Uncorrected proof HISTORICAL NOTES

The atomic hypothesis

S. K. Bose

We propose to review the origin and Aristotle did introduce a fifth element; five flavours, five musical modes and development of the atomic hypothesis. however, it did not take part in the consti- other fivefold. By this is meant the idea that the pheno- tution of objects around us (see below). The four basic elements of Empedo- menal world around us is made up, Philosophical speculation concerning cles are the same as the material ele- ultimately, of minute constituent entities the nature of things begins, in the Indian ments of the Indian pancabhuta. The that cannot be further subdivided. These tradition, with the Upanisads. These were latter has also space. The use of space are the atoms. The hypothesis of atoms composed towards the end of the Vedic may have an element of prescience in arose in two classical civilizations: Greek period, that is, around 600 BCE. In the that it might have led to the concept of and Indian. The contribution of the Greeks Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad, perhaps the ‘atoms and void’ as constituting appar- is well known while that of Indians is earliest of the Upanisads, it is stated that ently solid matter. Also, the upanisadic hardly known. Accordingly, we will water is the primal element2. In fact, it concept of space (akasa) bears striking devote greater effort to explore the goes on to state that out of water is born resemblance with Anaximander’s Indian contribution. earth and then fire. In the Chandogya apeiron. Further, akasa should not be The first step in reducing the comple- Upanisad space (akasa) is declared to confused with the concept of the Brah- xity of the phenomenal world is to en- be the primal element. Space is said to be man (or Chinese concept of the Tao). quire if the apparently endless variety of the origin, support and the final end of The latter does not constitute anything, objects, both living and non-living, could all2. These explorations led to the con- rather it is a principle that is immanent in be explained in terms of a few basic con- cept of five primary elements (pancab- and behind all things. At this stage it is stituent elements. At least three ancient huta), as stated in the Taittiriya upanisad2. useful to take note of a somewhat later civilizations grappled with this question These elements are space (akasa), water development. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and came up with strikingly similar (ap), fire (agni), air (vayu) and earth introduced a fifth element, but only as a answers. Let us briefly recall these de- (prithvi). Each of these elements has its constituent of heavenly bodies. Accord- velopments. own characteristic property. Thus, space ing to his scheme, the Earth is at the cen- In the Western intellectual tradition, has the quality of sound (sabda), water tre of the universe, above it is the Moon Thales is acknowledged to be the father that of taste (rasa), fire that of colour and beyond the moon is are the Sun and of philosophy1. He lived in Miletus, a (rupa), air of touch (sparsa) and earth other heavenly bodies. The sublunar part city in Asia Minor in present-day Turkey of odour (gandha). These qualities are of creation is made out of the four during the 6th century BCE. He is reputed associated with the fivefold scheme of elements of Empedocles. The remaining to have predicted an eclipse that astro- sense organs, namely those of hearing, heavenly bodies are made only out of the nomers estimate must have taken place in taste, sight, touch and smell respectively. fifth element. The Chinese theory of five 585 BCE. Thales surmised that the fun- It would thus appear that the concept of elements involves only material things; damental element constituting the world pancabhuta is essentially of empirical three of these, water, fire and earth, was water. A second member of the origin and not the result of pure specula- are the same as in Indian and Greek Milesian school, Anaximander (610–546 tion. In the Svetasvatara Upanisad, the schemes; while the remaining two, BCE), hypothesized that the primary acceptance of the concept of five ele- namely, wood and metal, are distinct. element was all-pervading, limitless, ments is implied2. This situation is probably connected with boundariless and eternal, which he called The Chinese analogue of the Greek the very high level of technological de- apeiron. Somewhat later, Anaximenes, and Indian ideas, sketched above, is the velopment achieved in China. also from the Milesian school, asserted theory of five elements. This was deve- The fact that distinct civilizations that air was the primary element from loped sometime during 350–270 BCE, reached similar conclusions is quite re- which everything else is derived. when Tsou Yen systematized the ideas markable. It is an intriguing question as Another Greek deserving that had been in vogue for more than a to what it implies. If nothing else, it sug- mention is Xenophanes, who declared century3. The five elements are water gests a certain universality of the human that everything is made up of earth and (note 3), fire, wood, metal and earth. intellect in its endeavour to understand water1. The next important Greek philo- Each of these elements has an associated the workings of nature. sopher was Heraclitus1, according to process that occurs in nature. Thus, water One cannot fail to notice a feature of whom fire was the primordial element has the process that we describe as soak- the Indian scene; we cannot always asso- that gave rise to everything else (note 1). ing and descending. Fire has the process ciate a name with an idea. A certain Heraclitus flourished around 500 BCE that we describe as blazing and uprising. amount of reticence in claim- (note 2) and was from Ephesus in Asia Wood has the quality that permits straight ing credit for oneself seems to have been Minor. Finally, Empedocles advanced edges or curved surfaces. Metal can always present in the Indian tradition. 