There Is No God: Atheists in America a Naturalistic Philosophy 7 Celebrating Fifty Years of Separation Lessons for the United States by David A

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For many, mere atheism (the absence of belief in gods and the supernatural) or agnosticism (the view that such questions cannot be answered) aren’t enough. It’s liberating to recognize that supernatural beings are human creations … that there’s no such thing as “spirit” … that people are undesigned, unintended, and responsible for themselves. But what’s next?

Atheism and agnosticism are silent on larger questions of values and meaning. If Meaning in life is not ordained from on high, what small-m meanings can we work out among ourselves? If eternal life is an illusion, how can we make the most of our only lives? As social beings sharing a godless world, how should we coexist?

For the questions that remain unanswered after we’ve cleared our minds of gods and souls and spirits, many atheists, agnostics, skeptics, and freethinkers turn to secular humanism.

Secular. “Pertaining to the world or things not spiritual or sacred.”

Secular humanism is a comprehensive, nonreligious life stance incorporating:

A naturalistic philosophy

A cosmic outlook rooted in science, and

A consequentialist ethical system in which acts are judged not by their conformance to preselected norms but by their consequences for men and women in the world.

The Council for Secular Humanism is North America’s leading organization for nonreligious people who seek to live value-rich lives. FREE INQUIRY is its magazine.

Welcome! To learn more, visit http://www.secularhumanism.org FI June July cut_FI 6/27/13 12:03 PM Page 2

August/September 2013 Vol. 33 No. 5

28 In Defense of Sam Harris’s

CELEBRATING REASON AND HUMANITY ‘Science of Morality’ Amir E. Salehi Facing the Worst Without God For many, mere atheism (the absence of belief in gods and the supernatural) or agnosticism Islam Reconsidered (the view that such questions cannot be answered) aren’t enough. It’s liberating to recognize 16 Profiles of Resilience: Interviews with that supernatural beings are human creations … that there’s no such thing as “spirit” … that Atheistic Spinal Cord Injury Survivors 33 Islam and Its Text James Snell people are undesigned, unintended, and responsible for themselves. But what’s next? Karen Hwang 35 Islam: A Totalitarian Package Atheism and agnosticism are silent on larger questions of values and meaning. of Religion and Politics Revisiting Right and Wrong If Meaning in life is not ordained from on high, what small-m meanings can we work out Madeline Weld among ourselves? If eternal life is an illusion, how can we make the most of our only lives? The Foundation of Ethics 20 39 The Holy Spirit—Christianity’s As social beings sharing a godless world, how should we coexist? and Morals in America Two-edged Resource Reynold Spector George A. Wells For the questions that remain unanswered after we’ve cleared our minds of gods and souls secular humanism. and spirits, many atheists, agnostics, skeptics, and freethinkers turn to 26 In Response to Reynold Spector 41 What Paul Revere’s Ride Tells Us about Jesus Ronald A. Lindsay Mark Rubinstein

Secular. “Pertaining to the world or things not spiritual or sacred.”

Humanism. “Any system of thought or action concerned with the interests or ideals of people … the intellectual and cultural movement … characterized by an emphasis on human interests rather than … religion.” EDITORIAL LETTERS 59 The God Argument: The Case 4 The Looming Supreme Court 14 Against Religion and for Humanism — Webster’s Dictionary Showdowns by A.C. Grayling Ronald A. Lindsay DEPARTMENTS Reviewed by Brooke Horvath Secular humanism is a comprehensive, nonreligious life stance incorporating: 45 Church-State Update OP-EDS Trouble Down Under, Part 2: 61 There Is No God: Atheists in America A naturalistic philosophy 7 Celebrating Fifty Years of Separation Lessons for the United States by David A. Williamson Tom Flynn Edd Doerr and George Yancey Reviewed by Ryan T. Cragun A cosmic outlook rooted in science, and 8 Supreme Court Killing an 47 Applied Ethics Innocent Man Religion as Emotional Blackmail 63 Culture Wars: The Threat to Your Nat Hentoff Donald R. Burleson A consequentialist ethical system in which acts are judged not by their conformance Family and Your Freedom by Marie Alena Castle to preselected norms but by their consequences for men and women in the world. 9 Singing the DSM-5 Blues 49 Living Without Religion Reviewed by Edd Doerr Arthur L. Caplan Mass Shootings and Theodicy Gary J. Whittenberger 11 Why We Need to Keep Fighting The Council for Secular Humanism is North America’s leading organization for nonreligious Greta Christina 54 God on Trial POEMS people who seek to live value-rich lives. FREE INQUIRY is its magazine. Evaluating the New Atheists’ by Terese Coe 12 God-Talk for Atheists Criticism of Scripture Herb Silverman James Metzger Welcome! 51 Where Have You Come From, Where Are You Going? To learn more, visit http://www.secularhumanism.org REVIEWS OBITUARY 57 Why Tolerate Religion? 13 Henry Morgentaler, 1923–2013 by Brian Leiter 66 Of Course There’s a God Reviewed by Russell Blackford Editor Thomas W. Flynn Associate Editors John R. Shook, Lauren Becker Managing Editor Andrea Szalanski Ronald A. Lindsay Editorial

Columnists Ophelia Benson, Russell Blackford, Arthur Caplan, Greta Christina, Edd Doerr, Shadia B. Drury, Nat Hentoff, Tibor R. Machan

Senior Editors Bill Cooke, Richard Dawkins, Edd Doerr, James A. Haught, Jim Herrick, Gerald A. Larue, Ronald A. Lindsay, Taslima Nasrin Contributing Editors Roy P. Fairfield, Charles The Looming Supreme Faulkner, Levi Fragell, Adolf Grünbaum, Marvin Kohl, Lee Nisbet, Court Showdowns

Literary Editor Austin MacRae Assistant Editors Julia Lavarnway Sean Lachut

Permissions Editor Julia Lavarnway he 2013–2014 term of the U.S. their way through the courts. Also, it is Art Director Christopher S. Fix Supreme Court could be its most possible that the Department of Health Production Paul E. Loynes Sr. Timportant in years with respect to and Human Services (HHS) could make church-state issues. We already know that the entire cascade of lawsuits moot by Chair Edward Tabash the court will hear a case involving the rescinding the regulation in question. Board of Directors R. Elisabeth Cornwell constitutionality of invocations in local I think that is extremely unlikely; it is Kendrick Frazier government settings such as city hall or much more likely that the Supreme Court Barry A. Kosmin county board meetings: Town of Greece will resolve this issue, with the princi- Jonathan Tobert Leonard Tramiel v. Galloway (No. 12-696). By itself, this pal uncertainty being the timing of the Lawrence Krauss (Honorary) case would make the upcoming term sig- court’s involvement. nificant, but the Supreme Court may also Back to the prayer case: interest in Chief Executive Officer Ronald A. Lindsay this one is high in part because this will Executive Director Thomas W. Flynn be the first time in thirty years that the Associate Director Lauren Becker court has considered the constitutionality of prayer in the setting of a gov- Director, Campus and Community Programs (CFI) Debbie Goddard ernment meeting. The court last con- “The 2013–2014 term of the U.S. sidered this issue in Marsh v. Chambers, Director, Secular Organizations 463 U.S. 783 (1983), in which it ruled for Sobriety Jim Christopher Supreme Court could be its most that prayers by chaplains in legislatures Director, African Americans for Humanism Debbie Goddard important in years with respect did not violate the establishment clause. (I remember that decision well because Director of to church-state issues.” Development (CFI) Alan Kinniburgh at the time I was representing Madalyn Murray O’Hair in a case challenging Director of Libraries (CFI) Timothy Binga chaplains in Congress; Marsh made my Communications Director Paul Fidalgo case moot.) Marsh is notable because Database Manager (CFI) Jacalyn Mohr it did not apply the court’s accepted

Webmaster Matthew Licata test for constitutionality in establish- have a chance to resolve the contentious ment clause cases, that is, the tripartite Staff Pat Beauchamp, Ed Beck, issue of whether the federal regulation test of Lemon v. Kurtzman. (Does the Melissa Braun, Shirley Brown, Cheryl Catania, that requires employers to provide con- government action lack a secular pur- Eric Chinchón, Matt traceptive services under the Affordable pose? Does it advance religion? Does Cravatta, Roe Giambrone, Care Act (a.k.a. Obamacare) violates it entangle government with religion?) Jason Gross, Lisa Nolan, Paul Paulin, Anthony Santa the Religious Freedom Restoration Act Instead, it found legislative prayer to Lucia, Diane Tobin, (RFRA). We will not know for a few more be a unique historical exception to the Vance Vigrass months yet whether the Supreme Court rule that government endorsement of Executive Director Emerita Jean Millholland will intervene, because there are literally religion is impermissible. The majority dozens of lawsuits on this issue winding opinion in Marsh did place some limits

4 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published bimonthly by on legislative prayer, however, indi- Court will endorse the approach taken the Council for Secular Humanism, a nonprofit educational cating that legislative prayer might be by the appeals court in Town of Greece corporation, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. Phone (716) 636-7571. Fax (716) 636-1733. Copyright ©2013 by unconstitutional if the “prayer oppor- v. Galloway. More likely though, it will the Council for Secular Humanism. All rights reserved. No part tunity has been exploited to proselytize issue a decision with broader implica- of this periodical may be reproduced without permission of the publisher. Periodicals postage paid at Buffalo, N.Y., and or advance any one, or to disparage tions. The court may approve prayers at additional mailing offices. 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Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. also issue a decision with even broader court noted the presence of the public LETTERS TO THE EDITOR at town-hall meetings and the fact that implications, that is, one that addresses Send submissions to Letters Editor, FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box those in attendance were expected to the limits on the role of religion in pub- 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664 or e-mail aszalanski@center forinquiry.net. lic life. In light of the current composi- participate in the prayer. Under the For letters intended for publication, please include name, address “totality of the circumstances,” the tion of the court, I’m not eager to have (including city and state), and daytime telephone number (for court concluded, the Constitution had it address this larger question. verification purposes only). Letters should be 300 words or fewer and pertain to previous FREE INQUIRY articles. been violated. As a secular humanist, I find invo- It is unknown why the Supreme cations at any government meeting The mission of the Council for Secular Humanism is to advocate Court decided to review this decision. In objectionable, whether they are at the and defend a nonreligious life stance rooted in science, naturalistic philosophy, and humanist ethics and to serve and support other establishment-clause cases—for federal, state, or local level. Courts that adherents of that life stance. example, in the court’s decisions on the have found prayers at local govern- constitutionality of Ten Commandments ment meetings impermissible because monuments on public land—the court of their sectarian nature have usu- has emphasized the importance of ally emphasized how people of other fact-intensive, context-sensitive inquiry. faiths are made to feel as though they Therefore, it’s possible that the Supreme are second-class citizens. But prayers

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 5 delivered in government settings make the insurance that covers employees. corporation has no religious identity. It atheists feel like second-class citizens But the most recent version of HHS’s does not pray, receive the sacraments, regardless of their specific content. rule obviated even that thin argument or worship. If we were to entertain Official prayers unmistakably align the by stipulating that contraceptive ser- the notion that for-profit companies government with belief in a deity who vices would, in the case of qualified, have religious identities, how would answers prayers. Aiming for diversity in objecting employers, be provided by that identity be determined? By the the wording of prayers by having rep- the insurer at no cost to the employer. religion of the majority of its board resentatives of different faiths deliver In essence, what the church is now of directors? By the religion of the the prayers still leaves us out in the complaining about is that it is not able majority owner? Could a corporate cold. The government should get out to control the conduct of the employ- merger change the religious identity of of the prayer business entirely and let ees who work at its affiliated corpora- the company? Should we describe the the people come to their own conclu- merger as a “conversion”? Merely to sions on religious matters. If we need ask these questions shows the absur- a solemn opening for any government dity of allowing corporations to claim body, why not have all the officials a right to the free exercise of religion. declare together: “We pledge to act Those who seek to overturn the responsibly and in the people’s best HHS regulation on the grounds that interest, while respecting their funda- it interferes with religious belief are mental freedoms”? paving the way for a fractured legal “Those who seek to overturn system that would carve out special et us now examine the battle over the HHS regulation on the exemptions for religious groups even LHHS’s contraceptive mandate grounds that it interferes with when those exemptions burden others. (You can visit the web page of the If the Supreme Court were to inter- Center for Inquiry’s Office of Public religious belief are paving the vene in this dispute and sustain the Policy for more information on this way for a fractured legal system objections to HHS’s regulations, the dispute at: http://www.centerfor short-term consequences would be inquiry.net/opp/news/cfi_urges_ that would carve out special very significant and could result in the obama_administration_to_protect_ exemptions for religious groups extent of employee health-care being womens_access_to_birth_control/). dependent on the religious “identity” Dozens of lawsuits have been filed even when those exemptions of the employer. If a Catholic hospi- both by nonprofit organizations that burden others.” tal can deny coverage for contracep- have some connection to a religious tion, presumably businesses owned by body, such as Catholic hospitals, and Jehovah’s Witnesses could refuse to for-profit companies whose religious pay for blood transfusions. The long- “identity” is based entirely on the term consequences might be even beliefs of their directors or owners. more dramatic and could transform The common core of all these lawsuits our legal landscape. Instead of one sec- is that the HHS mandate supposedly ular law for all, we could have special requires some persons to act contrary tions, and it feels tainted by their pos- laws for Catholics, another set of laws to their religious beliefs. This allegedly sible use of contraception. However, for Jews, another for Sunni Muslims, violates RFRA because that prohibits being deprived of the ability to control and so on. the federal government from substan- the conduct of others such that they The founders gave us a secular gov- tially burdening a person’s exercise of conform to one’s own religious beliefs ernment—one that was designed to religion absent a compelling interest. does not constitute a burden on a per- have no authority in religious matters In my view, the HHS mandate does son’s exercise of religion. and also to be insulated from religious not place a substantial burden on any- It is true that HHS’s revised rule influence on public policy. The Supreme one’s exercise of religion. The regula- will still require for-profit companies Court’s coming decisions may indicate tion does not require anyone to use to pay for the cost of insurance cov- the extent to which the founders’ contraception, obtain contraception, erage for their employees, and this design will be preserved. or even distribute contraception to coverage will include contraceptive ser- coworkers or employees. The Catholic vices. But RFRA should not Church, along with other religious be interpreted as protect- Ronald A. Lindsay is the president and CEO of the Center for Inquiry and groups and individuals, has argued that ing employers, including the Council for Secular Humanism. He is the author of Future Bioethics: the conscience of employers is being corporations, as opposed Overcoming Taboos, Myths, and Dogmas (Prometheus Books, 2008). violated because they have to pay for to individuals. A for-profit

6 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Tom Flynn OP-ED

Celebrating Fifty Years of Separation

he year 2013 marks a noteworthy melodies for “Away in a Manger.” When bench partly in reaction against Engel, anniversary: it has been fifty years the Lord’s Prayer came over the school Abingdon, and, of course, Roe v. Wade.) Tsince the U.S. Supreme Court deci- loudspeakers with the Protestant finale At the same time, we came to assume sion in the conjoined cases Abingdon attached—a scurrilous addendum that that we could win our victories for School District v. Schempp and Murray I’d been taught could endanger my sal- separation in the courts alone, with no v. Curlett ended school-sponsored Bible vation just by hearing it—or when “Away need for messy, costly campaigning to reading in American public schools. in a Manger” was performed at Christmas persuade public opinion. This decision came on the heels of assemblies, invariably to the Protestant 1962’s Engel v. Vitale, which ended melody—ditto—I would walk home from school-sponsored prayer. Those deci- school praying that I wouldn’t get hit by “. . . The Abingdon/Murray sions formed a one-two punch that a truck and wondering why my country awakened America’s religious minori- and my community so lusted to endan- decisions represent a powerful ties (the nonreligious most definitely ger my soul. When Engel and Abingdon milestone for fair treatment included) to the idea that the courts ended school-sponsored prayer and might be relied on to curb majori- Bible reading one after the other, little of religious minorities, both ty-Christian privilege in ways no legisla- Catholic Tom Flynn was freed from believing and unbelieving.” tures would dare to. enforced exposure to Protestantism Of the two cases, Abingdon was far in school—and at the tender age of more important from a legal perspective. seven, a church-state activist was born.* Today’s fighters for church-state sep- But the plaintiff in Murray—to be pre- I became an atheist in my twenties (sec- aration have learned greater discretion. cise, the child plaintiff’s mother—worked ular humanism came later), but I never The indiscriminate filing of establish- harder to use her case as a springboard to forgot how it had felt to be a minority ment-clause cases can lead to destruc- notoriety. Madalyn Murray (later Madalyn believer under the yoke of compulsory tive legal outcomes—consider Hein Murray O’Hair) made herself a household majoritarian observance. Most of all, v. Freedom from Religion Foundation name and launched the now-thriving I never forgot how good it felt when (2007), in which the high court over- American Atheists. To this day, millions of that stopped! turned a longtime precedent that had Americans mistakenly believe that O’Hair Along the way, I formed some unhelp - nearly automatically granted standing drove both prayer and the Bible from ful expectations that I would later dis- to citizens alleging establishment-clause public schools single-handedly. That is cover I shared with many church-state violations. In a Massachusetts case in wrong on two counts: Engel had ended separation activists during the latter which the Center for Inquiry plans to school-sponsored prayer the year before, decades of the twentieth century. As a file a supportive amicus curiae brief, and Abingdon v. Schempp would have group, we were too quick to see in Engel the American Humanist Association is for the first time challenging “under terminated school-sponsored Bible read- and Abingdon a blueprint for inevita- God” in the Pledge of Allegiance under ing even if Murray v. Curlett had never ble success. By bringing and winning the principle of equal protection rather been filed. an infinite chain of similar establish- than under the establishment clause. If Abingdon was an eye-opener for me ment-clause cases, we imagined that successful, equal protection may prove personally, though I was all of seven at we would leap into a bright future the most favorable avenue for further the time. I was not yet a secular human- where every hint of religious symbol- church-state activism in the courts. ist, but I was a member of a religious ism and practice might be removed Even with those caveats, the Abing minority. I was a pre-Vatican II Catholic from the public square. (That overop- don/Murray decisions represent a pow- child who for complex reasons attended timistic view failed to anticipate manic erful milestone for fair treatment of a majority-Protestant public school where grassroots organizing on the part of religious minorities, both believing and teacher-led prayers and Bible readings Christian conservatives or that conser- unbelieving. Its golden anniversary were daily irritations. Young as I was, I vative jurists would flock to the federal knew that the final passage concluding strongly merits our appreciation. the Lord’s Prayer (“For thine is the king- *Much of this auto Tom Flynn is the editor of Free Inquiry, the executive director dom and the power and the glory” and biographical material is drawn from my 1993 of the Council for Secular Humanism, the director of the Robert so on) was something Protestants used book, The Trouble with Green Ingersoll Birthplace Museum, and the editor of The New and Catholics did not. I could distinguish Christmas (Prometheus the preferred Protestant and Catholic Books). Encyclopedia of Unbelief (Prometheus Books, 2007).

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 7 Nat Hentoff OP-ED

Supreme Court Killing an Innocent Man

n those states that still have capital York Times—not in a story or an edito- grand jury that she “‘couldn’t really see punishment, prisoners on death row rial but in a brief letter, “Injustice on a face’ as she drove by the store.” Ioften depend desperately on court Death Row,” buried at the very bottom That Kuenzel’s defense did not appeals that cite the Brady rule to keep of the June 1, 2013, Letters section. receive these disclosures at the time them alive. It is thus defined: “Evidence The author, Robert Morgenthau, is the of his trial was a lurid violation of the or information favorable to the defen- most impressive New York City District Brady rule. Yet the Supreme Court of dant in a criminal case that is known Attorney I have reported on in more the United States refused Mr. Kuenzel’s by the prosecution. Under the United than sixty years of covering the courts urgent request to correct that viola- States Supreme Court case of Brady v. in the city where I live. tion. Who could not agree with Robert Maryland (1963), the prosecution must Morgenthau’s letter began, “The Morgenthau when he drew this con- disclose such material to the defendant United States Supreme Court declined clusion: “The unthinkable consequence if requested to do so. Under subsequent the opportunity to correct an egre- of the toothless Brady rule will be that Supreme Court cases, the material must gious Brady violation that put William an innocent man is executed and the be disclosed even if not requested if it E. Kuenzel on Alabama’s death row prosecutor goes unpunished for his is obviously helpful to the defendant’s 25 years ago.” (Kuenzel had been con- misconduct.” case. These requirements are collectively victed in 1988 of killing a convenience Now let’s look at how our highest known as the Brady rule.” (law.yourdic- store clerk.) “During the trial, the pros- court rendered the Brady rule tooth- tionary.com/brady-rule, accessed June 1, ecutor assured Mr. Kuenzel’s lawyer less. Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg deliv- 2013). that, in accordance with the Brady rule, ered the opinion of the court declining they had turned over all potentially to judge this case. Joining her were exculpatory evidence to the defense.” Justices Anthony Kennedy, Stephen Apparently, the defense attorney took Breyer, Elena Kagan, and, to my great the prosecutor’s word. But, Morgenthau disappointment, Sonia Sotomayor, “Sometimes—either because of continued: “Twenty-two years passed whose record until this case has truly before Mr. Kuenzel discovered that the focused on justice. Joining Justice incompetent defense attorneys prosecutors had concealed revealing Antonin Scalia in dissent were John or judges made of stone who are police notes and grand jury testimony Roberts, Clarence Thomas, and, in part, that supported his unwavering claim of Samuel Alito. hell-bent on finishing a case— innocence.” Kuenzel’s habeas plea of actual invocation of the Brady rule This is what the prosecutor did not innocence, Ginsburg decreed, raised disclose: “The sole witness to the mur- is disallowed or ignored, and the question of “timing” as a rele- der, an admitted accomplice who tes- vant factor in “elevating reliability of executions proceed.” tified against Mr. Kuenzel in exchange a petitioner’s proof of innocence.” for a ten-year prison sentence, origi- She stated that the “habeas petitioner nally told the police that he had been at [Kuenzel] failed to demonstrate dili- the store with a different man and that gence required” because “he did not Mr. Kuenzel had been at home in bed.” file petition until nearly six years after Imagine William Kuenzel languishing coming into possession of affidavits As I’ve discovered in my years of cov- on death row all these years, picturing supporting this claim of actual inno- ering death penalty cases, sometimes— himself in bed while that grisly murder cence.” This failure was much more either because of incompetent defense was being committed by another. likely his attorney’s. attorneys or judges made of stone who One additional witness had testi- Where does this timing require- are hell-bent on finishing a case—invo- fied, placing Kuenzel at the scene of ment originate? It was in a bill that cation of the Brady rule is disallowed or the crime. Former District Attorney President Bill Clinton strongly sup- ignored, and executions proceed. Morgenthau searched the case record ported and signed into law in 1996, I found a recent appalling example to find out more about her. In his let- of that extinction of justice in The New ter, he reported that she had told the (Continued on page 43)

8 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Arthur L. Caplan OP-ED

Singing the DSM-5 Blues

he newly revised Diagnostic and Perhaps an even bigger problem is is provide more reasons to prescribe Statistical Manual of Mental that the editors of DSM-5 don’t know more pills. Grieving the loss of your TDisorders of the American Psychi how to defend themselves against the parent? Take a pill! atric Association (APA)—DSM-5— attacks. They keep saying that they The critics of DSM’s rich taxonomy was released this past May at the were attentive to critics during the of mental miseries are not all outside Association’s annual meeting in San drafting of the revised volume, that psychiatry. Some, such as Thomas Insell, Francisco. Rarely has a new book met the process has been transparent, and the director of the National Institute such a universal cacophony of critical that they had posted draft versions of Mental Health (NIHM), are very reviews. Even before the tome had online for all who cared to whale away mainstream. Insell argues that trying hit print, critics were falling over one at. But noting that anyone and every- to lump and cluster symptoms without another to knock the book. A sample of one could comment on the drafts of grounding them in hard causal evi- headlines assessing the work include: DSM-5—more than ten thousand com- “DSM-5: A Manual Run Amok,” “Let’s ments were received—makes the final Fight Big Pharma’s Crusade to Turn contents of the book sound more like Eccentricity into Illness,” “DSM V: The the results of a popularity contest than Manual That Is Crazy,” and “Psychiatry’s a scientific endeavor. “There is plenty to kvetch New Diagnostic Manual: Don’t Buy It. The editors are terrified that DSM-5 about in the revised DSM. Don’t Use It. Don’t Teach It.” And those will not be seen as objective. This rag- However, the critics are were some of the friendlier assessing fear is also omnipresent in the comments. ments of the critics—the book is not going way too far.” The negativity does not end with the “objective,” some say, and it represents reviews. There has also been a flood of instead a sour stew of professional new books devoted to ripping apart elite values, intolerance of eccentricity, DSM-5, such as Gary Greenberg’s The manipulation by powerful drug com- Book of Woe: The Making of the DSM-5 panies looking to push products, and dence drawn from genetics and molec- and the Unmaking of Psychiatry; Saving a self-interested dream to get each ular neurology is bound to create cate- Normal: An Insider’s Revolt Against and every one of us a diagnosis that gories with no reliability or foundation. Out-of-Control Psychiatric Diagnosis by requires treatment by the editors of Let’s get rid of that last complaint Allen Frances; and Allan V. Horwitz the book and their cronies. The editors first. The view that the only medical and Jerome C. Wakefield’s All We Have don’t seem to know what to say in classifications that are valuable are to Fear: Psychiatry’s Transformation of response to these claims other than those grounded in molecular biol- Natural Anxieties into Mental Disorders, that the revision process was trans- ogy can be dismissed out of hand. to name only a few. parent. But that doesn’t mean that a Meteorologists, climate scientists, Now, there is plenty to kvetch about rationale doesn’t exist for what they forestry experts, and specialists who in the revised DSM. However, the critics have wrought. work to identify floodplains or predict are going way too far. The DSM is often The most common criticism in the earthquakes can seldom offer coherent described as “the bible of the mental reviews and books is that DSM-5 pro- explanations in atomic physics or quan- health field”—an unfortunate misnomer liferates diseases beyond the bound- tum theory for their subjects of study that leaves it open to attack as a compen- aries of common sense. Children who or for their causes. Their systems of cat- dium of divinely inspired truths about once threw frequent temper tan- egories and classifications are accepted human behavior. It should really be trums are now afflicted with “Temper because they work—giving us action- called The Best We Know to Date about Dysregulation Disorder with Dysphoria.” able knowledge about the world. The What Constitutes Mental Disorders, or Those who are bereaved due to the same ought to be the test of DSM-5. perhaps The Best Effort of a Group of loss of a loved one or a pet are lumped As for proliferating diseases, DSM-5 Experienced Mental Health Clinicians to in with the clinically depressed. Many is, as critics note, making value judg- Properly Classify Complicated Human critics note that Americans are overmed- ments. What the editors and the rest of Behavior as OK or Suspect. icated already and that all DSM-5 does (Continued on page 43)

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 9 Take action with us.

You can help promote science, reason, and secular values. Imagine a world where religion and pseudoscience do not influence public policy—a world where religion no longer enjoys a privileged position. The Center for Inquiry is working toward these goals and educating the public to use reason, science, and secular values rather than religion and pseudoscience to establish public policy. The Center for Inquiry advances its mission through advocacy, education, and outreach programs. No other organizations advance science and secularism on as many fronts as CFI and its affiliates, the Council for Secular Humanism and the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.

Donate today. When you make a donation to CFI, you become a member of a worldwide movement of humanists, skeptics, atheists, and freethinkers—all working together to promote the secular worldview and give voice to your values. Our major goals include: n Protecting the rights of nonbelievers n Advocating for science-based medicine n Sustaining and expanding the secular movement Make your most generous gift today, or request information on planned giving or making a bequest. To receive a brochure elaborating on what we are doing to achieve our important goals and how you can help, please complete and return the attached card or contact us at: Center for Inquiry Development Office PO Box 741 Amherst, NY 14226 1.800.818.7071 [email protected] www.centerforinquiry.net/donate Greta Christina OP-ED

Why We Need to Keep Fighting

f we don’t speak up, the status quo that the people controlling the con- anger that these atheists share—in a wins. versation don’t get their feelings hurt.” passionate, uncompromising manner. I Yes, this fight can be painful. When It is basically saying, “Let’s return to And yet, in all too many cases, the we battle against deeply entrenched the good old days, when so many of exact same atheists who applaud my beliefs that people are emotionally us were comfortable and complacent, passionate, uncompromising attitude attached to and are entangled with and the people who weren’t kept their toward religion turn around and say social and political and economic struc- mouths shut.” that I need to be polite, diplomatic, tures on every level, it can be difficult— That is not acceptable. understanding, non-divisive, and mod- more than difficult. We ask people to The status quo is wrong. It is wrong erate when it comes to misogyny and give up ideas that they’ve built their in the sense that it is literally, factually, sexism—at least when it comes to lives around. We ask people to change, mistaken about questions of objective misogyny and sexism within the atheist often in profound ways. We ask people reality. It is wrong in the sense that it movement. to take a leap into a way of thinking— harms people in real, practical, terrible indeed a way of living—about which ways. We cannot accept the status quo they know little or nothing at all and simply because challenging it is painful. have been fed lies, myths, and misin- We have to be willing to fight. At the formation. We ask people to admit very minimum, we have to not try to that they’re wrong about something stop other people from fighting. “When one group of people really important. In many cases, we ask has controlled the conversation people to acknowledge that they have think now would be a good time to done harm. Of course they’re going to Istop and say that I’m not, in fact, for centuries—indeed for resist. Of course they’re going to fight talking here about atheists fighting millennia—and another group back. against a world steeped in religion, a We’re often told that our fights world largely controlled by religious finally begins to get its voice against these beliefs are divisive. The believers. Yes, of course, everything I of opposition heard, of course people saying this aren’t wrong. These say here could be applied to that. But struggles can be ugly, painful, difficult. that’s not what I’m talking about this that’s going to create conflict.” They can create bad feeling between time. people who might otherwise be friends I’m talking about feminists fighting and allies. They can make it hard to against a world steeped in sexism, a work together on issues we have in world largely controlled by men. common. I’ve been noticing something inter- But calling for an end to the fighting esting lately. As you may know, I’m If it didn’t piss me off so much, I’d means standing up for the status quo. the author of a book titled Why Are think it was hilarious. When one group of people has con- You Atheists So Angry? 99 Things That You don’t get to have it both ways. trolled the conversation for centuries— Piss Off the Godless. I’m the writer You don’t get to be inspired and moti- indeed for millennia—and another whose blog post about atheist anger vated by my uncompromising rage group finally begins to get its voice went viral all over the Internet; I’m the toward religion and then tell me that of opposition heard, of course that’s speaker whose talk about atheist anger my uncompromising rage about sexism going to create conflict. To say, “Let’s at Skepticon 4 has gotten over 150,000 and misogyny in the atheist movement stop all this fighting,” is basically saying, views on YouTube. I am the person is divisive, distracting, and sapping “Let’s return to the way things used who literally wrote the book on atheist energy from the important business to be.” It is basically saying, “If there’s anger. I am regularly and enthusiasti- of atheist activism. You don’t get to any pushback at all against this, the cally applauded by many atheists for absolute top priority must always be articulating my anger about religion— (Continued on page 44)

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 11 Herb Silverman OP-ED

God-Talk for Atheists

any atheists, including myself, for literalists when the atheist Stephen And “holy shit” is a phrase that expresses try to avoid the kind of god-talk Hawking said that if we were to discover anger or amazement and has nothing to Mthat some people equate with a “theory of everything” (reconciling gen- do with divine defecation. But be careful belief in a deity. Although it’s reflexive eral relativity with quantum theory), we if you’re an unrepentant sinner: Gosh in our society to say “God bless you” would know the “mind of God.” might darn you to heck. when someone sneezes, “Gesundheit” More recently, when the atheist physi- The problem of sensitivity to reli- (“good health”) would be a more cist Peter Higgs proposed the existence of gion-related words doesn’t just concern appropriate atheist response. Getting the particle now called the “Higgs boson,” references to deities. I was once invited a wallet back from the lost and found the media mislabeled it the “God Particle.” to appear on a television show to com- with nothing missing could appropri- Amusingly, many scientists had been call- ment on a bill that would authorize the ately elicit the exclamation “Thank ing it the “Goddamn particle” because of placement of a Ten Commandments goodness!” because atheists know that its elusive nature. Confirmation of its exis- plaque on the grounds of South tence has added a bit more evidence to Carolina’s state capitol building. When our understanding of how our universe I arrived at the station, the producer could have come into existence without told me that my T-shirt was unfit for the need for a creator. a family news program and made me Theists and atheists alike have been cover it with a jacket—all so that view- known to use god-talk in response to a ers would be protected from my shirt’s “Some nontheists have employed foolish or painful incident—for exam- benign message: “Smile, there is no the concept of ‘God’ as a ple, hitting one’s thumb with a ham- hell.” How ironic: a family news show metaphor that is often incorrectly mer, then exclaiming “God dammit!” was censoring hell, a word of primary or “Jesus Christ!” In these instances, it biblical significance to most fundamen- equated with god belief.” is the religious person, not the atheist, talist Christians. who might worry about the “sin” of tak- In closing, I’ll share an admittedly ing the Lord’s name in vain. Orthodox immodest personal goal. I’d like to Jews go even further in the “not in have my name become a curse word— vain” vein by taking care to write G-d just like the names of so many deities. instead of God. People would go around saying “Herb (It seems to me that believers in dammit!” And imagine my pleasure goodness exists. In these examples, we an all-powerful and all-good God who when people would shout “Jesus H. can see how to avoid invoking or prais- controls the universe should be theo- Christ!” while I assume that the middle ing a deity when we utilize a cliché. logically consistent and credit God for initial stands for “Herb.” Some nontheists have employed the bad as well as good outcomes—even I know. That was a Herb-awful joke. concept of “God” as a metaphor that though it would be odd to hear a is often incorrectly equated with god religious person who has broken a leg belief. Perhaps the most famous person loudly exclaim “Thank God!” or “Praise to do this was Albert Einstein, whose epi- Jesus!”) thet “God doesn’t play dice with the uni- We have many euphe Herb Silverman is founder and president emeritus of the verse” was his expression of contempt for misms for the names of Secular Coalition for America, author of Candidate Without a the notion that the universe is governed deities and biblical words. Prayer: An Autobiography of a Jewish Atheist in the Bible Belt by probability, an idea fundamental to “Holy cow” replaces “holy (Pitchstone Publishing, 2012), and Distinguished Professor quantum theory. (The indisputable suc- Christ”—although I don’t Emeritus of Mathematics at the College of Charleston. This cess of quantum theory shows that “God” know how that expression essay was written for The Washington Post’s On Faith blog but really does play dice with the universe.) plays in India, where cows rejected on grounds of its, um, profanity. The same kind of problem later arose are considered sacred.

