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Specifications- 666 - 1

NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION SERVICE CONSERVATION PRACTICE SPECIFICATIONS, CONSIDERATIONS, AND REFERENCES

FOREST STAND IMPROVEMENT (Acre) CODE 666

This document is intended to be used concurrently more information on site index.) D + X guidelines with the Standard for this practice. The following work best in pure stands that are under even-aged information will help to meet the criteria set forth management, and where the primary goal is timber in the standard and to complete the job sheet, thus production. enabling implementation of the practice. General Basal area (BA) guidelines are more commonly specifications are found in the job sheet, which utilized in the profession and reflect the apply to all sites. Consult with a contracting cross sectional area at breast height of in the in your area or a professional forester at stand but do not give a measure of spacing the NRCS or NM State Forestry Division to obtain a between leave trees. management plan for your property. On-site specifications / prescriptions based on landowner A very effective, but also the most complicated, objectives and simultaneously promoting forest way to measure stand stocking is stand density health must be developed following a detailed site index. SDI uses BA and trees per acre (TPA) and inventory and with consideration to the following equals the number of trees per acre if they were all specifications. ten inches in diameter. SDI is not utilized in this document or the job sheet. Basal area and ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS conversion tables showing trees per acre and Thinning or Intermediate Harvest approximate spacing are in the job sheet. Consult Thinning may be intended to reduce risk of beetle Forestry / Woodland Technical Note No. 41 for infestation or canopy fires, and may improve the stocking guidelines based on D + X spacing and for value of the remaining timber. Where usable or conversions between BA and D + X for ponderosa salable products (vigas, latillas, fuelwood, posts, pine. poles or Christmas trees) are to be cut, they will be taken on a stand improvement basis (i.e. no high Average BA stocking rates for five major forest grading.) cover types of New Mexico Cover Type Basal Area (square feet) Thinning may be performed according to basal area, trees per acre, Stand Density Index (SDI), or D P/J Savannah 10-30 + X spacing guidelines. These three methods may P/J Persistent Woodland 90-100 be applied to specific situations. For example, D + X spacing is measured as the average diameter of the Ponderosa pine 40-80 stand + a constant (X) that is determined according Mixed Conifer 80-120 to shade tolerance and site index. (Read NM Spruce-Fir thick patches (80-160) Forestry / Woodland Technical Note No. 40 for

Conservation practice specifications are reviewed periodically, and updated if needed. To obtain the current version of these specifications, contact the Natural Resource Conservation Service.

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One important restoration technique is not directly In areas where wind throw typically occurs due to addressed by measures of stocking, and must be thinner soils, shallower roots, topographic position, assessed on a case by case basis. The creation of high intensity winds, etc., the leave trees should be clumps and openings mimics natural burn patterns released more gradually. and provides both edge and thermal cover for wildlife. Try to mimic what is naturally occuring on Average stocking for healthy stands depends on the site by leaving healthy clumps of even-aged site index, species, and management objectives. trees where they already exist. There must be open The following guidelines and the section on areas with NO trees to isolate clumps. There may silvicultural prescriptions will help you determine also be a need to remove smaller, shorter trees whether a stand is overstocked, what to cut or thin within the clumps to improve overall forest health. it to, and when to re-enter a stand. Generally, trees Do not compromise overall forest health by leaving per acre will be higher in a younger stand, and poor quality trees to meet stocking or spacing decrease as competition thins out the number of guidelines or by leaving clumps untreated. trees and concentrates resources and growth on Consider leaving 5-15% of the acreage in clumps fewer, larger trees. (Binelli, 2007) for thermal cover for wildlife. Provided that overall Where grazing is important, trees will be thinned to basal area or trees per acre residual stocking rates a lower basal area than the average stocking rate are met, clumps will not be excluded from the for the stand. (Demchick, 2007). Approximately 60 overall treated acreage. (dependent on site quality) square feet of basal

