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April 2006 Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry ver. 2.1 www.traditionaltree.org Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, R. stylosa, R. × annamalai, R. × lamarckii (Indo–West Pacific stilt mangrove) Rhizophoraceae (mangrove family) mangle hembra (Guam: Chamorro); tebechel, bngaol, agpat, apgal (Palau); raway, roway, ravey (Yap Islands, FSM); chia, cia (Chuuk, FSM); aak, akelel, akapah (Pohnpei, FSM); kahrak, suhkasrik, sakasrik (Kosrae, FSM); petu rogha, ngochango- chara (Marovo, Solomon Islands); tiri tambua (Fiji); koriki (Daru and Kiwai, PNG); totoa (Motu, PNG); spotted leaved red mangrove (Western Australia); red mangrove, tall-stilted mangrove, prop root mangroves (Queensland) Norman C. Duke IN BRIEF Distribution Native to tropical and subtropi- cal coastal areas from the African east coast, throughout Asia to Australia and to most is- lands of the eastern Pacific Ocean. Closely al- lied with Atlantic–East Pacific red mangroves Duke C. N. photo: whose ranges naturally overlap only in a small number of southern Pacific islands. Size Can reach 30–40 m (100–130 ft) in height, although commonly reaches 5–8 m (16–26 ft). Habitat Inhabits the intertidal wetland zone, 0–6 m (0–20 ft) elevation between mean sea level and highest tides, with variable rainfall. Vegetation Mangrove communities. Soils Adapted to a wide range but thrives best in fine mud sediments of downstream river es- tuaries. Growth rate Grows <1 m/yr (3.3 ft/yr) in height. Main agroforestry uses Soil stabilization, coastal protection, wildlife/marine habitat for marine fauna. Main products Timber, fuelwood, charcoal, dyes, and traditional medicine. Yields In Malaysia, the 30-year rotation har- vested yield of green wood has been about 136– 299 mt/ha (61–133 t/ac). Intercropping Recommended for planting to- gether with other mangrove species. Invasive potential Has potential to invade new environments; not recommended for planting outside of the natural range. These plants are ready colonizers of new mud banks, making Rhizophora mucronata trees showing stilt roots, Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia. them opportunistically invasive. INTRODUCTION Rhizophora mucronata and R. stylosa are sibling species (i.e., possibly R. stylosa =R. mucronata var. stylosa (Griff.) Sal- Indo–West Pacific stilt mangroves (IWP Rhizophora spe- voza), and together they characterize most stands of IWP cies) are widespread throughout most tropical coastal areas stilt mangroves. The range ofR. mucronata is the widest of of the western Pacific region to east Africa. This group is all IWP species, extending from east Africa, where it oc- one of two that make up the genus Rhizophora and consists curs as the sole Rhizophora, to the western Pacific, where it of three species (two being closely allied), R. mucronata, R. overlaps with all other IWP species. In contrast, R. stylosa stylosa, and R. apiculata, and two hybrids, R. × lamarckii extends exclusively east, notably into the southwestern Pa- and R. × annamalai. cific. The range of R. apiculata also extends further east in Stilt mangroves thrive under a range of intertidal condi- the south Pacific thanR. mucronata, but otherwise its range tions, including a range of salinity levels from near fresh- mostly fits within the ranges of other IWPRhizophora . The water to full strength seawater. They tolerate a range of status of observed differences in similar forms, R. mucro- flooding regimes, soil types, and other physical site factors. nata and R. stylosa, will only be resolved in genetic studies Typically, these mangroves are common in the mid-inter- and selected breeding programs. tidal zone, and particularly along the seaward margin of The two hybrid taxa presumably have distributions in keep- tropical mangrove stands. ing with their hybrid status. As such, they are located wher- Rhizophora are considered the most important of all man- ever the ranges of their putative parents overlap. Confirmed grove genera across the Pacific tropical region. However, records of hybrid distributions show R. × lamarckii to be the benefits provided by stilt mangroves are difficult to widespread in the western Pacific, while R. × annamalai separate from the larger role of mangroves and mangrove was found in India and Sri Lanka along the western limits ecosystems in general. Mangroves are known to play a vital of R. apiculata. However, considerable confusion is expect- role in shoreline protection, enhancement of water quality ed in the field distribution records, because these hybrids in nearshore environments (including coral reefs), and in supporting estuarine and marine food chains. In most parts of the Pacific, trees are harvested for firewood, so the trunk WHAT IS A MANGROVE? is the main part of the tree considered for direct use. Mangroves form a unique and dominant ecosystem comprised of intertidal marine plants, mostly trees, DISTRIBUTION predominantly bordering margins of tropical coast- lines around the world. These halophytic (salt toler- ant) plants thrive in saline conditions and daily inun- Native range dation between mean sea level and highest astronomi- Indo–West Pacific stilt mangroves occur widely through- cal tides, and they provide vital structure as habitat out the western Pacific. Specifically, they occur in tropical and food for similarly adapted resident and transient and subtropical, intertidal wetlands from the east coast of fauna. Mangrove plants exchange gases from exposed Africa, through Asia to Micronesia extending east in the roots using special lenticels, while flooding tides allow northwestern Pacific through the Federated States of Mi- uptake of river-borne nutrients and frequent dispersal cronesia to the Marshall Islands, and south to northern by their buoyant