Volume 13 Issue 7 Version 1.0 Year 2013 Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher: Global Journals Inc. (USA) Online ISSN: & Print ISSN:
Abstract- This paper describes a corpus-based analysis of the humanizing metaphor <
Keywords: conceptual metaphor, relational networks, metaphorical gradability, earth science terms, lexicalized metaphors, specialized corpus linguistics.
GJHSS-B Classification : FOR Code: 260000, 269999
Rocks are Human Beings Researching the Humanizing Metaphor in Earth Science Scientific Texts
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© 2013. Georgina Cuadrado & Pilar Durán. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Rocks are Human Beings: Researching the Humanizing Metaphor in Earth Science Scientific Texts
Georgina Cuadradoα & Pilar Duránσ 3
Abstract This paper describes a corpus-based analysis of Economy; Cuadrado and Berge, 2003 in Physics, to 201
the humanizing metaphor < mention a few. However, no previous work has been ear BEINGS>> and supports that constitutive metaphor in Y found concerning the gradability of metaphorical science and technology may be highly metaphorical and scientific and technical terms other than Cuadrado and active. The study, grounded in Lakoff‘s Theory of Metaphor Duran‘s recent publication (2013), which needs to be 5522 20 and in Langacker‘s relational networks, consists of two phases: firstly, Earth Science metaphorical terms were furtherfurther developed. Regarding metaphor gradability in extracted from databases and dictionaries and, then, generalgeneral languagelanguage several studies are found (Müller, contextualized by means of the ―Wordsmith‖ tool in a 2008; Svanlud, 2007; Hanks,ks, 2006);2006); yet, these studies digitalized corpus created to establish their productivity. are not concerned with scientificfic technicaltechnical language. Secondly, the terms were classified to disclose the main Accordingly, this paper presentspresents an analysis of conceptual metaphors underlying them; then, the mappings the semantic structurere of metaphors that contribute to and the relational networks of the metaphor < Keywords: conceptual metaphor, relational networks,netwo structure,structure, category organization, and knowledge Volume XIII Issue VII Version I memetaphoricaltaphorical gradability, earthe science terms, lexicalized representationrepresentation1. The humanizing metaphor of rocks has B metaphors, specialized corpus linguistics. beenbeen selected due to the large number of metaphorical () termsterms and mappings found, and its relevance in order to ce n illustrate the systematicity and productivity of e ci inguistics has undergone a cognitivecognit shift giving a metaphors. greater emphasis on meaning and on thethe The first aim of the study is to determine the al S ci conceptualconceptual structuresstructure underlying language. This metaphors underlying the conceptualization of the entity o L S paradigmparadigm has affected the study of the conceptual ‗rocks‘, and establish the systematicity and productivity systemsystem of science and technology, where Cognitive of the mappings in this complex well-structured Theory and the Contemporaryntemporary Theory of Metaphortaphor conceptual metaphor, very frequently found in the fields uman (CTM) are now generally acceptedlyEarly to be essential Vie to the of Viewgeology, environmental science, mineralogy, f H analysis of concept formation and development. geophysics, and other related fields. For this purpose, al o n However, further empirical support is still needed, corpus-based analysis was used. Then, the models r u especially within scientific and technical contexts. activated by the metaphorical terms found were o Recent research in metaphor use within established. al J different fields of science and technology points to the The second aim of the study is to apply the b fact that specific knowledge is organized by means of lo notion of metaphorical gradability to Earth Science G metaphorical conceptualization: Cuadrado and Durán, terms, and to confirm that scientific metaphors can be 2013, in science and technology; Roldán & Ubeda, highly metaphorical. When applied to metaphor, 2013, in Civil Engineering; Robisco, 2011, in gradability refers to the degree of metaphoricity a Aeronautics; Cuadrado, 2010, in Mechanical metaphor has, thus implying that some metaphors are Engineering; White 2004, White and Herrera 2009, in more metaphorical than others. According to the Prototype theory, concepts are defined in terms of their Author α: Agronomy Engineering School. Universidad Politécnica de properties. This gives rise to the notions of centrality and Madrid (Spain). e-mail: [email protected] Author σ: Mining Engineering School. Universidad Politécnica de metaphorical gradability, by which some