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Ambient Air Pollution by As, Cd and Ni Compounds

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Ambient Air Pollution by As, Cd and Ni Compounds 14 KH-41-01-349-EN-N European Commission Ambient air pollution by AS, CD and NI compounds. Position Paper ISBN 92-894-2054-5 OFFICE FOR OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES L-2985 Luxembourg 9 789289 420549 See our publications catalogue at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/pubs/home.htm 14 KH-41-01-349-EN-N European Commission Ambient air pollution by AS, CD and NI compounds. Position Paper ISBN 92-894-2054-5 OFFICE FOR OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES L-2985 Luxembourg 9 789289 420549 See our publications catalogue at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/pubs/home.htm A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2001 ISBN 92-894-2054-5 © European Communities, 2001 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION BY AS, CD AND NI COMPOUNDS Position Paper Final Version October 2000 Working Group On Arsenic, European Commission Cadmium And Nickel Compounds DG Environment - 2 - Table of contents Executive Summary ................................................................................... 5 0. Background and Scope.............................................................................. 12 1. Introduction And Characterization Of The Pollutants.......................... 14 1.1 Metal And Metalloid Compounds Occurring In Ambient Air..................... 14 1.2 Size Distribution Of Particles Containing As, Cd And Ni Compounds ...... 25 1.3 Emission Sources Of As, Cd And Ni Compounds ...................................... 30 1.3.1 Natural Sources And Global Cycles ............................................................ 30 1.3.2 Main Anthropogenic European Sources Of As, Cd And Ni Compounds..... 32 1.3.3 Emission Inventories.................................................................................... 37 1.3.4 Trends .......................................................................................................... 43 1.4 Ambient Air Levels In Europe..................................................................... 47 1.4.1 Ambient Air Concentrations ........................................................................ 47 1.4.2 Deposition.................................................................................................... 56 1.4.3 Trends In Ambient Air Levels ...................................................................... 61 1.5 European And National Legislation............................................................. 68 1.5.1 National Standards And Guidelines ............................................................ 68 1.5.2 EC Legislation ............................................................................................. 71 1.5.3 UNECE Protocol To The Convention On Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution On Heavy Metals And OSPAR Decision On Limits For Emissions From The Primary Non-Ferrous Metal Industry........................ 72 1.6 Summary Of Key Points, Chapter 1............................................................. 74 1.7 Literature To Chapter 1................................................................................ 77 2. Risk Assessment ......................................................................................... 86 2.1 Arsenic ......................................................................................................... 86 2.1.1 Sources And Occurrence In The Environment............................................. 86 2.1.2 Human Exposure, Uptake And Effects......................................................... 88 2.2 Cadmium...................................................................................................... 110 2.2.1 Sources And Occurrence In The Environment............................................. 110 2.2.2 Human Exposure, Uptake And Effects......................................................... 111 2.3 Nickel........................................................................................................... 128 2.3.1 Sources And Occurrence In The Environment............................................. 128 2.3.2 Human Exposure, Uptake And Effects......................................................... 129 2.4 Effects Of Arsenic, Cadmium And Nickel On Terrestrial Ecosystems ....... 145 2.4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 145 2.4.2 Arsenic ......................................................................................................... 147 2.4.3 Cadmium...................................................................................................... 147 2.4.4 Nickel ........................................................................................................... 149 - 3 - 2.5 Deposition.................................................................................................... 151 2.5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 151 2.5.2 Derivation Of Deposition Standards For Local Scales ............................... 152 2.5.3 Widespread Accumulation Of Cadmium In Soils......................................... 159 2.6 Proposals For Limit Values In Air............................................................... 162 2.6.1 Starting Points ............................................................................................. 162 2.6.2 Limit Value For Arsenic............................................................................... 165 2.6.3 Limit Value For Cadmium ........................................................................... 173 2.6.4 Limit Value For Nickel................................................................................. 179 2.6.5 Summary Of Limit Values ............................................................................ 191 2.7 Summary Of Key Points And Recommendations........................................ 192 2.7.1 Arsenic, Effects On Human Health.............................................................. 192 2.7.2 Cadmium, Effects On Human Health........................................................... 193 2.7.3 Nickel, Effects On Human Health................................................................ 194 2.7.4 Effects On Ecosystems ................................................................................. 195 2.8 Literature To Chapter 2................................................................................ 197 3. Measurement And Assessment ................................................................. 214 3.1 Introduction And Requirements Of The Framework Directive ................... 214 3.1.1 Specific Monitoring Requirements For Heavy Metals And Metalloids Following From The Risk Assessment And From The Emission Inventories (Chapter 1)................................................................................ 217 3.2 Network Design ........................................................................................... 218 3.2.1 Number Of Monitoring Stations For Concentration Measurements And Siting Criteria....................................................................................... 218 3.2.2 Monitoring Strategy For Deposition Measurements ................................... 230 3.2.3 Time Coverage............................................................................................. 235 3.2.4 Upper And Lower Assessment Thresholds................................................... 240 3.3 Measurement Methods................................................................................. 244 3.3.1 Concentration Measurements ...................................................................... 244 3.3.2 Deposition Measurement Methods............................................................... 260 3.3.3 Methods Currently Applied By The Member States..................................... 266 3.3.4 Proposed Reference Method ........................................................................ 270 3.4 Other Assessment Techniques ..................................................................... 273 3.4.1 Modelling ..................................................................................................... 273 3.4.2 Biomonitoring .............................................................................................. 290 3.5 Quality Assurance ........................................................................................ 294 3.5.1 Data Quality Objectives............................................................................... 297 3.5.2 Maintenance And Calibration...................................................................... 299 3.6 Reporting Of The Results ............................................................................ 301 3.7 Summary Of Key Points, Chapter 3............................................................. 302 3.8 Literature To Chapter 3................................................................................ 305 - 4 - 4. Annex A: Members Of The Working Group .......................................... 316 5. Annex B: Annual Emissions Of Heavy Metals In The 15 Member States Per Source Category ....................................................... 317 6. Annex C: Monitoring Sites Included In The EMEP Data Base On Cadmium For 1996 And 1997 .........................................
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