1 the idea , in around 440 BCE, that the follow the shape of a mould and then Thus, from an analysis of the linguistic primary elements are four in number; become hard. Earth allows sowing, and literary styles, scholars have con- these being water, earth, air and fire. growth and reaping. The five-elements cluded that the Bhagavad-Gita did not This was accepted by all later thinkers. concepts led to the idea of five colours, form part of the original epic Mahab-

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 108, 2015 1 Uncorrected proof HISTORICAL NOTES harata, but is a later insertion4. But who avail aught as to ease or or both. and then finally taken over as their composed the Bhagavad-Gita? To cite And what are the seven? The four ele- leader. In any case, the Jain cosmogra- another example, what is the name of the ments – earth, water, fire and air – and phy is as follows: the universe consists artist who created the exquisite kangra ease, and pain, and the soul as the sev- of the Jiva and Ajiva (not Jiva). Jiva is miniatures illustrating Jayadeva’s Gita- enth. So there is neither slayer nor causer the aggregate of all the life-monads (note Govinda? (note 4)5. For that matter, who of slaying, hearer or speaker, knower or 9); it is a substance of adjustable magni- is the painter responsible for the portrait explainer. When one with a sharp sword tude that can be housed, at a given time, of the musician Himmat Khan Kalawant cleaves a head in twain, no one thereby in various objects such as plants, insects, playing the rudra-veena (note 5)6 – deprives any one of life, a sword has animals and finally humans (note 10). unquestionably a masterpiece in the only penetrated into the interval between Ajiva consists of space (three types, realm of art? seven elementary substances’ (note 7)9. akasa, that which allows objects to be The idea that an apparently continuous To get a feel for the intellectual fer- contained, and two others associated mass distribution consists really of dis- ment of the time when the Buddha with motion and with rest), time and crete atoms and space arose as follows. walked on this earth, we recall the five matter (pudgala). Pudgala appears in Let us first assume that matter cannot be remaining thinkers mentioned in the manifold forms, the ultimate stage of it is destroyed or created (in the sense that . These are: Purana Kas- atomic. The atoms are all of only one was enshrined two millennia later in the sapa, , Makkhali type. The distinction between various Newtonian mass conservation law). Now Gosala (also Maskarin Gosala), Nigantha material objects that we see around us is it is something of elementary experience Nataputta and Sanjaya Belatthiputta. due to the different ways in which the at- that a solid piece of material can be bro- Other than Ajita, all accepted the prevail- oms combine to make these objects. Fi- ken into two pieces. This implies that ing Indian concepts of transmigration, nally, the individual atom cannot be there must have been space in the mate- rebirth and the ultimate aim of release detected with our sense organs; only in rial along which the breakage proceeds. from the cycle of rebirth; and the associ- aggregates to they become amenable to Another way of stating the same is this. ated law of karma. However, they re- detection. All these atoms and their If I insert a knife in a slab of butter, all jected the need of any divine intervention aggregates are supposed to harvour life- that is happening is that, since no amount for implementation of this law; all of monads so that the Jain universe is one of matter can be destroyed, the knife has them being atheists to a degree. Purana that is throbbing with life10. gone into the space that already existed taught the doctrine that virtuous conduct The Ajivikas also take the atomic in the slab. In other words, if the material (or lack thereof) had no effect on a man’s doctrine for granted, without fuss, with- was truly continuous, it would not permit karma. Makkhali was the leader of a out much ado, just like the Jains. This a foreign body to be inserted into it; that clan – Ajivikas – that survived for almost probably implies, as Zimmer11 has argued is, it would offer infinite resistance to two millennia before becoming finally so persuasively, that the idea itself has such an effort. If we imagine this process extinct. Ajivika teaching has many things roots that go much further back, possibly of breakage taking place repeatedly, we