12 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org OBITUARY

Henry Morgentaler, 1923–2013

enry Morgentaler was born in Poland in 1923 and emigrated to HCanada in 1950. All Morgentaler’s family members except for his brother had died in death camps. He became a physician and Canada’s best-known advocate for safe, legal abortion, and he detailed his activism in a feature article he wrote for Free Inquiry in the Winter 1988/89 issue (one of several articles he contributed over the years). Morgentaler joined the Humanist Fellowship of Montreal in 1963 because humanist philosophy “was devoid of dogma, arbi- trariness, and supernatural claims, but also because it had a framework of values that seemed relevant to the concerns of contemporary humans.” When he became its president, he decided to make the organization more active. They MARK BLINCH/REUTERS/Newscom first took on education: in the province of Quebec, no secular schools existed and Protestant and Catholic schools were was presented to the House of Commons abortions. . . . I knew that I was taking an taxpayer funded. The issue went all the Health Committee. It was the first group enormous risk and that criminal prosecu- way to the Supreme Court but they were to advocate abortion on request. (The tion was likely to follow.” defeated. Morgentaler’s group next document was endorsed by humanist Referrals from professionals, includ- took on abortion law reform. He wrote: groups in Toronto and Victoria and led ing liberal religious leaders, all across “It was natural for a humanist group to the formation of a humanist national Canada and even the United States led to to adopt this issue for many reasons: organization, the Humanist Association such a demand for Morgentaler’s abor- the defense of women’s rights and the of Canada.) tion services that he trained four doctors. empowerment of women to be equal Morgentaler’s success in raising pub- When abortion law reform was finally and autonomous members of the com- lic awareness and support for the issue passed in 1969 in Canada, Morgentaler munity; the elimination of the scourge of led to a dilemma when women desir- found it deficient: abortions could only illegal clandestine abortion with its toll ing abortion sought his services as a be performed in hospitals (although not of death, injury, and suffering; and the doctor: “They could not wait until the all were required to offer it) and only if realization that ‘wanted’ children given law changed; they needed help imme- the mother’s life was threatened, which love and affection in their formative diately.” He started to provide abortions would be determined by a committee of years would be more likely to grow up in his office in 1968, perhaps being the doctors. Thus there was still a demand into emotionally healthy individuals and first doctor in North America to usea for Morgentaler’s services, and he con- responsive members of the community.” vacuum suction technique that became tinued to perform them in an office set- After 1967 when Great Britain passed the standard. He also vowed to never ting. His clinic was raided in 1970, and a liberal abortion law, pressure began to turn away a patient due to an inability to he was charged with performing illegal build for changes to Canadian law. On pay. “I decided that it was my duty as a abortions. But he became more deter- behalf of the Humanist Fellowship of doctor and a humanist to practice what I mined to advocate for safe abortion for Montreal, Morgentaler wrote a brief that preached and to help women in need of Canadian women when the U.S. Supreme

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 13 Fundamentals of Photography Court legalized abortion in 1973 in Roe acquittals, which led to the government’s Canadian women. V. Wade, and he demonstrated that the downfall. (The other doctors performing In his article for Free Inquiry (he also Taught by Joel Sartore, Professional Photographer procedure could be done safely outside abortions had also been arrested and wrote in subsequent issues providing of hospitals on national television. charged during this period, interrupt- updates on the abortion struggle and In Morgentaler’s first trial, he was ing services for a time in Canada.) The his view of the future of humanism), IM ED T E O 1. Making Great Pictures IT FF acquitted by a French Canadian Catholic new government, of René Levesqué, Morgentaler commented on the morality E 2. Camera Equipment—What You Need IM R jury. But then the Quebec government declined to pursue further prosecution of abortion and the consequences of L 3. Lenses and Focal Length appealed his acquittal to the Quebec and also chose not to enforce the new liberalizing legislation: “Medical abortion 4. Shutter Speeds Court of Appeal, which overruled the abortion law. on request and good quality care in this 70% 5. Aperture and Depth of Field verdict and sentenced Morgentaler to Morgentaler then opened clinics in area are a tremendous advance not only 8 6. Light I—Found or Ambient Light O off eighteen months in prison. It brought other parts of Canada, where he also toward individual health and dignity of R R E 7. Light II—Color and Intensity D B another case against him, and he was faced raids and prosecution. In 1988, women but also toward a more loving, ER O BY OCT 8. Light III—Introduced Light again acquitted by a jury. To the outrage the Supreme Court of Canada struck caring, and responsible society, a society 9. Composition I—Seeing Well of civil libertarians, the government made down the abortion law and estab- where cooperation rather than blind sub- 10. Composition II—Background and Perspective more attempts to retry Morgentaler after lished safe, accessible, legal abortion for mission to authority will prevail.” 11. Composition III—Framing and Layering 12. Let’s Go to Work—Landscapes 13. Let’s Go to Work—Wildlife LETTERS 14. Let’s Go to Work—People and Relationships 15. Let’s Go to Work—From Mundane to Extraordinary 16. Let’s Go to Work—Special Occasions GEORGE A. WELLS: Benedict XVI’s Intransigent Legacy counseling as to the possible ill that early Christianity became a in America—What’s It For?,” Tibor 17. Let’s Go to Work—Family Vacations effects of abortion. Some evan- majority religion because, enabled Machan uses several facts and 18. Advanced Topics—Research and Preparation CELEBRATING REASON AND HUMANITY June/July 2013 Vol. 33 No.4 gelicals claim that they are being by Constantine’s conversion to draws a conclusion: John Locke discriminated against because Christianity, “bellicose Christians wrote a book that was published 19. Advanced Topics—Macro Photography they are not allowed to teach violently crushed every remnant in 1689, and North Korea seems 20. Advanced Topics—Low Light creationism at public expense. of polytheistic worship,” so that to be an unpleasant place to 21. Advanced Topics—Problem Solving Ideas and concepts such as the growth of Christianity was live. The conclusion seems to be 22. After the Snap—Workﬂ ow and Organization civil rights, nondiscrimination, that government regulation is forced by the state. This is only 23. Editing—Choosing the Right Image and cultural inclusiveness have partially true. In fact, Constantine bad. I don’t get it. What do the DOES RELIGION REALLY become philosophic mainstays 24. Telling a Story with Pictures—The Photo Essay MAKE US BETTER PEOPLE? converted only after Christianity facts presented have to do with And What If It Doesn’t ? among the millennial genera- grew at an exponential rate and my wish that my government BARRY A. KOSMIN | RYAN T. CRAGUN | LUKE W. GALEN | JEREMY BEAHAN tion. Just to insinuate that there the Christian religion continued to help assure food and workplace SHADIA B. DRURY Exposing Christian Propaganda TOM FLYNN Is Religion Dying? has been a violation thereof elic- gain membership independently safety, clean air and water,

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EDD DOERR | ROBERT M. PRICE Published by the Council 7725274 74957 This is not necessarily a bad for Secular Humanism An important sociological study and other such regulations? thing in certain civil contexts. We on this is Rodney Stark, The Rise of Locke may have had some inter- Learn the Inside Secrets of want cultural inclusiveness, and Christianity (Princeton University esting things to say about what we don’t want to discriminate Press, 1996). Stark argues that to do with a surplus of grapes, against anyone on inequitable Constantine converted because and North Korea is not a good Professional Photographers Is Religion Dying? grounds. The religious Right Christianity was growing rapidly societal model, but I for one knows this and will take full because it successfully competed wish we had more food and Photographs can preserve cherished memories, reveal the beauty of life, Tom Flynn’s admonition in “Is Fundamentals of Photography advantage of this kind of civil with paganism in treating women work place safety inspectors, not and even change the world. Yet most of us point and shoot without Religion Dying?” (Free Inquiry, Course no. 7901 | 24 lectures (30 minutes/lecture) posture in seeking intellectual better in handling the awful fewer. June/July 2013) about the really being aware of what we’re seeing or how we could take our photo respectability. 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So, their new strategy is to of North American stakeholders integrate themselves into the Arthur DiQuattro in the English colonies against the photographer’s eye, take full advantage of your camera’s features, and Designed to meet the demand for lifelong youth milieu by co-opting the The Triumph of Seattle, Washington greed of the English government); capture magical moments in any situation or setting imaginable. learning, The Great Courses is a highly latter’s symbols and language. Christianity nor are there any “natural rights” popular series of audio and video lectures led The evangelicals now speak of a that somehow came to us from by top professors and experts. Each of our “woman’s right” to see the non- In her article, “Exposing Christian Government in America O er expires 10/08/13 viable fetus she may be thinking Propaganda” (FI, June/July 2013), (Continued on page 64) more than 400 courses is an intellectually about aborting or to receive Shadia Drury lends the impression In the op-ed titled “Government 1-800-832-2412 engaging experience that will change how ../5 you think about the world. Since 1990, 14 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org over 10 million courses have been sold. Fundamentals of Photography Taught by Joel Sartore, Professional Photographer IM ED T E O 1. Making Great Pictures IT FF E 2. Camera Equipment—What You Need IM R L 3. Lenses and Focal Length 4. Shutter Speeds 70% 5. Aperture and Depth of Field 8 6. Light I—Found or Ambient Light O off R R E 7. Light II—Color and Intensity D B ER O BY OCT 8. Light III—Introduced Light 9. Composition I—Seeing Well 10. Composition II—Background and Perspective 11. Composition III—Framing and Layering 12. Let’s Go to Work—Landscapes 13. Let’s Go to Work—Wildlife 14. Let’s Go to Work—People and Relationships 15. Let’s Go to Work—From Mundane to Extraordinary 16. Let’s Go to Work—Special Occasions 17. Let’s Go to Work—Family Vacations 18. Advanced Topics—Research and Preparation 19. Advanced Topics—Macro Photography 20. Advanced Topics—Low Light 21. Advanced Topics—Problem Solving 22. After the Snap—Workﬂ ow and Organization 23. Editing—Choosing the Right Image 24. Telling a Story with Pictures—The Photo Essay

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Profiles of Resilience: Interviews with Atheistic Spinal Cord Injury Survivors Karen Hwang

t has long been accepted as an article of faith that reli- responses to disability have been the focus of many empirical gion/spirituality (hereafter “R/S”) has a beneficial effect on investigations published in clinical literature. However, there Iboth physical and mental health. Popular U.S. survey data has been virtually no systematic research into the ways that appears to indicate a positive association between R/S and atheistic individuals adjust to traumatic disability. various indices of mental and physical well-being. However, this research is not without methodological controversies. Spinal Cord Injuries Primary among them is a lack of agreement among research- Specifically, this project focused on individuals who had suf- ers regarding how best to define and measure such nebulous fered traumatic spinal cord injuries. According to the National terms as religion and spirituality; without universally stan- Spinal Cord Injury Database, spinal cord injury (SCI) affects dardized definitions, we can only investigate thoughts and approximately 11,000 new individuals each year, mostly behaviors such as frequency of church attendance or expe- young people, as a result of such diverse causes as motor riences of prayer or meditation that we typically think of as vehicle accidents, sports injuries, violence, and falls. Fifty-five associated with R/S. percent of SCIs occur among persons in the 16- to 30-year age However, there may be no reason that qualities typically group, and the average age at injury is 32.1 years. The num- characterized as “spiritual“ need to fall exclusively within the ber of SCI survivors in the United States today has been esti- experience of R/S individuals or that affirmatively non-spir- mated to be between 183,000 and 230,000. The great major- itual (that is, secular) persons are incapable of experiencing ity of SCI survivors (about 80 percent) are male. Considering “deep and meaningful connections” or “a feeling of inner the youthful age of most persons with SCI, it is perhaps not peace,” to name just two of the items often encountered surprising that most (53.4 percent) are single when injured. in many R/S measures. Secularists may also hold different Among those who were married at the time of injury, as well interpretations of items related to meaning or purpose in as those who marry after injury, the likelihood of their mar- life, or they may dispute the need for a meaning or purpose riage remaining intact is slightly lower when compared to the at all. Moreover, studies comparing health and well-being in uninjured population. The likelihood of getting married after persons reporting high to low R/S are based on the assump- injury is also reduced. tion that lower spirituality must translate to higher secularity. Therefore, they fail to differentiate between affirmative secu- The Study larists and people whose beliefs are vague or conflicted. The In a 2008 study published in SCI Psychosocial Process, we few studies that do examine differences within nonreligious contacted twenty SCI survivors who described themselves participant samples have found no differences between as nontheists and invited them to complete a series of strong believers and committed atheists in measures of neu- semi-structured interviews by e-mail. The format of the study roticism, emotional disturbance, or other psychological risk was chosen for two reasons: first, because the relative scarcity factors (for more on this, see Hunsberger, Pratt, and Pancer of eligible participants would present difficulty recruiting for 2001). a large-scale quantitative study; and second, because the use Few things might threaten an individual’s health and of open-ended questions would allow respondents to express well-being as severely as a permanent and significant dis- themselves in greater depth. The interview covered three ability. Religious individuals who become disabled may find major areas: comfort in their beliefs. They may see their experience as a sign from God or an opportunity to turn their lives around. • development of secular identity (At what age did partici- They may also find peace in personal prayer or religious ritu- pants first reject religious belief? How did early experiences als or receive social support from their churches. On the other affect their development as secular individuals?); hand, they may be at risk for anger or depression if they feel • impact of secularity on adjustment to SCI; and that their deity is punishing or abandoning them. Religious • meaning, purpose, and spirituality.

16 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Participants were volunteers recruited from a general more likely to be weakly atheistic (n = 2) or agnostic (n = 4). notice posted on online SCI-community message boards. Most of the interviewees had consciously embraced secu- After providing informed consent, participants received a larism sometime in their adolescent years. The most common detailed project description along with the survey questions, factors associated with active apostasy were an increased as well as an additional questionnaire seeking injury and interest in science and an exposure to other religions, which demographic data. then triggered a critical reexamination of existing faith and the eventual shedding of theistic beliefs. Other contributing Analysis factors associated with atheist/agnostic identification were Self-assessment of secularity. Unfortunately, there are no support from significant others (most commonly parents or standardized assessment measures focused specifically on teachers) and a sense of increasing disconnection between atheism or secularism. Therefore, secularity was assessed religious teachings and the behavior of their adherents: by presenting participants with three statements about the I don’t really know exactly at what age this started. I would existence of God and asking them to select the one that best guess probably around junior high school. Science class was corresponded to their personal philosophy. The three choices more detailed than grade school and I had an atheist as a were: teacher for one of those classes. Though the teacher didn’t • “I see convincing evidence that god does not exist.”(strong go into any atheist vs. god debates they did offer scientific explanations for different events. Being the son of a minister atheist) in the Nazarene church I would take their explanations in class • “I do not find convincing evidence that god exists.” (weak and ask my father about them. Instead of flat out denial of the atheist) scientific explanation he would simply state “well that is how • “The existence of gods is an impossible question to answer.” god did it.” Though I didn’t completely convert to atheism it (agnostic). did start me down that path.

An “atheist” was defined as one who does not believe in —Roger, age 33 a god due to the lack of evidence. A “strong atheist” was defined as one who claims a positive assertion that God does I was raised Catholic but rarely attended Church. My parents not exist. An “agnostic” was defined as one who claims that were non-practicing Catholics. Although my siblings went to private Catholic schools, I did not. I grew up in a diverse town there is no knowledge of a god and there never will be. (The with all denominations. I attended Temple more than Church definitions were developed by George H. Smith.) with my closest friend and through Bar and Bat Mitzvahs. Participant responses were organized into separate, dis- I remember distinctly discussing religion with some friends crete domains conforming to the format of the original sur- when I was around 13--14 and one newer friend told us she vey: history and development of atheistic identity; the impact and her parents did not believe in a “God” and that they were of SCI on atheism, including any changes in spiritual beliefs; Atheist. This surprised me but intrigued me because I had and questions related to meaning and spirituality. Common never met anyone who believed so. From then on I questioned themes were defined as responses reported by at least three the belief of a “God,” was very interested in Mythology, tee- participants. tered between being an Agnostic and Atheist. —Marilyn, age 38 Results Of the twenty individuals who responded to the initial adver- When I was between 3rd and 4th grade I was attending tisement, fifteen (eight men and seven women) completed Baptist Bible summer camp and I realize that I disagreed with the fundamental reason for believing in God—that I was born the entire interview. Their ages ranged from 20 to 62 years sinful and needed to be saved. I did not believe I was sinful at old, with a mean age of 40.3 years. Ten of the participants birth nor then. I believed we were all inherently good people. identified themselves as students; seven were employed; I was a closeted agnostic until college. Ironically, I helped teach one was a homemaker; another was seeking work. The rest Sunday school classes to preschoolers to avoid having to go to were either retired or not actively seeking work, perhaps due church with my family from the age of about 11–18. to complications from their disability. Occupationally, these —Phil, age 51 figures are largely reflective of statistics within the entire SCI population. Educationally, all but three had at least some Impact on adjustment to SCI. Contrary to what might be college. expected, none of the individuals interviewed had shed reli- Self-assessment of secularity. Seven individuals (out of the gious belief as a result of their injury. However, about half of fifteen) identified themselves as “strongly atheistic” and three them felt that their SCI experiences had strengthened their were “weakly atheistic.” The remaining five were “agnostic.” already held beliefs. In addition, many participants felt that Intercorrelations revealed that the men were more likely to be being secular actually helped them to adjust psychologically strongly atheistic (six out of eight men), while the women were and existentially to their disabilities.

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 17 I think [SCI has] strengthened (my atheism). Naturally, I have theistic outlook, almost half of the participants described more time on my hands, thus more time to think about things themselves as “spiritual.” For them spirituality was a source of like religion. And the more I think about it, the more it doesn’t meaning and strength that helped them cope with the daily make sense. experiences of living with their disabilities. These individuals —Robin, age 28 typically defined spirituality as an appreciation for the inter- connectedness to nature, humanity, and the universe: “being After giving a lot of thought to the how and why this hap- in touch with their heart and mind” or “a higher conscious- pened to me, I came to the conclusion that it was just an ness of one’s self and surroundings.” These aspects were accident. God had nothing to do with it. I fell and broke my generally identified as a source of meaning and strength. neck. Accidents happen. —Adam, age 20 Another common source of meaning and purpose was significant others, family, and children: “I live and do everything for Post-SCI is when I embraced Atheism. Things I was going (my kids), they are my purpose.” through made sense to me. I was no longer frustrated with I find my source of meaning and purpose in today, one day at waiting on this purpose god must have for me. I started get- a time, the things and people I love such as my animals, family ting better; I wasn’t stressed out all the time and frustrated and friends. I am needed and loved. When I’m feeling weak with why this happened. Why has there been no revelation and need mental strength I toughen up by thinking about all from god as to what my purpose should be now that I was SCI. I love. When someone does me wrong I hold on to a more of —Roger a cosmic belief rather than Buddhist belief in karma. I think every person has an effect in some way on every other person I did at one time want to be a believer in a god and heaven or creature they encounter which gives them meaning and because I think some people use their beliefs or hopes as a purpose. coping skill when things are not going their way. I also think it —Sarah, age 28 would be nice if I had a fairy god mother to call to when times are tough or wish I was a Genie. . . . My thought process just I feel like everyone individually has the responsibility to do does not operate that way and or I was not conditioned to their very best to make this world the best it can possibly be. think in fantasy terms. I think when there is a crisis, you just need to bear down and —Marilyn find resources within yourself. I think everyone is far more capable of doing great things than most people imagine. Three participants reported being approached by aggres- When I am at my lowest of low I look around and see that sively religious people after injury: there are others who struggle with more than I do and that I can make it through this time stronger than I am now. I kept thinking about this purpose everyone said god had for me. I was so sick during those years I would beg god to let —Hazel, age 52 me die. I tried many times to end my life to no avail. After an By contrast, more than half of the participants did not arrogant hospital minister visited my room I started taking a different view of my situation. By removing god completely consider themselves spiritual, indicating that the idea of from all that had been happening and still happening to this “spirituality,” with its basis in the word spirit, was by defini- day it made clear just why I was going through the hell I was. tion indicative of a “higher power” or consciousness beyond Put god back into the equation and it got all muddy again. the objectively proven. Definitions offered by these nine This was the defining moment in which I accepted there is no participants included “how some people define their per- god in control. sonal relationship with their chosen savior” and “a belief in —Alec, age 43 a non-physical universe/dimension, in other words there are spirits, ghost, karma, etc.” When I was first injured, people kept preaching to me. Telling I find my source within myself. I figure a human trying to fig- me to pray so I could walk again. I tried doing that and noth- ure out a meaning and purpose to their life is about as pointing happened. Society kept telling me that if I believed in god I less as a duck trying to figure out basic chemistry. would miraculously get up again. I found myself stuck in rehab with people surrounding my bed saying their prayers for me. I —Roger just went along with it. I was on too many pain meds to think straight. After giving a lot of thought to the how and why this (I)n times of crisis, I look inward to try and figure out how to happened to me, I came to the conclusion that it was a just get out of said crisis (instead of turning it over to “God”). an accident. —Adam —Lynne, age 36 “I’ve always connected spirituality and religion, although The efforts of well-meaning but intrusive proselytizers only I realize most people don’t,” admitted another respondent. served to further entrench our participants’ already held sec- These individuals tended to be extremely self-reliant and did ular worldviews. not consider a lack of spirituality to be detrimental to their Meaning, purpose, and spirituality. Despite their non- overall sense of well-being.

18 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Facing the Worst Without God

Discussion that African American and Hispanics are much less likely to The results of this investigation indicate that despite their be nonbelievers. It is hoped that further investigations will lack of religious or spiritual beliefs, the fifteen individuals attract larger participant sample sizes sufficient for more interviewed were generally happy and dealing well with their objective assessment methods; however, subject recruitment injuries. This supports the idea that a strongly secular orien- difficulties may hamper such future research efforts. These tation can be just as meaningful as a strongly religious one. findings, therefore, remain highly exploratory. All of the individuals interviewed had been confirmed Despite these limitations, the results of this investigation nonbelievers prior to injury. The reasons for their initial athe- support the idea that a lack of religion and/or spirituality does not necessarily constitute a detrimental effect on adjust- ism/agnosticism are largely reflective of those found in other ment to spinal cord injury in affirmativelyatheistic and agnos- research. There was no evidence that a loss of faith was trig- tic individuals. That is, it is the strength and consistency of gered by negative emotional experiences after injury or that one’s belief, rather than the nature of the belief itself, that a lack of religious belief had negative effects on post-injury promotes healthy adjustment and general happiness. We well-being and no evidence that the trauma of a spinal cord hope that the results of these interviews can help to provide injury had triggered any anger, with God or otherwise. It was some insight into the ways in which a consistent, committed clear that the shift from agnosticism to atheism—or from secular worldview can also help individuals deal with difficult weak to strong atheism—reported by some individuals was a periods and move on to happy lives. result not of any significant shifts in worldview but rather an increased confidence in an already held worldview. Selected References and Further Reading One hypothesis for the resilience of secularity is that a Buggle, F., D. Bister, G. Nohe, W. Schneider, and K. Uhmann. “Are Atheists sudden loss of faith following a traumatic incident is likely More Depressed than Religious People?” Free Inquiry, Fall 2000. to be reactive, emotional, and internally incoherent and Exline, J. J., and A. M. Martin. “Anger toward God: A New Frontier In therefore less likely to be self-sustaining in the long-term. By Forgiveness Research.” In Handbook of Forgiveness, edited by E. L. Worthington. New York: Routledge, 2005. contrast, de-conversion as a result of careful thought is more Flynn, Tom. “Taken in the Wrong Spirit.” Free Inquiry, April/May 2009. likely to result in a worldview that is both intellectually and Glaser, B. G., and A. L. Strauss. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies emotionally coherent. In short, the adolescent de-conver- for Qualitative Research. New Brunswick: Aldine Transaction, a divi- sions described by participants occurred not out of rebellion sion of Transaction Publishers, 1967. Hall, D. E., H. G. Koenig, and K. G. Meador. “Hitting the Target: Why or negative experiences with family or with religion but as a Existing Measures of ‘Religiousness’ are Really Reverse-scored natural part of identity formation. Measures of ‘Secularism.’” Explore 4 (2008). What about spirituality? Previous studies have reported Hunsberger, B., and B. Hunsberger. “Religious Socialization, Apostasy, that spirituality, in particular, is related to improved health and the Impact of Family Background.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 23, No. 3 (1984). outcomes in adjustment to disability. However, the results Hunsberger, B., M. Pratt, and S. M. Pancer. “Religious versus Nonreligious of this present study did not reveal any difference between Socialization: Does Religious Background Have Implications for self-identified spiritual and non-spiritual participants with Adjustment?” International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 11, regard to happiness with life or dealing with injury. Of course, No. 2 (2001). many atheists disdain the word spiritual because of its super- Hwang, K. “Experiences of Atheists with Spinal Cord Injury: Results of an Internet-Based Exploratory Survey.” SCI Psychosocial Process 20 natural connotations. Nevertheless, many elements of “spiri- (2008). tuality”—particularly those dealing with human connections Hwang, K., J. H. Hammer, and R. T. Cragun. “Extending Religion-Health or highly emotional experiences—are equally important to Research to Nonreligious Minorities.” Journal of Religion and Health, affirmatively non-spiritual individuals. This confusion in terms October 28, 2009. Epub ahead of print. Riley, J., S. Best, and B. G. Charlton. “Religious Believers and Strong can lead to misunderstandings by others, who may wrongly Atheists May Both Be Less Depressed than Existentially-uncertain assume that non-spiritual individuals reject any activity that People.” QJM: Monthly Journal of the Association of Physicians, could in any way be interpreted as “spiritual,” even those hav- 98 (2005). ing to do with basic human contact, including, as Tom Flynn Smith, George H. Atheism: The Case Against God. Los Angeles: Nash, 1974. wrote in a previous issue of Free Inquiry, “having a quiet conversation with a patient, holding a patient’s hand, evaluating a patient or family member’s emotional state, even giving a comforting alcohol rub.” General discussion. Despite these intriguing findings, this study has its limitations. Its principal limitation was its small sample size. This was not unexpected, given the relative infre- Karen Hwang is adjunct assistant professor of medical rehabilitation at quency of nonbelievers in U.S. society in general and among University of Medicine & Dentistry of New Jersey. She is on the staff of SCI survivors in particular. In addition, all the participants the Center for Atheist Research. were Caucasian or Asian. This was also to be expected, given

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 19 Revisiting Right and Wrong

The Foundation of Ethics and Morals in America Reynold Spector

n America, a thoughtful parent must understand the foun- questions regarding my patients in relation to euthanasia and dation of ethics and morals to teach children. Similarly, in the issue of assisted suicide. Ianswering ethical and moral questions from medical stu- To answer such questions—what to do and why—I turned dents, residents, and patients over more than forty years as an to books and my teachers at Harvard and Yale. I received little academic physician and scientist, I have had to know ethical useful advice. In frustration, I turned to the smartest person foundational principles. I knew—my mother, a Doctor of Laws. She always had the Before coming to the essence of the discussion, I wish to same answer: “Turn to the law; start out with reading the emphasize that humankind’s behavior is mixed: it is some- Laws of Plato, the Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle, the legal- times good and sometimes dreadful. For example, according ists of ancient China, then the comments of Jeremy Bentham to psychologists such as David Stamos in his eye-open- on the law, and finally modern law.” ing article “The Philosophical Significance of Psychopaths” Before explaining her argument, I must first define ethics and morals and review what Harry Gensler, in his fine textbook Ethics (1998), calls “Hume’s Law.” Second, I will discuss several relevant and generally accepted facts “David Hume . . . pointed out that one cannot deduce an about human nature. It is obvious that we must have some understanding of human ‘ought’ from an ‘is.’ . . . In other words, we cannot develop nature as it is situated in our vast imper- ‘moral truths’ from descriptive facts (how things are) alone.” sonal universe if we are to develop practical ethical and moral principles and rules. Third, I will briefly categorize the myriad (mainly Western) ethical and moral theories and emphasize some of their underly- (Free Inquiry, August/September 2011), at least 1 percent of ing assumptions. I do this because these theories are woven humans are psychopaths, and as many as 10 percent have into the foundation of American ethics and law. To under- such tendencies. Consequently, it is clear, as pointed out stand ethics and the law—and my argument—the reader by Hobbes, Freud, modern psychologists, sociologists, and must have some familiarity with these theories. Finally, I will philosophers such as John Searle in Making the Social World then touch on the fairly solid foundation of ethics and moral- (2010), that unless there are societal rules for behavior (and ity in modern-day America. methods to enforce them), society will not function smoothly. My own awakening about ethics and morals began when Definitions and Hume’s Law I was a senior in high school. I was troubled by academic What do we mean by morality and ethics? For these defini- cheating and petty theft. As I grew older, I was distressed by tions, I will rely heavily on Gensler and Bernard Williams, the reading about cannibalism and even more so by interactions greatest moral philosopher of the second half of the twenti- with a psychopath I knew. Then later still, when I was in the eth century, and his book Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy U.S. Army in Korea (1969), having learned the Korean lan- (1985). By “morality,” I mean the distinction between right guage, I was surprised to find that in an Asian Neo-Confucian and wrong behavior. This is often applied to a particular sys- society, the notion of the Good Samaritan (altruism) was not tem of values and principles of conduct, especially one held esteemed. Finally, I was constantly troubled by end-of-life by a specified society. Williams felt that the term morality has