area is usually appropriate in ponderosa pine When considering future commercial harvest, stands for maximum grass production. (Coordinate select leave trees to favor the most valuable activities with Silvopasture Practice Standard species and those best adapted to the site. The (381).) best-formed disease-free trees with good growth and form will be retained for future harvest. The Where thinning is intended to reduce fuel loading stocking level of residual trees is based on and associated fire hazard, thin from below and maintaining a basal area that reduces competition widen the distance between leave trees. Attempt until the stand reaches a merchantable size and to create gaps in the horizontal and vertical depends on site index. Merchantable size varies by arrangement of the canopy. Also, treat slash so as the product and the producer. It could be to reduce the amount of fuel on site. For ideas on fuelwood, pulp, poles, sawlogs, or specialty how to create this structural diversity, read the products. case studies in this document: http://www.nmhu.edu/nmfwri/pdf/prescriptions% Leave trees do not have to be the largest in the 20combined.pdf stand but they are usually: Where thinning is intended to control pest or • A native, site appropriate, and desirable disease infestations, read the section below on species pest management to make sure the proper species • Straight and tall is targeted and the best possible management • Free of obvious disease occurs. • Free of defects, especially large wounds Final Harvest • In the uppermost canopy layer (in a dominant or co-dominant position), or Nearly any type of harvest may be performed on • Desired but under-represented species any site. However, if consideration is not given to the species present and the condition of the

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residual stand, a site will become degraded and Regeneration Harvest Types produce poor quality timber, poor quality wildlife Uneven-aged management habitat, and support less diverse use over time. The following harvesting descriptions should be Single- selection considered in conjunction with the silvicultural Poor condition trees are removed, overly dense prescriptions from the Specifications, areas are thinned, and some of the largest Recommendations, and Resources for this practice, diameter trees are harvested. Appropriate tree and with tables 1-3 to determine the best method species range from somewhat shade tolerant to of treatment for a given site. More than one very shade tolerant (see Table 2). Seedlings of silvicultural system may be required for a given site shade-tolerant trees develop in newly created if there is a level of diversity that is not supported openings. Harvests may be more frequent but by applying a blanket prescription over the entire typically yield lower volumes than even-aged area. Units of different management should be systems. Damage to residual trees during harvest delineated based on tree species present, slope, will be more likely than other systems. High- site index, and objectives. Trees will be utilized to the smallest top diameter acceptable to NM Standards for commercial harvests – 6 inches inside bark diameter for timber, 4 inches outside bark diameter for purposes other than timber production.

Species Groups by shade tolerance (and site index ranges; L=lower, M=mid, U=upper) Somewhat Shade Very shade tolerant shade tolerant grading (taking only the largest, commercial trees Subalpine fir/corkbark tolerant Engelmann in the initial cutting and subsequent cuttings) can fir Blue spruce diminish the long-term potential of the site to (L<55; M 55-80; U>80) spruce (L<55; M produce valuable timber and the quality of the White fir (L<55; M 55-80; stand as a whole. A percentage of trees in each (L<65; M 65-90; U>90 55-80; U>80) diameter class (e.g., 2-4” dbh, 5-9” dbh, 10-17” U>80) dbh, 18-24” dbh, 24”+ dbh) may be removed. A Shade intolerant range of species in a range of size classes should be Douglas-fir (interior) Very shade intolerant left for maximum diversity. A sample mark should (L<55; M 55-80; U>80) Lodgepole pine be done prior to harvesting to assure reaching the Ponderosa pine (L<55; M 55-80; U>80) management objective. The specifications (L <70; M 70-100; Piñon document and Table 1 will help determine to what U >100) (L<50; M 50-100; level of stocking a stand should be thinned for Limber pine/SW white U>100) restoration purposes, and when to re-enter for pine Juniper subsequent cuttings. (L<70, M70-100, H>100 (L<50; M 50-100;

) U>100) Aspen (L<45; M 45-75; U>75)

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preparation is typically needed to enhance survival and establishment of natural regeneration or create spots for by hand or machine. The boundary of the area must be marked before cutting begins to assure reaching the management objective. Irregularly shaped patch cuts are more visually appealing; do not create a funnel that will channel strong winds to an area of leave trees.

Group selection Small groups of trees are removed periodically (usually 3 to 10-year intervals) leaving dispersed small openings ranging from ½-acre to 3 acres with edge trees providing a protected environment for new regeneration in the openings. Tree species well suited for this system typically range from somewhat shade tolerant to very shade tolerant. Damage to residual trees is generally less than

