Uncorrected proof HISTORICAL NOTES The atomic hypothesis S. K. Bose We propose to review the origin and Aristotle did introduce a fifth element; five flavours, five musical modes and development of the atomic hypothesis. however, it did not take part in the consti- other fivefold. By this is meant the idea that the pheno- tution of objects around us (see below). The four basic elements of Empedo- menal world around us is made up, Philosophical speculation concerning cles are the same as the material ele- ultimately, of minute constituent entities the nature of things begins, in the Indian ments of the Indian pancabhuta. The that cannot be further subdivided. These tradition, with the Upanisads. These were latter has also space. The use of space are the atoms. The hypothesis of atoms composed towards the end of the Vedic may have an element of prescience in arose in two classical civilizations: Greek period, that is, around 600 BCE. In the that it might have led to the concept of and Indian. The contribution of the Greeks Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad, perhaps the ‘atoms and void’ as constituting appar- is well known while that of Indians is earliest of the Upanisads, it is stated that ently solid matter. Also, the upanisadic hardly known. Accordingly, we will water is the primal element2. In fact, it concept of space (akasa) bears striking devote greater effort to explore the goes on to state that out of water is born resemblance with Anaximander’s Indian contribution. earth and then fire. In the Chandogya apeiron. Further, akasa should not be The first step in reducing the comple- Upanisad space (akasa) is declared to confused with the concept of the Brah- xity of the phenomenal world is to en- be the primal element. Space is said to be man (or Chinese concept of the Tao). quire if the apparently endless variety of the origin, support and the final end of The latter does not constitute anything, objects, both living and non-living, could all2. These explorations led to the con- rather it is a principle that is immanent in be explained in terms of a few basic con- cept of five primary elements (pancab- and behind all things. At this stage it is stituent elements. At least three ancient huta), as stated in the Taittiriya upanisad2. useful to take note of a somewhat later civilizations grappled with this question These elements are space (akasa), water development. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and came up with strikingly similar (ap), fire (agni), air (vayu) and earth introduced a fifth element, but only as a answers. Let us briefly recall these de- (prithvi). Each of these elements has its constituent of heavenly bodies. Accord- velopments. own characteristic property. Thus, space ing to his scheme, the Earth is at the cen- In the Western intellectual tradition, has the quality of sound (sabda), water tre of the universe, above it is the Moon Thales is acknowledged to be the father that of taste (rasa), fire that of colour and beyond the moon is are the Sun and of philosophy1. He lived in Miletus, a (rupa), air of touch (sparsa) and earth other heavenly bodies. The sublunar part city in Asia Minor in present-day Turkey of odour (gandha). These qualities are of creation is made out of the four during the 6th century BCE. He is reputed associated with the fivefold scheme of elements of Empedocles. The remaining to have predicted an eclipse that astro- sense organs, namely those of hearing, heavenly bodies are made only out of the nomers estimate must have taken place in taste, sight, touch and smell respectively. fifth element. The Chinese theory of five 585 BCE. Thales surmised that the fun- It would thus appear that the concept of elements involves only material things; damental element constituting the world pancabhuta is essentially of empirical three of these, water, fire and earth, was water. A second member of the origin and not the result of pure specula- are the same as in Indian and Greek Milesian school, Anaximander (610–546 tion. In the Svetasvatara Upanisad, the schemes; while the remaining two, BCE), hypothesized that the primary acceptance of the concept of five ele- namely, wood and metal, are distinct. element was all-pervading, limitless, ments is implied2. This situation is probably connected with boundariless and eternal, which he called The Chinese analogue of the Greek the very high level of technological de- apeiron. Somewhat later, Anaximenes, and Indian ideas, sketched above, is the velopment achieved in China. also from the Milesian school, asserted theory of five elements. This was deve- The fact that distinct civilizations that air was the primary element from loped sometime during 350–270 BCE, reached similar conclusions is quite re- which everything else is derived. when Tsou Yen systematized the ideas markable. It is an intriguing