20 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org taken on a specific connotation in Western culture, emphasiz- can train her children to excel in anything if only they practice ing the notion of obligation. Gensler divided ethics into two enough is not true. Moreover, there is a very strong tendency parts: metaethics and normative ethics. Metaethics deals with toward irrational or nonrational behavior and toward crime the nature and methodology of moral judgments. Normative including murder. Thus, philosophical systems that assume ethics deals with both normative theory (general moral prin- that humans are similar and rational are not realistic. We ciples) and applied ethics focusing on specific questions such now know that many, if not most, human behaviors are as the issue of abortion. due to unconscious mechanisms, with the rational-dialec- David Hume, that great philosopher, pointed out that tical conscious mind often being informed only after the one cannot deduce an “ought” from an “is,” which Gensler behavioral decision has been made. Hume pointed this out termed Hume’s Law. In other words, we cannot develop centuries ago, namely, that reason is often the handmaiden “moral truths” from descriptive facts (how things are) alone. of impulses, desires, and instincts. This knowledge is critical, Through the years, many writers have tried to overcome because alhough “is” doesn’t entail “ought” (Hume’s Law), Hume’s Law. One example is Michael Shermer, whose 2004 moral and ethical systems must work pragmatically; other- book, The Science of Good and Evil, made the case for the wise they are just utopian verbiage. evolutionary development of morals and ethics as humans Second, humans generally seek to protect and provide evolved from “social primates to moral primates.” He con- for themselves and their families, an observation made by cludes that because that is how we evolved, that is how Confucius 2,500 years ago and updated more recently by we should behave. E. O. Wilson made a similar case in his Adam Smith and by modern psychologists and physiologists. 1999 book, Consilience, and more recently in The Social For example, we now know that the important mother-child Conquest of Earth (2012). These efforts fail because they relationship depends on biological factors (such as the hor- ignore Hume’s Law or are scientifically incorrect. To give mone oxytocin); it is not just a socially constructed phenome- one example, Shermer claims we evolved “as pair-bonded non. However, as Hume and many others pointed out centu- primates for whom monogamy, or at least serial monogamy, ries ago, and Searle more recently, some behavior that is not is the norm.” He also maintains that “evolutionary theory in a person’s self-interest can be “socially constructed.” provides a deeper reason for adultery’s immoral nature that Third, individual humans do not have the same value to is transcendent because it belongs to the ‘species.’” However, society. This is true in all societies, whether it’s the alpha Shermer ignores the rampant adultery by both men and male in “primitive” societies or the neurosurgeon in modern women in America, as documented by psychologist Helen America. In America we reward certain talents and accom- Fischer. In a 1993 article, Fischer pointed out that only 16 plishments. Even John Rawls, the arch-leveler, agreed that percent of 853 cultures on record prescribe monogamy; in those who contribute more in ways that benefit everyone other words, 84 percent of human societies permit a man are entitled to more societal rewards. On the other hand, as to take more than one wife at a time. Fischer concluded by noted above, there are many unethical persons who cannot saying that “ancestral men who sought polygyny and ances- live within the law and yet still prosper. tral women who acquiesced to harem life disproportionately Fourth, because of the three aspects of human nature and survived”—the opposite of what Shermer contended. It is behavior noted above, society requires rules and regulations, true that in America monogamy is encouraged; yet even here including ethical rules. Moreover, notions of morality and that ideal is not followed by a large minority. Moreover, in ethics, no matter how well taught and indoctrinated, are not modern-day Islamic societies four wives are allowed! Even if enough to maintain civil society. A system for the enforce- Shermer were correct, the fact that humans “evolved” certain ment of the rules and regulations is required. This includes behaviors such as monogamy or cannibalism doesn’t make defined methods to assign blame when the rules are broken them moral. Hume’s Law is indefeasible, as noted by Gensler, and appropriate actions including reeducation and, in some Williams, and Derek Parfit in his 2011 book, On What Matters. cases, incarceration. These authors make an overwhelmingly convincing case for Hume’s Law. Current Ethical Systems In Table 1, following Gensler, I have noted three current pop- Facts about Human Nature ular metaethical systems. “Cultural relativism” argues that I would like to focus on four generally accepted facts about acceptable behavior is behavior that is culturally approved. human nature. First, individual humans are extremely vari- “Subjectivism” suggests the individual actor should follow his able in their qualities, their behavior (irrespective of their or her feelings when deciding on behavior. “Ideal Observer ethical systems), and the driving forces behind their behav- Subjectivism” has been refined to suggest that we should ior. Humans are born with intelligence varying from idiot to only decide what to do after we are fully informed and genius and with behavior from autistic to social, from psycho- have impartial concern for everyone. (Consistent with Ideal pathic to hyper-conscientious, and from clumsy to unbeliev- Observer Subjectivism, David Hume and others postulated ably physically skillful. The notion of the “tiger mother” who that empathy was the metaethical basis for much of morality.

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 21 over pain for all affected by our actions) and rule utilitarianism (after evaluating consequences of specific behavior in Table 1. Popular metaethical theories terms of assumed goods—virtue, pleasure, knowledge, life, 1. Cultural Relativism freedom—we should adopt rules with the best consequences for people in society to follow). Non-consequentialism sug- 2. Subjectivism gests that we ought to do certain kinds of behaviors (for A. Idealism (Ideal Observer) example, keep our promises, not lie, do “good,” and not harm 3. Supernaturalism others) irrespective of their consequences. This approach is known as “deontology.” Kant thought we must make no Remarkably, in the last twenty years, neuroscientists have exceptions to moral rules, no matter what the consequences. Others (such as Ross) thought that there could be exceptions. discovered “mirror neurons” in primates and humans that Rawls taught that there are two key non-consequentialist are the probable biological basis of human empathy, thus principles: “Society ought to safeguard the greatest liberty supporting Hume’s notion.) “Supernaturalism,” followed by for each person compatible with an equal liberty for all billions of humans, teaches in many cases that morality and ethics come from the gods or the gods’ representative (think of Moses’s tablets). Besides being mythology—clearly, all the different religious systems cannot be simultaneously true— Table 3. Normative ethics they founder in some cases on internal contradictions, such 1. Virtue Ethics as the problem of theodicy for Christians. 2. Consequentialism In Table 2, I have noted several philosophical metaethical A. Classical utilitarianism systems. “Intuitionists” such as G. E. Moore and W. D. Ross believe that we can find within ourselves self-evident “truths”: B. Rule utilitarianism pleasure, knowledge, and virtue are intrinsically “good” and 3. Non-consequentialism should guide behavior. However, Wilson in Consilience pejo- A. Duties e.g., fidelity, gratitude, justice, beneficence, ratively calls intuitionists “transcendentalists,” because it is self-improvement, non-malfeasance (deontology) impossible to prove what is self-evident. Neuroscientists have B. Distributive Justice (Rawls) not found a specific intuitive faculty in the brain. “Emotivists” 1. Equal liberty principle see moral judgments as expressions of feelings, not as state- 2. Difference principle ments that are true or false. Finally, “Prescriptivists” suggest C. Entitlement View (Nozick) that human agents must employ similar evaluations in similar cases, so that “ought” judgments are best understood as uni- D. Capability for Functioning (Sen) versal prescriptions, not as truth claims. E. Oriental Philosophies 1. Confucianism (Harmony) 2. Buddhism (Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path) 3. Hinduism Table 2. Philosophical metaethical theories 4. Contractualism 1. Intuitionism A. Self-evident truths (virtue, knowledge, pleasure, avoidance of suffering) others,” and “Society ought to promote the equal distribu- 2. Emotivism tion of wealth, except for inequalities that serve to benefit A. Feeling (e.g., empathy) everyone (including the least advantaged groups), and are 3. Prescriptivism open to everyone on an equal basis.” Rawls is authoritatively A. Similar evaluations about similar issues truths discussed in Gensler’s book. Robert Nozick, in his 1974 book, B. Universal “ought” (golden rule) Anarchy, State and Utopia, argued (contra Rawls) that one is entitled to what one honestly earns. In his 2010 book, The Idea of Justice, the Nobelist Amartya Sen viewed morality as those rules and customs that allow adequate human Normative Ethics functioning (universal food, sanitation, education, vaccina- Normative ethical principles are shown in Table 3. By “nor- tion). (See Samuel Freeman’s excellent 2010 review of Sen’s mative” I mean behavior that is usual, typical, or standard. book.) Finally, there are radically different Asian views such as The ancient Greeks believed that the four cardinal virtues Confucianism, Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, (wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice) could be inter- and so on, practiced by hundreds of millions of non-Westerners. nalized and that they formed the basis of ethical behavior. Some of these beliefs are nearly incomprehensible in the West, Consequentialism is well known in multiple forms: the two including the notion of harmony prevailing over honesty and most important are classical utilitarianism (maximize pleasure truth or the notion of “saving face,” even if it involves untrue

22 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Revisiting Right and Wrong

statements. Or consider the Hindu notion that the reason for suf- In my opinion, and those of his critics (in Parfit 2011, vol. fering and evil in the world is that such suffering afflicts people 2) , Parfit fails in both attempts. First, his methods involve the who were wicked or evil in a former life and must pay the price use of reason (rationalism) alone. He never defines what he in this life—the notions of samsara (endless reincarnation) and means by reason, but I believe in some contexts he means karma (fate depending on behavior in a former life). the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments by logical processes. In other places, he uses reason as The Problem a cause, justification, or explanation of an action. In still other In my case, when I understood the popular, philosophical places, he uses reason as what is right, practical, or possible. metaethical, and normative ethical theories (tables 1, 2, and He assumes that to perform the right behavior we need a 3) and attempted to apply them, I found them of little help reason in the second sense above. That assumption is behind in my thinking about practical ethical problems (abortion, his entire series of arguments. Moreover, Parfit uses his com- euthanasia) or worldly issues (targeted assassination, pre- monsense feelings about what is right or wrong as a criterion emptive wars). I could often find justification for opposite for judging propositions. Thus, much of his “reasoning” is courses of action in the current ethical theories. circular. Parfit also ignores human nature (discussed briefly E. O. Wilson and Bernard Williams came to a similar conclu- above) and Hume’s correct assertion that in many, if not sion. They also concluded that Western ethical and moral phi- most, cases reason is just one instrument employed to carry losophy as a search for the truth or for foundational principles out wishes, impulses, and instincts, which are the primary has failed. Wilson suggested scientific investigation of human drivers of behavior. He also ignores the newer findings of nature; alas, Williams offered no practical or philosophical neuroscience such as, once again, emerging work on mirror solution. neurons. Second, Parfit, though he tries, cannot make the various normative theories compatible (Table 3), so his triple Proposed Solutions theory ultimately fails. For example, Parfit says that to cause In the last few years, several philosophers have tried to over- suffering is always wrong (non-consequentialism). However, come Williams’s detailed 1985 critique. I will briefly discuss almost everyone would disagree with him. Miscreants are Searle, Derek Parfit, and W. V. O. Quine’s recent attempts. punished. In my field of clinical medicine, intense suffering is In his superb 2010 book, Searle points out that most human sometimes caused and accepted, for instance with curative institutions are social creations, not simple consequences cancer chemotherapy. of innate faculties. However, he attempted to justify a few In terms of cognitivism, Parfit ignores Williams, Quine, universal rights as self-evident even though “they are human Wittgenstein, and others (quoted in Parfit 2011, vol. 2) who creations.” Searle, like Williams, divides rights into positive argue that cognitivism and normative epistemology are rights (food, medical care) versus negative rights (free speech, wrong or incoherent. (Many—especially scientists, but not all religious freedom). The former entail major commitments observers—agree that “ought” statements cannot be true or from society; the latter do not. Surprisingly, Searle argues that false.) Parfit ignores the analytical philosophers’ and scien- the Universal Declarations of Human Rights, Article 25, which tists’ view that the word true applies to factual (declarative) mandates positive human rights, is a “profoundly irrespon- statements and must meet one or more of the three theories sible document.” He maintains that this document mistakes of truth: the correspondence, coherence, and pragmatic “policies for basic human and universal rights.” Thus, Searle theories. (I have long maintained that in scientific matters, sharply disagrees with Rawls, Sen, and other non-conse- if a thesis satisfies all three, it is extremely likely to be true.) quentialists (Table 3). However, he then (notwithstanding his Finally, Parfit ultimately falls back on intuition, admitting it is protestations) becomes an Intuitionist and strongly supports hard to prove cognitivism (p. 542, vol. 2). negative human rights, including free speech, privacy, prop- Although Parfit’s book is 1,400 pages, dense, and almost erty, and freedom of association. unreadable, I believe that he is pursuing a philosophical way Another attempt at answering Williams critique is Derek forward as described below. Although Parfit’s theses ulti- Parfit’s massive recent book, On What Matters. In it, Parfit mately fail, he is in a sense rediscovering what the American tries to establish two separate theses. First, he attempts to law discovered centuries ago: namely, that you need input take the “best” of consequentialism, non-consequentialism, from many metaethical viewpoints to design a sensible, and contractualism (Table 3) and combine them into a “triple practical system. It is not possible to make a single coherent theory.” He states, “An act is wrong when such acts are disal- philosophical system that “works.” (For another critical review lowed by some principle that is optimific, uniquely universally of Parfit’s book, see Samuel Freeman’s 2012 essay “Why Be willable, and not reasonably rejectable.” Thus, his theory is Good?”) “consequentialist because they would lead to the best results Like Wilson and Williams, Quine also recognized that (optimific); Kantian because they are universally willable; and philosophy alone cannot solve ethical and moral issues. He contractual since no person could reasonably reject them.” suggested naturalism and a turn toward psychology, a recom- Second, Parfit tries to show that the doctrine entitled (non- mendation that is just beginning to pay off. natural) cognitivism (which holds that moral judgments can Finally, others have recently offered various perspectives be true or false) is correct and applicable. (See MacFarquhar’s and Prescriptivist exhortations. For example, the self-labeled first-class exposition and analysis of Parfit’s book.) secular humanist Paul Kurtz offers a series of “beliefs” in his

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 23 “The Affirmations of Humanism: a Statement of Principles,” legal system does not separate out metaethics and norma- which is frequently republished in Free Inquiry. For example, tive ethics cleanly, as I do (following Gensler) in tables 1 to 3. he says “we believe in the cultivation of moral excellence,” The American system took the best features of the systems and “there are normative standards we discover together.” in tables 1 and 2 and the normative ethics in Table 3 and Such pabulum is not helpful in teaching our youth, solving created a unified medley that generally functions effectively concrete moral problems, or helping us to understand com- (see below). Although much of the law deals with the conse- plex metaethical notions. quences of rule- (law-) breaking, including punishment, there is an extensive background for the rationale that underpins Foundations of Morals and Ethics in America these rules. This background includes positions on how and Given the failure of philosophers and ethical thinkers to give when society can and should assign blame for acts that break us a coherent account of ethical principles and practice, where its rules and laws. In doing this, the legal system takes into do we stand? First, we have learned, predominantly from sci- account the seriousness of the crime, the motivation of the ence, that supernaturalism in all its guises is incorrect and miscreant, and the circumstances surrounding the crime. In is principally mythology and superstition. Supernaturalism some cases, the law emphasizes consequentialism, in others is not a sound basis for ethics in a universe where nature non-consequentialism, and in others still, contractualism. is neutral and has no values per se and where human eth- Punishments, although in my view often imperfect, are ical systems are largely social constructs, as pointed out by arranged so as to “fit the crime.” Matters not covered by the law can be decided by the citizen as he or she deems best, with the law frequently providing guidance. Another aspect of the beneficence of the law is that it often prevents “I submit that in America, we do have one solid, although quite crimes (rule consequentialism). Let us consider an example: mur- imperfect, foundation for ethics and morals . . . the law.” der. In a general way, murder of “innocents” is prohibited by law and justified by all the current normative principles (Table 3). This is clear. But we need to teach our Williams and especially Searle. (Wilson argues persuasively children more. As noted in American law, there are many that we must also acknowledge some role for biological types of murder. The law takes into account (assuming free input.) Second, we have learned that a broad perspective is will) the classic five aspects of responsibility for a murder: the necessary to think about ethics and morals. The founders of situation, the cause of the murder, the intention of the “crim- the American legal and political systems (and indirectly the inal,” the mental state and competence of the criminal, and nation’s ethical system), including Jefferson, Monroe, and the response of the murderer to the crime (regret, remorse, Franklin, were intimately knowledgeable about the history or their absence). In general, the law attempts to make the of Greece, Rome, and especially Europe. They understood the punishment fit the crime by taking the above factors into causes of the endless wars in Europe, including the negative account. Moreover, American law takes into account aspects role played by religion. So with this knowledge they set up of human nature that the philosophers have overlooked, such the American system and included such insights as the prohi- as what to do with psychopaths, pedophiles, arsonists, and bition of a state religion. sadists who commit crimes. Often they are—and must be— I submit that in America, we do have one solid, although treated differently. Even still, there remain certain ambigu- quite imperfect, foundation for ethics and morals. It is the ities in the law. For example, does the government have the one pointed out by my mother: the law. Over two hundred right to kill suspected terrorists with drone aircraft-launched years ago, Jeremy Bentham said: “Right, the substantive right, missiles on mere suspicion without arrest and trial? is the child of laws: from real laws come real rights, but from Take property. In the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson imaginary laws, from laws of nature, fancied and invented by did not include property as a self-evident right. Nozick, Searle, poets, rhetoricians, and dealers in moral and ethical poisons, and other non-consequentialists argue that property posses- come imaginary rights, a bastard brood of monsters, ‘gorgons sion is an absolute right. Others argue that the state can take and Chimaeras dire’” (quoted by Searle). property when it sees fit. This argument was recently resolved In America, the legal system as developed by the Founding when in Kelo v. City of New London (2005) the U.S. Supreme Fathers, the legislature, executive branch, and courts over Court decided that the state could take private property for several centuries has defined rights, often indirectly, and commercial development—a decision favoring consequential- developed methods to assign blame. However, the American ist thinking.

24 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Revisiting Right and Wrong

Finally, it is worth noting that, in 1971, Justice Lewis Powell here. Second, we should pass laws to make bank executives pointed out that “the judiciary may be the most important individually responsible for reckless behavior. This is self-evi- instrument for social, economic and political change,” a pre- dent (Table 2). In short, American law is excellent but can be scient prediction. It is also worth noting that the law does not made better. There is no reason that secular humanists should explicitly define the Platonic “Good” (an impossible task, as not be in the vanguard of change with clear objectives, ade- pointed out by G. E. Moore), nor does the law make claims about quate funding, and effective organization. “Truth.” Implications First, Americans who disagree with “We should—and do—steadily take advantage of our a law (or regulation) and the ethical notions in that law, can change the greatly expanded knowledge of biology and human nature law, generally by political or judi- to continuously upgrade and improve our ethical, moral, ciary action, if there is enough support for their position. To change and legal systems and their foundational principles.” the law often requires leadership, explanatory books, and most of all a clear, understandable, and positive program, not just rab- ble-rousing attacks. But change can be effected. Dedication and Acknowledgment Second, in the American system, we should—and do— I would like to dedicate this paper to Ethel. E. Spector, Doctor of Laws, follow Hume’s Law. We do not routinely take what “is” and who died in 2009 at age ninety-three. I also thank Michiko Spector make it into an “ought.” for her helpful criticism and aid in preparing the manuscript. Third, we should—and do—steadily take advantage of our References greatly expanded knowledge of biology and human nature Fischer, H. “After All, Maybe It’s Biology.” Psychology Today 26(2): 1993. to continuously upgrade and improve our ethical, moral, Freeman, S. “A New Theory of Justice.” The New York Review of Books, and legal systems and their foundational principles. The use October 14, 2010. of DNA identification is a good example. We should—and Freeman, S. “Why Be Good?” The New York Review of Books, April 26, do—take cognizance of the incredible technological changes 2012. Gensler, H. J. Ethics. New York: Routledge, 1998. in society to upgrade and expand ethical principles, such as Kurtz, P. “The Affirmations of Humanism: A Statement of Principles.” those concerned with privacy. Free Inquiry 32(2): 2012. Fourth, American laws and regulations (and the ethics they MacFarquhar, L. “How to Be Good.” The New Yorker, September 2011. assume or define) are a remarkable achievement. Humans of Nozick, R. Anarchy, State and Utopia. New York: Basic Books, 1974. Parfit, D. On What Matters. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. all colors, creeds, and abilities manage to live together in rea- Searle, J. R. Making the Social World. New York: Oxford University Press, sonable social harmony in America. But, in my view, the law 2010. currently needs much more work, a topic for another paper. Sen, A. The Idea of Justice. USA: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, In America, since ethics are enshrined in the law, teaching 2010. the law should be an early step in educating the youth. Then Shermer, M. The Science of Good & Evil. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2004. there is a foundation for action in many specific situations. Spector, R. and Vesell, E. “The Power of Pharmacological Sciences.” Even such difficult issues as abortion are covered by the law. Pharmacology 76, 2006. Stamos, D. N. “The Philosophical Significance of Psychopaths.” Free Implications for Secular Humanists Inquiry 31(5): 2011. Williams, B. Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. Cambridge, MA: To make changes in ethics, morals, and the law, secular human- Harvard University Press, 1985. ists must decide what needs to be changed. They must then Williams, B. Shame and Necessity. California: University California Press, agree on a program and methods to implement it—especially 1993. when changing the law is required, as in the case of abortion in Wilson, E. O. Consilience. New York: Vintage Books, 1998. the 1970s. Writing articles expressing opinions and outrage is Wilson, E. O. The Social Conquest of Earth. New York: Liveright, 2012. not enough. I will give two examples where change should be made. It is clear that there is currently an excessive concentration of wealth in America. One reason for this is that executives of public companies are often rewarded with outrageous com- Reynold Spector is adjunct professor of medicine at the Robert Wood pensation. These large imbalances can be fixed by changing Johnson Medical School and a frequent contributor to Skeptical Inquirer the rules for executive compensation and modifying the tax magazine. laws. We should apply consequentialist metaethical principles

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 25 In Response to Reynold Spector Ronald A. Lindsay

eynold Spector has provided us with an ambitious and person giving this advice by saying, “Why should I stop smok- thought-provoking, if somewhat idiosyncratic, essay on ing? You’re just giving your opinion.” The person giving the Rethics and the law. It makes for an interesting read, and advice counters with the ample facts demonstrating that he has several insightful observations. That said, I do have smoking is hazardous to one’s health. How much damage some areas of disagreement. More fundamentally, his argu- it does to one’s body will vary from person to person, but ment as a whole is on my view inconsistent and self-defeat- medical science does establish that smoking damages one’s ing. To keep this response concise, I will confine myself to the body. To these facts, the smoker can, of course, still say, “So two key flaws in Spector’s analysis. what? Hume’s Law! Hume’s Law! These facts don’t imply I should stop.” Technically, the smoker would be correct. The facts about the health effects of smoking do not, by themselves, imply that one should stop smoking. However, “Hume’s Law does not mean that facts are unconnected or the person giving the advice is working irrelevant to moral judgments, or that we cannot infer a moral with certain background assumptions. This person is effectively saying, “If you judgment from a conjunction of facts and moral principles.” want to avoid damage to your body and avoid the risk of serious harm, you should not smoke.” That one should avoid damage to one’s body and the risk of serious harm is an evaluative principle relating to one’s health that is Hume’s Law widely shared. Facts in combination with evaluative principles Spector relies heavily on “Hume’s Law” to dismiss much of can yield evaluative statements. moral philosophy as unhelpful, including moral philosophy The same analysis applies in moral situations. Facts by that makes use of facts about human nature. (See his remarks themselves do not yield moral judgments, but facts in com- on Michael Shermer.) This is a misapplication of Hume’s key bination with moral principles do yield moral judgments. distinction between “is” statements and “ought” statements. Furthermore, there is a bedrock of moral norms that is widely Being an admirer of David Hume, I am familiar with shared: norms such as don’t kill, don’t steal, don’t inflict Hume’s Law. Hume famously argued that from purely factual pain gratuitously, keep your commitments. These norms are premises it is not possible to infer an evaluative statement. widely shared because the human condition does not change Hume was, and is, correct about this. It is a fundamental point much from culture to culture in certain key respects. So if we about logic and ethics that is still too often overlooked or mis- want to live together in peace and have a stable society that understood. However, Hume’s Law does not mean that facts fosters cooperation and trust, then there are certain norms are unconnected or irrelevant to moral judgments, or that we we should follow. Of course, there is nothing in logic to com- cannot infer a moral judgment from a conjunction of facts pel you to accept these fundamental moral norms, just as and moral principles. there is nothing in logic to compel you to accept the pruden- Consider the assertion: “You should not smoke.” This is tial principle that you should avoid damaging your body. You an evaluative statement. What if a smoker challenges the could want to mutilate yourself and live in a state of anarchy.

26 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Revisiting Right and Wrong

Fine. But this does not imply that arguments that make use of of wealth in America. One reason for this is that executives of these fundamental norms are invalid, provided these norms public companies are often rewarded with outrageous com- are made explicit. pensation. These large imbalances can be fixed by changing There is substantial consensus about fundamental moral the rules for executive compensation and modifying the tax norms, because morality is grounded in human nature and laws.” human interests, which is what ensures that it is not (entirely) Why is the concentration of wealth “excessive”? Why is subjective. Hume himself was not a subjectivist in ethics. To the compensation of executives “outrageous”? Why do these the contrary, Hume argued that moral reasoning makes use perceived problems need to be fixed? Ironically, Spector’s of the “point of view common … with others.” comments here illustrate precisely one of the problems that To sum up: Spector is right that Hume’s Law is fundamental and operates as a check on fallacious reasoning. However, it does not have the sweeping implications that Spector attributes to it. “Facts in combination with evaluative principles Law Over Ethics can yield evaluative statements.” Spector then makes the bold claim that “given the failure of philosophers and ethical thinkers to give us a coherent account of ethical principles and practice,” we should look to the law for Hume was concerned with. Hume was annoyed with moralists guidance. This is a bold move because conventional wisdom who would covertly slip moral judgments into what seemed has it that morality should undergird the law, not vice versa. like a series of factual assertions. Hume wanted people to Upon reading this part of the essay, one awaits the com- understand that you cannot infer moral judgments from facts pelling argument that will persuade us to accept the primacy without an argument making it clear exactly which moral of the law. Unfortunately, such an argument never appears. principles you are relying upon (and, of course, you’re also Instead, Spector offers observations about various perceived obliged to argue for those principles). virtues of the American legal system. But what supplies the Spector says, “[t]o make changes in ethics, morals and the standards by which we can determine whether a law is good law, secular humanists must decide what needs to be or bad? It can’t be ethics, because Spector has already trashed changed.” I agree. But before embarking on that discussion, ethics. It can’t be the law, because the law cannot supply we should have a clear understanding of the process of moral its own justification. There seems to be nothing beyond reasoning and, sadly, on this score Spector fails to deliver. Spector’s own preferences. In the first part of his ambitious essay, Spector assures us that Hume’s Law means we cannot use facts to justify moral judgments. In the second half of his essay, however, Spector Ronald A. Lindsay is the president and CEO of the Center for Inquiry. He does not allow Hume’s Law to provide any sort of impediment is also an attorney and a bioethicist and the author of Future Bioethics: to his own moral judgments. Consider this remarkable pas- Overcoming Taboos, Myths, and Dogmas (Prometheus Books, 2008). sage: “It is clear there is currently an excessive concentration

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 27 In Defense of Sam Harris’s ‘Science of Morality’ Amir E. Salehi

n this article, I am pursuing several objectives. First, I will rience of conscious beings, they cannot be the mere invention address some of the problems with Sam Harris’s thesis con- of any person or culture.” Icerning a science of morality that was introduced in his book Because Harris equates factual claims with “objective The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human claims” identical to the type of claims made in science, and Values (Free Press, 2010). Specifically, I intend to demonstrate because he further considers value judgments to be objective that Harris applies a not-so-carefully-developed language claims (see the first premise), he argues that the value judg- that leads him to misidentify his own a priori assumptions. In ments fall under the domain of scientific investigation. this context, Harris’s lack of a well-defined method seems to Harris equates factual claims with “objective claims” and be the main cause for this problem. All in all, Harris’s proposal therefore identifies them with the type of claim made by science. He further states on page 62: “If there are facts to be known about the well-being of such creatures—and there are—then there must be right and wrong answers to moral questions. Students of philosophy will notice that this commits me to some form of moral realism (viz. “In spite of the problems associated with Harris’s proposal . . . moral claims can really be true or false) his vision of a science of morality has the potential to contribute and some form of consequentialism.…” to the field of applied ethics.” In this context, Harris proposes that we take advantage of existing scientific knowledge to evaluate the truth and fal- sity of value judgments as factual claims, including those that are used for moral judgments (the second premise). It is critical to emphasize that Harris legitimizes is vulnerable to convenient misunderstandings by his oppo- the use of science under the condition that value judgments nents and subject to their criticism. can be classified as factual claims; hence, objectivity claims of Second, I intend to show that, in spite of the problems scientific methodology are applicable for examining moral associated with Harris’s proposal, with some minor modifi- problems, as he states on page 37: “I think that our concern cations, his vision of a science of morality has the potential for well-being is even less in need of justification than our to contribute to the field of applied ethics. In this regard, I concern for health is—as health is merely one of its many will comment at the end of this article on some changes that facets. And once we begin thinking seriously about human would enhance Harris’s proposal and its overall objective well-being, we will find that science can resolve specific concerning the applicability of scientific knowledge in ethics. questions about morality and human values, even while our conception of ‘well-being’ evolves.” Harris’s Thesis in The Moral Landscape The third premise of Harris’s proposal is that the state of Harris’s thesis is based on three crucial premises. The first is consciousness must always be involved and evaluated when that value judgments are factual claims. On page 49 of his moral judgments are made. Accordingly, on page 63 Harris book he writes: “To say that there are truths about morality criticizes religions for not including human consciousness in and human values is simply to say that there are facts about their moral judgments: “Because most religions conceive of well-being that await our discovery regardless of our evolu- morality as a matter of being obedient to the word of God tionary history. While such facts necessarily relate to the expe- (generally for the sake of receiving a supernatural reward),

28 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org their precepts often have nothing to do with maximizing also moral values. In fact, because of this collapse (the moral well-being in this world.” Once Harris establishes descriptively value onto the prudential value of human well-being), Harris that any moral judgment is linked to a state of consciousness can use objectivity claims of science for his moral proposal. and only in the context of a conscious experience, saying it “makes sense” to talk about rightness and wrongness of Problems Associated with Harris’s Proposal human choices (because they directly or indirectly influence Although Harris is aware of the a priori assumption of his an actual or a potential conscious experience), he develops his proposal, namely, equating the prudential value of human normative claim that we ought to consider human well-be- well-being with its moral value, he fails to explain on what ing and flourishing for all moral judgments. That takes us to grounds he is entitled to equate these two values. Because the fourth premise of his proposal, namely, valuing human this equivalency is a central component of his moral frame- well-being and flourishing as “good” and human suffering as work, I will explain why Harris is still entitled to such equiv- “bad,” as demonstrated on page 39: alency, while pointing out some of the problems associated with his proposal. I am arguing that in the moral sphere, it is safe to begin with the premise that it is good to avoid behaving in such a way As stated in the introduction, it is the primary objective of as to produce the worst possible misery for everyone. I am this article to demonstrate how Harris’s not-so-carefully-de- not claiming that the most of us personally care about the veloped language as part of his not-clearly-defined method experience of all conscious beings; I am saying that a universe in The Moral Landscape leads him to misidentify the a priori in which all conscious beings suffer the worst possible misery assumptions of his own thesis. This lack of clarity concerning is a universe worse than a universe in which they experi- the applied method is also the reason Harris himself fails to ence well-being. This is all we need to speak about “moral truth” in the context of science. Once we admit that the extremes of absolute misery and absolute flourishing—whatever these states amount to for each particular being in the end—are different and “Harris claims that sciences provide evidence as well as dependent on facts about the universe, then we have admitted that there are explanations concerning why certain actions are not moral.” right and wrong answers to questions of morality.