single-tree selection. The total of all openings Seed-tree created during a single forest stand improvement Most of the stand is removed while leaving a small cutting is regulated by the acreage of the stand, the number of well-formed, well-distributed and wind- planned age of the oldest trees just before they are firm trees (usually 5 to 10 per acre) to produce cut, and the planned cutting interval. For example, seed. Seed trees may be removed after a stand on 200 acres is planned to grow to 100 regeneration is established. The timing of the years old with periodic cuttings on a 5-year cutting must be planned to coincide with the interval. The acres divided by the age (200/100) likelihood of seed production of the remaining times the desired cutting interval (5 years) equals seed trees. The system is used with shade the total of all openings (10 acres) that can be cut intolerant trees. Sufficient site preparation is during each forest stand improvement activity. typically needed to enhance survival and Cutting on this interval can occur indefinitely establishment of natural regeneration or create provided the stand remains healthy and free from spots for tree planting by hand or machine. The stand-replacing fire. A sample mark should be done boundary of the area and seed trees must be prior to harvesting to assure reaching the marked before cutting begins to assure reaching management objective. the management objective.

Even-aged management systems

Patch-cutting Patch cutting provides an open environment, with plenty of sunlight for shade-intolerant trees (see Table 1) to be reproduced in the regenerated stand (or planted by hand after a cutting). Sufficient site

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Shelterwood of basal area (BA). Stocking for PJ woodlands Enough overstory canopy (usually 15 to 30 percent) ranges from 90 to 100 sq. ft. of BA. Shrubland is left after the cutting to provide a seed source stocking rates fall somewhere between rates given and protect new regeneration from direct sunlight. for savannah and persistent woodland. These The system is typically used with shade tolerant to woodlands have historically been used for shade intolerant species that benefit from shade fuelwood, fence posts, Christmas trees and forage during their seedling stage. Depending on the production. Consider the keys in the references initial condition of the stand, two or three cuttings (Reid, 2008; Romme, 2007; USDA NRCS, 2005) for (usually spaced over a 10 to 30 year period) are determining disturbance regimes on the individual used to regenerate the stand. The objective of the site that should allow more informed management initial cutting is to improve the vigor and seed decisions. production of the residual trees and to prepare the Few silvicultural methods have been tested and site for new seedlings. Subsequent cuttings remove little data on post-harvest growth is known that the shelterwood trees and allow the regeneration could promote sustainable harvesting. Suggestions to develop as an even-aged stand. The boundary of from a USDA Forest Service silvicultural text the area and trees to be left are marked to (Sheppard, 2004) note that single tree selection on enhance the selection of well-formed, seed- high-quality sites will sustain tree production on a producing trees, obtain a proper distribution of shorter rotation and wildlife habitat for forest- shade, and meet the management objective. dependent species. Targeted density reductions

may be difficult depending on local markets for smaller diameter products. These markets are growing and should be researched for specific sites. Diameter-limit prescriptions (similar to shelterwood cuts) allow greater growth in diameter classes for timber productivity but require longer rotations. Ponderosa pine – The table below shows the range of healthy BA stocking rates with corresponding site index ranges. If the site has a higher level of General silvicultural prescriptions by productivity and a higher site index, it can support species/cover type: a larger volume of trees. (Note that trees per acre These are merely recommendations. Each site must is dependent on diameter. These ranges assume be assessed thoroughly and individually to an average diameter from 8 to12 inches. determine the best treatment for the stand with Historically, there would have been even fewer consideration given to current and future (desired) large trees (probably an average of 35 trees per conditions, as well as the landowners objectives. acre) in ponderosa pine stands; the ranges given Read the NM Forestry / Woodland Technical Notes below are calibrated to typical stands currently (35-38) on , and the found in NM. Smaller average diameter equates to resources at the end of these specifications for more trees per acre, while a larger diameter further guidance. equates to fewer trees per acre.) Piñon and Juniper (PJ) – Recommended stocking for PJ savannah sites ranges from 10 to 30 square feet

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Ponderosa Pine Stocking Table Mixed Conifer Stocking Table Basal Area SI Range Trees per acre Site Index 70-80 Upper 100-220 Basal Set 1* White Ponderosa pine Aspen (>100) Area fir + SW White pine 50-70 Mid (70- 60-190 100) 110- U >90 >100 >75 120 (>80) 40-50 Low (<70) 50-150 90- M 65-90 70-100 45-75

