twitter users sounding off on collected and may differ from comments Black Twitter opposed Kavanaugh’s viewed at another time as Twitter users can confirmation, often highlighting the idea delete tweets at any time. This study that a double standard for people of color specifically focused only on Black Twitter, exists in that whites people are innocent and comparative analysis with another until proven guilty and Black people do not social media platform such as Facebook get that benefit. CRT scholars Delgado and would be another study. This research Stefancic (2001) posit that racism is often could be strengthened with more sentiment institutional, that white privilege dominates analysis. American culture and color blindness is a Even with these shortcomings, this myth. They also posit racism is normal in study is important, as it shines light on how terms of how our society and businesses the Kavanaugh hearings were framed on operate as it advances the interests of white Black Twitter. The memes in our sample elites. The tweets in our sample illustrate this point as well as perceptions of white illustrate the importance of having alternative platforms for Black people to privilege. CRT literature indicates too often express themselves regarding current the stories of people of color have been events and hot-button topics, such as the excluded in mainstream media, and that is Kavanaugh hearings. It adds a new chapter why it is important to look through the lens to previous studies noting that traditional of critical race theory. media outlets overlook racial disparities

and focus largely on gender and primarily

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 58 women from the dominant group. Alternative platforms such as Black Twitter offer a voice for women in marginalized groups. In this case, Black Twitter offered a viable and visible platform to not only express concerns, but to also offer directives and solutions for how Black people might play a role in politics. The act of creating, sharing and resharing Kavanaugh-themed tweets provided an outlet for Black people to form a collective voice regarding the historic Kavanaugh hearings and to garner support for Blasey Ford.

Address correspondence to: Dorothy Bland, Ph.D., University of North Texas Email: [email protected] Mia Moody-Ramirez, Ph.D., Baylor University Email: [email protected]

Journal of Research on Women and Gender 59

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Appendix A. Table 2. Tweets from Kavanaugh, Black Twitter sample.

Tweet Description

Figure 1: Tweet from @NicsuPR on Oct. 6, 2018.

Figure 2: Tweet from @ynotjones on Oct. 5, 2018.

Figure 3: Tweet from @BlackSoulFood on Sept. 28, 2018.

Figures 4-5: Tweets from @CityNinjaDC on Oct. 1, 2018 and @ynotjones on Oct. 5, 2018.

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Figure 6: Tweet from @itsmeimtheone on Sept. 28, 2018.

Figure 7: Tweet from @PreachLove on Oct. 6, 2018.

Figures 8: Tweets from @BlackJesuscom on Sept. 25, 2018 and on Oct. 8, 2018.

Figure 9: Tweet from @GlobalCarole on Sept. 17, 2018.

Figure 10: Tweet from @TucsonVoice28 on Sept. 23, 2018.

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Appendix B.

Table 2. NVivo Capture of tweets containing Black Twitter, Kavanaugh, Ford

Word Length Count Weighted Percentage Similar Words

blacked 7 3005 4.20% #black, black, blacked

college 7 2938 4.11% college

boys 4 2300 3.21% 'boys, boys

brett 5 1861 2.60% #brettlying, 'brett, brett

judge 5 1730 2.42% judge, judges

friends 7 1476 2.06% friend, friendly, friends

two 3 1468 2.05% two

media 5 1463 2.04% media

shifts 6 1461 2.04% shift, shifts

analyzing 9 1457 2.04% analyzing

inebriation 11 1457 2.04% inebriation

quotes 6 1457 2.04% quotes

stages 6 1457 2.04% stages

@senorrinhatch 14 1456 2.03% @senorrinhatch, senorrinhatch

never 5 1226 1.71% never

voters 6 1026 1.43% #voters, voter, voters

calling 7 1024 1.43% call, called, calling, calls

@realcandaceo 13 1020 1.43% @realcandaceo

democrat 8 1015 1.42% democrat, democratic, democrats

helping 7 1011 1.41% help, helping

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leader 6 1010 1.41% leader, leaders candice 7 1008 1.41% candice owens 5 1008 1.41% owens patriots 8 1008 1.41% patriots policies 8 1008 1.41% policies rather 6 1008 1.41% rather tied 4 1008 1.41% tied

@sxdoc 6 1006 1.41% @sxdoc supporters 10 928 1.30% support, supporters, supporting, supportive, supports like 4 824 1.15% like, likely, likes reasoning 9 767 1.07% reason, reasoning applied 7 766 1.07% applied, apply

@nowthisnews 12 753 1.05% @nowthisnews trayvon 7 753 1.05% trayvon saw 3 457 0.64% saw https 5 370 0.52% https christine 9 333 0.47% christine ford 4 332 0.46% ford, fords yale 4 328 0.46% yale blasey 6 326 0.46% blasey people 6 281 0.39% people one 3 247 0.35% one

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reporting 9 241 0.34% report, reported, reporting, reports

fact 4 240 0.34% fact ludington 9 237 0.33% ludington racial 6 237 0.33% racial divides 7 235 0.33% divides steep 5 235 0.33% steep view 4 235 0.33% view yet 3 235 0.33% yet