concepts are Madrid (Spain). e-mail: [email protected] more central than others. Thus, according to Hanks © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) (2006), the fewer semantic properties the source Ubeda (2013: 109), when dealing with metaphor in the domain and the target domain share, the more civil engineering context, state that ―In metaphor, metaphorical a metaphor is, and vice versa. However, abstract concepts are understood in terms of concrete, Hank‘s study is concerned with metaphor as a figure of physical ones. In other words, physical concepts act as speech. ―His findings are based on BNC and provides a source domain for abstract concepts in the target good, clear examples‘‘. from general language such as domain‖. This paper questions such generalised belief ‗a storm of..‘, ‗a sea of..‘, ‗an oasis of..‘. On the other and focuses on data showing that the source domain hand, Müller‘s (2008) and Svanlud‘s (2007) studies are (human experience in our case) is frequently quite more concerned with the different dimensions of abstract than the target domain (rocks‘ scientific terms), conventionality and do not include the idea of centrality, 3 at least in Earth Science fields. nor analyse scientific terminology. 201 We propose that the parameters to measure r ea metaphoricity in science and technology may be based Y on an objectivist description of the concepts, and on the distance between the real objective world and the The methodology adopted, which starts with the 56202 metaphor (Cuadrado & Durán, 2013), rather than on analysis of metaphorical terms to unfold the cognitive mappings underlying language, involves the study of linguistic factors such as conventionality, the salient meaning of a word, or other pragmatic aspects. memeaninganing in context; hence, corpus-based analysis was Although we consider that Hank‘s (2006) proposal, used. The unfolding of such metaphors involved these based on the semantic attributes of words can also be stages: applied to metaphorical terms in science and a) Hand searching of metaphorical terms in specialized technology, we argue that another important aspect to dictionaries. be taken into account when approaching metaphorical b) Definition and decomposition of the terms into their gradability is that of centrality. Both approaches are semantic components. complementary rather than competing, and add on to c) Contextualization of lexicalized constitutive ththee argument that some metaphors are more metaphors using the electronic corpus of specialized metaphorical than others. Thus, the prepresentsent work will written texts created for this purpose; examples were shoshoww that terminological metaphors created from central provided to illustrate the metaphorical terms. This models of the relational networks of a concept are less corpus constitutes the third main source of scientific Volume XIII Issue VII Version I memetaphoricaltaphorical than those derivedderi from non-central and technical metaphorical entries. models. The term ‗mother rock‘ will be presented as a d) Analysis and classification of the metaphorical terms B () case study to illustrate this thesis. included in the database to establish conceptual WhWhereasereas high metaphoricitymetaphorici has long been metaphors and mappings. eexpectedxpected to occur in literature,l this has not been the a) Hand searching of metaphorical terms in case when rereferringferring to abstract, scientificsciee concepts. The specialized dictionaries assumptiassumptionon that scientiscientific terms can be highly Our first task was to determine which metaphorical contradicts the widespread belief that, -to dictionaries to use for the hand searching phase. After be consiconsistentstent with the ideaideal of clear, simple, accurate consultation with some professors from the area, we and ununambiguousambiguous scientificscie and technical selected some updated specialized dictionaries, communication-, metaphorical terms have to be jujustifiedstified containing a substantial number of entries, which in terms of llogicalogical motmotivationivation orEarly of their explanatory View covered all the areas under study. These are the most power. It also contradicts scientists‘ belief that good representative: scientific metaphors must derive from the source and target domains essential attributes, and, accordingly, - Dictionary of Geology. Dorothy Farris Lapidus. Collins London and Glasgow. 1987. the more semantic properties the source domain and bal ofSocial Journal Science Human - Dictionary of Mining Terms. Paul W. Thrush and the the target domain share, the better a scientific metaphor lo is (Cuadrado, 2005). Staff of the Bureau of Mines. Maclean Hunter. 