in common with that of the Jains, as we to the pre-Vedic, pre-Aryan times. The then come finally to a stage when further will shortly discuss. Ajita was an un- main Ajivika concern is, however, with subdivision of our sample is no longer compromising materialist, probably the evolution. A life-monad starts out its possible. We are left with entities that first in the Indian tradition, who rejected journey inside an atom and then progres- are indivisible and indestructible. These the idea of transmigration, rebirth and sively evolves via transmigration and are the atoms. suchlike, and to whom a man’s death was reincarnation into vegetation and plant The earliest explicit articulation of the the end of it all. Sanjaya was the skep- life, into stages of insect and animal lives atomic doctrine is from Pakuda Kaccha- tic – the doubting Thomas of his age – and finally the stages in the human yana, a contemporary of the Buddha who denied the possibility of ever know- sphere. All the life-monads of the uni- 7 (566–486 BCE) . He is briefly mentioned ing anything for certain. Nigantha Nata- verse are laboriously treading along this in the canonical Buddhist text Digha putta is more famous under the name path. After exactly eighty-four hundred Nikaya (note 6)8, along with five other Vardhaman (note 8) – the last thousand existences comes the moment heterodox (those that reject the authority in a line of 24 teachers (tirthankaras) in of liberation, automatically. The natural of the Vedas) preachers, who were leaders the Jain tradition. The Jain tradition sur- course of this evolution, controlled by an of their respective sects of recluses and vives and is a vital presence in the spiri- all-pervasive cosmic principle called laymen. This occurs in the course of a tual landscape of . niyati, cannot be influenced in any way conversation between the King Ajatsatru The heterodox doctrines of Ajivika, by human intervention. Good deeds of Magadh and the Buddha, wherein the Jain and followers of the Buddha all cannot hasten nor bad deeds impede the king recalls his prior discussions with the accept the atomic hypothesis. For the process of reaching liberation. It is here six preachers. Here is a summary of Pa- former two traditions, it is difficult to that the Ajivika doctrine differs from the kuda’s teaching: ‘The following seven decide exactly when the idea was pro- Jain. According to the latter (as well as things are neither made nor commanded pounded. Mahavira was a contemporary to the Hindu or the Buddhist doctrines), to be made, neither created nor caused to of the Buddha, but he is not considered good deeds on the part of the individual be created, they are barren (so that noth- to be the original teacher of the doctrine. do bring in rewards concerning the ing is made out of them), steadfast as a He is, rather, a resuscitator who is escape from the cycle of rebirth. Finally, mountain peak, as a pillar firmly fixed. believed to have revived a much earlier it is interesting to note that the concept They move not, neither do they vary, tradition. Gosala is supposed to have of eighty-four hundred thousand exis- they trench not one upon another, nor joined a band of recluses – the Ajivikas, tences (Chaurasi lakh Janam) is present

2 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 108, 2015 Uncorrected proof HISTORICAL NOTES even today, e.g. in the sacred book, Guru arises, principally, from know- then goes on to advance the Granth, of the Sikhs, it is mentioned ing how the world works. In other words, idea that life also owes its origin to the many times. from knowledge of philosophy and the interaction of atoms, a staggeringly Let us now come back to the terra sciences, and the pursuit after such original and bold hypothesis for that firma of Greek philosophy1. Leucippus knowledge (note 11). Leading a life of time. At any rate, there is no ‘spark of of Miletus (440 BCE) is generally cred- pleasure will result in a state of tranquil- life’ of divine origin. This was followed ited with the first formulation of the lity () and freedom from fear of by a remarkably realistic portrayal of the atomic hypothesis. However, we know pain and death. In later times Epicurean- life of early humans, as also the scien- very little of this somewhat shadowy ism came to be associated with unbridled tific explanation of the phenomena of figure; so much so that a later atomist, pursuit of the of the flesh. This thunderbolts and volcanic activity. All , even doubted his very exis- is almost certainly the result of smear these to free the human mind from the tence. In any event, the atomic hypothe- hurled by the followers of rival, possibly, fear of whimsical actions of capricious sis was further developed by Democritus non-materialistic doctrines. It is interest- gods. But this was not to be. The ration- (around 420 BCE), who erected a fairly ing to note that a similar development alist world-view of atomists would soon elaborate scheme of nature on this basis. took place in India as well. The material- be replaced by Platonic phantasies and We know of Democritus much better. He istic tradition started by Ajita Kesakam- then by Old Testament fairy tales. was a contemporary of Protagoras – the bali was nurtured by