Harris’s Proposal Based on the premises stated above, Harris develops his pro- explain on what grounds his proposal is entitled to equate posal by stating that once human well-being and flourishing the prudential value of human well-being with the corre- are accepted as guiding values for moral thinking, it can be sponding moral value. In the ensuing paragraphs, I intend to determined “objectively” or scientifically what actions com- demonstrate how this lack of clarity regarding method and promise human well-being and therefore are not moral. In language leads Harris to undermine the persuasive power of this context, Harris claims that sciences provide evidence as his thesis and arguments. well as explanations concerning why certain actions are not First, Harris misidentifies the metaphysical assumption of moral. Examples include honor killings in Pakistan and Jordan, his proposal by falsely positioning himself as a realist when the lashing of a fourteen-year-old girl to death for adultery in he aims to takes full advantage of the objectivity claims of Bangladesh on March 28, 2011, and the prearranged mar- science. On page 62 he states: “I believe that we will increas- riage of a thirteen-year-old girl to a sixty-five-year-old man, a ingly understand good and evil, right and wrong, in scientific practice that occurs in Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia. terms, because moral concerns translate into facts about how The above cases provide examples of how Harris’s proposal our thoughts and behaviors affect the well-being of con- challenges some cultural rituals due to the harm that they scious creatures like ourselves. If there are facts to be known cause to human well-being. Accordingly, there are existing about the well-being of such creatures—and there are—then explanations in science, such as in medicine and psychology, there must be right and wrong answers to moral questions. under which it can be established and demonstrated why and Students of philosophy will notice that this commits me to how some cultural rituals “injure physical or psychological some form of moral realism.” conditions” of humans and therefore should be changed or Harris overlooks that “objectivity” can be defined in two even eliminated entirely. ways: in the realist sense and in the irrealist sense. While To understand Harris’s account correctly, it is important to objectivity in the realist sense is defined as a nonnormative, state that human well-being and flourishing are not just pru- non-epistemic relationship between propositions (statement, dential values for Harris as they are for medical research but sentence) and some state of affairs or fact, objectivity in the

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 29 irrealist sense is defined as the notion of truth that is defined integration points at a standard characteristic of any natural- in irreducibly normative (epistemic) terms such as good belief, ized account, namely, that it remains flexible in its empirical warranted assertability, and rational belief—or in irreducibly approach. normative (moral or aesthetic) terms such as human emanci Further, naturalism is concerned with how humans arrive pation, flourishing, and well-being. at knowledge, including how the reliability of such knowl- In the first case (a realist framework), Harris’s metaphysical edge can be explained. In this context, naturalism often seeks claim of objectivity would have to preserve the view that val- a reliability account of the empirical knowledge a posteriori ues such as human well-being and flourishing are intrinsically and not a priori. Additionally, in search of an a posteriori good, meaning that they are good in and of themselves and account of how humans arrive at knowledge, naturalists not therefore independent from human experience or activities only aim at defining but also solving epistemological prob- or even existence. In the second case (an irrealist framework), lems in terms of scientific problems. In addition, they aim at adopting scientific methods and knowledge for dealing with epistemological issues. As James Maffie puts it (“Recent Work on Naturalized Epistemology,” American Philosophical Quarterly 27, No. 4, October 1990): “Naturalists Harris equates the prudential value of human well-being will reject the autonomy of epistemology, its moral value, but fails to explain why this is so. seeking to create continuity between epistemology and natural sciences. They seek epistemological, contex- tual, and methodological continuity between the two. Naturalized epistemology employs the cognitive methods of science, adopts the substantive claims of science, and enjoys the a Harris’s metaphysical claim of objectivity would have to mean posteriori evidential status of science.” Therefore, Harris is a that the value of human flourishing is good only insofar as it naturalist because he invites the sciences to join moral dis- is instrumental for human interests and wishes and therefore course by taking full advantage of scientific knowledge and entirely dependent on human existence and choices. methodology to address moral issues. One could also add Although Harris’s claim of moral objectivity (moral facts) is that Harris is a pragmatist because he applies the pragmatic developed irrealistically, he falsely associates any objectivity truth concept as well as instrumental and descriptive defi- claim exclusively with realism. As to why Harris wants to posi- nitions for the key terms of his proposal. Were Harris aware tion himself as an objectivist in a realist sense, this can be only of the pragmatist side of his proposal, he would have been speculated, perhaps because realists have historically enjoyed able to explain on what grounds his proposal is entitled to more legitimacy with their “objective claims.” equate the prudential value of human well-being with its The fact is, Harris is no objectivist realist. His account of moral goodness. Certainly as a pragmatist, Harris is entitled to objectivity is developed irrealistically because he defines equate the instrumental or prudential value of “good” with moral truth in terms of human well-being and flourishing, as moral goodness. demonstrated in his book: “I will argue, however, that questions about values—about meaning, morality, and life’s larger Harris’s Pragmatist Explanation purpose—are really questions about the well-being of con- Harris’s explanation is based on the premise that the greatest scious creatures. Values, therefore, translate into facts that possible suffering for the largest number of humans would can be scientifically understood. . . .” (p.1); and “Meaning, have to be considered bad. On page 39 of his book he writes: values, morality, and the good life must relate to facts about “Even if each conscious being has a unique nadir on the moral the well-being of conscious creatures—and, in our case, must landscape, we can still conceive of a state of the universe in lawfully depend upon events in the world and upon states of which everyone suffers as much as he or she (or it) possibly the human brain” (p.6). can. If you think we cannot say this would be ‘bad,’ then I Further, Harris misidentifies the method that he uses for don’t know what you could mean by the word ‘bad’ (and I establishing his claims. The correct epistemological position- don’t think you know what you mean by it either).” ing for him would be pragmatist naturalism, but in no place In the above context, a metaphysician might raise the in The Moral Landscape does Harris mention a naturalistic objection that bad in this case means “undesirable” and approach. Naturalism is defined as an attempt to integrate therefore Harris is not entitled to equate “bad” with “morally epistemology into science or science into epistemology. Such bad,” but we have to remember that Harris’s philosophical

30 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org position, though he fails to recognize it, is pragmatic natu- ical type of philosophy (an externalist-realist approach) to a ralism. All things considered, as a pragmatist, and based on a naturalistic (internalistic-irrealistic) approach similar to what similar demonstration, Harris could explain how a prudential Harris proposes? It is in this transition that Harris seeks help value of good can be equated with a moral value of good. from psychology and from the cognitive and social sciences Further, as a Neopragmatist like Richard Rorty, Harris offers for his so-called science of morality. It is neither the intention a descriptive instead of a prescriptive definition of human nor the claim of Harris to say that science can prescribe moral well-being. In general, since pragmatists have no metaphys- judgments concerning which human choices are virtuous, ical commitments, they don’t presuppose an essence of x but rather to ask what social norms, rituals, and activities that ought to be defined so and so, which is precisely Harris’s are standing in the way of human flourishing and therefore approach in regard to his key terms. Based on the pragmatist doctrine that one does not need to define x as long as one knows how to use it, Harris offers a descriptive definition of “human well-being” and “human flourishing” by stating that sciences such as “Harris misidentifies the metaphysical assumption of his medicine and psychology know how to use proposal by falsely positioning himself as a realist. . . .” these terms. In other words, Harris argues that although there is no “clear definition” of human well-being or “health” in a metaphysical or normative sense, this does not prevent psychologists, medical scientists, neuroscientists, and should be considered immoral. In this regard, I fully agree other cognitive scientists from making their judgments on a with Harris that the sciences can objectively (irrealistically) daily basis in their professions concerning what is or is not establish what we should not do due to the fact that certain “healthy” (what contributes or does not contribute to human cultural rituals compromise or even directly harm human well-being). well-being. All things considered, although Harris’s chains of argu- All things considered, my argument concerning the poten- ments are well-developed irrealistically, Harris himself is tial contribution of Harris’s proposal to the field of applied under the impression that he has established an objective ethics is similar to Harris’s own argument: it would be naïve account of morality in a realist sense. In this regard he resem- and pointless to ignore scientific knowledge that we already bles Columbus, who believed he had arrived at India when he have, because there are already empirical studies in medicine, actually had discovered a new territory. psychology, and other human sciences that can provide clear evidence regarding the absurdity of some cultural rituals, as The Potential of Harris’s Thesis the above examples with adultery, prearranged marriage, In spite of several methodological problems associated with and female circumcision have demonstrated. In addition, Harris’s account, I defend the view that Harris’s proposal Harris’s proposal might be unavoidable in a sense after all. makes several important points and that it (with some modifi- To clarify this claim, consider the best possible scenario cations) deserves serious attention and consideration. First of for traditional normative ethics, which is that it succeeds in all, I sympathize with Harris’s frustration insofar as theoretical establishing moral claims once and for all. Such an accom- ethics has failed repeatedly to establish any solid founda- plishment, as impressive as it would be, might either not tion for morality, so that consequently relativism has been come with explanations at all or might lack them. In other declared by the majority of contemporary intellectuals as the words, based on the distinction between an argument and best-possible theoretical view in ethics. Harris writes on page an explanation, namely, that arguments establish claims and 46: “The categorical distinction between facts and values has explanations provide descriptions in regard to how, it is con- opened a sinkhole beneath secular liberalism—leading to ceivable that moral justifications of theoretical ethics will not moral relativism and masochistic depths of political correct- be supplemented with explanations. This would mean that ness. Think of the champions of ‘tolerance’ who reflexively theoretical ethics, even in the best possible scenario (final and blamed Salman Rushdie for his fatwa or Ayaan Hirsi Ali for permanent justified account of moral claims) might have to her ongoing security correctness or the Danish cartoonists for depend on naturalistic explanations as far as how. their ‘controversy,’ and you will understand what happens when educated liberals think there is no universal foundation Final Remarks for human values.” I have demonstrated that Harris’s proposal in The Moral In defense of Harris, for how many additional centuries Landscape is accompanied by some problems and method- would we have to witness the incompetence of traditional ological shortcomings. By reclassifying Harris’s metaphysical normative ethics before we begin to switch from a metaphys- assumptions, I have demonstrated how the methodological

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 31 problems of his account can be corrected. Finally, I have From a metaphysical standpoint, Harris’s proposal needs defended Harris’s overall claim concerning the use of scien- some polishing so that it becomes crystal clear. For example, tific knowledge and its potential contribution to the field of his proposal defends contextualism (because he develops his applied ethics. moral view in the context of human conscious experience, It is noteworthy that Harris does not realize that his pro- including human suffering and well-being), and his proposal posal is more geared toward the claim that science can deter- defends anti-essentialism (because he does not aim at defin- mine objectively or scientifically what is not moral (he states ing what values are but rather how they are used in relation in The Moral Landscape that there are many ways not to be to human experience). Accordingly, Harris should spell out in on a “peak,” where human well-being and flourishing is max- detail his irrealistic approach, including his understanding of imized, while admitting that there are varieties of peaks on values and facts and the relationship between them. In The the moral landscape representing different ways of thriving). Moral Landscape, Harris talks about values and facts as if they In other words, it is much easier for science to determine what are abstract entities or universals (metaphysical language cultural rituals undermine human well-being than to predict dominated by externalist realist/objectivist realist position), or prescribe what cultural rituals as well as human individual and this is precisely where he demonstrates his carelessness tendencies would promote human flourishing. with the use of language. Instead, he should have used value What is also missing from Harris’s account is a clear judgments and factual claims (non-metaphysical terms consis- definition and understanding of science. It would certainly tent with his internalist irrealist account. enhance Harris’s proposal if he could state clearly what he Overall, the lack of discipline in regard to the use of means by science in general, as well as his understanding of method and language makes it easy for Harris’s opponents to the use of science in ethics—namely, that he does not mean a misunderstand his proposal and use it against him. particular scientific discipline that should be concerned with morality but rather a conjunction of interdisciplinary scientific approaches addressing moral issues and sometimes identify- Amir E. Salehi is associate professor of philosophy at The Community ing them (in the case of harmful cultural rituals as described College of Baltimore County, Dundalk Campus, Maryland. above).

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32 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Islam Reconsidered

Islam and Its Text James Snell

iteralism can have serious problems. Difficulties set in of persecution borne by brave people who merely did not after time has elapsed; vernaculars change, as do legal agree or had different sexual predilections, it is also a cop-out. Ldefinitions, customs, and attitudes. The eighteenth cen- Surely God’s messengers would have known not to put all tury is sufficiently far away for issues to arise as to the mean- queers to the sword? ing of the Second Amendment to the Constitution (which, These quotations are now seen as barbaric and supersti- as a European, I find distinctly mystifying). This document tious nonsense, as they should be. But why does Islam still has no claim to divine authority, to being the irrefutable and persist in teaching the infallibility of its texts of choice? It is undeniable word of a deity, and yet is still prone to differing not like they don’t also contain similarly irrational bursts of interpretations in the wake of new attitudes and concerns. incitement to kill and maim; see, for example, Qur’an 9:123: Much as the Founding Fathers could not conceive of auto- “O you who believe! Fight those of the unbelievers who are matic weaponry, tracts of theological invec- tive dictated by seventh-century serfs cannot be relied upon to predict and complement the tangle of international laws regarding, say, the rights of women and homosexuals. Nor can this flawed origin be expected to settle all “The problem with Islam specifically is its refusal problems in a few volumes (be they derived to accept the inevitable and drop its claim from a higher power or not). The problem with Islam specifically is its refusal to accept of immortal infallibility for its holy books.” the inevitable and drop its claim of immortal infallibility for its holy books. Other faiths, moved by a tide of progressive pluralism and scientific development, were forced to concede long ago that their holy texts did not hold near to you and let them find in you hardness; and know all the answers. They moved their scriptures from the bracket that Allah is with those who guard (against evil)” or 25:52: of unquestioned paper tyrants to a reclassification as docu- “Therefore listen not to the Unbelievers, but strive against ments steeped in metaphor and allusion. They gave up the them with the utmost strenuousness, with the (Qur’an).” status of divine conduit and became more human—shaped Couched in the euphemistic language of “strive against,” it by their origins and seen largely as products of mere mam- is hard to pin down an absolute meaning, though it seems mals instead of imagining that the biblical prophets acted as highly unlikely that mere healthy competition was intended. dictating secretaries of the Almighty. Only a few decades ago, it was still commonplace for reli- They are still seen as holy scripture and inherently good gions to promote their supremacy against those who revered in themselves, but this facade is being chipped away and a different prophet or read a different book. Now they have certainty no longer reigns unchallenged. We are told that dissolved into a cabal for mutual defense. Hence we see hum- context is important when studying religious texts: Leviticus bled leaders of many churches lining up to make claims about is able to get away with not only calling for the murder of the strength of interdenominational and even interfaith homosexuals (20:13: “If a man also lie with mankind, as he bonds. With the continued toning-down of rhetoric, there is lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abom- swelling acceptance that all faiths are different paths to the ination: they shall surely be put to death. Their blood shall be same divinely ordained end. While wishy-washy and ironic, upon them.”), but only verses later, it commands that a similar coming as it does from the same pulpits that had rung with fate should befall wizards (20:27: “A man also or woman that the call to slaughter others who would even translate their hath a familiar spirit, or that is a wizard, shall surely be put to holy book, let alone use another one entirely, it is also odd: death: they shall stone them with stones: their blood shall be today’s ecumenical liberals shout their respect for Islam but upon them.”). The latter is used as a perverse justification for seem unaware that it would happily see them all dead—and the existence of the former: “See how primitive they were; even encourages the pious to see that one through. surely they cannot be expected to uphold modern values!” Islam teaches to kill apostates (Qur’an 4:89): “They but Despite this being pathetic justification in the face of years wish that ye should reject Faith, as they do, and thus be on the

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 33 same footing (as they): But take not friends from their ranks each other’s throats battling over who, if anyone, should until they flee in the way of Allah (From what is forbidden). have been the Prophet’s successor. But if they turn renegades, seize them and slay them wher- The second is even more damaging. With only the archaic ever ye find them; and (in any case) take no friends or help- sayings of Muhammad extant and no later leader wielding ers from their ranks.” This is made even more poisonous by like authority, modernizing the religion in any serious way the doctrine that all people who are born, upon their birth, has never been possible. Given that Islam’s earliest scripture are automatically Muslims. The grave connotation is there. proclaims its own immortality and eternal correctness, there seems little chance that future leaders will have the power, much less the textual backing, to retrieve the faith from the dark-age rut it has occupied since the deaths of Averröes and “Today’s ecumenical liberals shout their respect other medieval Islamic scholars. for Islam but seem unaware that it would happily see We are left with two possibilities: 1. Allah is a cruel and vicious entity, creating them all dead—and even encourages the pious people who know not of the Islamic religion to see that one through.” and yet are guilty of a crime they cannot define and deserve death. 2. As I posited earlier, the whole edifice of the faith is man-made, cobbled together after the Technically, as it is written in the Qur’an and the hadiths, all death of the founder, with the hadiths simply continuing of us who are alive and not Muslim should be punished by the ramshackle, barbaric narrative of punishment presented the death penalty. This is chilling and reflects the dictatorial in the Qur’an. nature of monotheism at its most raw. Islam, if it wants to move away from the unthinking bru- With Muhammad being the last and final prophet, Islam tality of its recent past, would do well to revise its estimation features no centralized leadership to be consulted and to of its scripture. In its current form it is arbitrary, brutal, sadis- give official viewpoints. No leader commands the authority tic, and a constant reminder of the folly of mankind’s narcis- of, say, the papacy. This leaves the door open to populist, sistic cosmological pretensions. often self-appointed mullahs and other spiritual leaders to interpret the Qur’an and the hadiths. Two implications flow James Snell is a British journalist. He is a contributing editor at The directly from this. The first is the brutal sectarianism between Libertarian, as well as a writer for Politiker UK and a blogger for Islam’s two major offshoots: Sunni and Shi’a groups stand at HuffPostUK.

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34 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Islam Reconsidered

Islam: A Totalitarian Package of Religion and Politics Madeline Weld

ay that religious belief in general is irrational and often ing of baggy, bloomerlike pants reaching the ankle and a top harmful, and few humanists will challenge you. Assert that extends to at least mid-thigh but whose sleeves can be Sthat some religions are more harmful than others, and of varying lengths. In the 1960s, they were often short (but there will be much less unanimity. Declare emphatically that never absent). A scarf or shawl was the essential third con- among currently existing religions, Islam presents a clear and stituent of the shalwar kameez. It could be modestly draped present danger in a way that other religions do not, and you around the head, in the style made famous by the Pakistani just might set off a “religious” war in the humanist commu- politician Benazir Bhutto, who was later assassinated. Fifty nity—or at least, a hugely heated debate. That fundamen- years ago, however, the scarf was generally hung over the talist Muslims are of no more concern than fundamentalist shoulders with the ends loose or lightly tied at the back. Saris are Christians or orthodox believers of other stripes is for some long pieces of fabric wrapped around the body with one end humanists—dare I say it—an article of faith. draped over the shoulder. Some saris leave the midriff exposed. I fall into the camp that sees Islam as being in a league In the 1960s, it was not unusual to see Pakistani women wearing by itself. With the number of Muslims in Western countries such “revealing” saris. increasing rapidly due to high levels of immigration and a Sadly, since those distant days things have only become high birthrate, I believe that we must confront the reality of worse. Contrary to expectations, Pakistan did not become Islam in our societies with honesty and courage. The point of view that sees Islam as just another religion, albeit one burdened by a fringe of overzealous individuals who do crazy things, “Declare emphatically that among currently existing religions, does not recognize an important differ- Islam presents a clear and present danger in a way ence between Islam and other religions: Islam is not just a religion but a total- that other religions do not, and you just might set off itarian political system and a religion. a ‘religious’ war in the humanist community.” Moreover, this status is mandated by its own sacred texts. It is high time for humanists to have a serious discussion about Islam. more like liberal Muslim countries such as Indonesia and Islam has been of special concern to me for many years. I Malaysia—where, until the past quarter-century, hijabs or first encountered it in the 1960s, when I spent two years in head scarves were rare and burqas virtually nonexistent. Pakistan while my father served as a Canadian diplomat. The Today, even liberal Muslim countries have now embraced the oppression of women was evident, and I wondered what it hijab and ever-more of their politicians are promoting Islamic would be like to have to wear a burqa—that all-enveloping sharia law. Far from Pakistan becoming more like Indonesia black bag from which women view the world through a and Malaysia, as many had hoped in the 1960s, today mesh screen—in the tropical heat. Even in the sixties, hostility Indonesia and Malaysia are becoming more like Pakistan. And toward foreigners was palpable. Yet there was widespread Pakistan is deeply mired in religious violence; consider that in expectation that things would get better with development. 2011 two politicians were murdered merely for advocating In those days, upper-class, educated Pakistani women didn’t the abolition of the country’s draconian blasphemy laws. wear the veil nor even a hijab, the nunlike headdress that Salman Taseer, the governor of Punjab province, was assas- hides the hair and neck but at least leaves the face free (and sinated by one of his own security guards in January of that which we are seeing ever more frequently in Western cities). year. Shahbaz Bhatti, minister of minorities and Pakistan’s In the 1960s, educated Pakistani women wore either shalwar only government minister who was Christian, was killed in kemeezes or saris. A shalwar kemeez is an ensemble consist- March. Or consider the administrative district of Swat, once

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 35 a vacation resort where the wealthy escaped the summer that Christianity is sheltered in the strong arms of science, the heat. Today it writhes under the thumb of the Taliban, who in science against which it had vainly struggled, the civilization October of 2012 saw fit to shoot a teenage schoolgirl, Malala of modern Europe might fall, as fell the civilization of ancient st Yousafzai, in the head for daring to promote education for Rome. (The River War, 1 ed., volume 2, 1899). women. Fearless warriors indeed. Islam is a religion born of and Having left Pakistan at the age of twelve, with little exposure based on fighting. The highest rewards of paradise are for to anything Islamic in the ensuing decades, I did not seek to those who die in battle. The Qur’an exhorts its followers to complement my living experience of Islam in Pakistan with a “Make war on them (the unbelievers) until idolatry shall cease systematic study of its theology. This changed, however, in the and God’s religion shall reign supreme” (8:40). Over two- 1990s, when I made the acquaintance (at a humanist meeting) thirds of the texts in the sira, or biographies of Muhammad, of Dr. Marvin Zayed, a philosopher and expert on Islam, just as are devoted to jihad, most—about three-quarters of the jihad Islam was forcing itself upon the attention of the Western world. texts—to jihad of the sword and only one-quarter to jihad of Zayed engaged in what he called “rational criticism of Islam,” the pen and mouth. The sira do not mention the inner spiritual and I edited some articles for him. In 2004, he launched a journal struggle that has somehow acquired the name of “greater called Brave Minds, which I helped to edit and to which I con- jihad.” In the collection of Bukhari (the most important of tributed some material. Brave Minds ceased publication in 2009. the various collections of hadiths), 98 percent of the hadiths During my work with Zayed, I grasped some important concepts devoted to jihad claim that jihad of the sword is the supreme of Islamic theology. I continue to read books and articles by act, while only 2 percent refer to some religious acts as being knowledgeable critics of Islam. I am no expert on Islam, but I do equal to jihad of the sword. The analysis by Dr. Bill Warner in believe that I know more about the subject than many critics Statistical Islam, from which these numbers were obtained, who summarily dismiss as “Islamophobic” anyone who doesn’t provides an excellent weight-of-evidence approach.* share their own happy multicultural view of the religion. The battles of Muhammad are not just-so stories for Muslims. As the Qur’an frequently reminds them, Muhammad is to be understood as the perfect model for “The point of view that sees Islam as just another religion, mankind. He was not very successful early albeit one burdened by a fringe of overzealous individuals in his career as a prophet, having made who do crazy things, does not recognize an important only a few hundred converts. The verses of the Qur’an written during this early difference between Islam and other religions. . . .” period are referred to as the “Meccan Qur’an,” and many are peaceful and con- ciliatory. Only when Muhammad became a politician and warrior, raiding caravans and engaging in Does Islam, more than other religions, block the way to criti- forced conversions, fighting those who wouldn’t convert and cal thinking? Yes, it does. After the attacks of 2001, then-pres- killing whole tribes in the process, did Islam truly “take off.” ident of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf remarked that Muslim (By the time of Muhammad’s death in 632 there would be countries were among the poorest, most ignorant, and some one hundred thousand Muslims.) The verses that came most retrograde in the world. A series of consecutive Arab to Muhammad during this more militant period are called the Human Development Reports, assembled not by so-called “Medina verses,” and a great many of them are violent and Islamophobes but by Arab intellectuals, thoroughly docu- bloodthirsty. Those who would counter references to these mented the backwardness of Muslim societies. According to verses of the Qur’an by referring to its more moderate ones these reports, even Muslim countries flush with oil money should remember (or learn if they do not know) the concept contribute little to advance science and technology. One of abrogation. The peaceful verses of the Qur’an from the example: before its economic crisis, Greece annually trans- earlier Mecca period were formally abrogated (superseded) lated five times more books from English than did the entire by the later verses from the Medina period. The authority for Arab world. this abrogation comes from the Qur’an itself, as illustrated by More than a century before September 11, 2001, Sir verses 16:101 and 2:106.** Winston Churchill engaged in some plain talk: *Http://cspipublishing.com/statistical/index.html. Individual Moslems may show splendid qualities, but the influence of the religion paralyses the social development of those **Qur’an 16:101: “And when We substitute a verse in place of a verse— who follow it. No stronger retrograde force exists in the world. and Allah is most knowing of what He sends down—they say, ‘You, Far from being moribund, Mohammedanism is a militant and [O Muhammad], are but an inventor [of lies].’ But most of them do proselytizing faith. It has already spread throughout Central not know.” Qur’an 2:106: “We do not abrogate a verse or cause it to Africa, raising fearless warriors at every step; and were it not be forgotten except that We bring forth [one] better than it or similar to it. Do you not know that Allah is over all things competent?” While

36 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org In accordance with Muhammad’s deathbed wishes, his by the Federal Bureau of Investigation during a search of a followers cleansed the Arabian peninsula of infidels. Many suspected terrorist’s home. The Memorandum lays out a step- Muslims still dislike the presence of infidels on the sacred by-step process of establishing “a stable and effective Islamic launching pad of Islam. movement led by the Muslim Brotherhood” to advance Becoming a Muslim is a one-way street. Neither those born the Muslim cause, which would involve “expanding the into it nor those who convert are permitted to renounce it. observant Muslim base,” “present[ing] Islam as a civilization As decreed and, in his day, enforced by the warrior-prophet alternative,” and supporting the establishment of a “global Muhammad, the penalty for apostates who fail to recant is Islamic state.” In a section titled “Understanding the role of death. These days one can view beheadings of apostates on the Muslim Brother in North America,” it says, “The Ikhwan the Internet if one so chooses. [Muslim Brotherhood] must understand that their work in Islam as a system of life for human beings is a disaster; but America is a kind of grand Jihad in eliminating and destroying as a self-perpetuating meme, to use Richard Dawkins’s term, the Western civilization from within and sabotaging its mis- it is incredibly successful. erable house by their hands and the hands of the believers so Why do Muslims as a group, more than any other immi- that it is eliminated and God’s religion is made victorious over grants to Western countries, have so much trouble inte- all other religions.” It also says, “It is a Muslim’s duty to per- grating? It is because the Qur’an tells them not to: “Let not form Jihad and work wherever he is and wherever he lands believers make friends with Infidels in preference to the until the final hour comes, and there is no escape from that faithful—he that does this has nothing to hope for from destiny except for those who choose to slack.” God—except in self-defence” (Qur’an 3:26), and “Believers, do not make friends with any but your own people. They (the unbelievers) will spare no pains to corrupt you. They desire “Today, even liberal Muslim countries have now nothing but your ruin. Their hatred is evident from what they utter with their mouths, but embraced the hijab and ever-more of their politicians greater is the hatred which their breasts con- are promoting Islamic sharia law.” ceal” (Qur’an 3:117). Many Westerners ridicule the idea that Islam wants to take over the world, although Islamists routinely tell us that this is their intention. These Islamists Organizations such as the Council on American Islamic are only following Islamic doctrine. Under Islam, the world is Relations (CAIR), the Islamic Circle of North America (ICNA), divided into dar-al-Islam (the world of Islam) and dar al-harb and the Muslim Students Association (MSA) function as front (the world of war). The world of war will not be at peace until groups for the Muslim Brotherhood. The role of all these it is under Islam. A 1991 Muslim Brotherhood document, “An organizations is essentially “stealth jihad.” Recognizing that it Explanatory Memorandum on the General Strategic Goal for would be difficult to conquer Western countries through vio- the Group in North America,” actually lays out the plan for the lent attacks, their objective is instead incremental Islamization takeover of this continent.*** This document was discovered by demanding ever-more concessions for Muslims (for prayer rooms, for halal food, for Muslim holidays, separate swim- there was a chronological transition during which Muhammad went ming facilities for women, and so on) and suppressing any from being a peacefully preaching (and unsuccessful) prophet to an opposition to Islam (“lawfare” or harassing lawsuits against aggressive and ruthless (and successful) warrior-prophet, it is difficult those who dare to suggest that Islam is anything but sweet- to follow that transition by reading the Qur’an (whose verses reflect ness and light is a primary strategy). Muhammad’s life inasmuch as they were allegedly transmitted to In Europe, where Muslims form a larger percentage of the him by the Angel Gabriel). That is because Uthman, the third of the population than in Canada or the United States, Muslims are four “rightly guided khalifs” who succeeded Muhammad (and under whom the Muslim world was still united under a single leadership), much more aggressive in their demands for special treatment. decided to rearrange the Qur’an from longest to shortest chapters. Sharia zones, where sometimes even the police fear to go, can As pointed out by Islam scholar and critic Bill Warner, that is rather be found in Paris (zones urbaines sensibles), London, Malmö like taking a novel and rearranging its chapters by length. It makes it (Sweden), and other cities. Organizations such as sharia4uk difficult to follow the plot. *This document can be found at http://www.investigativeproject. one-party state in which all sectors (political, judicial, social, education- org/documents/misc/20.pdf. It is in Arabic and English. Scroll halfway al, and economic) would be governed by sharia law. The manifesto down to get to the English part. More information on the history of can be read here: http://pointdebasculecanada.ca/articles/1456.html. this document and the Muslim Brotherhood’s subsidiary organizations The Muslim Brotherhood, which has chapters in eighty countries, has in North America that are all to “march according to one plan” can be not changed its goal of establishing a global Islamic state, as is evident read here: http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/viewSubCategory. from its mission statement: “Allah is our objective; the Quran is our con- asp?id=1235. The founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in 1928, Has- stitution, the Prophet is our leader; Jihad is our way; and death for the san al-Banna, produced a fifty-point manifesto in 1936, advocating a sake of Allah is the highest of our aspirations.”