1990. G - Glossary of Geology. Neuendorf, K., Mehl, J., Moreover, Schmitt (2005) proposed three Jackson, J.A. (eds). American Geological Institute criteria for the identification of metaphor so as to avoid subjective intuitions, which comprise the understanding (4th Edition), 2000. - Oxford Dictionary of Earth Sciences. (1991/ 2003/ that (i) a word in a given context may carry a meaning 2008), web linked Earth Science terms and different from its literal meaning; (ii) the literal meaning comes from an area of physical or cultural experience definitions, with 6,250 entries. (the source area); (iii) this meaning is transferred to a - Oxford Dictionary of Environment and Conservation another, often abstract, target area. This proposal (2007), with over 8000 entries with coverage of unveils his view of the use of a concrete source domain economic, geographical, and political terms. to explain abstract concepts. More recently, Roldán and © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) - McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical definitions themselves constituted an important source Terms (2000), with some 110,000 terms and of further lexicalized metaphors. 125.000 definitions of 104 specific fields. In our database we incorporated many words The search was completed with Electronic that are metaphoric in their origins because we dictionaries on the web, mostly corpus-based. observed that in science and technology, as in general In looking for metaphorical terms, the method in language, in most of the cases of lexicalized metaphors, which researchers examine terms and decide what is metaphorical mappings are still active and generate a metaphorical is perhaps the commonest approach to series of new metaphors, both lexicalized and non- identification (Low, 1999: 49). However, Low adds that, lexicalized. in identifying metaphorical terms, there is a problem c) Contextualization of lexicalized metaphors by means 3 related to familiarity with specific words and that the of a specific corpus 201 researcher‘s knowledge of the topic area being studied A specific untagged corpus of on-line scientific may be considered a variable in metaphor identification. ear and technical reviews, created for the larger Y To avoid this handicap, we consulted with professors METACITEC1 project, was used. Only this time, we specialised in the areas dealt with whenever we had a limited the corpus to the subject areas under study, to doubt; this was possible because of our status as 5722 20 about two million words from the period 1999-2007. We linguists and faculty members of the Agronomy and consiconsidereddered this size appropriate for our purposes, as Mining Engineering Schools at UPM. ―not only [specialised corpora] are likelykely to contain fewer Therefore, the following common criteria words in all, but it seems as if the characteristiccteristic constituted the basis for our decisions: vocabulary of the special area is prominently featured in 1. Determine the literal meaning (or meanings) of the the frequency lists, and therefore a much smaller corpus word in non-scientific language. will be needed for typical studiesdies ththanan is needed for a 2. Determine the specific meaning in the area of Earth general view of the language‖ (Wynne, 2004:18). science. Contextualization of llexicalizedexicalized metaphors by 3. Contrast the specific scientific meaning and the means of a digitalizedd corcorpuspus offers a discourse basic memeaninganing of the term in general language, and approach to terminologicalgical analysis. Besides, corpora 4. DeDecidecide whether the scientific meaning provides also favour the identificationation of those semi-technical mormoree information than the basic meaning, and d lexicalized metaphors which are usually generated by whetwhetherher the term cannot be completely understood other metaphors in real communication,munication, with the Volume XIII Issue VII Version I if only the general meaning is applied. advantage of finding ththoseose semi-technical terms as well Based on these selectioionn criteria,criter an initial list of B as other frequent commonn vovocabularycabulary in science and () memetaphoricaltaphorical terms was elaborated.elabor All the terms tetechnology,chnology, which may not be recorded in most ce seselectedlected constitute technicaltechni or sub-technical n specialised dictionaries. e vovocabulary,cabulary, i.e. they appear systematically in the The list of periodicals from which the research ci specialised language studied. articles were taken appears in the reference section. The al S selection criteria of the texts is summarised in table 1. ci b) Definition and decomposition of the terms into ththeireir o semantic components. S At this stage, both the specific scientific dedefinitionsfinitions of the termste and their semantic components uman were analysed. During the process,Early