question as Another Greek philosopher deserving that had been in vogue for more than a to what it implies. If nothing else, it sug- mention is Xenophanes, who declared century3. The five elements are water gests a certain universality of the human that everything is made up of earth and (note 3), fire, wood, metal and earth. intellect in its endeavour to understand water1. The next important Greek philo- Each of these elements has an associated the workings of nature. sopher was Heraclitus1, according to process that occurs in nature. Thus, water One cannot fail to notice a feature of whom fire was the primordial element has the process that we describe as soak- the Indian scene; we cannot always asso- that gave rise to everything else (note 1). ing and descending. Fire has the process ciate a name with an idea. A certain Heraclitus flourished around 500 BCE that we describe as blazing and uprising. amount of reticence in claim- (note 2) and was from Ephesus in Asia Wood has the quality that permits straight ing credit for oneself seems to have been Minor. Finally, Empedocles advanced edges or curved surfaces. Metal can always present in the Indian tradition. 1 the idea , in around 440 BCE, that the follow the shape of a mould and then Thus, from an analysis of the linguistic primary elements are four in number; become hard. Earth allows sowing, and literary styles, scholars have con- these being water, earth, air and fire. growth and reaping. The five-elements cluded that the Bhagavad-Gita did not This was accepted by all later thinkers. concepts led to the idea of five colours, form part of the original epic Mahab- CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 108, 2015 1 Uncorrected proof HISTORICAL NOTES harata, but is a later insertion4. But who avail aught as to ease or pain or both. and then finally taken over as their composed the Bhagavad-Gita? To cite And what are the seven? The four ele- leader. In any case, the Jain cosmogra- another example, what is the name of the ments – earth, water, fire and air – and phy is as follows: the universe consists artist who created the exquisite kangra ease, and pain, and the soul as the sev- of the Jiva and Ajiva (not Jiva). Jiva is miniatures illustrating Jayadeva’s Gita- enth. So there is neither slayer nor causer the aggregate of all the life-monads (note Govinda? (note 4)5. For that matter, who of slaying, hearer or speaker, knower or 9); it is a substance of adjustable magni- is the painter responsible for the portrait explainer. When one with a sharp sword tude that can be housed, at a given time, of the musician Himmat Khan Kalawant cleaves a head in twain, no one thereby in various objects such as plants, insects, playing the rudra-veena (note 5)6 – deprives any one of life, a sword has animals and finally humans (note 10). unquestionably a masterpiece in the only penetrated into the interval between Ajiva consists of space (three types, realm of art? seven elementary substances’ (note 7)9. akasa, that which allows objects to be The idea that an apparently continuous To get a feel for the intellectual fer- contained, and two others associated mass distribution consists really of dis- ment of the time when the Buddha with motion and with rest), time and crete atoms and space arose as follows. walked on this earth, we recall the five matter (pudgala). Pudgala appears in Let us first assume that matter cannot be remaining thinkers mentioned in the manifold forms, the ultimate stage of it is destroyed or created (in the sense that Digha Nikaya. These are: Purana Kas- atomic. The atoms are all of only one was enshrined two millennia later in the sapa, Ajita Kesakambali, Makkhali type. The distinction between various Newtonian mass conservation law). Now Gosala (also Maskarin Gosala), Nigantha material objects that we see around us is it is something of elementary experience Nataputta and Sanjaya Belatthiputta. due to the different ways in which the at- that a solid piece of material can be bro- Other than Ajita, all accepted the prevail- oms combine to make these objects. Fi- ken into two pieces. This implies that ing Indian concepts of transmigration, nally, the individual atom cannot be there must have been space in the mate- rebirth and the ultimate aim of release detected with our sense organs; only in rial along which the breakage proceeds. from the cycle of rebirth; and the associ- aggregates to they become amenable to Another way of stating the same is this. ated law of karma. However, they re- detection. All these atoms and their If I insert a knife in a slab of butter, all jected the need of any divine intervention aggregates are supposed to harvour life- that is happening is that, since no amount for implementation of this law; all of monads so that the Jain universe is one of matter can be destroyed, the knife has them being atheists to a degree.