a succession of Europe had to wait for a long time before father of Sophism. Incidentally, the word teachers who came to be known as the rediscovering her Greek heritage. A sophist did not carry the somewhat unsa- Lokayata school. The last great figure of somewhat similar development, concern- voury connotation that it has today. this tradition is Carvaka, who was suc- ing the decline of the rationalist Weltan- Originally it simply meant a philosopher cessfully turned into an object of ridi- schauung, took place in India as well. As or possibly a teacher of philosophy. cule – one whose doctrine supposedly is we have described in the foregoing, the In the scheme of Democritus every- ‘of a contented stomach and no think- idea of a life-monad undergoing succes- thing in the world is made up of atoms ing’ – by his non-materialistic, theistic sive stages of evolution was advanced by and the void, with the void filling up the rivals. Epicurus apparently authored 37 the Jain and Ajivika thinkers. The idea intervals between the atoms. The atoms books, of which only fragments survive. was also accepted by the Buddhists and are indivisible and cannot be destroyed Our knowledge of his teachings is almost the Hindus (note 13), although there or created. Atoms come in distinct types, entirely based on the work of the Roman were differences amongst them regarding infinite in number, their distinction aris- poet Titus Lucretius Carus, who ex- matters of detail. The rationalist view- ing out of differences in size and shape. pounded the Epicurean doctrine in six point got eventually superceded by the Aristotle also attributes to the atomists books of Latin verse entitled De Rerum creeping advance of orthodox, theistic the concept of heat associated with Natura12. Here, the atomic hypothesis of dogmas. As a result, Indian thinking atoms; the spherical atoms that make up Democritus is accepted but not his con- failed to rise from poetic indulgence to fire being the hottest. The idea of infinite cept of atomic motion. Instead, the pic- the level of critical enquiry that could variety of atoms is, quite clearly, the ture here is one of atoms perpetually lead to the development of science. least attractive part of the scheme; since falling through an infinite void, along Indeed, India continues to be under the it abandons the eternal scientific quest of parallel straight-line paths. On this is thralldom of irrational superstitions. trying to explain the apparently limitless superimposed an additional random Indian atomism reached its apogee in multiplicity in nature in terms of a motion: occasionally an atom will ex- the Vaisesika sutra of Kannada9,10,14. few conceptual categories. Democritus’ perience a ‘swerve’ which will cause it This work is classified among the six atoms are always in motion, somewhat to deviate from its original path and orthodox (one that accepts the authority like the picture presented in the modern hence collide with another atom. If the of the Vedas; or at least pays lip service kinetic theory of gases (at finite tempera- shapes of the two atoms are compatible to it, as the present work certainly does) ture). Sometimes two atoms will impinge they would interlock, thus leading to the schools of . There is upon each other, and if their shapes are formation of a more complex (diatomic) some uncertainty regarding the time of compatible, will interlock to give rise to structure. This process, repeated a suffi- composition of this work. Most scholars a more complex structure. Repeated oc- cient number of times, is believed to agree that Vaisesika came after Buddha, currences of this sort are believed to have led to the formation of the world. whereas Roy (note 14)15 has argued that have given rise to bulk matter. Finally, a Although the picture of ‘atoms falling it precedes and, in fact, influenced the word about Democritus theory of the through void’ is more poetic than scien- Buddha. In any case, Vaisesika is men- soul. The soul consists of the finest and tific and no explanation is provided as to tioned (note 15)16 in the Arthasastra – a most mobile atoms and permeates the the cause of the ‘swerve’ (ref. 12), the treatise on theories of statecraft authored body wherein it is housed. It is the soul picture may still have a germ of truth in around 300 BCE by Kautilya, who was that produces the phenomenon of life. it. Consider a self-gravitating gas of par- the Prime Minister of Chandragupta, the This concept is strikingly similar to the ticles ‘falling’ towards the centre of mass first emperor of the Mauryan dynasty at Jain concept of the Jiva that we dis- of the gas along rectilinear (but not par- Pataliputra. Thus, we can safely ascribe cussed above. However, we recall that allel!) paths. Consider a superimposed the composition of Vaisesika sutra to the Jain Jiva is not atomic, only Ajiva is. motion, a swerve, due to thermal agita- interval between 486 (Buddha’s death) The next Greek atomist is Epicurus. tion. Now we have a model for the for- and 300 BCE. According to him, the central purpose of mation of a massive body. Having thus The concept of the atom is arrived at human existence is to have pleasure. And explained the birth of the world, via the process of inference in Vaisesika.