we found out that View f H Table1: Text selection criteria al o n r Mode of text electronic (on line and web published paper periodicals ) u o Type of text scientific articles; research papers; popular science Domain academic; professional al J b Subject areas engineering geology, petrology, geochemistry, geography, tectonics, lo seismology, vulcanology, mineralogy, and geophysics. G Language varieties American English; British English Date From year 2000 onwards At this stage, all the metaphoric scientific and the power of metaphorical terms to generate new technical terms found in a visual inspection of specific metaphors, as well as the related metaphors belonging dictionaries were studied with the Wordsmith to the same domains. The vertical dimension made it possible to compare and observe the differences and programme. The use of a digitalized corpus provides two different dimensions to linguistics research. The regularities among the 23 lines which were shown at horizontal one showed the information concerned to the once in every particular screen. particular text in a linear string; this dimension revealed © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) Once we had contextualized a word by means study, the analysis of the association of words and of that software, and to avoid a possible over- lexical constellations provides substantial information interpretation of the data as metaphors when they were about the potential of metaphor to generate new not, we read and analysed each expanded concordance metaphors and new meaning; this serves as a cognitive lines found. By way of an example, we bring the model in scientific language and thought. In our metaphorical compound term ‗host rock‘ (fig 1). We analysis we looked for the selected words within a span found out that it appeared in 45 different cases of five places to the right and five places to the left of the (frequency). Obviously, the collocation of the word host node word (search term), looking for new possible followed by rock meant that the former was always metaphors generated by the metaphorical term itself. metaphorical, since host defines a person who receives Thus, in line 4, we found the metaphorical terms from 3 guests, and there was no possible over-interpretation of plants ‗outcrop‘ and ‗foliation‘; in lines 13 and 23 the 201 the term as a metaphor. However, a possible case of anatomical terms ‗quartz vein‘, ‗veins‘, etc. So, the r over-interpretation could have taken place in line development of an electronic corpus as a source of ea Y number 3, where dominant was found preceding the empirical data has allowed us to establish different compound ‗host rock‘. But, as it was part of the word conceptual mappings underlying this field of scientific 58202 group ‗dominant host rock type‘, the word was thoughtthought other than the humanizing ones. discarded to be considered metaphorical. Although the information concerning word frequency is not of primary importance for this particular Volume XIII Issue VII Version I B () bal ofSocial Journal Science Human lo G Figure 1: Fragment of Concordances of The Word ―Host Rock‖ Found in the Digitalized Corpus of Earth Sciences. a) Analysis and Classification of the Metaphorical source and the target domain, and their decomposition Terms Found in the Corpus into their semantic components, that is, by analysing In this work, we identified over 1000 Earth their shared properties and attributes (quantity); and (ii) Science metaphorical entries, which were analysed and by establishing which models are activated in the source classified, both thematically and structurally. and target domains, and if any of these models are Metaphorical gradability was measured by means of (i) more central than others (quality). the comparison of the word definitions of both the © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) Early View ‗Parent rock‘ and other related terms. They refer to the original rock from which other material was After the analysis, we found out that over 35 formed. The term ‗parent rock‘ is also used in the terms were related to the description of rocks by means context of metamorphic rocks where ‗parent rock‘ of the humanizing conceptual metaphor; since research refers to the original rock before metamorphism is in progress, this number is by no means definite. The takes place. ‗Parent rock‘ is the main source of soil. frequent presence of the humanizing metaphor shows This type of soil is also called residual soil. Similar that it is deeply embedded in the collective experience terms are ‗parent body‘, ‗parent mineral‘, ‗parent of the scientific community. substances‘, and ‗parent material‘; the latter Results showed that < which forms the social model. geologic, physiographic and climatic context of the 