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STUDEN1S' USE OF SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE AFFORDANCES IN VIDEO GAMEPLAYWT.nflNEDUCATIONALCONTIDITS:~UCATIONSFOR LEARNING A DISSERTATION SUBMlI I ED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 1HE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SCIENCES MAY 2008 By Matthew J. Sharritt Dissertation Committee: Daniel D. Suthers, Chairperson Violet Harada Joung-Im Kim Devan Rosen Dan Wedemeyer R. Kelly Aune We certify that we have read this dissertation and that, in our opinion, it is satisfactory in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Communication and Information Sciences. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairperson ii © Copyright by Matthew J. Sharritt 2008 All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACf Matthew J. Sharritt (PhD Communication and Information Sciences) Students' Use of Social and Cognitive Affordances in Game Play within Educational Contexts: Implications for Learning Directed by Dr. Daniel D. Suthers, Professor, Department of Information & Computer Sdences, University of Hawai'i at Manoa Extensive literature has shown that games can prOvide an engaging, dynamic, and authentic learning context. Many of the studies on the use of games in education indicate that games can support teaching standards and outcomes; however, they do not describe actual uses of video games for learning. Through the analysis of affordances employed by student gamers, an understanding of how learning takes place can inform the design of effective educational games and aid their integration into contemporary classrooms. Informed by ethnomethodology, this study used methods of grounded theory provided a iv detailed description of the use of video games for learning in educational contexts. Results demonstrate that learning occurs across multiple levels: the mastery of the computer interface, followed by the mastery of the game interface and upon which students can achieve advanced strategy aimed at goal achievement. Learning also occurs across multiple granularities: occurring either in short episodes, sequences of episodes, or trends. Learning can be triggered by multiple cues, such as failure, game visualizations or specific representations, as well as by peers or teachers in the social environment. Students used affordances provided by the game interface and learning environment, specifically: the visual representations of games afford particular actions; the persistent display of historical context as well as present and future potentials motivates learning; specific cues can grab attention, helping to focus efforts on new or underutilized game tasks; consistent and well organized visualizations encourage learning; and information presented in a plurality of channels is most effective for learning. The use of social peers in collaborative learning had several effects on the learning process: peers disclosed information to achieve shared meaning of objects' purposes, and negotiated to collaboratively choose game strategies. Peer v teams served cooperative roles as information sources and competitively as a performance gauge. Implications for students, educators, and game designers are offered to better play, implement, and design games for learning. A brief comparison of findings with existing theory discusses similarities among collaborative learning and activity theory, and suggests opportunities for future work. Overa1l, findings indicate a great potential for the use of games in education for learning. vi DEDICATION To Michel Ann Sharritt, my wife, for her unconditional love and support. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dan Suthers, for all the vital capacities in which he has served throughout this dissertation. You have helped me grow immensely along the way, guiding me as I pursued my research topic and articulated my ideas. I especially appreciate all of the time you have invested in our meetings to guide my work, your reading and editing of my writing, and in becoming competent in the gaming literature and games used in this study. I cannot imagine a more thoughtful, invested, and helpful dissertation chair. I would also like to acknowledge my committee members: Violet Harada, Joung-Im Kim, Devan Rosen, Dan Wedemeyer and Kelly Aune. I appreciate the time commitment to both read my dissertation and offer such great advice. Your multidisciplinary perspective and constructive feedback on my work has helped make this a better dissertation. Additionally, I would like to especially thank Joung-Im Kim for going out of her way to encourage me to participate in her research seminar, COM 692, where she helped me develop my research topic and proposal. You invested viii considerable time during class, and also took time out of your busy schedule to meet outside of class to discuss and help refine my research proposal. You taught me how to go about designing and conducting research, something I had not had much experience with elsewhere in my program. Your guidance was a key catalyst in finishing my dissertation. I would also like to thank the game companies associated with the games used in this study. Specifically Atari (RoI/erCoaster Tycoon 3), Muzzy Lane Software (Making History: The Calm & The Storm), and Take-Two Interactive Software (Civilization IV). All three of these games were chosen due to their excellent presentation and potential for learning. Much was learned from the analysis of these games, and the cumulative effort and hard work of those involved in their design was evident. The participation of teachers and students at Wheaton-Warrenville South High School and Naperville Central High School made this study possible. Teachers that took time out of their busy schedule to assist in my research include Daryl Fitts, James Sharritt, and Chuck Williams of Wheaton-Warrenville South High School; and Jane Callahan and Janet Sommerville of Naperville Central High School. Your interest in the research and willingness to participate were very encouraging and was much appreciatedl James Sharritt (my dad) and ix Michel Sharritt (my wife) were instrumental in connecting me with the high schools and participating teachers. Thank you! I would like to acknowledge the years of employment and financial support that I have received from the Information and Computer Sciences department at the University of Hawai'i. Upon beginning my master's degree, they funded me with a tuition waver and teaching assistantship. This continued for six years: for the duration of my master's degree and the first four years of my doctorate. Not only did I receive financial assistance, I learned a considerable amount about teaching and learning, which helped guide the development of my research topic. I appreciate the valuable work experience, as well as all of the students, faculty and staff I have befriended over the years. I would like to thank family and friends for their encouragement and support over the years while I furthered my education. I would especially like to thank Fred Garrett, for always being a kind, supportive friend and mentor, and always seeing potential in me. Liz Hammerman was also a deeply involved mentor. She discussed ideas and research papers, and discussed practical considerations of integrating games into classrooms. This was essential in my development of the research. Thank you both so much! x My parents have given me their loving support and assistance over the years: Helen Sharritt, James Sharritt, and David Barr. This dissertation is the manifestation of years of countless sacrifice, support and love on their behalf. Thank you, Mom and Dad, for your constant showing of love and support, and for always encouraging me, whether deciding to start neighborhood lawn mowing business, move to Hawai'i, get married, or pursue a doctorate. You made sure that you provided me with the best education possible, both in and out of school, and always promoted my creativity. Your sacrifice to send me to both Benet Academy and Marquette has made all the difference in the world. More importantly, your investment in showing me your love of life has shaped me more than anything. I would also like to thank my stepfather Dave, for treating me as your son and offering sound guidance, and for always taking considerable time to make my interests yours as well. You have demonstrated your love and support by fully grasping the relevance of my academic work. I am truly blessed to have the three of you as parents. You always encouraged me to go the extra mile, and this dissertation is proof. I certainly would not have made it without the unique contribution of each and every one of youl My grandparents, Robert and Susanne Sirotek, have always encouraged me to further my education. Nobody has shown themselves to be more proud of xi my accomplishments. Thank you so much for your support, for leading by example, and showing me how to be successful in life. My wife Michel has done more than anybody to help this dissertation become a reality. Thank you for putting up with me on a daily basis, always listening to everything I have had to say, and giving great advice and encouragement Your hard work in reading, looking at transcripts, and giving feedback was so helpful. I appreciate how you always made time to help me out, considering your busy schedule. This dissertation is the latest example of how you care for my wellbeing, making my goals yours as well. I cannot express how blessed I am to have you in my life. xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

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