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 37 and sharia4belgium are making clear their intention to take edge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People over their countries. A slightly less aggressive attempt to of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, introduce sharia for civil matters failed in Ontario in 2004. and feel themselves subdued.” The Islamists of Egypt are even Those who attribute Muslim discontent entirely to colo- now making sure that Christians know their proper place in nialism and bad Western behavior should ask themselves this system. why other colonized people seem to have moved on (Europe Meanwhile in Western countries, Saudi-funded mosques— has no problems with its Vietnamese immigrants) and also often mega-mosques—are springing up like mushrooms. It why Muslims are extremely hostile to non-Western cultures. would be naïve to think that these mosques are just places Why, for example, did the Taliban blow up the Buddhas of to worship and have no political purpose. Youssef Qaradawi, Bamiyan in March of 2001? Why did Islamists in Mali destroy who has been unconditionally endorsed by the Muslim Sufi tombs and ancient manuscripts? Why do some Islamists Brotherhood operating in Canada, describes the role of the in Egypt want to destroy the pyramids? The reason has mosque thusly: “To guide public policy of a Nation, raise nothing to do with what anyone has done to Muslims. It has awareness of critical issues and reveal its enemies. From to do with the concept of jahiliyya (or “age of ignorance”) ancient times the Mosque has had a role in urging Jihad for in which everything that is pre-Islamic or non-Islamic is to the sake of Allah.” The “Nation” he refers to is the umma, the be destroyed. (Since the Sufis are considered heretical in all global Muslim community. A distressing 80 percent of U.S. mainstream branches of Islam, their works, too, qualify for mosques are radical, according to Stephen Schwartz, director destruction.) Muhammad himself set the example when he of the Center for Islamic Pluralism. At the United Nations also, destroyed all 360 of the idols of the Kaaba, which had been a Islam flexes its muscle through the Organization of the Islamic pagan temple before it became Islam’s most sacred site. Cooperation (formerly Conference), or OIC. The promotion of A vexing problem with Islam is its pathological hatred of anti-blasphemy laws is an ongoing objective of the OIC. Jews. In an interview with Frontpage about her new book, The Devil We Don’t Know, author Nonie Darwish explained o critically analyze Islam is essential to protecting the why Jews and Israel present an existential problem for Islam. Trights and freedoms we take for granted. It is not to be She said that Muhammad’s rejection by the Jews became an against Muslims as human beings, any more than criticizing obsession for him, just as their prosperity as successful busi- Christianity is to be against Christians as human beings. But it nessmen, agriculturalists, traders, and tool makers made him is a fact that many Muslims who have come to Western coun- envious. He accused the Jews of having broken a treaty; Allah tries as immigrants have great difficulty with our values, such himself agreed with him in the Qur’an. Muhammad’s solution as free speech and the equality and self-determination of was to slaughter the recalcitrant Jews (at least the men—the women. We have witnessed horrific honor killings of women women and children were enslaved). To reduce the torment deemed too Western and disobedient. If we do not confront he felt in connection with these massacres, Muhammad and defang radical Islam in our societies, we betray not only exhorted everyone around him to join in the campaign our values but also those individual Muslims who would like against the Jews, and so many verses in the Qur’an encour- to integrate and enjoy the same freedoms that we do. In age fighting as an act of obedience to and worship of Allah. Europe, the failure of mainstream politicians to address the Darwish argued that Muslims today feel they must continue reasonable concerns of ordinary people about Islam has led fighting the unfinished business of Muhammad. Making to the rise of moderate and more extreme right-wing par- peace with the Jews is equivalent to treason to Muhammad ties such as the Dutch Freedom Party and the Greek Golden and to Islam itself, she said. Indeed, if one reads the charter Dawn, respectively. of Hamas, it is clear that peace with Israel is the last thing that On the subject of religion, Thomas Jefferson said, “But it does this organization is looking for. me no injury for my neighbor to say there are twenty gods or no While Muslim organizations like CAIR whinge about God. It neither picks my pocket nor breaks my leg.” Unfortunately, Islamophobia (a term cleverly devised, by the way, by CAIR the god of Islam seeks to pick our pockets and break our legs. itself), minorities in Muslim countries endure truly vicious Committed Jihadi Muslims make that clear to us every day. We discrimination. Only the grossest outrages against Coptic should give them the courtesy of paying attention. Christians in Egypt are reported in the Western mainstream media. Religious minorities in Muslim countries are often prevented from building or even making repairs to existing Madeline Weld is a toxicologist evaluator at Health Canada (Food places of worship, and they are subject to attack. In Saudi Directorate) and president of Population Institute Canada. She is also Arabia, any religious structure other than a mosque is for- a humanist of long standing, having joined Humanist Canada (formerly bidden; non-Muslim foreign workers caught worshipping Humanist Association of Canada, or HAC) as well as the Humanist together are imprisoned. Non-Muslims living in Muslim lands are known as dhimmi. Dhimmis are second-class (or worse) Association of Ottawa in the 1990s. She was secretary of HAC from citizens without the same rights as Muslims, whose word 1999 to 2003 and edited HAC’s quarterly newsletter for several years. counts for less than a Muslim’s in a court of law and who must Weld is currently on the board of Canadian Humanist Publications, which pay a special tax, the jizya. The Qur’an (9:29) is quite clear publishes the quarterly magazine Humanist Perspectives, of which she is about dhimmis’ inferior status: “Fight those who believe not one of its three editors. This article is expanded from one that originally in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath appeared in the Spring 2013 (Issue 184) of Humanist Perspectives. been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowl-

38 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org The Holy Spirit—Christianity’s Two-edged Resource George A. Wells

ven in the religion’s infancy, Paul said that a man is not a “having not the spirit” (verse 19). At the same time, it was Christian if he does not possess the spirit of Christ (Rom. recognized that a great deal of nonsense could be spoken E8:9) and that “in the spirit” a man can “utter mysteries” by those claiming to speak through the spirit. Hence 1 John (1 Cor. 14:2). How did the idea of “the spirit” develop? The 4:1–3 warns the community not to “believe every spirit” (but Finnish New Testament scholar Heikki Räisänen explains in only those whose utterances were compatible with the teach- chapter 9 of his overall very valuable The Rise of Christian ing of the Johannine group). Likewise, Paul ruled “do not Beliefs (Fortress, 2010). According to Räisänen, the spirit quench the spirit,” but nevertheless “test everything” (1 Thess. was originally envisaged as an impersonal force. It could 5:19–21). Räisänen points out that letting the spirit reign and be “poured out” on humans, or they could be “filled” with yet weighing its manifestations in a rational manner is easier it. But it rapidly came to be understood not as a force that said than done and even dangerous, because blaspheming comes and goes but as a Christian’s permanent possession. the spirit—suggesting that its manifestations are diabolical Christians live “in the spirit,” meaning that they live holy lives. rather than divine—is an unforgivable sin (Mark 3:29; Matt. Paul had to admit, however, that often their lives are not like 12:32). Hence Paul, he says, “was walking a tightrope.” that at all. He feared that when he revisited the Corinthian As seen by the author of the Acts of the Apostles, the Christians, he would find “quarreling and jealousy” among them, “anger, selfishness, slander, gossip, conceit and disorder,” and many who “have not repented of their impurity, immorality and licentiousness” (2 Cor. 12:20f.). “How did the idea of ‘the spirit’ develop?” In time, the spirit was made into one of the personified attributes of God, such as Wisdom or Logos. It could speak, giving instructions or advice, and could even distribute gifts (1 Cor. 12:11). In the Johannine literature, the Paraclete, the spirit of truth (John 16:13), is virtually identified with the whole history of the church was guided by the spirit. It warns risen Christ (1 John 2:1: “We have an advocate [parakletos] Paul that imprisonment awaits him (20:23); it orders Peter with the father, Jesus Christ the righteous”). Thus the role about (10:19f); and it tells the congregation at Antioch to set of the spirit could easily become blurred with that of Christ. Paul and Barnabas aside for missionary work (13:2). It even Eventually, in the fourth century, the spirit became a person provides transport for missionaries (8:39f). This emphasis of the Godhead, although how it is related to the other two on the guidance of the early church by the spirit leads the persons of the Trinity remains unclear. The father is described author to give a very idealized portrait of its history, which, as related to the son as parent: the son is “begotten” of the as we can see from Paul’s Epistles, contrasts markedly with father (though both are supposedly of the same age!). But of the faction-ridden strife that actually characterized those the spirit no more is said than that it “proceedeth” from the communities. father and the son. The Eastern Church demurred, insisting Nevertheless, it is the account in Acts that has been very that the spirit proceeds from the father only, and this dis- widely taken at face value and has led so many subsequent agreement remains the chief basis of the Orthodox Church’s commentators to believe that the church has continued attack on the church of Rome. throughout its history to be spirit-guided. Charles Gore (later To allege that those who did not share the views being bishop of Oxford), who was aware that historical criticism propounded had not been granted the gift of the spirit had impaired the credibility of some of the stories in the New became an easy way of disposing of criticism. Thus, the author Testament, admitted in a 1890 article titled “The Holy Spirit of the epistle of Jude dismisses “scoffers” of his doctrines as and Inspiration” that it is “becoming more and more difficult

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 39 to believe in the Bible without believing in the church.” and “greatly loved by the older members of the congrega- Historical criticism had certainly made the going rough, tion”—“nevertheless so very, very dull.” This experience of and so it was convenient to introduce the spirit to authen- finding it all “so boring” convinced him that “until the fire of ticate what was wanted. It was a long-standing practice. the Holy Spirit was at the centre of our church life, very little Irenaeus declared in his Against Heresy: “Where the church could be done.” And so he succumbed to the influence of is, there also is the spirit of God,” and (he quotes 1 John 5:7), “the charismatic movement.” “the spirit is truth.” It is this doctrine of spirit possession and other equally The spirit continues today to be a tool for authentication. irrational doctrines such as the “real presence,” the atone- Peter Carnley, archbishop of Perth (Australia), having written ment and, of course, the Trinity that alienate many who will gladly accept what in the Gospels is repre- sented as unmiraculous history—that Jesus preached the Sermon on the Mount, suffered under Pontius Pilate, and so on. The “A great deal of nonsense could be spoken by those supernatural elements seem in themselves questionable and in some cases even repug- claiming to speak through the spirit.” nant to reason, whereas the inaccuracies and misconceptions of what are repre- sented as historical accounts do not lie on the surface but are revealed only by careful and diligent inquiry. one of the best critical accounts of New Testament evidence for the resurrection that I have read, nevertheless assures us that “our present experience of the spirit of Christ” con- vinces us that he was raised from the dead (The Structure of Resurrection Belief, Clarendon, 1987). Similarly, Morgan and George A. Wells is emeritus professor of German at the University of Barton, in their 1988 book Biblical Interpretation (Oxford London and a former chairman of the Rationalist Press Association. An University Press) see clearly enough that “tradition is only authority on the origins of Christianity, his most recent book is Cutting tradition” and hence must be subject to critical scrutiny; their Jesus Down to Size: What Higher Criticism Has Achieved and Where It book gives a good account of how this has been done by Leaves Christianity (Open Court, 2009). generations of New Testament scholars. But then they add: “Tradition is not to be confused with the event of revelation or the guidance of the spirit in the present.” ADVERTISEMENT Today, invoking the spirit is most evident in the least intellectual form of modern Christianity, namely Pentecostalism. A PEACEFUL WORLD AWAITS YOU The main concern of its proponents is personal encoun- BEYOND ALL RELIGION ter with the Holy Spirit, evidenced in their speaking with Most all religions are based upon a bedrock of lies. tongues and other ecstatic behavior. A recent symposium, The Christianity was invented by Emperor Constantine, for political purposes, based upon the myth of Mithra, a Persian Globalization of Pentecostalism (Oxford: Regnum, 1999), tells savior god born on December 25, son of a virgin. Mithra us that it “allows the poor, uneducated and illiterate among performed miracles and was later crucified. Pope Leo X (died the people of God to have an equal voice with the educated.” 1521) called Christ a “Fable”. Later Pope Paul III expressed Over the past ninety years Pentecostalism has grown from a similar sentiments. small band into a worldwide movement with an estimated Moses is based on the Sumerian life and legends of Sargon I, King of Akkad, “set in a basket of rushes and “cast into the 450 million adherents. It is particularly strong in the southern river”. Egyptians kept exhaustive hieroglyphic records, yet hemisphere; hence, what centuries of European missionary there is a complete absence of any record of Moses leading enterprise could not achieve is being accomplished within a over 600,000 men, women and children away from Pharaoh’s century by the Pentecostal movement. army. Pentecostalism owes its appeal partly to the sheer bore- Joseph Smith, founder of Mormonism, was convicted in a court of Law of being an “impostor”, today a fraud, or con dom that the endless repetition of traditional liturgies in man, in 1826. He wrote the Book of Mormon soon after. mainstream worship can generate. The continual reciting of Question: You decide: Does the text of the verses of the familiar material can give rise to tedium, and with such famil- Qur’an correspond exactly to those revealed to Muhammad iarity and repetition the rituals lose much of their significance. (who married a 6 year old girl) as the words of God, delivered As witness to the truth of this, I can adduce the experience directly to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel, as claimed? of George Carey, as recorded in his 1989 book The Church in Order New Book “Beyond All Religion”, 152 pgs, $9.95, at www.amazon.com or send mailing address and $9.95 the Market Place. He later became archbishop of Canterbury, payable to Sam Butler, SB 197, PO Box 25292, Miami, FL but when he was vicar of a Durham church, he and his wife 33102. found the services there—taken largely from the Prayer Book

40 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org What Paul Revere’s Ride Tells Us about Jesus Mark Rubinstein

ccording to best estimates, the first Gospel recording likely describes a later tradition taken from the three kings the life of Jesus (Mark) was composed about forty years bringing gifts in Psalms 72:10–11. Even in a more enlightened Aafter his crucifixion and quickly became firmly believed era closer to our times, as I now exemplify with the “midnight by hundreds if not thousands of people. Surely this is too ride” of Paul Revere, widely believed false legends can take soon, and its success too stunning, for Mark’s account to be permanent root soon after an event. largely fabricated. In The Atlantic in January 1861, the same month in which Yet we don’t have to journey back all the way to the time South Carolina seceded from the Union, Henry Wadsworth of Jesus to find a counterexample. King Arthur (sixth century), Longfellow (1807–1882) published his most celebrated Robin Hood (twelfth century), and William Tell (thirteenth to poem, hoping to rally Americans to arms at a time of renewed fourteenth centuries) are well-known examples of English national peril. Do you remember the hoofbeat of its stirring and Swiss popular figures who have tenuous evidential basis. lines? Within a few years of their supposed deaths—and even Listen my children, and you shall hear, in their own lifetimes—legends concerning Alexander the Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere, Great and Saint Francis of Assisi became current and were On the eighteenth of April, in Seventy-five; later reported as history. Sir William Wallace (1272–1305), Hardly a man is now alive the “Hero of Scotland,” was certainly a real historical figure. Who remembers that famous day and year. . . . Yet his life story fell to extreme historical revisionism in the One, if by land, and two, if by sea; fifteenth century, which was reinforced by Sir Walter Scott And I [Revere] on the opposite shore will be, in the early nineteenth century and more recently in the Ready to ride and spread the alarm Academy Award–winning film Braveheart (1995). In our far Through every Middlesex village and farm, more literate and, it is hoped, less superstitious times, how For the country folk to be up and to arm. . . . long did it take for “urban legends” to grow up surrounding For, borne on the night-wind of the past, the “disappearance” of John F. Kennedy in 1963 and of Elvis Through all our history to the last, Presley in 1977, both of whom are widely rumored to have In the hour of darkness and peril and need, survived their apparent deaths? According to the French The people will waken and listen to hear, author Jules Renard (1864–1910), “The reward of great men The hurrying hoof-beats of that steed, is that, long after they are dead, one is not quite sure that And the midnight message of Paul Revere. they are dead.” Grant Wood’s 1931 painting Paul Revere’s Ride shows as Could the “history” of the life of Jesus suffer from similar from an aerial view a road winding through a soulless New reconstruction? Could it be that Jesus stories were in the England village, illuminated above by a brilliant moon against air ever since his death and with the passing of time began a dark background, and a tiny lone horse and rider galloping to be enhanced and accepted as fact? At a time and place at great speed. The image of a solitary rider—receiving the when the study of mythology and oral tradition had yet to signal and riding swiftly through the countryside and towns be inaugurated and stories of miracles were widely believed, from Boston, on to Lexington, and then west to Concord, giv- the Gospel authors may have simply taken what they had ing the alarm as he rode, shouting “The British are coming!” heard about Jesus at face value. Dozens of gospels filling in to a sleeping world—is burned into the national memory otherwise “missing information” about Jesus, some contra- from childhood. dicting the biblical Gospels, were written within 150 years of Yet it is largely a fabrication, a myth that grew up almost his death. We also know that many stories surrounding the immediately after the ensuing battle at Concord and life of Jesus and his disciples that are pictured in medieval Lexington. True, forty-year-old silversmith Paul Revere (1735– and Renaissance Christian art, referenced in still-popular 1818) spread the alarm that night, but he was not alone, Christmas carols, and still widely believed have no basis in the nor did he make it to Concord as Longfellow claims; after he New Testament. Consider the line from one carol: “We three arrived at Lexington, he was captured by the British. William kings of Orient are / bearing gifts we traverse from afar. . . .” Dawes Jr. (1745–1799), whose name history has chosen to Wise men and shepherds are mentioned in Matthew (2:1–6) suppress, also rode that night and also made it to Lexington and Luke respectively (2:8–20) but no kings. The song very where he was stopped but eluded capture. Others also

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 41 spread the alarm and helped Revere along the way. Despite the underdog savior of his country, bravely and successfully Longfellow, Revere was not waiting on the other side of the carrying through to the end; the legends that grow up even Charles River for the signal; rather, he had known about it during his life, some implicating bit-part actors; the continued beforehand and had actually given instruction for the lan- embellishments that continue after his death; the suppres- terns to be lit. Nor was Revere’s original purpose to arouse the sion of disconfirming evidence; and four decades after his countryside; it was to warn Sam Adams and John Hancock of death, the power of the skillful poet, for his own well-in- their impending peril, because they were clear targets of the tended peculiar ends, to permanently etch the legend onto British regulars. Nor would Revere have shouted “The British the stone of our minds? are coming!” because most colonists in 1775 regarded them- Lest you should think the story of Paul Revere is an anom- selves as British! aly in Revolutionary history, in his book Founding Myths: Romantic side-legends grew up. Revere was supposed to Stories That Hide Our Patriotic Past (2004), Ray Raphael runs have left home without his spurs, so he sent his faithful dog through a roster of other myths, including those surrounding home with a message, and the dog returned shortly with the creation and signing of the Declaration of Independence, them. When the two watermen who were to take Revere Molly Pitcher (a complete fabrication), Sam Adams, Emerson’s across river to Charlestown realized they needed to muffle “shot heard ’round the world” at the Battle of Lexington and their oars, a woman at a nearby house offered them her Concord, the winter spent at Valley Forge by the soldiers undergarments, still warm from her body, which, wrapped of the Revolution, George Washington’s crossing of the around the oars, served to silence their progress across the Delaware, Patrick Henry’s “Give me liberty or give me death!,” river. I could go on, but by now you should get the idea. and so forth. Raphael’s primary thesis is that too much is falsely attributed to too few. If instead we accept the true complexity of U.S. history and make an effort to understand that “Widely believed false legends can take the United States was created out of a rich permanent root soon after an event. tapestry of millions of words and deeds performed by millions of people, we will come to a more accurate—and in fact, far more inspiring—understanding of its democracy. How could such distortions have arisen in these enlight- As seems likely, Jesus too became a magnet that attracted ened times? The historiography of the ride is ably traced in folklore to his swelling legend originally attributed to others. 1994 by David Hackett Fischer in Paul Revere’s Ride. He shows Interestingly, several overlapping and contemporaneous par- in detail how the legend of Paul Revere was originally for- ables found in the Jewish Talmud suggest exactly that. mulated and continually remolded through more than two The process of formation of the American founding myth, centuries to fit the changing purposes of the times. 1,700 years after the creation of the Christian foundation Paul Revere was the most well-connected man who spread myth, is similar in many ways. Let us close with the words of the alarm; he seems to have known everyone. So it is perhaps Ray Raphael: only natural that he would be given too much credit. The Stories of the American Revolution were first communicated story as it evolved became too good to discount. Here was a by word of mouth, and these folkloric traditions, infinitely lone man riding to warn a sleeping and unsuspecting coun- malleable, provided fertile grounds for the invention of his- try. In fact, elaborate preparations for war had long been tory. . . . After the fighting was done, this same crew [the colo- underway. Revere’s first, matter-of-fact written account of nists] downed pint after pint of hard cider while exchanging the night was suppressed. Other participants, who took part war stories. For decades, men and women of the early republic in the events, could not resist embellishment here and there. told and retold what had happened, augmenting and enrich- After Revere’s death in 1818, the story grew. But it was not ing their skeletal memories of actual events, removing what until some forty-three years later—in 1861 when Longfellow’s was too painful to recall, while embellishing what would be poem was printed, artfully misrepresenting the facts in the seen as heroic. At funerals or Fourth of July celebrations, ora- service of patriotism—that Revere became a national legend tors used tales of the Revolution as grist for their rhetoric. . . . and a symbolic hero who ranked among the most important This vibrant oral tradition produced a history that was detailed of the nation’s founders. As summarized by Fischer: “But the and unfettered. Divested of any need for documentation, it scholars never managed to catch up with Longfellow’s gal- went freely wherever it wanted. loping hero. Generations of American schoolchildren were required to memorize Longfellow’s poem. . . . Whatever the failings of the poem as an historical account . . . it . . . elevated Paul Revere into a figure of national prominence, and made Mark Rubinstein is a professor of finance at the University of California at the midnight ride an important event in American history.” Berkeley. His article “Twenty Christian Questions” appeared in the June/ I hesitate to draw the connection: Is it not obvious? Have July 2013 issue of Free Inquiry. we not seen the elements of this story before: the lone man,

42 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Nat Hentoff Supreme Court Killing an Innocent Man continued from p. 8

“The Antiterrorism and Effective Death But a May 18 editorial by The New You don’t have to be a legal scholar Penalty Act” (AEDPA), which I criti- York Times editorial board, “Beyond the to be startled that an American citizen cized and documented at the time as a Brady Rule” (which did not mention the faces execution for a murder that took model of multi-dimensional injustice. It Kuenzel case), offers a much-needed place when he was home in bed. Is your provides a statute of limitations giving response to Justice Scalia’s shallow, mis- state (especially if it still has the death a petitioner no more than one year to guided reasoning. The editorial recom- penalty) moving toward justice by file a habeas petition in federal court. mended reform to “require the open- ensuring that the Brady rule is fully If you’re surprised to see Justice ing of the prosecutors’ files to defen- enforced? Scalia dissenting in a decision like this, dants, as a general rule. North Carolina don’t be. In his opinion, Scalia actually adopted open-files objects to a majority of his colleagues reform to make crim- Nat Hentoff is a Universal (UClick) syndicated columnist, a senior fel- even having considered taking this inal cases more effi- low at the Cato Institute, and the author of numerous books, including case. Pointing to the one-year habeas cient and fair. . . . Ohio Living the Bill of Rights (University of California Press, 1999) and The limitation in AEDPA, he maintains there has followed North War on the Bill of Rights and the Gathering Resistance (Seven Stories is no exception “to this clear statutory Carolina’s lead, and Press, 2004). His latest book is At the Jazz Band Ball: Sixty Years on requirement. The Constitution vests other states should as the Jazz Scene (University of California Press, 2010). He is currently legislative power only in Congress.” well.” working on his next book, Is This Still America?

Arthur L. Caplan Singing the DSM-5 Blues continued from p. 9

us need to do is embrace that fact. DSM-5 job, that spells disorder. It is easy to so. We ought to bring direct-to-con- is a revision—by definition, there is no take potshots when what used to be sumer advertising to an abrupt halt, eternal verity to be had. Classifications, normal or ignored is now categorized slap a steep co-pay on elective drug including those in mental health, as illness, but treating what is “normal” use, and start paying doctors to talk to change over time as our culture, tech- as disease is wrong only if you think us instead of drug us. nology, and societies change. Get over acne, rashes, fevers, warts, cold sores, DSM-5 is not without flaws—it is not it and get used to it. yet linked to emerging research on So what sort of values is DSM-5 foist- genetics and neurology, for one. There ing upon us? The manual presumes will be time for that, given the elemen- that being an autonomous, self-gov- tary knowledge we now possess about erning, independently functioning per- the brain’s connections and composi- son is a good thing and that creating “The view that the only tion. For their part, the APA and the children who can mature this way is medical classifications that are manual’s authors need to do a better also a good thing. But that doesn’t turn job of explaining that the DSM still has the manual into a plot by drug compa- valuable are those grounded merit in that it captures key facts about nies and their henchmen to impose a in molecular biology can be human suffering, shows enough utility drug-addled way of life on the rest of to be used by many professionals and us. The capacity to lead one’s life and dismissed out of hand.” patients from diverse backgrounds, flourish happens to be a guiding princi- and provides ways to help those who ple in America today and in most parts cannot function in a complex and rap- of the world. Not every culture holds colds, cancer, osteoarthritis, and dental idly evolving world. The mentally ill and this view; nor has this been a primary cavities are just fine too. the rest of us deserve at least that value throughout history. But, if grief Which leads directly to the issue of much. We shouldn’t have to face a makes it hard for you to function, then overuse of medications. There need not mountain of scorn and derision for you have a disorder. If having frequent be a connection between a behavior or seeking help when we cannot stop cry- temper tantrums leads other students trait appearing in DSM-5 and having ing when Fluffy or Fido pass on. and teachers to shun you, then your your doctor write a prescription. If we chance of becoming an independent really want doctors to person capable of social engagement stop prescribing so much Arthur L. Caplan is the Drs. Willliam F. and Virginia Connolly may be diminished. If you cannot stop medicine to us and our Mitty Professor and head of the Division of Bioethics at New York watching porn on your computer and families, then we should University Langone Medical Center in New York City. as a result neglect your family or your stop asking them to do

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 43 Greta Christina Why We Need to Kepp Fighting continued from p.11

cheer me on for being a badass when nents’ home addresses on the Internet ment—elicit firestorms of controversy I stand up fiercely against religion in and who hack into their opponents’ that eat up the Internet for months. society and then scold me for being private e-mail lists and make content The status quo is one in which ques- a bad soldier when I stand up fiercely from those e-mails public. I do not tions about why all this might be and against sexism and misogyny in the want to be in unity with atheists who suggestions about what might be done atheist movement. You don’t get to write for rape-apologist websites that to change it are routinely met with applaud my outspoken fearlessness are being monitored by the Southern anger, bafflement, dismissal, patroni- when I demand that social and political Poverty Law Center (the organization zation, calls for moderation, excuses, and economic systems be made safe that monitors hate groups). I do not elaborate rationalizations for why any and welcoming for atheists and point want to be in unity with atheists who explanation at all other than uncon- out the ways in which they are not and alert the Westboro Baptist Church to scious sexism must be the real reason then call me a divisive, attention-hun- atheist events and ask if they plan to for this pattern, and an insistence that gry professional victim when I demand attend. I do not want to be in unity our absolute top priority in this con- that atheist groups and organizations with atheists who bombard other peo- versation has to be that men’s feelings and events be made safe and welcom- ple with hate messages and threats don’t get hurt. ing for women and point out the ways of rape, violence, and death. I do not in which they are not. want to be in unity with atheists who es, this pattern is changing. The call me a cunt and call other women Ydegree to which this is happening cunts—again and again and again and is the degree to which people have again and again. been speaking out and pushing back. I do not want to be in unity with Things have been getting better for atheists who consistently rationalize this women in the atheist movement, and “You don’t get to be inspired behavior, trivialize it, make excuses for more women are participating at all and motivated by my it, blame the victims, tell us to just ignore levels because people have been fight- it, say we’re participating in a “culture of ing for it. uncompromising rage toward victimization” for talking about it, and And yes, these fights are hard. religion and then tell me that tell us that we have to set aside “differ- We’re confronting deeply entrenched ences” in the name of unity. beliefs—beliefs that people are emo- my uncompromising rage about And I don’t think I should be expected tionally attached to and entangled sexism and misogyny in the to. I don’t think anyone in this movement with social and political and economic should be asking that of me. I don’t think structures on every level. We’re asking atheist movement is divisive, anyone in this movement should be ask- people to give up ideas that they’ve distracting, and sapping energy ing that of anyone. built their lives around. We’re asking If feminists in the atheist move- people to change, often in profound from the important business ment don’t speak up about sexism and ways. We’re asking people to take a of atheist activism.” misogyny in the movement, the status leap into a way of thinking—indeed a quo wins. And the status quo is one in way of living—about which they know which most atheist organizations are little or nothing and have been fed lies led by men, one in which most of our and myths and misinformation. We’re prominent public figures and spokes- asking people to admit that they’re people are men, one in which most wrong about something really import- Does this fight get in the way of conferences, events, and meetings are ant. In many cases, we’re asking people unity? Probably. As I wrote on my blog primarily attended by men. The status to acknowledge that they have done last May, I do not want to be in unity quo is one in which movement leaders harm. Of course some people are going with atheists who tell me to fuck myself say and do unbelievably stupid sexist to resist. Of course some people are with a knife. I do not want to be in shit, double down when they’re called going to fight back. unity with atheists who say they hope on it, and still continue to be move- But that doesn’t mean the fight isn’t I get raped, who tell me to choke on ment leaders with few consequences worth having. a dick and die. I do not want to be in or none at all. The status quo is one in unity with atheists who say that I’m a which the most moderate, noncontro- whore and therefore nobody should versial proposals for making the com- take me seriously. I do not want to be in munity welcoming unity with atheists who say that I’m an to women—such as Greta Christina is a prominent atheist speaker and writer who blogs at ugly dyke and therefore nobody should having clear policies Greta Christina’s Blog. She is the author of Why Are You So Angry? take me seriously. I do not want to be in at conferences bar- 99 Things That Piss Off the Godless (Pitchstone Publishing, 2012). unity with atheists who post their oppo- ring sexual harass