59222 0 a) The genealogical model source area‖. (Provenance of Albian sandstones in the Related to the first sub-metaphor, the terms São Luís–Grajaú Basin (northernrn Brazil) fromfrom evidence found in specialised dictionaries and contextualized in of Pb–Pb zirconzirco ages, mineralneral chemistrychemistry of tourmaline and palaeocurrentpalaeocurre data.) .) the corpus are the following: ‗mature‘, ‗immature‘, ‗maturity‘, ‗juvenile‘, ‗young‘, ‗age‘, ‗generation‘, ‗family‘, Example 4: ‗parental rock‘ and ‗age‘: ‗parent rock‘, ‗parent material‘, ‗mother rock‘, ‗parental ―Essentially all paleosols, regardless of age, retain some rock‘, ‗coupling‘, ‗daughter element‘, ‗twin crystal‘, ‗twin characteristics of soils formed under an oxic rocks‘, ‗to twin‘, ‗to descend‘, ‗descendant‘, ‗ancestor‘ atmosphere, such as increased Fe3+Ti ratiosratios from their and ‗ancestral‘. These terms involve the following parental rocks‖. (Evidence in pre–2.2 Ga paleosols for mappings: the early evolution of atmosphe ric oxygen and terrestrial - bibiota, Hiroshii OhmotoOhmoto, Geology, The geological society - Volume XIII Issue VII Version I - as part of the genealogical model sub-metaphor as descended is a parent element> it referefersrs to the native solid rock that produces loose B () - Next, all the terms related to the genealogical occurs at any given place on the earth is called that ci o location's bedrock. In some cases the bedrock is S model are presented,presented, includingincl a brief explanation of actually exposed, and is said to outcrop at the surface. their meaningmeaning in context and showing an illustrative 2 Outcropping bedrock is great stuff, because it allows example takentaken from the digitalizeddigit corpus or the web . uman ‗Generation‘: meaning a class, or set of rocks. geologists to determine the local geology, and helps Earlythem View put together the geologic history of the earth.‖ f H Example 1: ―A new generation of zircon, chara- cterized by very high Th/U and low U, grew at that time. (http://www.jersey. uoregon. edu/~mstric/AskGeoMan) al o n ‗Mother rock‘, meaning the rock in which minerals r That event — deformation and possibly a minor rise in u temperature — produced widespread perturbations of are found implanted. o other isotopic systems throughout the Napier Complex.‖ Example 6: ―The type of Nannihu oversize al J molybdenum deposit belongs to skarn-porphyry type, b (Science Direct, 2007: 2-20). lo which ore-forming mother roc k is almost the same with G ‗Family‘: meaning a class of rocks. In the following example, we identified the expression ―to form a 25 deposits in east Qinling-dabie mountain ore-forming belt.‖ (Environmental Science Technology, 35: 6, 1067). family‖. ‗Daughter element‘ , meaning the element formed Example 2: ―The site settles with great amount of igneous rocks, sandstone, shale and limestone as when a radioactive element undergoes radioactive decay. well as where the strong effects of metamorphism happened because of the movement of mountain Example 7: ―The quantitative AFC model we building. Consequently, the family of metamorphosed have developed to explain isotopic variation in Ruapehu complex has formed mainly consisting of black schist, lavas is undoubtedly a simplification of the complex green schist, siliceous schist and processes that might have actually been involved; for marble.‖(ScienceDirect, 2007: 2-20). example, progressive contamination from the assumed © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) parent to a single end-member daughter composition related to the terms ‗intrusion, intruder, invasion, and …‖ (Science Direct, 2007: 437-451). allied‘. Next, some examples in context2 are provided. ‗Population‘ meaning all the organisms that ‗Age‘, meaning the ratio of the traces of the ‗parent rock‘ and the ‗daughter‘, expressed in years. This constitute a specific group or occur in a specified allows for comparison of the ‗ages‘ of different rock habitat. strata. Example 12: This zircon is part of a population Example 8: ―The discovery of radioactivity of zircons within the metamorphosed conglomerate, enabled scientists to develop techniques for which is believed to have been deposited about 3060 determining the age of fossils, rocks (…) Precise Ma, which is the age of the youngest detrital zircon in laboratory measurements of the number of remaining the rock. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldest_rock# Oldest_terrestrial_material) 2013 atoms of the parent and the number of atoms of the r daughter result in a ratio that is used to compute the ‗Community‘, taken as a group of interdependent ea age of a fossil or rock in years. (…) one layer of rock is organisms in the same region, which share some Y characteristics in common, as in the case of ‗sea younger or older than another‖ (Evolution and the Fossil record, pp 16-17). floor communities‘. 