110 (55- The most common method of harvesting 80) ponderosa stands in NM is individual selection. 80-90 L <65 <70 <45 Shelterwood and group selection will enable (<55) regeneration, but may require scarification to prepare the site for reseeding. All these systems *Set 1 = Subalpine fir, Corkbark fir, Engelmann may perpetuate dwarf mistletoe. Mistletoe spruce, Blue spruce, Douglas-fir elimination is best accomplished with patch cuts or Patch cutting and shelterwood systems tend to clearcuts cut back to a clean margin. (Dennis, 2007) encourage regeneration of the more shade Quaking aspen – Most stands are even-aged due to intolerant species. Individual and group selection past disturbance. Some are naturally uneven aged systems tend to favor regeneration of more shade and can be managed for vertical canopy diversity tolerant species. Stands with uniform spacing are or other non-timber goals. Patch cutting produces best harvested with a shelterwood cut. Clumpy the best regeneration. One common site of aspen stands are best harvested by group selection in thinning is in recreation areas, but locating small groups no wider than tree height. Site recreation areas in sensitive aspen stands is not scarification may be needed to encourage natural recommended. Rotations for timber production as seeding. long as 120 years may be necessary on low Overall, stand structure can be classified according productivity sites. (See Additional Considerations to moisture levels. Drier mixed conifer stands are for further information on aspen regeneration). typically composed of Douglas-fir and ponderosa Mixed conifer – Species in these may pine, and generally support a more open stand of include two or more of the following species: trees with one or more canopy classes. More mesic Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, Engelmann spruce, stands (composed of white fir, corkbark fir, quaking aspen, southwestern white pine, blue subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce and blue spruce) spruce, corkbark fir, and subalpine fir. Even and are generally denser and have a large quantity of uneven-aged management can be appropriate small trees growing up under the canopy. (See depending on the site and the objectives. Manage silvicultural technical notes (No. 35-38) for further for more shade-tolerant, mesic species at higher information on seed production characteristics). elevations and on cooler, more mesic sites. Manage for shade-intolerant species at lower elevations and on warmer, xeric sites.

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Spruce-fir – Thick patches are considered natural. regeneration by seeding is not effective and by These patches may be anywhere from a few acres suckers / cloning is only desirable if the original to hundreds of acres in size, interspersed with gaps clone was healthy. (See the silvicultural technical in an unevenly shaped, mosaic pattern. These notes (No. 35-38) for further guidelines). There is stands are naturally uneven aged. To reduce fire an unknown source of aspen decline in the west hazard, risk of insect or disease infestation, or to that may be related to a fungus and thus make maximize growing space for residual trees, healthy (e.g. uninfected) regeneration more management is appropriate. difficult. (CFRI, 2007) Management with reproduction after cutting: Site index will not be used to determine Patch cutting is the best recommended method of decadence. The following three alternative harvesting, but keep in mind there are restrictions conditions will be used to determine when aspen on how well regeneration will occur. Natural stand regeneration is to be initiated. regeneration by patch cutting is usually favorable • Only those aspen stands where more than only on sites with a north aspect, 40-60% shade, 50% of the aspen trees have conks or 50% bare soil, and 400-500 feet wide. Keep the cankers. leave patches thick. The width of the cut should not exceed four times the height of the residual • Only where the mortality of aspen stands stand. The strips between patches should be wider exceeds 50%. than two and one-half times the height of the • Only when aspen stands exceed 30% stand. The patches should have irregular and conifer establishment. uneven shapes that blend with contour and residual stand structure. Conks/Cankers: Black canker (Ceratocystis fimbriata) is a target-shaped canker; the most Partial cutting is an option, but it is very common in the west. It seldom kills aspen but can complicated; it depends on stand structure, reduce the usable volume of the butt log. The risk, and the distribution of trees across Sooty-bark canker (Encoelia pruinosa) is the most the stand. (See the silvicultural technical notes (No. lethal and aggressive pathogen in the west; it 35-38) for further guidelines). causes mortality in trees of all sizes by entering Management with advanced regeneration: trunk wounds. The Cryptosphaeria canker Shelterwood cuts are recommended where trees (Cryptosphaeri lignyota) causes long, narrow, are uniformly spaced and advanced regeneration vertical cankers that may spiral a trunk, thus exists. It may be necessary to make more than one girdling it, and allow it to break in strong winds. cut to remove the overstory, in order to protect Stem decay is most commonly caused by the remaining trees from windthrow or breakage. fungus Phellinus tremulae. It produces woody For references on harvesting systems in all forest conks usually at branch stubs or scars. The only real cover types, read the Forest Practices Guidelines external indicators of its presence are the and the technical note on harvesting. sporophores (fruiting bodies) that can allow estimates of present and future decay. The ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS Ganoderma root rot (Ganoderma applanatum) is Management for Aspen Regeneration found in nearly all aspen stands, but more Aspen clone regeneration patch cuts will be based frequently on moist sites with deep soils. If on the amount of decadence and or excessive infected, a tree is likely to break and fall before conifer encroachment in the stand. Natural