44 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Church-State Update

Trouble Down Under, Part 2: Lessons for the United States Edd Doerr

ustralia and the United States Before proceeding further, let’s note While researching this column, I have much in common. Both are that Australia’s religious demography, re-scanned Australian political scientist AEnglish-speaking, continent-wide while resembling that of the United States Tom Truman’s 1960 book, Catholic Action former British colonies. Both pretty much superficially, has a rather different flavor. and Politics (Merlin Press) and found this displaced their indigenous populations. Australia is a far more secular country. prophetic sentence in the book’s con- Both are reasonably prosperous today. Regular church attendance is only about clusion: “The most eagerly sought polit- America’s founders, with fresh or not-so- 9 percent, versus more than 30 percent in ical objective of the Catholic Church in fresh memories of Europe’s centuries of the United States. Interest in religion is far Australia is state subsidies for the Catholic religious conflict, had the wisdom and lower in Australia than here, yet church education system.” This was before the foresight to put the concept of separa- leaders—Anglican, Catholic, Methodist, start of tax aid for church schools in that tion of church and state into its Bill of country that paralleled developments in Rights toward the end of the eighteenth the United States, such as the drive to century. That all-important principle for amend the New York State constitution protecting religious liberty was woven “Australia’s states lack the in 1967 to allow tax aid to church schools, into the vast majority of state constitu- separation principle; Australia which failed by 72 percent to 28 percent tions, while the Fourteenth Amendment, in the state ratification referendum and added to the Constitution after our Civil has nothing like our Fourteenth which was the subject of my 1968 book, War, was intended to make the Bill of Amendment, and its legal The Conspiracy That Failed (Americans Rights applicable to state and local gov- United). ernments, something that took many system . . . works significantly Truman’s book also contains this decades to be almost fully implemented. to the disadvantage of citizens interesting bit of information: Australian Australia’s constitution writers, a government figures on school enroll- century after ours, incorporated the who would defend their religious ment in 1955—before the advent of tax separation principle in Section 116 freedom, the public education aid to church schools—showed that 76 of their 1901 constitution. But then system, and the separation percent of elementary and secondary things began to diverge sharply. students attended public schools, 19 Australia’s states lack the separation principle in the courts.” percent attended Catholic schools, and principle; Australia has nothing like our 5 percent attended an assortment of Fourteenth Amendment, and its legal other private schools. Yet the 2008– system, following the British model, 2009 enrollment figures, cited in my works significantly to the disadvantage June/July column, show Catholic school of citizens who would defend their Presbyterian, Congre gationalist and more enrollment at only 20 percent of the religious freedom, the public-educa- recently, U.S.–style independent funda- total. This question naturally arises: tion system, and the separation princi- mentalist—have always been more influ- With the tsunami of tax aid flowing to ple in the courts. So, while the United ential Down Under. This is spelled out by church schools, why has the percentage States has a rich heritage of federal Australian scholar Marion Maddox in her of enrollment in Australia’s Catholic and state court rulings dealing with detailed 2005 book, God and Howard: schools shown no significant change in religious freedom and church-state The Rise of the Religious Right in Australian half a century? One possible reason may issues, Australia does not. My June/July Politics (Allen & Unwin). The closest thing be that large numbers of children from 2013 Free Inquiry column dealt with to a church-state separation organization families who cannot afford the tuition Australia’s post–World War II open- there is the Australian Council for the and even modest fees charged by the ing of the floodgates to federal and Defence of Government Schools, which generously tax-supported Catholic pri- state aid to religious and other private has existed for decades. It was the force vate schools attend the underfunded schools, and the disastrous 1981 High behind the court challenge to tax aid to public schools. Court ruling against plaintiffs seeking private schools, and has issued to date In summary, as I noted in my last col- to use the American-inspired Section more than five hundred insightful press umn, total spending for K–12 schools 116 to defend church-state separation. releases (accessible online). for 2008–2009 was AUD$39 billion,

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 45 of which $30 billion (79 percent) was In some fast-expanding areas, pol- religion differs from the President for public schools and $8 billion for iticians are allowing churches to start who might appoint him or the peo- Catholic and other private schools, tax-funded private schools before pub- ple who might elect him. . . . which receive nearly half of their lic schools are started, a move that I believe in an America that is officially neither Catholic, Protestant, income from fees, charges, and dona- may actually deny children access to nor Jewish—where no public offi- tions. In 2010, public schools spent an religiously neutral public schools. cial requests or accepts instructions average of AUD$11,523 per student, This all-too-brief look at the church- on public policy from the Pope, the versus Catholic and other denomina- state situation in our cousin country National Council of Churches, or any tional private schools that spent an down under should make Americans other ecclesiastical source—where average of $11,539 per student and appreciate all the more that our found- no religious body seeks to impose elite private schools that spent $14,456 ers had the wisdom and foresight to its will directly or indirectly upon the per student. incorporate the separation principle in general populace or the public acts of its officials—and where religious It’s not as if Australian churches need our national and state constitutions; liberty is so indivisible that an act government support. According to that our courts have by and large against one church is treated as an a 2005 article by Adele Ferguson in upheld that principle; and that voters, act against all. Business Review Weekly, the revenues when given the chance to do so, have (not wealth) of the five big churches followed suit. In addressing the American Society in Australia in 2004 totaled AUD$21.7 However, relying on inertia to carry us of Newspaper Editors on April 21, 1960, billion (Catholic, $15 billion; Uniting into the future is as irresponsible as ignor- Kennedy had this to say: “I believe the Church, $3 billion; Anglican, $2.4 bil- ing climate change, environmental degra- American people are more concerned lion; Salvation Army and Seventh-day dation, overpopulation, and other threats with a man’s views and abilities than Adventist combined, $1 billion). to civilization. The same forces that have with the church to which he belongs. caused so much damage to our cousin I believe the Founding Fathers meant country are unceasingly at work in today’s it when they provided in Article VI of America. The clericalists, school privatizers, the Constitution that there should be no religious test for public office. . . . “While the United States has pseudo-reformers, fundamentalist activists, and corporate special interests—aided I would not look with favor upon a a rich heritage of federal and and abetted by apathy, ignorance, and President working to subvert the First state court rulings dealing with political enablers—are not going away. Amendment’s guarantee of religious America pioneered church-state separa- liberty.” religious freedom and church- tion as the indispensable protector of reli- In Look magazine on March 3, 1959, state issues, Australia does not.” gious and other freedoms. We, all of us, Kennedy said: “I am flatly opposed to of whatever personal philosophy or life appointment of an ambassador to the stance or religion, cannot relax. Vatican.” There have been those who have The preceding discussion has dealt JFK, Fifty Years On questioned Kennedy’s sincerity, but my friend and colleague the late Paul only with the diversion of public funds to This fall will mark the fiftieth anniversary Blanshard, humanist and church-state sectarian private schools. But Australia’s of the assassination of President John F. separation expert, met with Kennedy church-state problems do not end there. Kennedy. In the face of massive assaults shortly after his election and came away Now let’s look at the situation regarding on religious freedom and church-state convinced that Kennedy meant exactly religion in the public schools, which serve separation by clericalists, fundamentalist what he said. Since Kennedy, we have about 68 percent of Australia’s children. extremists, ultraconservatives, pontificat- seen Reagan inaugurate diplomatic In the country’s estimated 6,705 public ing pundits, and political hacks, we would relations with the Vatican, Republican schools, there are (2010 government fig- do well to remember what Kennedy presidents and other politicians push ures) 2,700 tax-paid chaplains (98 percent said when he addressed the Ministerial to divert public funds to church schools of them “tethered to the Christian faith,” Association of Greater Houston on and try to restrict freedom of con- as Prime Minister Gillard puts it, plus thirty September 12, 1960: Muslim, fourteen Jewish, one Buddhist, science on reproductive matters, and a and nine “secular” chaplains). According I believe in an America where the surge of conservative religious leaders separation of church and state is to Macquarie University scholar Catherine trying to tear down our once formida- absolute—where no Catholic prel- Byrne, “No qualifications are required and ble wall of separation between church ate would tell the President (should and state. selection is done by third parties.” The he be Catholic) how to act and no Commonwealth ombudsman reported Protestant minister would tell his Johnnie, we miss you. in 2011 (Commonwealth Department of parishioners for whom to vote— Education, Employment and Workplace where no church or church school is granted any Relations) that “the programme suffered Edd Doerr is president of Americans for Religious Liberty. from lack of oversight, poor manage- public funds or political preference—and where He is the former editor of Church & State and The American ment, and a lack of clarification on the no man is denied public Rationalist and currently a senior editor at Free Inquiry. limitations to proselytizing.” office merely because his APPLIED ETHICS

Religion as Emotional Blackmail Donald R. Burleson

here are no atheists in fox- of ingratitude or guilt of one kind or George catches flak too. One of holes.” Attributed to World War another. Examples are not difficult to Martha’s brothers comes to his bedside “TII journalist Ernie Pyle and vari- find; the following illustrations are one day and says, “I want you to pray ous other people, this gratingly smug hypothetical but by no means fanciful, with me.” George, though awash in (and of course factually inaccurate) dic- because dark dramas of this sort unfor- morphine and hardly well positioned tum, often addressed to nonbelievers, tunately are played out somewhere to put up with this unwelcome gesture, seems on a practical level to mean every hour of every day. replies, “I don’t really care to do that.” something akin to “Sure, go ahead, Imagine a married couple whom we The brother-in-law, never a terribly be an atheist and sneer at religion, will call George and Martha. They have felicitous personality, then says, “See, as long as you’re safe from harm, but been married for decades and love that’s your problem, George. You don’t just try dodging a few bullets on the each other dearly. Both are atheists. believe in anything, and that’s why battlefield and you’ll be glad to come Martha is fairly healthy for her seven- you have all this trouble. If you would crawling back to God.” Oddly, religious ty-five years, but George, about the only come to the Lord and be saved.” zealots who employ this line of argu- same age, is dying of cancer. George ment also seem to think that it proves and Martha’s family members and the existence of God. friends are Christians exhibiting varying The unspoken but implicit syllogism degrees of avidity. The fun begins. “Essentially, the ‘foxhole’ is: Major premise: If some people feel George’s sister, Martha’s two broth- the need for God, then God exists. ers, and several friends have told argument amounts to saying Minor premise: Some people feel the Martha: “We’re praying for George, that if you get scared need for God. Conclusion: God exists. and for you too.” They seem, most of While the form of the syllogism them, to be kindly disposed folks and enough, you will believe in God, (modus ponens) is correct, there is no to have good intentions; one of the therefore God exists.” reason whatever to suppose that the church group members even brought major premise is true, and in fact there over a nice casserole recently. Martha is abundant reason to suppose that it would certainly feel churlish telling Mercifully, George drifts off to sleep isn’t, whereupon the whole syllogism them, “Your prayers are unlikely to do before the conversation can take any comes crashing down. (This doesn’t poor George any good,” though that is more sordid turns. Religionists seldom usually bother believers, of course, since what, as a realist, she’s thinking. really understand a freethinker’s mind. typically they don’t think of the mat- She contents herself with just thank- Martha and George are both ter syllogistically anyway.) Essentially, ing them quietly but has a harder time enmeshed in problematic human rela- the “foxhole” argument amounts to maintaining equanimity of spirit when tions because of their families’ and saying that if you get scared enough, George’s sister says to her, “You know, friends’ religious beliefs—Martha per- you will believe in God, therefore God dear, it’s really sad that you don’t haps more than George, because she exists. But this is a little like saying: believe in God, because your prayers is still up and about and has to interre- “If we torture you long and hideously could do so much for George. If both late with all these people on a regular enough, we can make you denounce of you believed, everything would be your mother.” That may well be, but better.” Martha, who more than any- basis. It is obvious that because they so what? It has nothing to do with the thing in the world would love to be resent her unbelief, they have doubts propriety of denouncing one’s mother able to move heaven and earth to save about how well she is really taking care and everything to do with the limits of her beloved husband, knows that what of George, even though she spends human endurance. her sister-in-law says isn’t true, but she almost every waking minute doing so. However absurd it may be, the fox- also knows that her sister-in-law thinks She is the outsider in the midst of these hole homily is emblematic of a broader it is. It is clear that with these people, groups, the nonparticipant in the com- and more complex issue regarding even the most fervently heartfelt good mon cultural heritage, and she is so by religious belief, one that we might wishes and desperate hopes count for choice, as they all know. While Martha call “emotional blackmail.” This essen- little or nothing unless they morph is confident that her worldview makes tially characterizes common human into actual prayers to a deity. Martha sense, this does not altogether shield situations in which, if one resists the strongly suspects that in some perverse her from the quiet (and sometimes encroachments of religious belief sys- way, George’s sister somewhat blames not so quiet) censure of those around tems, one is subject to imputations her for his not getting well. her. Already under immense emotional

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 47 strain because of George’s illness, she is to convert Martha or not. Religious house, when you have family problems an unbeliever among believers, a per- belief systems often spread like a virus, or any of a world of other difficulties— son continually urged to buy into the quite on their own; I may not know that in short, when your defenses are down. idea that she is wrong and everyone I am spreading my viral infection to you, Again, religionists may not always have else is right. She feels highly vulnerable, but I still infect you. If anything, this a consciously insidious agenda, but the and whether her family and friends religion-as-virus metaphor is too weak effects are much the same. mean to take advantage of her or not, to capture what religious belief can do The simple fact is that religion has she gets taken advantage of anyway. to replicate and perpetuate itself; a bio- always been based on fear, and there has Many less emotionally robust people logical virus does not have the imprima- always been plenty to fear. From the pre- in Martha’s situation might well suffer tur of a whole cultural heritage behind historic cave dweller living in terror of more. Indeed, let us “edit” our hypothet- it, but (especially in America) a religion animal attacks to the medieval farmer ical Martha a bit and make her less thor- like Christianity does. Poor Martha not fearing a famine-producing crop failure oughly out of sorts with religion, though only paints herself as ungrateful if she to the modern entrepreneur living in not enamored of it either; in some moods is slow to warm to the ministrations of dread of ruinous market conditions, the she rather inclines toward agnosticism, her prayer-group acquaintances; likely notion that one could sometimes wish but she was raised in a Christian house- as not, she runs the risk of seeming to there were somewhere to seek protec- hold and has never abandoned it alto- them to be a poor citizen as well. If tion and relief from one’s fears is, for gether. She respects George’s atheism this circle of believers includes some many, an alluring one. Thus are gods but does not share it. All it would take is particularly rabid fundamentalists, she born, and they will survive in the meme a well-timed shove, and religion would may be told that she and her infidel pool so long as people in large numbers have its hooks into her again. husband are going to roast in hell—the feel helpless to counter the perils that life Her tragic circumstances with George’s ultimate appeal to fear. Sharing the in a scary world can present. It is less than terminal illness provide the impetus. common religion is the socially and surprising that some people want there When Martha’s family and friends urge morally expected thing to do, after all, to be an ultimate source of aid and com- her to pray with them for George’s recov- and when this is added to the emotional fort, and organized religions obviously ery, when they press the view upon her pressures Martha is already under, she thrive on this desire. But wishing does not that if she really loves her husband she may become a conscript to religion. make it so, and the kindness and good would believe in a god who can help him, But this tendency of religion to spread intentions of many religionists does they manage not only to make her feel virally as a sort of emotional blackmail nothing to validate their beliefs. Indeed, guilty but to give her second thoughts is by no means confined to scenarios the fact that religion as a social institu- about sharing their religious beliefs—a as dire as Martha and George’s death- tion so often relies upon people’s vul- subtle form of proselytizing that, under bed watch. Any time one is threatened nerabilities only shows how vacuous it her emotional buffeting, she is hard put with impending or ongoing troubles, really is. to resist. For her, it may well be that the one may readily be subjected to the desire to have a beneficent resource, a sort of extortion we have considered supernatural haven of hope, will at some here. Church groups point shade over into the belief that there urge orthodoxy when Donald R. Burleson is a mathematician and a widely published writer really is one. you have lost your on nonbelief. He is a contributing editor to The American Rationalist, In this situation, it matters little job, when you are in from which this article is reprinted with permission. whether the religionists consciously try danger of losing your

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48 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Living Without Religion

Mass Shootings and Theodicy Gary J. Whittenberger

e will not easily recover from in response. Chief among them is Lee the sins of Adam and Eve. Although this the tragedies in Aurora, Col Strobel, a former self-declared “atheist” ludicrous idea is reflected in the Old Worado, and Newtown, Con and legal editor for the Chicago Tribune Testament, it conflicts with our modern necticut. These tragedies successively who was “saved” and became a Christian view of ethics and even with God’s nature became the worst mass shootings in evangelist. Strobel has published over as defined earlier. If God happened to American history. My sympathies go out twenty best-selling books, participated exist, he would not punish the human to the survivors, and I urge support for in interviews, debates, sermons, and lec- species as a whole, groups of persons, or them, especially from the secular human- tures all over the country, and served as a successive generations of humans for the ist community. teaching pastor at two churches. Among sins of individuals such as Adam and Eve When any tragedy occurs by the Christian apologists, his influence may be (who are probably fictional characters hand of a human person, people often unsurpassed in the United States at the anyway). If he existed, consistent with his ask, “Why did God allow this?” But a bet- present time. ter question would be “If God did exist, Shortly after the Aurora tragedy, would he allow this?” If the answer is no Strobel delivered a sermon to a congre- and yet the tragedy occurred, then the gation in the vicinity of the murders. only reasonable conclusion is that God Although he was responding specifically almost certainly does not exist. Any effort to the Aurora mass shooting, the theo- to provide an explanation of how God dices he presented in his sermon can be “If he exists, God would be at could and would allow human trage- easily generalized to other mass shoot- least partly responsible for the dies in which there is suffering, disability, ings such as the one in Newtown or to and/or premature death, is called a “the- others that might subsequently occur. tragedy, because he could have odicy.” The theodicy makers have been I will paraphrase and critically evaluate created a different world in which busy providing explanations for God’s these theodicies. inaction in these recent mass shootings. Theodicy #1: God did not create mass the tragedy did not occur.” For the purposes of this essay, I will shootings. This is a nonstarter, because it define “God” in the way that most Jews, contradicts the assumption that God cre- Christians, and Muslims define him: as ated our universe, including humans. If an all-knowing, all-powerful, perfectly God exists and creates all things, then he good, supremely authoritative spiritual creates tragedies too. Even the Bible sup- being who created our universe, includ- ports this idea in Isaiah 45:7 (KJV): “I form perfect goodness, God would implement ing humankind. Based on this defini- the light, and create darkness: I make the principle of individual accountability. tion of God and the implicit assumptions peace, and create evil: I the LORD do all The selection of victims of mass shoot- about his nature, we can make reason- these.” If God exists, then with respect to ings appears to be random and arbitrary. able predictions about what he would the Aurora and Newtown tragedies he Theodicy #3: God gave human beings do and would not do with respect to dif- did create the men who did the shooting, free will so that they could choose to love ferent situations, including tragedies. We the victims of the shooting, and the cir- him or hate him, accept him or reject will focus here on mass shootings, such cumstances that led to the shooting. So him, obey him or disobey him; he desires as those in Aurora and Newtown, but if he exists, God would be at least partly love, acceptance, and obedience from our conclusions can be easily generalized responsible for the tragedies, because he his creatures. The unfortunate by-product to similar situations. In the real world, could have created a different world in of this free will is that human beings are mass shootings just aren’t compatible which they did not occur. Moreover, if he able to choose to kill other human beings, with the nature of God as he is conceived was at least partly responsible, then this and this is what happens in mass shoot by most persons in this country. contradicts our assumption about God’s ings. This doesn’t work. It is possible, As has been the case with other perfect goodness. even likely, that there is no free will, as tragedies in the last fifty years, Christian Theodicy #2: God caused or allowed Sam Harris points out in his recent book, apologists have been quick to offer the mass shootings because tragedies are Free Will (Free Press, 2012). However, for their illogical and disturbing theodicies his punishment of the human race for the sake of this essay, let’s assume that

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 49 there is. To achieve his purposes, God eating poisonous substances, and kill- than causing or allowing people to mur- could have (and if he has all the qualities ing other people. Any parent who had der other people and then punishing ascribed to God, would have) created the qualities of God—being all-knowing, them for it, God would prevent them human beings with a different nature. all-powerful, and perfectly good—would from murdering in the first place. He, Either he would have given them no free surely prevent any of his children from like most rational people, would prefer will at all and caused them reflexively to killing any of his other children. He or she prevention over punishment. But even if love, accept, and obey him, or he would would love all his or her children equally he did decide to allow murder and pun- have given them limited free will so that and desire to protect them all from harm. ish it, he would not wait until later; he they could still choose to love, accept, Theodicy #5: God causes good to would punish openly, immediately, reli- and obey him without choosing to kill come to the victims of tragedy, a good ably, fairly, and proportionally. He would other human beings, or he would have that outweighs their suffering and serves know how to best use punishment in a given them free will to decide and plan as a compensation to them. Victims of humane way to correct and deter; he mass shootings, including those who wouldn’t vaguely promise to punish on were killed, wounded, and broken by some future occasion. The aftermaths of grief, will be compensated greatly in this tragedies that we see in the real world life and/or in the next. Our ethics have do not match what we’d expect if God matured over the past two millennia existed and was the master of just pun- from what they were when the Bible ishment. “Because of his perfect was written; we now have a better idea Theodicy #7: God intends to eradicate of what “goodness” is. Because of his tragedies caused by human beings, such goodness God would have set up perfect goodness, God would have set as mass shootings, but he has chosen a system, without any tragedy up a system without any tragedy rather to do it later because he wants to give than one with tragedy followed by com- more people the opportunity to choose to rather than one with tragedy pensation. But even if he were to do accept him. This is not what an all-pow- followed by compensation.” the latter, the delivery of compensation erful and perfectly good being would would be nothing like what we see in do. He would prevent or stop the trage- real life now. God would personally warn dies before they occurred. Once again, if people in advance that a tragedy was God had a need to test people, which is about to come, but he would tell them doubtful because he would be all-know- that they need not worry because they ing, he would do it without permitting would be justly compensated for it. God people to kill others. In addition, as soon to murder others but not the free will to would begin the compensation immedi- as anyone did accept him, God would actually engage in the act. ately and reliably after any tragedy and promptly remove that person from the God would not have endowed humans wouldn’t wait till later. God might even danger of being harmed by others; the with the free will to choose to murder, give people a choice between taking the test would be over for the believer. We along with some aggressive tendencies, tragedy plus compensation or no trag- don’t see this type of protective behavior and then commanded them not to mur- edy at all. Can you imagine the victims in the real world. der; that would be like setting humans or their families and friends choosing the Theodicy #8: God will provide extra up for failure, the outcome of which he Aurora tragedy on the promise of future reward to compensate those victims who would know in advance. He would not compensation? If God were to cause or had already accepted him. God would cause or allow some human beings to allow tragedies, what he would not do not engage in blatant discrimination like suffer just so he could test the choices of is cause or allow them in the ways they this. Given that he has provided little other human beings; that would be like now occur. There is overwhelming evi- or no evidence of his existence and his using human beings as pawns in some dence that at least in this life, the good wishes, he would not expect people to sinister game. God himself would have the does not outweigh the bad in the vast accept him and would not reward the free will to withhold or limit the free will majority of tragedies. victims of tragedy who believed in him of humans, and he would not have given Theodicy #6: God is going to justly more greatly than he rewarded those them the free will to murder. punish those who cause tragedies for oth who did not. In fact, he would likely do Theodicy #4: God is a good parent, ers, and so he will punish the mass mur the opposite and give the greater reward and good parents allow their children derers. God will do this when offenders to those who rationally concluded that to make mistakes and learn from them. die or when they all come before him on he probably does not exist. Sometimes children make big mistakes the Judgment Day. Those who suffer from Theodicy #9: Because Jesus has con and kill others, as occurs in mass shoot tragedies at the hand of another should quered evil in the world, victims and sur ings. Good parents do everything in their focus their minds on a future comeup vivors of tragedies should be courageous power to prevent their children from pance for the offenders. Once again, and peaceful. If Jesus had conquered making irreversible, life-changing mis- this hypothesis is incompatible with the the world, God would have made this takes, such as running into a busy street, nature of God, as defined earlier. Rather fact perfectly clear for all to see through

50 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org proclamation and demonstration; there secular humanist might behave; but we would be no doubt about it. After the see no evidence for this kind of being Poem death of Jesus, tragedies at the hand of in the real world. My detractors might man would have ceased to occur because claim, “Come on now, you can’t and Jesus would have eliminated them. Of don’t know how God would behave!” to course, this is not what we see. Critical which my reply would be “And neither examination of the New Testament in do you!” We don’t need to “know”; we modern times has led us to see that just need to make reasonable predictions the Christ savior figure could not and and test them in order to guide our worl- Where Have You does not achieve what he was alleged dview and behavior. Religious apologists to achieve. like Lee Strobel do not make reasonable Come From, Theodicy #10: God has provided the predictions. They don’t take their own suffering, death, and resurrection of Jesus definition of God and assumptions about Where Are You Going? in order to comfort the victims of trag his nature seriously. edies, including the victims in Aurora. If Real solutions to the problem of suf- Terese Coe he were a good parent, God would not fering and evil remain what they have have allowed, or even arranged for, his always been: either God does not exist, only-begotten son to be tortured, humil- or he exists and lacks one or more of the iated, and executed. If Jesus had really primary characteristics normally attrib - come back to life, God would have pro- uted to him, in which case he would not Where have you come from? vided much better evidence of this, but be the god imagined by followers of the the evidence is very weak. There are no Abrahamic religions. And so, our choices Far, from far. firsthand eyewitness reports corroborat- are clear. Either God does not exist, in ing each other. There are inconsistencies which case we can and should free our- Where are you going? and contradictions in the Gospel narra- selves of one more ancient superstition. tives, all of which were written years after Or God exists and he is not all-knowing or Tomorrow. Jesus’s death. If God existed, he would all-powerful, in which case we can and either have prevented human-caused should quit praying to him and worship- It took forever. tragedies in the first place or at least ping him. Or he exists, and he is not per- met with all victims afterward to comfort fectly good but in fact partly evil, in which Now is never them. We would expect nothing less case we can and should despise him and from a perfectly good being with ulti- rebel against him. Given other consider- heard of mate power. If God allowed tragedies, ations, the first of these three options which is unlikely, he would surely find a appears to be the most reasonable. but firsthand. better way to comfort victims and survivors of tragedies than referring to a sin- References The evidence of hours is gle incident of torture that he arranged Harris, Sam. Free Will. New York: Free Press, two thousand years ago. 2012. ellipsis, ampersand. Strobel, Lee. “Why Does God Allow Trag edy and Suffering: Reflections on hese theodicies are similar to those the Shooting Tragedy in Aurora, Colo Tthat have been offered throughout rado. Based on a sermon delivered on history by religious apologists, especially Sunday, July 22, 2012, at Cherry Hills Community Church in Highlands Ranch, Christians, for other tragedies, whether Colorado. Christianity Today. http:// man-made or natural. They imagine deci - www.christianitytoday.com/le/2012/ sions by God that would be incompatible july-online-only/doesgodallowtragedy. with or contradictory to his presumed html. Terese Coe’s poems and translations have Whittenberger, Gary J. God Wants You to Be nature, and ironically, they are supported an Atheist. Denver: Outskirts Press, 2010. appeared in The Times Literary Supplement, by the Old Testament picture of God Threepenny Review, Ploughshares, Smartish who often acts unethically and violently. Pace, Alaska Quarterly Review, Tar River Poetry, Alternatively, Agenda (UK), Poetry, The Cincinnati Review, I have proposed Gary J. Whittenberger, a writer and retired psychologist, lives in New American Writing, The Connecticut Review, how God would Tallahassee, Florida, where he is active in freethought groups, including 32 Poems, New Walk Magazine (UK), and Orbis behave, if he did the Center for Inquiry–Tallahassee. He has written many articles for (UK), among numerous others. Her historical play, exist, and it would magazines, journals, and newspapers and published one book—God Harry Smith in the Chelsea Hotel, was read by essentially be as Wants You to Be an Atheist. Equity actors in June 2012 in New York. an all-powerful

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 51 Programming includes: 14,411 ft.) is clearly visible to Tacoma’s southeast. Like its nearby neighbor • Pre-conference workshops and reception on Thursday Seattle, Tacoma is served by Sea-Tac International Airport. • Daily plenary sessions Friday, Saturday, and Sunday REGISTER TODAY! • Concurrent humanist and skeptical sessions About the Hotel Murano. The elegant Hotel Murano is down- Friday and Saturday afternoons town Tacoma’s tallest hotel. Its name and its breathtaking styling pay OCTOBER 24–27, 2013 A Joint Conference of the Center for Inquiry, • Friday evening gala banquet with keynote by Bill Nye, tribute to Tacoma as an art-glass center. (The Murano Islands, near the Council for Secular Humanism, and the The Science Guy Venice, are the historic center of Italian glassmaking.) Inside and out, HOTEL MURANO Committee for Skeptical Inquiry incorporating • Saturday Halloween costume party with live music by The Heathens the Hotel Murano dazzles with spectacular art-glass installations. (featuring CFI–Los Angeles Director Jim Underdown) The décor is assertively Euro modern with the emphasis, of course, DOWNTOWN TACOMA, WA • Poster sessions on surprising uses of glass. Conference space is provided within the • Exclusive Members Meeting, just for CFI Friends of the hotel itself and also in the adjacent Bicentennial Pavilion, built in 1976 Just south of Seattle! Center and Associate Members of the Council for Secular as Tacoma’s convention center but now owned and operated by the Humanism and the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Hotel Murano. Join in wide-ranging conversation with organizational leadership. Register using the convenient card below, online at, www.cfisummit. Hosted by Featuring And it’s all remarkably affordable. Adult registration is just $199 org or by calling toll-free 888-862-3255. Conference registration (meals and special events additional); stay in the Murano for does not reserve your hotel sleeping room. a discounted conference rate of just $149 per night Please contact the Hotel Murano directly at https://resweb. (includes free wireless Internet access). passkey.com/Resweb.do?mode=welcome_ei_new&even- tID=10647847 or by calling toll-free 888-862-3255. About Tacoma. Thirty-two miles southwest of Seattle, Tacoma was If reserving by phone, mention “Center for Inquiry” to obtain the once a gritty industrial and shipping town. It’s now stunningly reborn with special discounted conference rate. Sightseeing in the Pacific a sparkling waterfront, a new university campus, and Washington state’s Northwest? You may extend your stay up to three days before largest concentration of museums. On clear days, Mount Rainier (summit or after the conference dates at the conference rate.