60202 ‗Twin‘ and ‗twin crystals‘: identical rock crystals are Example 13: ―Benthic, or sea floor, communities considered ‗twin crystals‘. gave rise to the CincinnatianCincinnatian Series limestone through a Example 9: ―Twinning of the e-plane is the process called lithificationlithi tion. These communities were diverse and underwent frequentequent dradramaticmatic changes, dominant crystal–plastic deformation mechanism in which contributed to sediment formation. Such changes calcite deformed below about 400 °C. Calcite in a twin domain has a different crystallographic orientation from were often precipitated by events that wiped out most the host calcite grain. So-called thin twins appear as thin life in a given local community‖. http://www.cas.muohio. black lines when viewed parallel to the twin plane at edu/glg/museum/students/conceptsingeology/benthicc ommunities.html. 200 –320× magnification under a petrographic th atigraphical formation microscope. Thick twins viewed in the same way have a ‗Member‘: a part of a lilithostratigraphicalostr formation is er microscopically visible width of twinned material a membere ExampleEx 14: ―The Alderley Edge data have between black lines.‖ (Calcite twin morphology: a low- temperature deformation geo-thermometer, D.A. Ferrill,Ferrill, been divided into two groups, one represerepresentingnting A.P. Morris, M.A. Evans, M. Burkhar, Journal of discontinuities in the WilmsloWilmsloww Sandstonestone FormationFormation Volume XIII Issue VII Version I Structural Geology, Vol 26, Issue 8, August 20 04, pp (marked (W), and one rerepresentingpresenting discontinuities in the B 1521–1529). ThuThursaston Member of the Helsby Sandstone Formation () ‗Ancestor‘ and ‗ancestral rock‘: an organism from (T).‖ (ScienceDirect - Journal of Contaminant Hydrology: which laterlate organisms are descendedescended is considered Vol 93, Issues 1-4, 15, August 2007, pages 38-57). an ancestral organism. ‗Mineral assemblage‘, meaning a gathering of minerals that form together in a rock at the same Example 10: ―Sources for a few suites having pressure and temperature at a given time compositions indicative of recycled orogenicgenic provenances were probably cover strata eroded off the Example 15: If a rock is taken to some high crests of subdued basement uplifts. The sandstones pressure and temperature, then the mineral assemblage were derivedderived from highlandsh within the ancestral rock that develops should represent stable chemical equilibrium (Earth Environmental Sciences. (…) (http://gsabulletin. gsapubs.org/gsapub content/94/2content/94/2/222./222. short) EarlyMetamorphic View Mineral Assemblages, 2003). ‗To descend‘ and ‗descendant‘, meaning to derive ‗Native rock‘: a mineral/element occurring in nature from an earlier form. in its free state is a native mineral/element. ournal ofSocial Science Humanournal Example 11: ―Documentation of ancestor- Example 16: ―Modified asphalt was successfully prepared based on AH-70 bitumen with native rock al J descendant relationships among organisms comes from all fields. (…) The fossil record remains first and asphalt modifier, and favorable performance was Glob obtained. Native rock asphalt dramatically upgraded its foremost among the databases that document changes in past life on Earth‖ (Evoluti on and the Fossil record, p high-temperature performance, improved its thermal 3). susceptibility (…)‖. (Influence of Performance of Modified Asphalt by Native Rock-Asphalt, Fan, Shen, b) The social model Journal of Building Materials, 2007) The terms involved in the humanizing sub- ‗To host‘ and ‗host rock‘: a ‗host rock‘ refers to a metaphor © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) gave way to a 2 km-thick strain aureole, which includes in the Earth‘s deep mantle resulting from carbon–iron both the uppermost part of the stock and the redox coupling‖ Vol 472, pp 209-212. http://www.nature. surrounding host rocks.‖ com/natura/journal/v472/n7342.html) - (Journal of African Earth Sciences, Volume 48, Issue c) Case study: Mother rock. 5, August 2007, pp 301-313). The term ‗mother rock‘ has been brought here ‗Intrusion‘, with a two-fold meaning: a) The forcing as an example to illustrate a highly metaphorical term of molten rock into an earlier formation, and b) the which has not been created solely in terms of its salient rock mass produced by an intrusive process. See ―motherly‖ properties, but in terms of human example 17 above. imagination, as we shall demonstrate. The term shares ‗Intrusive rock‘: it is the rock resulting when magma both essential and non essential attributes with the cools and crystallizes slowly within the earth ―crust; human concept of ―mother‖. 