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death. Signs of infection are the conks found at the objectives and surrounding land uses, it is generally base of the tree. (Fairweather et al, 2006) appropriate to reintroduce fire to a ponderosa pine Conifer establishment is only an issue if the forest, piñon-juniper savannah, or xeric mixed conifer forest where the trees are fairly wide landowner prefers to restore the aspen component spaced and ponderosa and/or Douglas-fir are a of the stand for aesthetic or wildlife objectives. component. Fire is best incorporated after thinning Methods of regeneration: Patch cuts will be a has been done. Introducing fire into PJ persistent minimum of 5 acres, not to exceed 20 acres. Large woodlands, mesic mixed conifer, spruce-fir, or clones may be patch cut multiple times. Patch cuts forests where fuel loading and/or structure will will not be implemented on slopes greater than create a stand-replacing crown fire is not 40%. Scarifying and seeding may be required if the appropriate for the average landowner. area is logged in the winter. Piñon-Juniper Management Time of Year: Stands may be clear-cut any time of Where erosion is occurring under persistent the year. In areas of high elk populations, fences woodlands or shrublands, thin the trees and leave are to be maintained until trees reach 10-12 feet in slash scattered to control erosion (with careful height. In areas where more than 100 acres are consideration of fire hazard.) Woody Residue treated in a calendar year, cut fences are usually Treatment (384) can give further guidance in using not required to modify elk grazing impact. slash for erosion control. Also consider using Rock Fences: Where fences are required to prevent and Brush Dams (410) where gullies have formed. heavy browse by wildlife (e.g. elk), they can be Consider silvopastoral treatments as a viable constructed with woven wire or brush. Woven wire option to replace complete tree removal on juniper fences must be at least 3.6 meters (~12 feet) tall. If savannahs, areas of expansion, or rangeland sites complete animal exclusion is not necessary to for financial variability or for shade and thermal permit sufficient regeneration, wire fences may be cover for livestock. (Burns, 1983) constructed at a height of 1.5 feet off the ground Ponderosa Pine Management to allow deer and other mammal passage. Also, brush fences can be built using slash from the site. If feasible for the site and the objectives, thinning They must be a minimum of 6 feet wide and 6 feet and harvesting activities should reestablish natural in height, while averaging 8 feet in height and 8 openings between clumps of leave trees where feet in width for the total enclosure. Both brush clumps contain generally fewer than 10 trees of and wire fences should be breached when aspen varying size. The manager with a restoration regeneration reaches 10-12 feet in height to allow perspective may aim for a mosaic of clumps and a return to normal competitive processes. (Bailey, patches across the stand, or follow D + X spacing 2002; VerCauteren, 2007) guidelines across most of the area, and leave Prescribed Fire healthy trees in clumps in various locations across the stand. Reintroduction of prescribed fire when Certain forest types historically experienced low the herbaceous and grass understory has grown intensity surface fires on a frequent basis. Other back will reduce future stand entries by controlling types experienced crown fires that eliminated large some of the regeneration. Overall the stand should areas of trees at one time. Ponderosa pine, for be left with a range of age and size classes, and example, typically saw a fire every 3-10 years, some large snags should be left for wildlife. while spruce-fir experienced fire every 300-400 years. Depending on landowner goals and

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leave some large picturesque or “character” trees. In these areas, girdling to create wildlife snags is not recommended because of the danger of falling trees near high-use areas. Consider creating Defensible Space around campgrounds or other high-use areas. Wildlife Habitat Minimize actions that would disturb wildlife during critical periods such as nesting, mating, and calving. Wildlife food and cover can be retained by minimal modifications to composition and spacing during cutting projects. Retention of selected dead, dying and downed trees (generally 1-5 per acre) will

enhance wildlife habitat values and nutrient Figure 1. Example of groups and openings with lop and scatter slash in cycling. ponderosa pine forest. Hardwoods and herbaceous ground cover plants have a high food value for wildlife and should be left. Hollow trees, snags, or trees with cavities