RONALD BILL LEONARD SUSAN KATHERINE Yes! Please register______persons for the CFI Summit (all prices are per person) A. LINDSAY NYE STEWART MLODINOW JACOBY The Science Guy Author, The Physicist, Author, Conference Registration $199 Thursday Registration $35 Optional Workshop 1 President & CEO, The Great Agnostic L L L Good News Club Best-selling Author Center for Inquiry L Guest (½ price) $99 L Friday Registration Skeptics’ Mini Toolbox with

L Friday, Saturday lunches (excludes lunch & dinner) $120 Ray Hyman and James Alcock $45

& Saturday Dinner package $115 L Saturday Registration L Optional Workshop 2

Hear speakers including (in alphabetical order): L Friday Lunch $35 (excludes lunch & dinner) $120 How Naturalists Can Create Meaning/

Ophelia Benson | Elisabeth Cornwell | Michael DeDora | Sean Faircloth | Tom Flynn L Saturday Lunch $35 L Sunday Registration $65 The History of Atheism

L Saturday (or Friday) Dinner $60 L Student Registration $50 with Judy Walker/S.T. Joshi $45 Will Gervais | S. T. Joshi | Zack Kopplin | Barry A. Kosmin L Halloween Costume Party $59 L Blood Drive Priceless Total ______Cara Santa Maria | Eugenie C. Scott | Todd Stiefel | Eddie Tabash Leonard Tramiel | Phil Zuckerman plus many more! Name ______Address ______

Should the examination of religious beliefs remain largely off limits for skeptics? Should secular City/State/ZIP ______Phone / E-mail address ( ) ______/______

humanists be as critical of fringe-science claims, including alternative medicine, as they are Check enclosed (only U.S. checks drawn on U.S. bank and denominated in U.S. dollars) of religious beliefs? To what extent do skeptics and humanists have a common mission? L L Bill my credit card (required for all foreign-currency transactions) L AmEx L Discover L MasterCard L Visa Both skeptics and humanists support science and critical thinking—but what else unites them? Are there public policy issues on which skeptics and humanists can productively collaborate? Number ______Exp. Date ______Signature ______(required for credit-card transactions) All of these questions and many more will be part of the grand discussion at the CFI Summit. MAIL TO: CFI SUMMIT, P.O. BOX 741, AMHERST, NY 14226-0741 U.S.A. FAX with credit-card information to (716)636-1733 or call toll-free 855-417-9930 during business hours Eastern time or e-mail [email protected]. www.cfisummit.org Or register online at www.cfisummit.org Programming includes: 14,411 ft.) is clearly visible to Tacoma’s southeast. Like its nearby neighbor • Pre-conference workshops and reception on Thursday Seattle, Tacoma is served by Sea-Tac International Airport. • Daily plenary sessions Friday, Saturday, and Sunday REGISTER TODAY! • Concurrent humanist and skeptical sessions About the Hotel Murano. The elegant Hotel Murano is down- Friday and Saturday afternoons town Tacoma’s tallest hotel. Its name and its breathtaking styling pay OCTOBER 24–27, 2013 A Joint Conference of the Center for Inquiry, • Friday evening gala banquet with keynote by Bill Nye, tribute to Tacoma as an art-glass center. (The Murano Islands, near the Council for Secular Humanism, and the The Science Guy Venice, are the historic center of Italian glassmaking.) Inside and out, HOTEL MURANO Committee for Skeptical Inquiry incorporating • Saturday Halloween costume party with live music by The Heathens the Hotel Murano dazzles with spectacular art-glass installations. (featuring CFI–Los Angeles Director Jim Underdown) The décor is assertively Euro modern with the emphasis, of course, DOWNTOWN TACOMA, WA • Poster sessions on surprising uses of glass. Conference space is provided within the • Exclusive Members Meeting, just for CFI Friends of the hotel itself and also in the adjacent Bicentennial Pavilion, built in 1976 Just south of Seattle! Center and Associate Members of the Council for Secular as Tacoma’s convention center but now owned and operated by the Humanism and the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Hotel Murano. Join in wide-ranging conversation with organizational leadership. Register using the convenient card below, online at, www.cfisummit. Hosted by Featuring And it’s all remarkably affordable. Adult registration is just $199 org or by calling toll-free 888-862-3255. Conference registration (meals and special events additional); stay in the Murano for does not reserve your hotel sleeping room. a discounted conference rate of just $149 per night Please contact the Hotel Murano directly at https://resweb. (includes free wireless Internet access). passkey.com/Resweb.do?mode=welcome_ei_new&even- tID=10647847 or by calling toll-free 888-862-3255. About Tacoma. Thirty-two miles southwest of Seattle, Tacoma was If reserving by phone, mention “Center for Inquiry” to obtain the once a gritty industrial and shipping town. It’s now stunningly reborn with special discounted conference rate. Sightseeing in the Pacific a sparkling waterfront, a new university campus, and Washington state’s Northwest? You may extend your stay up to three days before largest concentration of museums. On clear days, Mount Rainier (summit or after the conference dates at the conference rate.

L Friday, Saturday lunches (excludes lunch & dinner) $120 Ray Hyman and James Alcock $45

& Saturday Dinner package $115 L Saturday Registration L Optional Workshop 2

Hear speakers including (in alphabetical order): L Friday Lunch $35 (excludes lunch & dinner) $120 How Naturalists Can Create Meaning/

Ophelia Benson | Elisabeth Cornwell | Michael DeDora | Sean Faircloth | Tom Flynn L Saturday Lunch $35 L Sunday Registration $65 The History of Atheism

Should the examination of religious beliefs remain largely off limits for skeptics? Should secular City/State/ZIP ______Phone / E-mail address ( ) ______/______humanists be as critical of fringe-science claims, including alternative medicine, as they are Check enclosed (only U.S. checks drawn on U.S. bank and denominated in U.S. dollars) of religious beliefs? To what extent do skeptics and humanists have a common mission? L L Bill my credit card (required for all foreign-currency transactions) L AmEx L Discover L MasterCard L Visa Both skeptics and humanists support science and critical thinking—but what else unites them? Are there public policy issues on which skeptics and humanists can productively collaborate? Number ______Exp. Date ______Signature ______(required for credit-card transactions) All of these questions and many more will be part of the grand discussion at the CFI Summit. MAIL TO: CFI SUMMIT, P.O. BOX 741, AMHERST, NY 14226-0741 U.S.A. FAX with credit-card information to (716)636-1733 or call toll-free 855-417-9930 during business hours Eastern time or e-mail [email protected]. www.cfisummit.org Or register online at www.cfisummit.org God on Trial

Evaluating the New Atheists’ Criticism of Scripture James Metzger

he so-called New Atheists have (a narrative about Jesus’s childhood); this material world—indeed, given the not fared well among scholars of Christopher Hitchens wrongly assumes variety and magnitude of suffering on Treligion. Generally, their work has that all four canonical Gospels were this planet, and given that he so often been shrugged off as shoddy, unschol- based on Q; and Sam Harris misspells is subject to fits of unbridled rage and arly propaganda, or they have been the name of Israel’s patron deity. Yet, jealousy, he seems a very likely candi- taken to task for conjuring “straw man” as a scholar of the Bible myself, I find date—but there must be a god higher caricatures of religious traditions, con- that the New Atheists do have some still to whom believers owe their alle- veniently ignoring all the good that very important things to say about how giance and to whom their spirits return religious institutions have done, defin- many communities of faith approach at death. ing faith in a manner unrecognizable scripture. Second, the New Atheists do a very to most religious people, and opposing First, they helpfully point out that good job of reminding believers of the science and religion, as if a commit- the God of the Bible bears little resem- dangers that lurk within their scriptures. blance to the cozy deity of today’s Too many adherents today overlook— mainline Catholic and Protestant com- or simply aren’t aware of—features munities, who is compassionate, merci- of their sacred texts that can be mar- ful, faithful, attentive to the cries of the shaled to inspire violence or to autho- suffering, and on the side of the poor rize social policies and structures that “Roman Catholic theologian and the downtrodden. Not coinciden- marginalize women, ethnic minorities, tally, this is just the sort of god they gays and lesbians, and people of other John Haught . . . argues that need to underwrite a bevy of social faiths (or of no faith!). Sam Harris, for when Hitchens and Dawkins programs and charities. Yahweh can instance, tries to show his readers that be kind to those few whom he favors, a careful reading of the Qur’an and highlight outmoded worldviews but he can also be “an ill-tempered and the hadith does not support the now- and frightful moral injunctions implacable and bloody and provincial widely repeated and rarely challenged god” (Hitchens) or a “cruel ogre” whose mantra, “Islam is a religion of peace.” In in biblical writings, they simply “monumental rage” and “maniacal fact, portions of Islam’s earliest sacred read these texts wrongly.” jealousy” terrorize those who don’t texts very clearly command violence do exactly what he says or who offer against non-Muslims. In the Qur’an, for up a prayer to a rival deity (Dawkins). instance, Muhammad commands his The New Atheists rightly challenge followers on more than one occasion Christians to take a fresh look at the to “slay the idolaters wherever you biblical portrait of God and to acknowl- find them.” To motivate believers for ment to one must mean a denial of the edge that their deity of infinite love battle, he claims that “God has granted other. Scholars of the Bible in particular and mercy is a far cry from the irascible, a grade higher to those who strive and complain that they rehash tired con- capricious sky god who lurks menac- fight” and warns those who don’t that tradictions and improbable historical ingly within the canon. To their credit, they will have no share in the spoils claims with which almost any educated the early Christian Gnostics at least of war or even in eternal life. And, believer is already acquainted while grappled honestly with the portrait of just in case the rhetoric of reward and making egregious errors that under- Yahweh in the Hebrew Bible, which punishment alone doesn’t do the job, mine their credibility. For example, led them to conclude that its egoma- Muhammad incites animosity toward Richard Dawkins mistakes the Gospel niacal, tyrannical protagonist could not “the infidels” by dehumanizing them of Thomas (a collection of Jesus’s say- possibly be the universe’s highest rank- by referring to them as “beasts” who ings) for the Infancy Gospel of Thomas ing deity. Yahweh may have created are “deaf, dumb, and blind.” The asser-

54 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org tion that “Islam is a religion of peace” because God commanded violence in moral codes and parochial ethics, spar- just doesn’t pass muster. One might this particular instance, it’s perfectly ing not even the most beloved biblical say this of Jainism, but it cannot be said reasonable for a believer to assume texts. “No society ever discovered,” he of any of the Abrahamic traditions. that he might wish to see the same writes, “has failed to protect itself from Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam cer- from adherents in the future (unless, of self-evident crimes like those suppos- tainly can serve—and has served—as an course, one wishes to argue that God edly stipulated at Mount Sinai,” and instrument of peace and reconciliation, has undergone a significant change in many of Jesus’s teachings, including but there’s simply no denying that its character since 630 CE—a claim that the Golden Rule and the antitheses in early texts authorize violence against would find virtually no support among Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount, pres- non-Muslims in the name of God. traditional Muslims). Harris is saying ent adherents with a perfectionist ethic I see Harris asking Muslims to take that today much more is required from that keeps them in a perpetual state of a clear stand on whether or not state- moderate and progressive Muslims: it failure and guilt—all to the great ben- ments like those above are divinely is time they publically denounce these efit of paid religious personnel. “The revealed and therefore authoritative parts of the Qur’an and declare that order to ‘love thy neighbor as thyself,’” for the community of faith. I am not they neither come from God nor reflect he observes, “is too extreme and too aware of any imam who has offered values conducive to peaceful societies, strenuous to be obeyed. . . . Humans a public and unambiguous repudia- no matter how you spin them. Certain are not so constituted as to care for tion of these texts. Among moderates parts of the Qur’an and the hadith must and progressives, they are usually just be desacralized in order to safeguard ignored or reinterpreted “in histori- future generations from religiously cal context” to blunt their unpalat- inspired violence. able features. Rory Dickson offers a fine Dawkins and Hitchens choose rather example of this interpretive approach to focus on the Jewish and Christian (one prolifically employed by Jewish scriptures. Dawkins aims to show that “Just as Harris pushes Muslims and Christian apologists as well): “In Christians, no matter what they say, discussing Qur’anic verses on fighting, generally do not take their moral cues to come to terms with violence al-Akiti notes that one of the most from the Bible—or that if they do, moral in their earliest texts, severe Qur’anic verses ordering war— inspiration must be restricted to a minus- ‘Slay the unbelievers where you find cule number of passages. The Bible is full I see Hitchens and Dawkins them’ (9:5)—was revealed in reference of characters who behave atrociously— doing much the same to a historical episode, the breach of the Lot, Abraham, Moses, Joshua, Jephthah, Treaty of Hudaybiya, by the Meccans and certainly Yahweh himself, to name for Jews and Christians. opposed to Muhammad in 630 CE. a few—none of whom any sensible par- It’s time to take a public and Considering the verse’s reference to ent could commend to children as a unequivocal stand. . . .” this historical episode, al-Akiti writes, role model. Moreover, many of the ‘no legal rulings, or in other words, no Bible’s moral codes are at best dated practical or particular implications can and often unreasonably punitive or be derived from the Verse on its own.’ downright cruel as well. For instance, As the verse is historically specific in the Ten Commandments simply take its genesis, general rulings cannot be for granted the institution of slavery, made from it.” treat women as men’s property, pro- others as much as themselves: the thing Of course, if God authorized the hibit a very natural inner disposition simply cannot be done (as any intelli- execution of unbelievers in the seventh (covetousness), and demand unwaver- gent ‘creator’ would well understand century, doesn’t it stand to reason that ing allegiance to a single tribal deity—a from studying his own design). Urging he might command violence in simi- sectarian stipulation that in view of humans to be superhumans, on pain of lar future scenarios? Surely, “breach of our Constitution’s establishment clause death and torture, is the urging of ter- treaty” can be taken in the broadest would seem to preclude their being rible self-abasement at their repeated possible sense to include broken vows posted in public places. Even sacrosanct and inevitable failure to keep the rules. and unfulfilled obligations of many exhortations such as “Love your neigh- What grins, meanwhile, on the faces of kinds. I imagine that it would be rela- bor” (Leviticus) and “Love one another” those who accept the cash donations tively easy for a jurist or imam to make (John) recommend extending sympa- that are made in lieu!” a case for using this verse to legitimate thies only to those who already are Roman Catholic theologian John violence in a variety of modern situa- members of the in-group and therefore Haught, an outspoken critic of the New tions where people have not held true would hardly qualify as stunning ethi- Atheists and author of God and the to their word. cal advances. New Atheism: A Critical Response to Well-intentioned hermeneutics like Like Dawkins, Hitchens too lam- Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens, argues al-Akiti’s aside, the fact remains that bastes the Bible’s barbaric Bronze Age that when Hitchens and Dawkins

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 55 highlight outmoded worldviews and in fact predominate. And it is precisely ocal stand, they argue: Do you still frightful moral injunctions in biblical these aspects of the Bible to which consider the conquest narratives, the writings, they simply read these texts Dawkins and Hitchens helpfully draw household codes, and the countless wrongly. He berates Hitchens for his our attention. The decision to boil passages that demonize out-groups to “plain reading of everything” and down the Bible’s message, as Haught be sacred Scripture or not? If so, in Dawkins for his tendency to emphasize would have us do, to “God liberates the what sense? Is the Bible God’s infallible morality to the exclusion of so much oppressed” is just that: a choice made word to all human beings or is it merely else in the Bible. Both authors, he says, by progressive interpreters of the twen- divinely inspired? If divinely inspired, completely miss the overarching theme ty-first century who need the text to where precisely does divine input leave of the Jewish and Christian canons, validate their current values, agendas, off and human creativity begin? Might which is that Yahweh is ceaselessly and programs. you go so far as to say that the Bible is working to liberate those in bondage: But can’t one just as well reduce entirely a human product and there- “One of the greatest benefits of taking the Bible’s message to “God punishes fore holds no ultimate authority over a good college-level course in biblical sinners”? In fact, if one is after a “plain the contemporary community of faith? literature, or of being part of a Bible reading” of the corpus as a whole My own perspective is one that I study group informed by up-to-date (which is what many early Reformers suspect the New Atheists share: the scholarship, is that one can learn to were after), it seems the latter has far only way to protect future generations read the biblical texts in such a way that more weight behind it than “God lib- from religiously justified violence and a major theme, say that of liberation, erates,” because in the Bible, God does injustice is to finally acknowledge the remains transparent in the background far more punishing than liberating. Too Bible’s human origins, thereby desa- even while we are reading passages often, only the tiniest minority of our cralizing the entire corpus. It may species are fortunate enough to be remain an important dialogue partner the recipients of Yahweh’s favor. The in the same sense that, say, Plato’s majority are simply written off, slaugh- Republic or Camus’s The Plague do for tered, or consigned to eternal torment. millions, but it can no longer be called Haught’s liberatory reading strategy— upon to dictate human behavior, aims, one, I assume, that minimally would and models of reality. It should be seek equality for women, toleration for treated no differently than any other collection of voices from the past. Is the Bible God’s infallible word people of other faiths, sustainable con- sumption practices, accommodation Indeed, once divested of its authority, to all human beings or is it merely for the disabled, and justice for the interpreters will be free to see what’s divinely inspired? poor—is laudatory, but it often goes actually there—voices that truly can be against the natural grain of the text. capacious, wise, even sublime but also Tellingly, such an approach was nearly plenty of others that are mean-spirited, nonexistent among Christian clergy for ethically bankrupt, and hopelessly anti- two millennia. What Haught implies is quated. that the “plain reading” performed by a majority of Christians over the centu- References ries is plain wrong: Christians have been Dawkins, Richard. The God Delusion. New that may seem morally offensive when badly botching biblical interpretation York: Houghton Mifflin, 2006. Dickson, Rory. “Religion as Phantasmagoria: taken in isolation.” until just the last few decades, when Islam in The End of Faith,” in Religion Haught’s preferred approach is rou- he and his colleagues finally woke up and the New Atheism: A Critical Appraisal, tinely taught in seminaries and divin- and got it right. But, because so few edited by Amarnath Amarasingam. Lei ity schools around the country today, even today read with this lens, Haught den: Brill, 2010. Harris, Sam. The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and I am grateful that it is. But never is also saying that most Christians still and the Future of Reason. New York: W. W. should hermeneutical strategies that get it wrong and therefore have no Norton, 2004. prioritize liberation mask the Bible’s idea what the Bible is really about. Are Haught, John. God and the New Atheism: A unseemly and potentially harmful all but the academic elite and their Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and features. Haught suggests that mere tiny cadre of sympathizers totally mis- Hitchens. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008. acquaintance with “up-to-date biblical guided? Hitchens, Christopher. God Is Not Great: How scholarship” should enable believers to Just as Harris pushes Muslims to come Religion Poisons Everything. New York: slough off the Bible’s “morally offen- to terms with violence in their earliest Twelve, 2007. sive” passages as occasional abnormal- texts, I see Hitchens ities and focus on more prominent and and Dawkins doing Jim Metzger has taught religious studies at Vanderbilt University palatable themes such as liberation. much the same for Divinity School, Luther College, and East Carolina University. His But the morally offensive passages do Jews and Christians. not amount to a few hiccups in an oth- It’s time to take a article “Spending Christmas with Linus” appeared in the December erwise liberation-saturated text: they public and unequiv- 2012/January 2013 issue of Free Inquiry.

56 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org Reviews

Sorting out Religion with Brian Leiter Russell Blackford

rian Leiter’s new book on secular ism and religious freedom, Why Tolerate Religion?, has received B Why Tolerate Religion?, by Brian Leiter (Princeton: much attention. It is a useful contribu- Princeton University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-691- tion to the discussion of an important 15361-2) 187 pp. Hardcover, $24.95. group of issues, and it was appropri- ately the topic of a full-day symposium held by the Center for Inquiry in late April 2013. The book is especially interesting to me because I’ve published my own book on a similar topic (Freedom of Leiter takes a softer line against estab- positions whose consciences are simi- Religion and the Secular State, Wiley- lished churches such as the Church of larly affected. Blackwell, 2012), and I’ve spent many England, although his approach to hours thinking and writing about reli- I was very interested in Leiter’s anal- exemptions from generally applicable gious toleration, religious freedom, and ysis of the concept and definition of the rationale for secular government. laws may actually be a bit tougher than religion—obviously this is something Many difficult questions lurk here: for mine. Ultimately, he thinks there are to get as clear as possible if we are example, do we have good reasons good grounds for basic tolerance of going to have meaningful discussions to tolerate (in the sense of “put up of how far religion should be tolerated with”) religious views that we consider or encouraged. It would be helpful to false or even somewhat harmful? What those involved in the debates to know if a generally applicable law with a whether we are talking about the same straightforward secular rationale, such thing at all when we use words such as deterring certain harmful actions, “I was very interested in Leiter’s as religion. Leiter identifies four char- has unwanted side effects for a partic- analysis of the concept and acteristics, although he thinks most of ular group of religious practitioners? the work can be done by concentrating Should they receive an exemption from definition of religion—obviously on the first two, while the third really the law? If we do give religious believ- this is something to get as clear adds little (so I’ll place it in brackets). ers these exemptions, what about peo- For Leiter, then, the characteristics of ple with claims of conscience that are as possible if we are going to a religion, or the general phenomenon not specifically religious, such as nonre- have meaningful discussions of religion, are as follows: ligious vegans or conscientious objec- of how far religion should be tors to our nations’ wars? 1. Categorical commands. There are many other questions, tolerated or encouraged.” 2. Claims that are radically, but those relating to exemptions seem or de jure rather than merely most important to Leiter, or at least de facto, insulated from evidence. they are the main focus of Why Tolerate 3. (A metaphysics of ultimate reality.) Religion? Leiter does not, for exam- 4. Existential consolation. ple, spend much time on questions to do with state imposition of religious diverse religions, i.e., not attempting to As he recognizes, all of these have morality, though his short answer to suppress them or to impose a particular potential problems. For example, a those seems to be simply that we ought religion by force. He is mildly hostile to moral system may make categorical to apply the Millian harm principle or exemptions on religious grounds from demands on us to act in certain ways, something much like it. non-persecutory laws of general appli- and it may be insulated from any rel- In the end, many of Leiter’s conclu- cability, and he thinks that in principle evant evidence. Thus it can meet two sions are similar to mine in Freedom of any exemptions that are justified for of the criteria. At the same time, many Religion and the Secular State, though adherents to religious positions should philosophical systems that we would there are differences of detail. For one, apply to adherents of nonreligious not normally consider religions offer

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 57 something in the way of existential For Leiter, then, it is the combination cases. Still, for the purposes of law and consolation as Leiter defines this. That of elements that marks out the pres- public policy, it seems as if we might is, they attempt to “render intelligi- ence of religion. It seems that the most as well use more familiar concepts, ble and tolerable the basic existential important element for his purpose is rather than expecting judges, tribunals, facts about human life such as suf- radical or de jure insulation from evi- administrative agencies, and the like fering and death.” Epicureanism, for dence. He looks for such a radical insu- to settle the philosophical question of example, dealt with the presence of lation because he is well aware that whether some system of beliefs is or is suffering and death by offering such many kinds of nonreligious beliefs can not “de jure insulated from evidence.” reassurances as that death is merely be held dogmatically, and those who If we make this move, Leiter’s nothingness and is not to be feared. so hold them are often resistant to any concept of religion ends up looking Though Epicureanism was relentlessly argument or evidence that should get not that different from, say, Charles naturalistic and this-worldly (even the them to change their minds. For exam- Taylor’s. In his monumental A Secular gods were explained in naturalistic ple, I might engage in all sorts of ad Age (Harvard University Press, 2007), terms), it was a therapeutic philosophy. hoc rationalizations so as not to accept Taylor emphasizes an otherworldly Modern-day analytic philosophers may the fact that a political leader whom order of things (which more or less shy away somewhat from any thera- I admire is incompetent, hypocritical, corresponds to Leiter’s second and peutic or reassuring role, but it is tradi- and corrupt. perhaps third points), as well as stan- tional to philosophical practice and has Religion is different because there dards of conduct that are demanded by no means vanished entirely. are aspects that rule out the applica- by the religious system (corresponding bility of evidence almost in principle. In to Leiter’s first). Taylor has consider- large part, the problem is that certain ably more to say, however. Perhaps he claims transcend the empirical order would agree with the idea of existen- that we encounter through our senses. tial consolation, but not in a way that But isn’t this more or less what is meant would let in a philosophical system such when we say that religions possess an as Epicureanism. Instead, he speaks of a “There is still much work to “otherworldly” or “supernatural” ele- higher good that transcends life in this ment? I’m not sure why Leiter avoids world, a sense of human life as having do to sort out the best these words throughout Why Tolerate a dimension that, again, transcends the policies for religious Religion?, but perhaps he thinks they ordinary world, and the existence of have problems of their own, not least a transcendent and transformative pow- freedom and toleration.” certain vagueness. In the end, however, ers that can assist us to gain access to he appeals to similar ideas in order to the higher good. underpin the idea of de jure insula- Thus, Taylor offers a concept of reli- tion from evidence. Religions can avoid gion that appears richer than Leiter’s evidential falsification largely because while also being more familiar and they make claims that (purportedly) more practical for the purposes of bod- Leiter is well aware of these prob- transcend the empirical realm. ies such as courts. Once Leiter’s inten- lems, and, indeed, he observes that tions are explained, his understanding there are nonreligious ways to seek t is better, I think, if we are trying of religion may not really be so differ- existential consolation (“ranging from Ito identify the characteristics of reli- ent, but it is better, I think, to let famil- philosophy to behavioral and cog- gion(s), to stick with ideas of the super- iar concepts such as the supernatural nitive therapy to pharmacology”). natural, otherworldly, transcendent, do the political and legal work than However, they do not meet his other and so on, even if these are not entirely try to rely on concepts such as radical criteria. Although he does not discuss satisfactory. They leave some vague- insulation from evidence. At the same Epicureanism, he could make the point ness, but it does not seem from Leiter’s time, we can observe that supernatu- that it was open to evidence and that discussion that “de jure insulation from ral claims are, in practice, often insu- its ethical component did not take the evidence” is any better. The fact of the lated from evidence because of the form of categorical demands. Instead, matter is that law and public policy excuse-making attitudes of their adher- Epicurean thinkers offered practical need to accept a certain amount of ents rather than because no conceiv- vagueness in categorizing social phe- able evidence could render them more advice, especially about how to seek nomena. For example, the common or less plausible. Much of the problem aponia and ataraxia—the absence law is riddled with such concepts as is not so much a radical insulation from of pain and psychological distress. what is “reasonable” or what would any and all evidence from history and Epicurean ethics was all about finding or might be done by a “reasonable science as a de facto insulation aris- the most effective approach to living a person.” This leaves it to judges and ing from the dogmatic attitudes and flourishing life on this earth, not about juries to draw lines as to what is or is endless post-hoc ingenuity of religious categorical, binding rules. not “reasonable” in particular cases. believers. Conversely, a moral system such as By contrast, we usually don’t have too At the end of the day, I expect that Kant’s may make categorical demands much trouble in sorting out whether Leiter’s conception of religion and a on our conduct, but it takes more than certain truth claims are, intuitively, nat- conception such as Taylor’s can largely just a moral system to offer existential uralistic or supernatural ones. There be translated into each other’s termi- consolation. will, admittedly, be grey areas and hard nology and be found to be quite similar

58 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org in substance. Better still, either of these to achieve outcomes that he supports ethics. On my first reading of the book, can probably be translated into the and expects will be shared by many I tended to see this as a weakness: sort of language used in the courts. If of his readers? For example, a moral important resources are neglected or we are all using similar—though, alas, skeptic might support a Hobbesian goal given short shrift. On a second reading, probably not identical—conceptions of such as civil peace, while disagreeing I find it fascinating to see how far Leiter religion, then we at least have a fair with Hobbes himself on the empirical can get without those resources. Why chance of reaching agreement on how question of how it can be achieved Tolerate Religion? has a certain beauty religion ought to be treated by the law. (notoriously, Hobbes thought it neces- in its brevity, austerity, and aspiration As to that, Leiter and I reach our sary to suppress the outward expres- to analytical rigor. (rather similar) conclusions via differ- sion of all religions except one, namely There is still much work to do to sort ent routes. Indeed, he is unhappy with whichever one might be chosen by out the best policies for religious free- some of the approaches and arguments the political ruler). The goal of civil dom and toleration. Since the seven- that I tend to find most compelling, peace is, I expect, widely shared. If it is teenth century, the era of Hobbes, such as arguments about whether likely to be achieved by constitutional Locke, and Spinoza, the roles of religion the state can be trusted to decide the entrenchment of religious freedom we and the state have developed significantly, and this needs to be reflected in existence or otherwise of supernatural (i.e., those of us who share the goal) our policies. Still, there are historical les- beings or to work out what might be have a reason to agree to entrench sons to be learned, and they undoubt- required for spiritual salvation. such a provision in our countries’ con- edly have a bearing on our thinking. Instead, Leiter seems to want policy stitutions. There is much to consider about the reasons to be grounded in fundamen- In fact, Leiter does not argue in this place for religion in our laws and poli- tal moral principles. I admit to some way. He approaches the questions with cies, under modern conditions. puzzlement here: he freely acknowl- relatively little discussion of case law, edges being a moral skeptic, so he pre- historical experience, or the pragmatic sumably does not accept utilitarianism concerns that motivated or Kantian moral reasoning (for exam- authors such as Hobbes. Russell Blackford is a conjoint lecturer in the School of ple) as objectively binding on us. Why Instead, he relies heavily Humanities and Social Science, University of Newcastle, would such a person not simply look on resources from mod- Australia. His new book is 50 Great Myths About Atheism, for guiding political principles that are ern analytic philosophy co-authored with Udo Schüklenk (Wiley-Blackwell, 2013). likely, based on historical experience, and mainstream normative

The Nothing That Is Not There and the Everything That Is Brooke Horvath

ritish philosopher A.C. Grayling must certainly be familiar to many Breaders of Free Inquiry, for he has long been associated with the new The God Argument: The Case Against Religion atheism movement, and The God and for Humanism, by A.C. Grayling (New York: Bloomsbury, 2013, ISBN 978-1-62040-190-3) 269 Argument might be read as his summa pp. Cloth, $26.00. on the dangerous illogic of religion and the ethical/moral/intellectual superi- ority of humanism. It might also be read as an ex post facto preface to The Good Book: A Humanist Bible, which he published in 2011. The Good Book received its fair share of praise but might well give Snell pause and Sexton ogists who, Grayling will demonstrate, struck the unconvinced as “nauseat- another upset stomach. “often do not have clear ideas, or much ing” and “unreadable” (David Sexton Insisting that “the argument against agreement among themselves, about in the Evening Standard) and its author religion is an argument for the liberation what is meant by ‘religion,’ ‘god,’ ‘faith’ someone who “does not dare to know of the human mind” from indoctrination and associated concepts.” The eleven the world as it is” or seriously to ask “if and exploitation, superstition and fear, chapters of Part One provide working there is, in fact, a God” (R. J. Snell in First Grayling devotes the first half of The God definitions for such concepts as propae- Things). Unpacking the thinking that Argument to “deal[ing] with what reli- deutic to their dismantling, sketch the led to The Good Book’s compilation gious apologists say in defending them- psychological and intellectual bases of of secular wisdom, The God Argument selves” from people like himself—apol- religious belief, defend rationality and