2013 synonym with plutonic rock‖. Thus, the word ―mother‖ is defined primary as: Example 18: ―It is believed that there are some ear ―A female parent; a woman who has given birth to a Y special actions to form reservoir spaces, especially the child. Correlative with son or daughter‖ (OED, 1989, vol. solution pores and cracks in the intrusive rock and its IX, 1121). In figurative language, it can be used ―with exomorphic zones, because the rock's diagenetic 61222 0 reference either to a metaphorical giving birth, to the evolution was completed in a reduction environment‖. protectiprotectingng care exercised by a mother, or to the (―The lithofacies and reservoir model of intrusive rock affectionate revereverencerence due to a mother‖. and its exomorphic zones‖. Petroleum Exploration and Its more prominent attributess are ――femalefemale Development 2000-02. Zhang, Ying Hong; et al. 2000, parent‖ and the process oof ―giving birth‖. According to 27 (2): 22-26). the OED, by means of metaphoricaltaphorical eextextensionxtensionension of its ● ‗Rock creep‘, referring to the slow and continued properties, it activates thee concconcepts:epts: ―protecting care‖ movement of small pieces of rock on hillsides. and ―affectionate reverence‖.nce‖. Example 19: ―Under the same general heading [rock-falls and rock slides] come the very slow -A stone or a rock is definedfined as ―a hard mineral movements of surface layers on slopes, such as soil substance (other than metal) of a smsmallall or moderate creep and rock creep on hillsides, which continue over a size‖. Accordingly, its prominent propert propertiesies are long period and may ultimately displace trees, fences, hardness and size, marked by the eleelementsments that make and lines of commucommunication‖.nication‖. (Blyth & Freitas, 1974, A up the rock. By metaphorical extensionxtension of its properties it activates the attributes: motionlemotionlessss or fixity, stability or Volume XIII Issue VII Version I Geology for Engineers, p. 51). constancy. In fifigurativgurative sense, the words ‗stone‘ or ‗Dike swarm‘ rereferringferring to a large group of more or B ‗rock‘ are appappliedlied to ―chiefly as the supposed substance () less parallel dikes. of a hhardard heart, also a hard or unfeeling person‖ (OED, ce Example 20: ―The orientations of intrusive rocks n 1989, vol. XVI 757). e from a carbonatitic lamprophyre dike swarm and the ci history of emplacement relativerel to country-rock schisschistt Within the Earth science context, a ‗mother al S stone‘ is ―The matrix of a mineral; also, a stone from structures are compatible with intrusion into tension ci o fractures and Riedel shears formed during initiation of which other mineral are derived by structural or chemical S the dextral wrench systemsyste of the Alpine fault‖. (Cooper, change‖ (OED, 1989, vol. IX, 1123). This implies that Barreiro, Kimbrough, & Mattinson. Geology, The human imagination describes the changes by which a uman geological society of America). rock derives into other minerals turning to the concept of ‗Allied rock‘, referring to rocks Early bebelonginglonging to related motherhood. View f H families ranking between an order and a class. At this point, cognitive linguists may want to find al o n Example 21: ― There are, however, no hard and out which semantic properties and attributes take part in r u fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or the model involved. So, in order to determine the degree o decrease in the proportions of their constituent minerals of metaphoricity of this particular term, we have to al J they pass by every gradation into one another, the establish which models are activated in the term, and if b lo distinctive structures also of one kind of rock may often any of these models are more central than others. First G be traced gradually merging into those of another‖. of all, we observe that it activates the metaphorical Journal of Petrology 1986, 27(1): 155-196). model of genealogy, which in the source domain is ‗Coupling‘, meaning the union of two elements that absolutely peripheral, if not inexistent. That is, it is not produce new substances. central to the concept of rock. Therefore, we may Example 22: ―Carbonates from subducted deduce that the number of attributes and properties that oceanic lithosphere may be remixed into the Earth‘s human motherhood and ‗mother rock‘ share in common deep mantle via both redox ―freezing‖ and melting that only exist in human imagination. is driven by carbon and iron redox coupling, caused by As Santibanéz (2001) explains ―none of the sub- redox capacity changes in the mantle.‖ (Nature, March models suffices to characterize the concept on its own‖. 