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 108, 2015 3 Uncorrected proof HISTORICAL NOTES

It is a matter of common experience that gunas are attributed to each atom; since the reinstatement of the atomic tendency a piece of gross matter can be divided in this tradition there is only one type of to congregate and form more complex and subdivided, with each subsequent atom. A striking fact about Vaisesika structures? Here the piece maintaining the properties of the doctrine is that not only are atoms unseen principle comes in handy. As one original sample. Can the process of divi- belonging to distinct classes different can guess, this principle would eventu- sion be carried out ad infinitum? If the from each other; even different atoms in ally be elevated to the status of a divine answer to this question is yes, then it one and the same class are asserted to be will. Indeed, Udayana (950 CE) con- would imply that every object is made up so. Thus an atom is believed to be structed ‘a proof of the existence of God’ of an infinite number of constituent units endowed with a kind of individuality. on this basis. If nothing else, this situa- and there will be no way of distinguish- Actually, the idea is not as esoteric as it tion mirrors the sad decline of rationa- ing between a mountain and a molehill. appears. To take a modern analogy, it is lism together with the concomitant rise Thus the process of continued division of true in the classical Boltzman statistics, of in the Indian intellectual tradi- an object must stop after a finite number where identical particles are distinguish- tion. of steps and the last constituent in this able. The property is no longer valid in Atomic doctrine also appears in the process is termed the atom (paramanu). quantum statistics – Bose–Einstein or Naya sutra of Aksapada Gautama, al- Being further indivisible, they cannot be Fermi–Diract. though this work is more concerned with destroyed (or created). Thus an atom oc- Vaisesika does not require the atoms logic14. The Buddhist world-view also cupies a non-zero spatial volume. This to be necessarily in perpetual motion. involves atomism. Atoms are of four then would account for the difference be- This is in contrast to the position of Epi- types, namely those of air, water, fire and tween a mountain and a molehill in terms curus–Lucretius. Recall that motion was earth, as in Vaisesika. However, a point of the difference in the number of their essential in the latter scheme; since it is of difference between the Buddhist and constituent atoms. It is also implicitly motion that led to collisions that, in turn, the Vaisesika doctrines ought to be accepted that atoms are spherical objects; led to the formation, via interlocking, of noted10. In the Buddhist view a compos- since nothing is said of their shape. more complex structures. This may very ite body is looked upon as a mere aggre- Although of finite extension, an atom is well be due to Greek reluctance to accept gate of its constituent atoms (note 16)7. too small to be visible; that is, to be the idea of action-at-distance. How does In contrast, Vaisesika (also the atomism amenable to direct observation through Vaisesika explain the formation of more of the Jains) recognize the existence of our sense organs. On the other hand, complex structures out of individual properties of the composite body that re- suitable aggregates of atoms are obvi- atoms? Vaisesika asserts the presence of sult from the manner in which the atoms ously visible. When does an aggregate two factors. The first is a physical prop- are put together and organized. We can begin to be visible? According to Vaise- erty residing in atoms themselves that easily see the difference between these sika, there are exactly four types of propels two of the same type to form bi- two views by considering the case of atoms: those of water, fire, air and earth naries, three binaries to form a triad, and (liquid) water versus (solid) ice. Both are (pancabhuta minus space/aether). Two so on. In other words, atoms possess an made of water atoms, but the bulk mate- atoms of the same type can combine innate propensity to aggregate. This idea rial has, quite obviously, distinct proper- (conjoin) to form a dyad. Thus, there are is thus a forerunner of the modern con- ties. Thus Vaisesika is a more developed four types of dyads. Three dyads of the cept of van der Waal forces. The second scheme. This also strengthens the case same type form a triad. A triad is suffi- factor involved is an unseen principle that Vaisesika came after the Buddha. ciently large in size to be visible, ‘as (adrishta) – a vague and somewhat meta- Although our