should be left at a rate of two to five per acre. Wildlife piles of woody material should be about Bosque Management three feet tall by two feet wide and left at a rate of Most of the bosque forests need invasive trees and one to five per acre. Remove if they are a hazard to large quantities of dead and downed material either livestock or people, or if they increase the removed. In some situations, replanting native risk of bark beetle infestation or severe . Also, keep in mind that certain species of wildlife Figure 2. Aerial sketch of clumps and openings. depend on various levels of cover versus edge. species such as cottonwood, willow, NM olive and For further information about forest openings, others is also needed. spacing and ratios, and slash disposal methods, Recreation review Wildlife Upland Habitat Management (645) Areas and Woody Residue Treatment (384). In areas with Snow Load, Tip Over (Windthrow/Blowdown) recreation Management values, either Very dense stands of young ponderosa pine trees denser or are susceptible to bending, breaking or tip over due more open to heavy wet snows and/or strong winds. Mixed stands may conifer and spruce-fir stands also tend to suffer a be desired. high rate of windthrow. Risk of blowdown is For related to stand conditions, cutting methods, soil aesthetics, it depth and drainage, topographic exposure, and may be rooting habit of species. Trees with shallow roots, desirable to in shallow, poorly drained soils, with root rot or

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other root damage, are most likely to be blown reproduction or from seed. Prescribed fire can also over. Most damage occurs in the first five years be used to prune lower branches infected with after thinning or harvest. One-third more trees per dwarf mistletoe. acre should be left following thinning or harvest to Two non-native pest species are documented in allow for snow and wind damage that will follow New Mexico. White pine blister rust (Cronartium thinning. See NM Forestry / Woodland Technical ribicola) and the spruce aphid (Elatobium Note #9 and the silvicultural technical notes (No. abietinum) both have increasing populations in the 35-38) for further instruction. state. All woody material transported off the site Tree Pest and Disease Management where it is cut and / or collected must be inspected There are both native and nonnative pests and and treated if necessary. diseases in the Southwest that flow across political Western Pine Beetle boundaries and whose population levels and Western pine beetle (WPB) (Dendroctonus associated threat fluctuate over time. Most are brevicomis) is one of the most aggressive and host-specific and fairly limited to the species they destructive killers of mature ponderosa pine. Most will infect, but nearly every species of conifer and often it threatens unthinned, pole-sized stands on deciduous tree has one of its own. Investigate the poor sites. During epidemic conditions, it may even insect and disease references (Fairweather et al, kill young trees. Pitch tubes (white to reddish- 2006; USDA, 2007; USDA, 2007) to determine what brown), checkered beetles searching for prey, and risks may be on a specific site. yellowing foliage are the first signs of beetle Conifer Diseases presence on an infected tree. Thinning in young True firs, Douglas-fir and Engelmann spruce are stands to remove poor quality and low vigor trees very susceptible to diseases such as dwarf is the best method of control. Opening up the mistletoes, rusts, and root diseases. Spores may canopy to allow light to reach the forest floor enter a tree where the cambium is exposed. Care discourages WPB. can be used as must be taken during thinning and harvesting not needed to clean out heavily infested pockets of to injure the residual trees. trees. (DeMars, 1982) Where landscape scale mortality has occurred, Fuel Break (383) and Red ring rot (Phellinus pini) is considered the most Woody Residue Treatment (384) should be used to common conifer trunk decay fungus in North reduce wildfire risk; little would be accomplished America; it ruins heartwood and renders by removing small and dispersed patches of dead unusable. It is found more in old-growth stands or nearly dead trees. than in stands on shorter rotation. Pine Engraver Dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium sp.) affects conifers in NM. True Mistletoe (Phoradendron sp.) affects Ips sp. attacks ponderosa pine and piñon. The hardwoods and some Juniperus sp.. Growth and beetles prefer fresh slash or injured young trees. vigor usually decline when more than fifty percent Often WPB and Ips infestations will be found on of the canopy is infected. (Dwarf Mistletoe, 1995) the same tree, with Ips in the top half of the bole Also, bark beetles are more likely to attack a and WPB in the bottom half. Effective control mistletoe-infected tree during a drought than an depends on prompt treatment of slash over 3-4 uninfected tree. To manage mistletoe, all infected inches outside-bark diameter. Stands of 80-100 and trees must be removed to a clean border and the lower BA are less susceptible than overcrowded stand regenerated from uninfected advanced stands but even in healthy stands consider scheduling cutting activity for late summer and fall