2011. Rohrbach & Schmidt ―Redox freezing and melting However, some of the sub-models characterizing a © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) given metaphorical term are more central than others, five aspects: birth, marital, genetic (supplies genetic and suggests that certain models provide the invariant material), nurturance (takes care), and genealogical. In for the concept (Wierzbicka 1996). For instance, ‗mother our study, the genetic and the nurturance models have rock‘ and ‗parent rock‘ derive from the genealogical not been found, and terms such as parent(al) rock, model, which is in fact another conceptual metaphor. parent material, parent body, and mother rock have Thus, it is possible to affirm that this complex system of been classified under both the birth and the marital sub- related metaphors is not created from central models, models, as they share properties of both of them; we and allows us to conclude that it is an example of high may add that ‗parent material‘ could have been metaphoricity. Furthermore, the analysis of metaphorical interpreted to fall under the genetic model. terms in Earth Sciences also confirms the theory that By contrast, we have found another model, the metaphors are not created solely in terms of their salient 2013 social one, including concepts related to grouping and properties, but in terms of human imagination as well, r to individual social traits. In this case, we have also ea i.e. metaphors are created from both, essential and non Y come across terms which we consider to share essential attributes. properties from two sub-models, the marital –under the genealogical model-, and the grouping sub-model – 62202 under the social model. These terms are: ‗family‘ and In order to illustrate the evidence that ‗coupling‘, first classified under the marital sub-model, humanizing metaphors in Earth Science have a large but which alsoalso have a social component. Finally, terms component of human imagination, we have developed a included in the social model like ‗allied rock‘ vs ‗intrusive table showing the relationships among the lexicalized rock‘ generate a new sub-model of human behaviour metaphors involved in < B () GENERATION M. / BIRTH M.M / MARITAL M. / GROUPING / SOCIAL TRAITS. to descend parent(al)parent(al) rorockck parent(al) rorockck population native rock descendant parentparent matematerialrial parent matematerialrial community to host ancestral rock parentparent body parent body member host rock ancestor mother rock mother rock assemblage intrusive rock age daughter elementelement bedrock dike swarm allied rock maturity to twin coupling coupling to intrude mature/ imm ature twin crystals family family intrusion young, juvenile twin rocksrocks rock creep Early View The findings portrayed in section 3 seem to contradict the stance of the CTM that the source domain is less abstract, i.e. more accessible to sense The humanizing metaphor of rocks, one of the ournal ofSocial Science Humanournal most productive conceptual patterns found in our perception, than the target domain. In all cases shown al J in table 2, as in the case study of the term ‗mother rock‘, corpus analysis, shows that metaphorical lexical units the concrete physical domain of rocks is conceptualized are not independent one from another but constitute Glob by means of more complex abstract domains, including connected semantic networks that give support to the social traits such as hostility (‗intrusive rock‘), hospitality conceptual system of this area of science. The findings (‗host rock‘), and friendship (‗allied rock‘). Moreover, also show that lexicalised metaphorical terms are highly these findings provide further support to maintain that active, and that a great part of geological science is part of the main content of natural science is organized organized by the humanizing metaphor, given the by the humanizing metaphor based on human relevance of the conceptualization of rocks in this experience and projection (Cuadrado and Durán, 2013). discipline. The understanding of the natural world is based on inherent semantic relations among words which are conceptualized by means of different intertwined models and sub-models of human © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) experience; this is the case of the genealogical and the Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, Earth social models applied to the analysis of the conceptual and Planetary Science Letters, Soil Dynamics and metaphor < 63222 0 conceptualized by means of more complex abstract 2. Cuadrado, G. (2010). Un sistema de engranajes es domains, including human social traits such as un sistema planetario: análisis de la metáfora friendship, hostility and hospitality. Results knock down cognitiva y los modelos mentales en el campo de la the notion that (ii) metaphor in science is usually ingeniería. In T. 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