understanding, as to motes in a sunbeam’ (this striking im- physical concept that seems totally out of what the ultimate constituents of matter agery appears also in Lucretius). Triads place with the rationalist teachings of are, has evolved and changed in the of the same type as well as those belong- Vaisesika. It is most likely that this did course of the last two millennia, the idea ing to different types can form larger not form part of the original doctrine and itself has proved to be resilient and cor- aggregates. It is out of the latter that the is a later insertion. Actually, very little of rect. In this sense, the atomic hypothesis whole visible universe, including bodies Kanada’s original work survives; what is perhaps the most remarkable idea of of living objects, is made. we have today is attributions, together premodern times. The ancients did not The picture of an atom in Vaisesika is with commentaries from later members have the ability to perform controlled thus one of a little hard ball. In that case of the Vaisesika tradition, most notably experiments; nor did they possess the how does a water-atom differ from a fire- from Prasastapada (6th century CE). There mathematical tools adequate to address atom? Now, bulk matter of different is another angle to this phenomenon of this issue. Despite these limitations, elements (bhuta) have distinct qualifying retreat from rationalism. Recall that In- through a combination of imagination properties: water, fire, air and earth re- dian cosmography is one of periodic dis- and reasoning, they stumbled on the idea spectively, those of taste, colour, touch solution (pralaya) and reconstitution of atoms – an idea whose validity has and odour. These qualities must ulti- taking place indefinitely. Vaisesika doc- been established in the course of the last mately arise, via inherence, from those of trine adds a gloss to this picture. At pra- century and more. their respective atoms. Thus there must laya, the bond between atoms is broken. Where do we stand today? The ulti- be a distinctive characteristic (visesa We now have a collection of isolated, in- mate constituents of matter are believed guna) in each atom that differentiates dividual atoms; as such the world is be- to be the following: the six leptons, six atoms of one variety from those of yond perception. In this state, the natural (triplets) quarks and particles that trans- another (note 15). A point to note here is tendency of atoms to congregate is be- mit forces between them. The latter are that in the Jain atomism, all the four lieved to be suspended. What then causes four carriers of electroweak forces, the

4 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 108, 2015 Uncorrected proof HISTORICAL NOTES eight gluons that carry strong forces 9. The smallest unit of life. China, Cambridge University Press, between quarks and finally, the Higgs 10. A strikingly similar concept was deve- 1978. boson that is needed to implement the loped by the Greek philosopher Anaxa- 4. Kosambi, D. D., Ancient India: A His- theoretical scheme of broken gauge gorous (born 500 BCE). Mind (nous) is a tory of its Culture and Civilization, substance that enters into the composition Meridian Book, Cleveland, 1965, p. 93. symmetry. It is not entirely clear if gravi- of living things. It is the source of all mo- 5. Randhawa, M. S., Kangra Paintings of ton, the hypothetical particle that could tion. One point of difference should be the Gita Govinda, National Museum, carry gravitational forces, should or noted here. Anaxagorous believed that New Delhi, 1963. should not be included in the list of ele- matter is infinitely divisible, i.e. non- 6. Joep Bor, Kai Reschke (editors), Masters mentary entities. This is because it is atomic. of Raga, Haus der Kulturen der Welt, not certain that the gravitational field, 11. It might be instructive to revisit the six Berlin, no date. described by the (nonlinear) Einstein heterodox preachers mentioned in the 7. Embree, A. T., Sources of Indian Tradi- field equations, can be quantized, in a Digha Nikaya. King Ajatsatru of Raja- tion, Vol 1, Columbia University Press, mathematically consistent way. In any griha asked the same question to each of New York, 1988, p. 46. case, our ultimate entities do not all pos- them: Is there an immediate fruit, visible 8. Rhys Davids, T. W., Dialogues of the in this very world, of the life of a recluse? Buddha, Vol 1, 1899, reprinted in 2007 sess the properties that the ancients None of the six answered the question di- by Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pri- attributed to their atoms. Thus, not all of rectly, but propounded their respective vate Ltd, Delhi. them are indestructible; only some are, philosophy instead. It would thus appear 9. Thapar, Romila, A History of India (Vol. the rest undergo spontaneous decay. that the common unsaid answer was sim- 1) Penguin Books, London, 1990, pp 46– What about visibility? We should first ply that the reward was in the knowledge 47. reinterpret the word to mean not just the they had discovered. 