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to allow drying time for the slash. Also, eliminate trees with mistletoe infections to improve tree Management for Climate Change and Maximizing health and vigor. Most damaging outbreaks occur as a direct result While the exact location and pattern of climate of forest management practices that create slash change is uncertain, what is well-predicted is that and weaken trees. If bark beetles are considered to historical ranges of species distribution and be a problem contact the NM Forestry Division or associated management will be altered. Invasive USDA Forest Service Pest Management for further species are expected to become an even greater guidelines. (Christopherson) problem, swings in precipitation and temperature will become more drastic, and only the more Western Spruce Budworm “flexible” ecosystems will adapt and survive. The susceptibility of a stand to western spruce Managing for a resilient, diverse, and flexible budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) must be ecosystem will become an important management considered prior to management activity. To know technique. if spruce budworm is a potential problem, review (From the Forest Guild) the Annual Southwestern Pest Conditions Report, published by the USDA Forest Service (USDA FS, Recommendations for Working Forests: 2007) and/or contact the NM Forestry Division 1. Available research indicates that some currently District forestry staff. utilized practices of excellent forestry can increase Budworm larvae feed on all age classes of Douglas- carbon storage and help forests maintain their fir, true firs (white fir, subalpine fir, etc.) and spruce resiliency in the face of climate change. The (Engelmann spruce). Occasionally, Colorado blue following practices must be actively promoted and spruce, ponderosa pine and southwestern white encouraged: pine are hosts. The budworm causes defoliation a. Use forest management plans and the that, over time with multiple defoliation events, supervision of a professional forester to guide will cause mortality to less vigorous trees. harvests. Thinning treatments should be designed to retain b. Extend rotations or entry periods to promote at least 50 percent of the stand in secondary carbon storage and ecological values. successional species that are faster growing, such c. Manage for structural complexity of forests (i.e., as ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and aspen. Thinning leaving snags, coarse woody material, and—in should be from below (not the dominant and co- multi-aged stands—high levels of post harvest dominant species). This does not increase light in basal area). the canopy, which would favor the survival of d. Retain trees as biological legacies after harvests. budworm larvae. (McMillin, 2001) e. Use low-impact to protect soil and site Other pests productivity. Fir engraver (Scolytus ventralis), New Mexico fir f. Choose appropriate thinning regimes that looper (Galenara consimilus), Nepytia janetae and concentrate growth on fewer, larger trees. the Western balsam bark beetle (Dryocoetes g. Restore understocked stands to full stocking and confusus) are causing significant mortality in New productivity. Mexico. These are all native pests that populate a 2. Avoid harvesting practices that degrade forest region in a cyclical pattern of boom and bust. ecosystem health because of their negative impact Healthy, well-stocked stands are least affected.

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on carbon storage. The most harmful practices are , whole tree harvesting on nutrient impaired sites, liquidation cutting, and relying on short-term rotations that produce short lived products.