propagules. The ecological limits de- Australia extending east in the southern Pacific as far as fined by the diurnal tidal range explain the setting and Samoa. Distributions appear continuous, but separate spe- why just 70 species around the world are considered cies have different preferred locations where they domi- to be mangroves (Tomlinson 1986, Duke et al. 1998), nate: compared with adjacent rainforests that may have • R. mucronata occurs mostly in areas subject to regu- hundreds of tree species per hectare. Specialized mor- lar freshwater flows (at least in the eastern part of its phological and physiological characteristics largely range) define and characterize mangrove plants, such as but- • R. stylosa occurs in marine situations often preferring tress trunks and roots providing support in soft sedi- more exposed offshore sites ments, aboveground roots allowing vital gas exchange in anaerobic sediments, and physiological adaptations • R. apiculata is often found mid–lower estuary in larger for excluding or expelling salt. Fewer than 22 plant riverine estuaries and embayments families have developed such essential attributes, rep- • the hybrid R. × lamarckii is found downstream in mid- resenting independent instances of co-evolution over dle to higher intertidal locations. millions of years to form today’s mangrove habitats. Indo–West PacificRhizophora species World distributions of stilt mangroves, the IWP Rhizophora species. Given the hybrid status of Rhizophora × lamarckii (= R. stylosa × R. apiculata) and R. × annamalai (= R. mucronata × R. apiculata), their distribution is likely where the distributions of their respective parent trees overlap. Coastlines marked in red indicate the distribution of all mangroves. image: N.C. Duke are difficult to distinguish based on morphological char- Salvoza) acters alone. Rhizophora apiculata Bl. Of great interest also in the southwestern Pacific islands Rhizophora × lamarckii Montr. (= R. stylosa × R. apiculata) is the only occurrence of another hybrid taxon, R. × selala Rhizophora × annamalai K. Kathiresan. (= R. mucronata × R. (Salvoza) Tomlinson, derived from putative parents R. apiculata) samoensis (=R. mangle?) and R. stylosa (=R. mucronata var. stylosa?). This hybrid taxon is special because R. samoen- Family sis is a key member of the AEP red mangrove Rhizophora Rhizophoraceae (mangrove family) species. The occurrence of this hybrid means there appears to be very little genetic separation between these defining Common names and most divergent of Rhizophora species. aak, akelel, akapah (Pohnpei, FSM) abat (Ceram, Indonesia) Current distribution ailave, kailau (Aru, Indonesia) There are no reports of any stilt mangroves occurring out- bakau (Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Borneo, Sumatra) side their natural range. However, these species are recog- bakauan, bakau, bakhaw (Philippines) nized as valuable timber producers, so it is possible that bako ( Java, Indonesia) their dispersal east in the Pacific and elsewhere may have bangka (Acheh, Indonesia) been assisted by indigenous peoples in the past. chia, cia (Chuuk, FSM) Indo–West Pacific stilt mangroves (English) kahrak, suhkasrik, sakasrik (Kosrae, FSM) BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION koriki (Daru and Kiwai, PNG) lolaro, belukap (Sulawesi, Indonesia) Preferred scientific names mangle hembra (Guam: Chamorro) Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. ngochangochara, petu rogha (Marovo, Solomon Islands) Rhizophora stylosa Griff. (=R. mucronata var. stylosa (Griff.) prop root mangroves (northeastern Australia) Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) raway, roway, ravey (Yap Islands, FSM) Leaves red, tall-stilted mangrove (Queensland) Leaves are opposite, simple, light or dark green, obovate, spotted leaved red mangrove (Western Australia)
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  • Substrate Characteristics and Its Impact On

    Substrate Characteristics and Its Impact On

    Journal of Biological Researches: 19 (82-86) 2014 SUBSTRATE CHARACTERISTICS AND ITS IMPACT ON DISTRIBUTION OF MANGROVE SPECIES : A Case Study In Sungai Barong Kecil In The Sembillang National Park At Banyuasin, South Sumatra Yuanita Windusari1, Sarno1, Edward Saleh2, Laila Hanum1 1Biology Department of Mathematic and Natural Sciences Faculty, Sriwijaya University, 2Technology of Agriculture of Agriculture Faculty, Sriwijaya University e-mail : [email protected] ABSTRACT The composition and density of vegetation in the mangrove areas affected soil conditions. Areas with a smooth distribution of substrat particles contain higher organic matter, and is characterized by the growth of mangrove better and more diverse. How environmental conditions affect the distribution of mangrove substrats observed in this study. The study was conducted in the area of Sungai Barong Kecil and Sungai Barong Besar which is part of the Sembilang National Park, Banyuasin District, South Sumatra. The study was conducted in May and June 2014. Location determined substrats by purposive sampling with particular consideration, and samples were taken using a modified PVC pipe at a depth of 10-30 cm, while the checkered line method with parallel lines used for observation shoreline mangrove distribution. Physical parameters such as salinity environmental chemistry, pH, and moisture. Analysis was performed on substrat particle size, substrat organic matter content, as well as the condition and type of mangrove. The results showed that the Sungai Barong Kecil area tend to have a much smoother distribution of substrat particles (clay content and higher dust). This leads to more easily grow mangroves and mangrove species were found to be more diverse (Avicennia marina, Avicennia alba, Rhizophora mucronata and Avicennia officianalis).