10. Hiriyanna, M., Essentials of Indian Phi- ability to detect with our sense organs, 12. This is apparently connected with the losophy, George Allen & Unwin (Pub- but more generally to observe via modern ethical principle of free will (as against lishers) Ltd, London, 1985, p. 62. scientific instruments. Then only quarks determinism). 11. Zimmer, H., Philosophies of India (ed. and gluons are invisible (note 17), the 13. A beautiful poetic description of the ten Campbell, J.), Meridian Books, New rest are visible. stages of this evolution is presented in York, 1956, p. 278. Jayadeva’s Gita Govindam. Here the 12. Lucy Hutchinson’s translation of Lu- ‘spirit of the Lord’ is manifested first as a cretius: De Rerum Natura (ed. de Que- Notes fish, next as a turtle, then as a wild boar hen, H.), The University of Michigan and so on till the human stage is reached Press, Ann Arbor, 1996. 1. Heraclitus is more famous for his dialec- (ref. 13). 13. Keyt, G., Song of Love, Gita Govinda tical logic: All things are in perpetual 14. Indian revolutionary and comintern (com- Translated and Illustrated. Hind Pocket flux; everything comes into being, yet munist international) functionary, who Books (P), Ltd, Delhi, no date. forthwith ceases to be. This doctrine is grew disillusioned and severed connection 14. Keith, A. B., Indian Logic and Atomism, strikingly similar to the one Sunyata with the communist movement. Founded Oxford University Press, 1921. developed later by the Buddhist Nagar- the Radical Humanist Movement in India. 15. Roy, M. N., . An Outline of juna (200 CE). However, he remained a Marxist. the History of Scientific Thought, Ren- 2. Almost two and a half millennia later, 15. Vaisesika is derived from visesa meaning aissance Publications, Dehra Dun, 1940. Heraclitean dialectics would be revived particular, distinctive. 16. Satchidananda Murty, K., Philosophy in by Hegel and then by Marx and his fol- 16. The connection between a composite India, Indian Council of Philosophical lowers to develop the concept of dialectic body and its constituents is also discussed Research, Motilal Banarsidass, 1985, materialism. in the work Milindapanha, which summa- p. 5 and 207. 3. In Chuang Tzu, composed in the 4th cen- rizes the conversations between King tury BCE by Chuang Chao, it is suggested Menander and the Buddhist monk that water is the primary element. Nagasena. Menander was the Greek king 4. See the article by W.C. Archer in ref. 5. of Punjab. According to Nagasena, a body 5. In the British Museum. Reproduced in the is no more than the sum total of its parts ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The idea of this 6 book by Bor and Reschke . (ref. 7). essay arose out of a conversation with Prof. P. 6. Translated from Pali by T.W. Rhys 17 It is believed (but not proved) that quarks P. Divakaran to whom I am much obliged for Davids under the heading Dialogues of and gluons are permanently confined in- his continued interest in this project. I also the Buddha (three volumes) (ref. 8). side hadrons. In other words, asymptotic thank Prof. W. D. McGlinn for many discus- 7. Since Ajatsatru ascended the throne at states of single particles for quarks or sions Prof. Christopher Nadon Claremont Magadha (after committing patricide), in gluons do not exist. McCenna College for a tutorial on Lucretius, 493 BCE (ref. 9) and died in 461 BCE, Manjit and Kiran Bhatia for pointing out the whereas the Buddha died in 486 BCE, 1. Russell, B., A History of Western Phi- presence of the concept of ‘Chaurasi Lakh Pakuda must have flourished during the losophy, A Clarion Book, Simon and Janam’ in the Sikh scriptural literature, and period 493–486 BCE. Schuster, New York, 1967. Prof. Don Howard for advice.

8. Mahavira means the great hero, so named 2. Radhakrishnan, S., The Principal because he struggled against and tri- Upanisads, Harper & Brothers Publish- S. K. Bose is in the Department of Phys- umphed over his own inhibitions and ers, New York, 1953. ics, University of Notre Dame, Notre temptations, needed to become free to 3. Ronan, C. A. and Needham, J., The Dame, Indiana 46556, USA lead the life of an ascetic renunciate. Shorter Science and Civilisation in *e-mail: [email protected]

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