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REFERENCES ORGANIZED BY SUBJECT: Dwarf Mistletoe Management Guidebook. 1995. Forest Practices Code of British Columbia Act. http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcgui Bailey, Joseph K. and Thomas G. Whitham. 2002. de/dwarf/chap2.htm#mtc “Interactions among Fire, Aspen, and Elk Affect Fairweather, Mary Lou et al. 2006. Field Guide to Insect Diversity: Reversal of a Community Insects and Diseases of AZ and NM Forests. USDA Response.” Ecology, 83 (6), pp. 1701-1712. Forest Service. Southwestern Region MB-R3-16-3. Binelli, Eliana, Henry L. Gholz, and Mary L. Duryea. http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/resources/health/field- 2007. Plant Succession and Disturbances in the guide/index.shtml Urban Forest Ecosystem. University of Florida McMillin, Joel D., Kurt Allen, and Jeri Harris. 2001. Extension. “Impacts of western balsam bark beetle on forest http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/fr/fr06800.pdf conditions in the Bighorn National Forest.” R2 Reid, Kent, 2008. Hybrid Piñon-Juniper Key. NMHU, Forest Health Management. Rapid City, SD. Forest and Watershed Restoration Institute. http://fhm.fs.fed.us/posters/posters01/impacts.pd http://www.nmhu.edu/nmfwri/pdf/Hybrid%20Piñ f on-Juniper%20Key.pdf Parker, Douglas L. 1998. “Integrated Pest Romme, William, et al. 2007. “Historical and Management: Arizona Five-Spined Ips, Ips lecontei Modern Disturbance Regimes of Piñon-Juniper Swaine, and Pine Engraver, Ips pini (Say), in Vegetation in the Western U.S.” Ft.Collins, CO: Ponderosa Pine”. USDA Forest Service. Colorado State University Southwestern Region. R-3 91-8. http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/publications/documents/i USDA NRCS. “Assistance/ Meeting Report – “Four pm_guide.pdf Corners” Forest Ecological Sites (Juniper-pinyon) Coordination Meeting – NM, CO, UT, AZ, OR. 2005. USDA Forest Service. 2007. An Online Catalog of Edited by Lyn Townsend Western Forest Insects and Diseases. PNW Region. http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/nr/fid/wid.shtml Pests and Diseases USDA Forest Service. 2007. Forest Health Christopherson, John. “Piñon Ips Beetle.” Nevada Monitoring website. http://fhm.fs.fed.us/ Division of Forestry. http://www.forestry.nv.gov/main/health_pinon.ht USDA Forest Service. 2007. “Forest Insect and m Disease Conditions in the Southwestern Region, 2006.” Southwest Region. PR-R3-16-2. Colorado Institute. 2007. http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/publications/documents/f “What’s Happening in Colorado’s Aspen Forests?” idc2006.pdf Golden, CO. Colorado State University. http://www.cfri.colostate.edu/docs/aspen_change. USDA NRCS. “New Mexico State Listed Noxious pdf Weeds.” 2005. http://plants.usda.gov/java/noxious?rptType=State DeMars, Clarence and Roettgering, Bruce H. 1982. &statefips=35 “Western Pine Beetle.” Forest Insect and Disease Leaflet 1. USDA Forest Service. Pp. 384-644. Forest and Ecosystem Management http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/fidls/we_pine_ Burns, Russell M. 1983. Silvicultural systems for the beetle/wpb.htm major forest types of the United States. Agric. Handb. 445. Washington, DC: USDA, Forest Service.

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Demchick, Mike, et al. 2007. “Raising Cattle and Lenart, Melanie, Christopher Jones, and Bruce Timber for Profit.” Univ. of Montana. Kimball. “Rising Carbon Dioxide Levels and Forest http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/natur Management.” 2006. Tucson, AZ. University of alresources/DD8128.html Arizona. Dennis, Frank C. and Bob Sturtevant. “Forest http://cals.arizona.edu/pubs/natresources/az1395. pdf Restoration Guidelines in Ponderosa Pine on the Front Range of Colorado.” Internet: Dec. 2, 2007. Perschel, Robert T., Alexander M. Evans, and http://www.cfri.colostate.edu/docs/ForestRestorat Marcia J. Summers. “Climate Change, Carbon, and ionGuidelines_021507.pdf the Forests of the Northeast.” 2007. Santa Fe, NM. “New Mexico Forest Restoration Principles.” http://www.forestguild.org/publications/2007/For http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/spf/nm-restor-principles- estGuild_climate_carbon_forests.pdf 122006.pdf Savage, Melissa, Tori Derr, Alexander Evans, Eytan Krasilovsky, Ken Smith, Henry Carey. Short

Guide for Developing CFRP Restoration Prescriptions. 2008. Las Vegas, NM. NM Forest and Watershed Restoration Institute. http://www.forestguild.org/publications/research/ 2008/NMFWRI01_prescription.pdf

Sheppard, Wayne E. and Lane G. Eskew, compilers. 2004. Silviculture in Special Places: Proceedings of the National Silviculture Workshop; 2003 September 8-11; Granby, CO. Proceedings RMRS-P- 34. Fort Collins, CO: USDA, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Siegel, Steven, and Susan Donaldson. “Measures to Prevent the Spread of Noxious and Invasive Weeds During Construction Activities.” Univ. of Nevada Cooperative Extension. Fact Sheet-03-59. http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/nr/20 03/FS0359.pdf VerCauteren, Kurt C., et al. 2007. “A Fence Design for Excluding Elk Without Impeding Other Wildlife.” Rangeland Ecological Management 60:529–532 Climate Change and Forest Management Harris, James A., Richard J. Bobbs, Eric Higgs, and James Aronson. “Ecological Restoration and Global Climate Change.” 2006. Restoration Ecology Vol. 14, No.2, pp. 170-176. Society for Ecological Restoration International.

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