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 59 science as preferred means of know- find them less persuasive than I did, in In the chapters devoted to human- ing things, and expose the flaws in var- part because the opposition’s convic- ism, Grayling corrects unfortunate as ious proofs for the existence of a deity, tions are rather glibly sketched with no sumptions about atheists, responds to whether Intelligent Design, ontological major religious thinker more recent than complaints that humanists treat the arguments that posit the necessity of Kierkegaard even mentioned. religious disrespectfully, acknowledges a perfect being, or cosmological argu- Grayling concedes that “serious religion’s right to exist, and urges ments that appeal to a first cause or a believers” exist “who find solace and humanists to work toward making uni- necessary guarantor of morality. inspiration in their faith, and who do versal human rights more than an empty Grayling is also the author of An good because of it,” and he also credits United Nations resolution. He devotes Introduction to Philosophical Logic religion with inspiring any number of useful space to distinguishing between (1982), and his topic-by-topic rebuttal great works of art. He contends, how- ethics (which concerns “the kind of per- of religious claims exposes the sundry ever, that religion’s ills far outweigh its son one is”) and morality (“the obliga- irrationalities and faulty logic at work in benefits, not least when the faithful turn tions and duties, the constraints and the buttressing of belief. Sometimes, the to religion for moral direction, because parameters that apply in one’s relation- exercise is less rigorous than amusing, as religious guidance proves “irrelevant to ships with others”) and describes seven when we are asked to replace “God” with questions of morality” when not “posi- characteristics of the good life: meaning “Fred” in proscriptions such as “God for- tively immoral.” Thus, religion, Grayling or purpose; intimate relationships of love bids homosexual acts” as a way of notic- observes, continues to underwrite angry and friendship; active “doing, making or ing “how much explanatory utility lies in complaints about “nudity on the cinema learning”; authenticity; autonomy, and screen and teenagers buying the morn- the consequent acceptance of responsi- ing-after pill” while those same outraged bility for choices made; beauty; harmo- moralists remain silent regarding, say, nious integrity. the exportation of automatic rifles and However, The God Argument begins cluster bombs. In such circumstances, to read a bit like a self-help book when “religion has little to offer moral debate,” Grayling turns to discuss love and sex and serious individuals need something (including homosexuality and prostitu- “Grayling devotes the better than “anchorite nostrums.” That tion), drugs, and death (including abor- first half of The God Argument something is, of course, humanism, tion and euthanasia): “Looking at love the case for which is made in The God from the perspective of time is instruc- to ‘deal[ing] with what religious Argument’s final eleven chapters. tive. Infatuation can grow into love given apologists say in defending time and a dose of life’s realities, which umanism, argues Grayling, “is the eth- romance by definition lacks.” He has little themselves’ from people Hical outlook that says each individual to say about the aesthetic and ecological like himself. . . .” is responsible for choosing his or her dimensions of humanism and speaks only values and goals and working toward in the broadest terms about its politics, the latter in the light of the former, noting that humanists can disagree on and is equally responsible for living con- specific issues and characterizing secu- siderately toward others, with a special larism as “the institutionalisation of lib- view to establishing good relationships eralism.” at the heart of life, because all good Although Grayling writes that espous - an undefined word”; sometimes greater lives are premised on such.” Humanism ing humanism interests him more than rigor obtains, as when Grayling rejects values “the commonalities” that unite debunking religion, the debunking Bertrand Russell’s contention that theism us and make morality and laws possible is performed more energetically, and cannot be logically disproven by faulting while at the same time respecting the the chapters devoted to it have more Russell for failing to distinguish between “wide differences that exist in human bite. Attempting to cover too much, his demonstrative and scientific proofs. nature,” which differences demand tol- account of humanism begins to ramble, The religious are variously charged with erance, respect for the rights of others, and Grayling frequently satisfies himself “cherry-picking” (choosing which biblical and the eschewal of any one-size-fits-all with assertions of the obvious: antiabor- passages to insist upon and which to life plan. Humanism is, further, “above tionists privilege the rights of the fetus ignore, which to take literally and which all about living thoughtfully and intel- over the rights of the “present person”; to read metaphorically), appeals to inef- ligently, about rising to the demand to the regulation of drugs is preferable fability (God is a mystery, too great for be informed, alert and responsive, about to their prohibition. Occasionally, he is our finite minds), and recourse to argu being able to make a sound case for a vague: “some theologians,” he informs mentum ad baculum (God will get you choice of values and goals, and about us, “now interpret biblical references to if you don’t walk right). Grayling’s argu- integrity in living according to the former ‘eternal life’ to mean ‘living in eternity,’” ments are clear and trenchant, although and determination in seeking to achieve but he is silent on which theologians I suspect deeply committed believers will the latter.” these are or exactly why they think as

60 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org they do. Often, he is perfunctory; for men living several thousands of years “real things of this world”—more than instance, mentioning near-death experi- ago,” that “everybody is an atheist about “the imaginary” could ever offer. As ences, Grayling tells us only that “the evi- almost all gods” conjured by our ances- Wallace Stevens put it in his great poem dence is anecdotal” and “does not relate tors, and that “one mark of intelligence is “Sunday Morning,” we inhabit an “island to death but to an extremely stressful an ability to live with as yet unanswered solitude, unsponsored, free” and “ines- episode in life.” (It is not that I disagree; questions.” Reasonably and persuasively, capable.” But “deer,” Stevens adds, “walk rather, I find his one-paragraph dismissal Grayling proposes that a rejection of the- upon our mountains,” “quail / Whistle of a subject so pertinent to his project ism needn’t leave us suicidal in a pointless about us their spontaneous cries,” and disappointingly insufficient.) Sometimes, universe or thrashing about in a frenzy of “sweet berries ripen in the wilderness. . . .” he is simply unconvincing: if religion has meaningless sex and endless shopping, Is this enough? The freedom? The led us to judge rape less odious than unable to find a reason for behaving mor- deer? The berries, however sweet? masturbation, as Grayling asserts, why ally or even for caring what happens fur- Maybe so, and maybe, for some, not. But are rapists the ones behind bars? ther away than down the street. It is pos- to whistle up a god we believe marks Still, I perhaps forget that Grayling sible, he argues, for each of us to behave each fallen quail is, Stevens and Grayling sees his audience as “the general pub- “like the best of civilized, thoughtful, concur, simply whistling in the dark. lic,” and as such it is an audience that responsible, considerate may benefit most from an aerial view moral agents” and to find Brooke Horvath teaches at Kent State University. Three of his of humanism, just as it may bene- in “love, beauty, music, poems appeared in the December 2012/January 2013 issue of fit from being reminded that Judaism, sunshine on the sea, the Free Inquiry, and his review of Brad Gregory’s The Unintended Christianity, and Islam “derive ultimately sound of rain on leaves, Reformation was published in the April/May 2013 issue. from the superstitions of illiterate herds- the company of friends”—

What’s Wrong with This Picture? Ryan T. Cragun

here Is No God: Atheists in Amer ica offers very little that is new or noteworthy in the budding field of T There Is No God: Atheists in America, by David A. Williamson and George social scientific research on atheists in Yancey (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2013, the United States. The aim of the book ISBN 978-1-4422-1849-9) 150 pp. Hardcover, $36.00. is to describe the characteristics of atheists, along with offering a few suggestions for what motivates them. The authors, David A. Williamson and George Yancey, became interested in this topic as a result of a different project focused on social progressives and their preconcep- tion that progressives hold anti-Christian nonrandom Internet sample of athe- Phil Zuckerman, Tom Alcorn, and Jesse biases (which, strangely, led them to sur- ists recruited by sending out links to Smith have all interviewed and/or survey an atheist group to find progressives, various atheist groups, read some veyed atheists in the United States and reflecting an odd assumption underlying atheist newsletters and/or magazines, found the same thing. Barry Kosmin, their approach). That they are not experts and interviewed about fifty atheists Ariela Keysar, Juhem Navarra, and me, on atheism and conducted this project as recruited from atheist groups in the as well as Darren Sherkat, Buster Smith, a side interest is apparent in the book’s Midwest and Texas. They concluded and Joseph Baker have already looked spartan bibliography that is a scant three that atheists tend to be disproportion- at nationally representative data to pages and is missing references to almost ately white, male, wealthy, well-edu- examine characteristics of atheists. All all of the relevant research on this topic. cated, and socially progressive. All of of the scholars mentioned used more To examine the characteristics of this was known before. Frank Pasquale, robust data than this book does. Thus, U.S. atheists, the authors conducted a Bruce Hunsberger and Bob Altemeyer, both qualitative and quantitative

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 61 research that is better than what is terms of us (atheists) versus them (the people are irrational and stupid; athe- included in this book has already been Christian Right) and criticize atheists ists have substantial political influence; published and is widely available to for not recognizing more moderate there is a middle ground between sec- scholars aware of it (most of the above religious people but seem not to realize ular humanism and religious funda- studies are not cited by the authors of that the way they asked their ques- mentalism that is superior to both; and this book). tions, primarily in their survey but also atheists are part of the majority in However, the book does offer a in their interviews, almost guaranteed the United States, leading to pervasive new and disturbingly biased perspec- this perspective. They asked specifi- anti-Christian bias. Every one of these tive on atheism in the United States. At cally about the Christian Right in mul- assumptions is wrong, yet the authors least one of the authors (Yancey) tiple questions. Had they asked athe- conclude, based on their data, that but likely both is a devout Christian ists what they think about Unitarians they are correct. whose research is geared toward or other liberal Christians, they would There may be one redeeming quality strengthening religions and “reveal- have found that atheists are much less to this book. It does a very good job ing” anti-Christian bias in the United critical and far more nuanced in their of illustrating how religious people, par- States (as per his website, http://www. views. They also quote some of the ticularly highly religious social scientists, georgeyancey.com/). Thus, the new atheist literature they read to justify view atheism. Repeatedly, the authors perspective on offer in this book is that this claim, but, because they do not state that atheists are a very small group describe their methodology for either and are not growing, despite the fact gathering or analyzing that literature, that there are today more atheists in the it is impossible to say whether or not United States than Jews and Mormons they simply pulled quotes that sup- combined, that the nonreligious are add- ported this idea rather than conducted ing hundreds of thousands to their ranks “. . . Research that is better than a more rigorous, unbiased analysis. every year, and there has been an increase what is included in this book has The authors also suggest that peo- in the percentage of people reporting ple become atheists primarily because they do not believe in God over the last already been published they are wealthy and don’t need what ten years. Because of the authors’ per- and is widely available to God has to offer. This idea seems tied to spectives, I think conservative Christians scholars aware of it …” a notion they suggest (but repeatedly who are afraid that atheism is on the rise contradict): that atheists are part of the will respond positively to the book. It will majority (because they are white, male, validate their fear that higher education and wealthy). This seems to be a setup for is a hotbed of progressive and atheist the second author’s line of research on activism (which isn’t accurate). It will also of devout Christian authors who have anti-Christian bias in academia. The aim help heighten their sense of oppression, a poor understanding of atheism and seems to be to suggest that atheists con- despite the fact that Christians are still an unstated agenda. This is manifest trol academia, leading to anti-Christian the majority in the United States (lead- in myriad ways. It is clear from the very bias. Yet, how pervasive can widespread ing to the strengthening of convictions, first sentence that the authors don’t anti-Christian bias be if, as representative which is the goal of at least one of the know what atheism is. They assume statistics of college professors and stu- authors). Also, this book, despite being that all atheism is positive atheism dents indicate, there are more Christians riddled with problems, will serve as an (the denial of the existence of a god) in higher education (faculty and students, excellent reference for the authors as and are either completely unaware or depending on the university) than there they continue their research on anti- willfully ignorant of negative atheism are atheists? This question is left unad- Christian bias in this predominantly Chris (lacking belief in a god or gods). The dressed in the book. tian country. authors also conclude that atheism is The very last chapter admits that Secular humanists, atheists, and only and always the negation of reli- the authors started the study with a other freethinkers will find nothing gion, which makes no sense given the number of assumptions, most of which new in this book. Instead, reading it will term’s meaning (without belief in a they claim were supported by the data likely result in them pulling their hair god, not rejecting religion). Atheism they collected. Those assumptions go out in frustration at how ill-informed and opposition to religion often go unstated, but based on my reading of and biased the authors are. together, but equating the two is not the book, they include all of the fol- accurate. The authors also consider lowing: atheists have offered no novel atheism a religious belief, which it is criticisms of religion over and above not. In order for atheism to be religious those introduced by it would have to be part of a religion. theologians hun- Ryan T. Cragun is an associate professor of sociology at the While some atheists are members of dreds of years ago; University of Tampa. His research on atheism and religion in the freethought groups, most are not, and atheists are derisive United States has been published in several articles in Free Inquiry, the groups are not religious. Thus, athe- and demeaning of most recently in the June/July 2013 issue (“Cheating or Leveling religion and do not ism is a belief, but not a religious one. the Playing Field: Rethinking How We Ask Questions about Religion Williamson and Yancey are also take it seriously; athe- in the United States,” with Barry A. Kosmin). amazed to find that atheists think in ists think all religious

62 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org The Current State of Threats to Secularism Edd Doerr

lack Tuesday—March 26, 2013— made very clear the importance Bof books like Marie Alena Castle’s Culture Wars: The Threat to Your Family and Your Culture Wars: The Threat to Your Family Freedom, by Marie Alena Castle (Tucson: See Sharp and Your Freedom. On that day, the Press, 2013, ISBN 978-1-937276-47-8) 236 pp. Indiana Supreme Court unanimously Paperback, $14.95. upheld an expansive state law that diverts public funds to religious private schools through a Republican- sponsored voucher scheme. On the same day, North Dakota Republican Governor Jack Dalrymple signed into law the nation’s most far-reaching At this point, it is important to con- legal assault yet on women’s reproduc- sider strategy and timing. During World tive choice, freedom of conscience, and War II, the Americans and the British religious liberty. and their allies did not rush to invade In this hard-hitting book, long- Hitler’s continental empire prematurely. time Minnesota activist Castle exhaus- Precipitate action would have been sui- tively catalogues the myriad threats cidal, so they waited until they had a to religious freedom and church-state good chance of success, as on D-Day in separation posed by clericalists, fun- June of 1944. Kamikaze attacks, such as damentalists, and their political allies “. . . Longtime Minnesota Michael Newdow’s attempt to get the and enablers. She devotes nearly half activist Castle exhaustively Supreme Court to deal with the “under of her book to discussing the age-old God” phrase in the Pledge of Allegiance, problems of misogynist patriarchalism catalogues the myriad threats fail and risk triggering an avalanche of and unending assaults on reproductive to religious freedom and counterattacks. choice, women’s freedom of conscience, church-state separation Furthermore, success in beating back and women’s health. The rest of the assaults and strengthening church-state volume head-swimmingly summarizes posed by clericalists, separation require cooperation and coali- such other church-state problems as fundamentalists, and tion building. Humanists and freethinkers tax support for church-related schools, alone are not sufficiently numerous to do charities, and hospitals; religion and the their political allies the job. Importantly, vast numbers of military; fundamentalist infiltration of and enablers.” Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Unaffiliateds, public schools; attacks on science and and others are supporters of separation. science education; and tax policy regard- Alliances can and have been put together ing religious institutions and clergy. She to defeat school vouchers in referendum could have devoted more attention to elections, to defend reproductive choice, the massive drive to get public funding to head off sectarian invasions of pub- for church-run private schools. lic-school science classes, to counter cli- The book contains a partial list of mate-change deniers, and more. The church-state separation organizations among them are Americans for Religious clock is ticking. and a useful bibliography. Liberty’s journal Voice of Reason and What to do about the threats is not this journal, Free Inquiry. Too few orga- fully addressed, so permit me to offer nizations are dedicated to fighting for some suggestions. First of all, readers of church-state separation, and they are this review are probably already disposed all in need of funds. We need activism to support church-state separation intel- of all sorts, advocacy lectually. But more is required. Concerned on as large a scale as Edd Doerr is president of Americans for Religious Liberty and a people need to keep informed. Too few possible, and carefully columnist for Free Inquiry. publications are readily available, but designed litigation.

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 63 Letters continued from p.19 a pre-social human Neverland. Reviewing Religious clarification. Sierra maintains it is no doubt imperfect, but it What we had then and have now that polarization of opposing does compare life processes to is rights conventionally granted, Research enclaves leads both to become home brewing, so it has that in more extreme. That may often and these, however fundamen- I enjoyed the excellent article its favor. happen but has not been the tal, are never absolute. Life may by Luke Galen and Jeremy After all, beer, like life, is actual response in our polit- be taken, liberty curtailed, and Beahan, “A Skeptical Review of hard to define. The old German ical system. The right wing property confiscated. Religious Prosociality Research,” Purity Law held that beer was has, indeed, become more so. In asserting that Americans in the June/July 2013 issue. composed of only barley, water, Here, I do not consider isolated hops, and yeast. However, there are a “great variety of unique I would like to comment on cranks. I refer only to elected are long-standing traditions of citizens,” Tibor Machan is false Figure 3, which reflects the poll officials who have recently wheat beers, and other cultures to science. What we are is a findings that religious people served. On the Right, it is easy have introduced rice and maize national instance of Homo are less depressed and less to find influential persons who into the mix. Therefore, my unhealthy than people unsure sapiens, and of all the animals, espouse preposterous ideas. operative definition of beer for of their religion, and the later including our closest evolution- John Boehner (R-OH) says this particular thought exercise polls suggesting that atheists ary relatives, Homo sapiens is by that global warming is a hoax is: “Beer is the result of com- secure in their nonbelief are far the most social species. This perpetrated by scientists to bining grain, water, hops, and similarly better off. The impli- fact–and it is a fact—requires get more grants; Todd Aiken yeast in such a way as to pro- cation by many has been that government capable of man- (R-MO) maintains that a raped duce a beverage with a modi- being firm and comfortable in aging the socioeconomic exis- woman can’t conceive; Paul cum of alcohol.” Now, the way one’s belief or nonbelief causes tence of its polis. In the case of Broun (R-GA) says the theory that this is done is that your one to be healthier and better of evolution is an idea “from grain product and your hops the United States that’s three adjusted than those who are the pit of Hell”; Ron Paul (R-TX) are boiled in water for a set hundred million-plus people. insecure in their belief/unbe- maintains that we should amount of time and allowed to Imagine the chaos if so many lief. Of course, as always, cor- repeal Obamacare because the cool before yeast is added in. “unique citizens” acted as such, relation does not imply cause uninsured can always find a Before the yeast is added, what outside social norms and limits and effect. The data could be compassionate physician who you have is called “wort.” The and laws. interpreted the opposite way: will treat them for free. added yeast consumes the sug- Robert Bray people who are depressed, On the other side, the ars that were in the grain prod- unhealthy, and miserable are Bloomington, Illinois leftists have emphatically not uct and metabolizes them into likely to wonder why their become more so, In fact, they alcohol and carbon dioxide, beliefs/nonbeliefs have not have moved right. Polarization resulting, over a period of time, supported them and to have in the United States has sim- in what can be called beer. Tibor Machan is correct that doubts. In other words, being ply moved both parties to At what point does wort America’s founders sought comfortable in your religion the right, leaving the gap become beer? After all, our to protect “the basic rights of or irreligion does not cause unchanged. operative definition of beer every individual” (as long as you to be happy; rather, being Alfred Holtzer is not based upon a certain they were white male property unhappy causes you to be St. Louis, Missouri alcohol content. Therefore, owners). However, they sought uncomfortable in your religion/ one could conceivably (no pun to do so within a collectivist unreligion. Or, there is some intended) make the argument framework. We know this other, unknown explanation that beer begins at fermenta- for the correlation, or there is because of the collectivist lan- On Personhood tion, when the first yeast cell guage of the preamble of the no explanation at all. I greatly appreciated Andrew produces the first molecule Constitution. It begins, “We the Imre G. Toth, MD S. Ryan Jr. tackling the illogic of alcohol—at that point, the People.” The document also Bolton, Massachusetts of zygotal personhood and the substance does literally have an refers to a “Union,” again, a col- label of “unborn children” in alcohol content, thus meeting lectivist noun. his article “Of Persons, Human our definition of beer. Never Machan fails to realize that Beings, Things Human, Roses, mind that you would need a collectivism and individuality and Toxic Waste Dumps” (FI, mass spectrometer and a lot of can be balanced. Indeed, that June/July 2013). However, in time to detect such an infinites- is the fundamental task of any Beware of Mental our efforts to combat the slew imal amount of alcohol—it is truly civilized society. (Society is Traps of legislation attempting to undeniably there. also a collectivist noun.) enshrine a definition of person- And here is where we I’ll end by answering the In the June/July 2013 issue of hood as beginning at concep- hit our legal absurdities, question of its title. The pur- FI in “Beware of Mental Traps: tion, I think it imperative that for if this substance with its pose of government in America Why We Need to Overcome we go further and tackle some 0.000000000000000001 per- Them to Survive the Twenty- cent alcohol is defined as beer, can be found in the preamble of the legal and philosophical First Century,” Hector Sierra absurdities inherent in the proj- then it must be a controlled of the Constitution—“to pro- gives an excellent discussion of ect of legislating a definition of substance. That means that, if mote the general Welfare.” mental traps one can fall into life. To this end, I have devel- my underage nephew sticks a Scott J. Raskiewicz that lead to dysfunction. One oped an analogy that I think straw in the fermenter and sips St. Paul, Minnesota aspect of his argument needs highly usable. Like all analogies, away, then I’ve contributed

64 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org to the delinquency of a minor use of the body. Granted, there makes them human beings. punishment for original sin. At and can be jailed. Or, likewise, I have been occasions when my Human organisms constantly that point, one should ask the can sell it in liquor stores; never stomach has failed to do this, change; from zygote to the question: Who imposed eternal mind that the overconsumption but this seems to be more the eldest senior we are never the torture as punishment for a of my product will not result case of my having overlooked same, moment to moment person’s far distant ancestor in the slightest drunkenness an expiration date than it does or day to day. Our greatest eating an apple? Well, God, of whatsoever. a systematic breakdown of the short-term change, of course, course! So, even if you’re going Does beer begin at fermen- digestive process. occurs during and immedi- to hell for your original sin, you tation? (In other words, are we More and more research ately after our birth, when we are still being sent there by defining beer, something which leans in the direction of metamorphose from a parasitic God’s command. The fairness has been on this planet for perceiving sex as, first and placenta/umbilical/fetus into of that command is also an thousands of years, according foremost, a means of social a baby. issue. God set up a sting, and to scientific equipment which cohesion in human beings and A human zygote, after a Eve and Adam were entrapped. has been in existence for less related animals. Sex as pleasure short period of cell division, He created them without a than one hundred years?) Or is and social bond is arguably just becomes the being referred knowledge of good and evil, there instead some magic point as vital to the survival of our to by medical personnel and put them near an enticing tree, we cannot necessarily point to particular species as is sex as others as a blastocyst, and and told them not to touch it. at which beer begins, before reproduction. the being that arises from But they couldn’t know that which it is but potential beer? The zygotal personhood this organism is a placenta/ was evil till after they ate the Is beer instead in the eye of the movement, in its operative umbilical/embryo. Never heard apple. This eternal punishment beholder or recognized by the definitions of life and sex, does of an unborn human referred for a misstep by persons lacking consensus of the community? not simply embrace variant to as such? Neither have I. the mental capacity to form an The implications for the idea definitions of common but Nevertheless, that’s exactly intent to commit a crime was that life begins at conception vague concepts—it embraces, what it is. All of those parts entirely out of proportion to are obvious. wholeheartedly, an array of share the same DNA, and they their culpability. Similar absurdities abound philosophical absurdities belied all continue to grow through- Harvey S. Frey when we attempt to define by reality. Reality is on our side. out gestation. Santa Monica, California sex primarily as the means by Guy Lancaster Ryan’s interesting dance which human beings repro- Little Rock, Arkansas with words regarding the duce, or make (intentionally or unborn is characteristic of the not) all those bundles of cells human desire to maintain Population Decline that may eventually qualify respect for all human life. It At conception as a single cell, In his review of Jonathan V. as alive. A random glance at must be noted, however that, a blastocyst, a human zygote Last’s What to Expect When No online sources informs me that as persons, we understand that is likely to be “aborted” if con- One’s Expecting (FI, June/July the likelihood of a woman in the real world the value of ception occurs too late in the 2013), Tom Flynn emphasizes becoming pregnant from any each life, human or otherwise, woman’s menstrual cycle. This the fallacy of Last’s conclusion single act of heterosexual is determined by its existential fertilized ova is then flushed that the world’s population intercourse (even if she is not circumstances and those of its out, naturally, and unlikely to must ever increase to avoid using birth control) is probably evaluator. A human organism be detected. So, why is this nat- economic and social disaster in the 15 to 25 percent range. still in the womb is insentient, ural event not even considered but agrees with Last that the Even if fertilized, the likelihood unable to contemplate much by those defining a human passage through a period of that said egg will successfully of anything, and generally being as existing at concep- incapable of demonstrating or declining population will pose implant into the wall of the tion? Should we then collect eliciting empathy. Reasonable problems. However, there are uterus and start developing is every woman’s tampon or pad people don’t identify it as a number of reasons to assume probably around 50 percent. I during menstruation, after sex, being a fellow person. that getting to a smaller popu- don’t think you get to say that for funerals. Absurdity! lation will not be a problematic the primary purpose of sex is Robert E. Plonsky Chester Twarog process. reproduction if sex only ends Colorado Springs, Colorado During population con- Hudson, Massachusetts in some attempt at reproduc- traction, the quality of infra- tion 25 percent of the time. structure already in place can After all, the primary purpose God and Hell be increased with no cost. For of one’s lungs is the intake of Andrew Ryan’s attempt to example, if agricultural needs oxygen and the expulsion of show how confusing it can be I believe that Richard Schoenig are reduced by some percent- carbon dioxide. The fact that I to interpret language was cer- missed an important arguing age, the least productive land have yet to pass out as I write tainly successful. He exhibits a point in his June/July 2013 will be taken out of service this tells me that my lungs are certain amount of confusion on article in Free Inquiry, “Does first; thus land, labor, fertilizer, working at a fairly high rate of the subject of his discourse; but God Send People to Hell?” The and irrigation usage can be efficiency. Likewise with stom- then, don’t most persons? Christian says that God doesn’t decreased by more than that achs, the primary purpose of Zygotes within humans are send you to hell; you do so percentage. Similarly, fewer which is the breakdown of food certainly human and certainly yourself, by refusing to accept pupils mean the worst schools into chemical components for beings, which in my book his offer to rescue you from the can be retired, resulting in

secularhumanism.org August/September 2013 Free Inquiry 65 Letters Poem

a free upgrade, on ample infrastructure average, of the schools and the use of the most pupils attend. Many productive lands and Of Course similar examples can be facilities meant less WRITE TO given. time needed to obtain There’s a God Economists bemoan the basic necessities the effect of a popula- of life, time which was Terese Coe Send submissions to tion decrease, worrying instead spent on the that a smaller cohort of arts, political inno- Andrea Szalanski, Letters Editor, younger workers will vations, and science. FREE INQUIRY, not be able to support Labor was in demand, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, Of course there’s a God the retirees. However, food was cheap, and NY 14226-0664. the average person’s the same economists Fax: (716) 636-1733. but God has gone mad lot improved. Of course, worry even more about E-mail: today’s economy is the persistently high [email protected]. and got shot of the only unemployment rates vastly different from in the young group, that of the Middle In letters intended for publication, which would obviously Ages, but the basics please include name, address, mind he had: be worse if that group remain—efficiencies city and state, zip code, were not contracting. increase as resources and daytime phone number flapping and blind Many historians become less strained, (for verification purposes only). and labor is valuable credit the dramatic Letters should be population decline when in short supply— and occluded by sand, 300 words or fewer caused by the great so perhaps we need not and pertain to previous plague for sparking the be so concerned about Free Inquiry articles. the collective mind Renaissance, a period declining populations. of unprecedented Brian Horn social advances. The Florence, Oregon of expendable man.

66 Free Inquiry August/September 2013 secularhumanism.org International The Academy is composed of nontheists who are: (1) devoted to the principle of free inquiry in all fields of human endeavor; (2) committed to the scientific outlook and Academy of Humanism the use of reason and the scientific method in acquiring knowledge about nature; Académie Internationale d’Humanisme and (3) upholders of humanist ethical values and principles.

HUMANIST LAUREATES of Philosophy of Science, University of Harvard University (USA) Pieter Admiraal, medical doctor (Netherlands) Pittsburgh (USA) Dennis Razis, medical oncologist, “Hygeia” Shulamit Aloni, former education minister Jürgen Habermas, professor of philosophy, Diagnostic & Therapeutic Center of Athens (Israel) University of Frankfurt (Germany) S.A. (Greece) Ruben Ardila, psychologist, National University Margherita Hack, astronomer, astrophysicist (Italy) Salman Rushdie, author, Massachusetts of Colombia (Colombia) Alberto Hidalgo Tuñón, professor of philosophy, Institute of Technology (USA) Margaret Atwood, author (Canada) Universidad de Oviedo (Spain) Fernando Savater, philosophy educator (Spain) Etienne-Emile Baulieu, Lasker Award for Clinical Donald Johanson, Institute of Human Origins Peter Singer, DeCamp Professor of Bioethics Medicine winner (France) (discoverer of “Lucy”) (USA) at the University Center for Human Values, Baruj Bonacerraf, Nobel Prize Laureate in Sergeí Kapitza, chair, Moscow Institute of Princeton University (USA) Physiology or Medicine (USA) Physics and Technology; vice president, Jens C. Skou, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry Jacques Bouveresse, professor of philosophy, Academy of Sciences (Russia) (Denmark) Collège de France (France) George Klein, cancer researcher, Karolinska Wole Soyinka, Nobel Laureate, playwright Paul D. Boyer, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry Institute, Stockholm (Sweden) (Nigeria) (USA) György Konrád, novelist; sociologist; cofounder, Barbara Stanosz, professor of philosophy, Mario Bunge, Frothingham Professor of Hungarian Humanist Association (Hungary) Instytut Wydawniczy “Ksiazka i Prasa” Foundations and Philosophy of Science, Sir Harold W. Kroto, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry (Poland) McGill University (Canada) (UK) Jack Steinberger, Nobel Laureate in Physics Jean-Pierre Changeux, Collège de France, Ioanna Kuçuradi, secretary general, Fédération (USA) Institut Pasteur, Académie des Sciences Internationale des Sociétés de Philosophie Sir Keith Thomas, historian, president, Corpus (France) (Turkey) Christi College, Oxford University (UK) Patricia Smith Churchland, professor of phi- Valerii A. Kuvakin, philosopher, founding direc- Rob Tielman, professor of sociology, losophy, University of California at San tor, Center for Inquiry/Moscow (Russia) Universiteit voor Humanistiek, Utrecht; for- Diego; adjunct professor, Salk Institute for Gerald A. Larue, professor emeritus of archae- mer copresident, International Humanist and Biological Studies (USA/Canada) ology and biblical studies, University of Ethical Union (Netherlands) Richard Dawkins, author Southern California at Los Angeles (USA) Lionel Tiger, professor of anthropology, José M.R. Delgado, professor and chair, Stephen Law, philosopher (UK) and Secretary of Rutgers–the State University of New Jersey Department of Neuropsychology, University International Academy of Humanism (USA) of Madrid (Spain) Richard Leakey, author, paleo-anthropologist Neil deGrasse Tyson, scientist, Hayden Planetarium Daniel C. Dennett, director of the Center for (Kenya) (USA) Cognitive Studies, Tufts University (USA) Jean-Marie Lehn, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry Mario Vargas Llosa, author (Perú) Jean Dommanget, Belgian Royal Observatory (France) Simone Veil, former Minister of Social Affairs, (Belgium) Elizabeth Loftus, professor, University of Health, and Urban Affairs (France) Ann Druyan, author, lecturer, producer (USA) California/Irvine (USA) Mourad Wahba, professor of philosophy, Umberto Eco, novelist, semiotician, University Adam Michnik, historian, political writer, University of Ain Shams, Cairo; president of Bologna (Italy) cofounder of KOR (Workers’ Defense of the Afro-Asian Philosophical Association Luc Ferry, professor of philosophy, Sorbonne Committee) (Poland) (Egypt) University and University of Caen (France) Jonathan Miller, OBE, theater and film director, James Watson, Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Yves Galifret, professor emeritus of neurophysi- physician (UK) Medicine (USA) ology, Université Pierre and Marie Curie; gen- Taslima Nasrin, author, physician, social critic Steven Weinberg, Nobel Prize winner; professor eral secretary of l’Union Rationaliste (France) (Bangladesh) of physics, University of Texas at Austin Johan Galtung, professor of sociology, Elaine Pagels, Harrington Spear Paine Professor (USA) University of Oslo (Norway) of Religion, Princeton University (USA) Harvey Weinstein, cofounder of Miramax (USA) Murray Gell-Mann, Nobel Laureate; professor Jean-Claude Pecker, professor emeritus of astro- George A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck of physics, California Institute of Technology physics, Collège de France, Académie des College, University of London (UK) (USA) Sciences (France) Edward O. Wilson, Pellegrino University Rebecca Goldstein, philosopher and author (USA) Steven Pinker, Harvard Col. Prof. and Johnstone Professor, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Adolf Grünbaum, Andrew Mellon Professor Family Prof. in Department of Psychology, Harvard University (USA)