Sternula albifrons -- (Pallas, 1764) ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- CHARADRIIFORMES -- LARIDAE Common names: Little Tern; Sterne naine European Red List Assessment European Red List Status LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1) Assessment Information Year published: 2015 Date assessed: 2015-03-31 Assessor(s): BirdLife International Reviewer(s): Symes, A. Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Tarzia, M., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L. Assessment Rationale European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC) EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

Within the EU27 this species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be fluctuating, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU27. Occurrence Countries/Territories of Occurrence Native: Albania; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Ireland, Rep. of; Italy; Latvia; Lithuania; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Moldova; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United Kingdom; Gibraltar (to UK) Vagrant: Faroe Islands (to DK); Luxembourg; Malta Population The European population is estimated at 36,000-53,000 pairs, which equates to 71,900-106,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 14,500-19,600 pairs, which equates to 29,000-39,200 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Trend In Europe the population size trend is unknown. In the EU27 the population size is estimated to be fluctuating. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Habitats and Ecology The species is mainly coastal, but is also found inland along rivers and on oceanic islands. It breeds on barren or sparsely vegetated sandy, shell and rocky islands, shingle beaches, spits in estuaries and lakes, salt- marshes, salt-pans and rivers. Outside of the breeding season it frequents tidal creeks, coastal lagoons and salt- pans; sometimes feeds far out to sea (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). It feeds mainly on small fish and crustaceans, also insects, annelids and molluscs. The main fish species include sand eels (Ammodytes), roach (Rutilus rutilus), rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus), carp (Cyprinus carpio), perch (Perca fluviatilis). It specializes in prolonged hovering and plunge-diving into shallow water, often at edge of advancing tide. Groups of birds may dive synchronously (Gochfeld and Burger 1996). Habitats & Altitude Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence Artificial/Aquatic - Salt Exploitation Sites suitable breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Salt Exploitation Sites suitable non-breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes suitable breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes suitable non-breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Freshwater Lakes suitable breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Freshwater Lakes suitable non-breeding Marine Intertidal - Sandy Shoreline and/or Beaches, Sand Bars, Spits, Etc suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Estuaries suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Estuaries suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Pelagic marginal resident Marine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable non-breeding Altitude max. 2000 m Occasional altitudinal limits Threats The species is threatened by habitat destruction (Barcena et al. 1984) such as the development and industrial reclamation of coastal breeding habitats (Barcena et al. 1984, Gochfeld and Burger 1996) (e.g. for the development of new harbour facilities) (Barcena et al. 1984). It is also highly vulnerable to human disturbance (including birdwatchers) at coastal and inland nesting sites which can lead to nest failures (Barcena et al. 1984, Gochfeld and Burger 1996). Pesticide pollution (e.g. organochlorine pollutants, mercury and DDT) (Barcena et al. 1984, Thyen et al. 2000, Choi et al. 2001) and artificially induced water-level fluctuations in saltmarshes (Barcena et al. 1984) may also pose a threat to the species's reproductive success (Barcena et al. 1984, Thyen et al. 2000, Choi et al. 2001). The species also suffers from local egg collecting (Barcena et al. 1984) and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Agriculture & Agro-industry Timing Scope Severity Impact aquaculture farming Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown Stresses Indirect ecosystem effects Agriculture & Marine & Timing Scope Severity Impact aquaculture freshwater Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown aquaculture (scale unknown/ Stresses unrecorded) Ecosystem degradation Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Biological resource Fishing & harvesting Timing Scope Severity Impact use aquatic resources Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown (unintentional effects: (large scale) Stresses [harvest]) Species mortality Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial animals Ongoing Minority (<50%) Unknown Unknown (persecution/ control) Stresses Species mortality Climate change & Droughts Timing Scope Severity Impact severe weather Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects Climate change & Storms & flooding Timing Scope Severity Impact severe weather Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects Energy production Mining & quarrying Timing Scope Severity Impact & mining Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects Energy production Renewable energy Timing Scope Severity Impact & mining Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown Stresses Species mortality Human intrusions & Recreational Timing Scope Severity Impact disturbance activities Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Unknown Unknown Stresses Species disturbance Invasive and other Avian Influenza Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Virus (H subtype) Past, Likely to Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant Past Impact species, genes & Return Declines diseases Stresses Species mortality Invasive and other Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown species, genes & diseases Stresses Species mortality Invasive and other Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown species, genes & diseases Stresses Species mortality Natural system Other ecosystem Timing Scope Severity Impact modifications modifications Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown Stresses Ecosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation Pollution Herbicides and Timing Scope Severity Impact pesticides Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown Stresses Indirect ecosystem effects Pollution Industrial & military Timing Scope Severity Impact effluents (type Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Unknown Unknown unknown/ unrecorded) Stresses Ecosystem degradation Pollution Oil spills Timing Scope Severity Impact Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Past, Likely to Unknown Unknown No/Negligible Return Impact Stresses Species mortality Residential & Commercial & Timing Scope Severity Impact commercial industrial areas Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact development Declines Stresses Ecosystem conversion Residential & Housing & urban Timing Scope Severity Impact commercial areas Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Unknown Unknown development Stresses Ecosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects Transportation & Roads & railroads Timing Scope Severity Impact service corridors Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects; Species disturbance Transportation & Shipping lanes Timing Scope Severity Impact service corridors Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Unknown Unknown Stresses Indirect ecosystem effects; Species disturbance Conservation Conservation Actions Underway The species is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species and is covered under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is on Annex II of the Bern Convention. Within the EU it is listed on Annex I of the Birds Directive. Protective measures such as fencing-off sensitive nesting areas, erecting warning signs and wardening are effective measures of increasing the breeding success of this species on sandy beaches (Richards 1990, Medeiros et al. 2007). There is also evidence that earlier breeders benefit more (i.e. have higher reproductive success) from protective measures, suggesting that conservation efforts can be maximised if concentrated earlier in the season (Medeiros et al. 2007). Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation) (Burgess and Hirons 1992). A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). There are 258 Important Bird Areas identified across the European region. Within the EU there are 648 Special Protection Areas which include this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed Management of existing Special Protection Areas, including continuing measures to reduce human disturbance to breeding sites. Bibliography Barcena, F., Teixeira, A.M. and Bermejo, A. 1984. Breeding seabird populations in the Atlantic sector of the Iberian Peninsula. In: Croxall, J.P., Evans, P.G.H. and Schreiber, R.W. (ed.), Status and Conservation of the World's Seabirds: 335-345. International Council for Bird Preservation Burgess, N.D. and Hirons, J.M. 1992. Creation and management of artificial nesting sites for wetland birds. Journal of Environmental Management 34(4): 285-295. Fasola, M. and Canova, L. 1996. Conservation of gull and tern colony sites in north-eastern Italy, an internationally important bird area. Colonial Waterbirds 19: 59-67. Gochfeld, M. and Burger, J. 1996. Little Tern (Sternula albifrons). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Medeiros, R., Ramos, J.A., Paiva, V.H., Almeida, A., Pedro, P. and Antunes, S. 2007. Signage reduces the impact of human disturbance on little tern nesting success in Portugal. Biological Conservation 135: 99-106. Bibliography Melville, D.S. and Shortridge, K.F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian- Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. Thyen, S., Becker, P.H., Behmann, H. 2000. Organochlorine and mercury contamination of little terns ( Sterna albifrons) breeding at the western Baltic Sea, 1978-96. Environmental Pollution 108: 225-238. Map (see overleaf)