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Sexual Behavior Among 1 Sexual Behavior Among 1 Sexual Behavior Among Costa Ricans and Euro-Americans Gloriana Rodríguez Arauz A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Health Psychology Department of Psychology Central Connecticut State University New Britain, Connecticut April 2010 Thesis Advisor Dr. Marisa Mealy Department of Psychology Sexual Behavior Among 2 Sexual Behavior Among Costa Ricans and Euro-Americans Gloriana Rodríguez Arauz An Abstract of a Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Health Psychology Department of Psychology Central Connecticut State University New Britain, Connecticut April 2010 Thesis Advisor Dr. Marisa Mealy Department of Psychology Key Words: Sexual Behavior, Culture, Costa Rica, United States Sexual Behavior Among 3 Abstract Sex is a vital part of oneself. Due to its biological and social functions, sex has a profound impact on an individual‟s physical and psychological health. Risky sexual behavior may have particularly harmful consequences, including contracting HIV/AIDS or other sexually transmitted infections, lowered self-esteem, unwanted pregnancy, and the experience of social stigma. There are moral battles fought over sex education or abstinence only programs, yet what exactly is understood by the word “sex” is often left to the interpretation of the individual. In fact, although evidence suggests that there is a high level of agreement indicating that both penile-vaginal and anal intercourse are considered “having sex,” this consensus does not extend to other behaviors, such as oral sex (Randall & Byers, 2003; Trotter & Alderson, 2007). Several factors are believed to influence variations in definitions of sex, including perceptions of behavioral appropriateness, the level of commitment in a relationship, and gender. Additionally, many cultures hold different norms and values in relation to appropriate behavior, relationships, and gender roles. Yet, research regarding the impact of ethnocultural influences on perceptions of sexual behavior has been limited. This thesis explores definitions of sex and the perceived appropriateness of sexual behaviors in two cultures with contrasting values: Costa Rica and the United States. Results suggest that although both cultures define penile-vaginal and anal intercourse as sex, Costa Ricans consider behaviors associated with foreplay, oral sex, and phone/cyber sex as „having sex‟ more frequently than their Euro-American counterparts. For Euro- American participants, oral sex was considered sex only when it occurred within a new Sexual Behavior Among 4 relationship, while foreplay and phone/cyber sex were almost never considered „having sex‟. On the other hand, for Costa Ricans, behaviors associated with phone/cyber sex were perceived as „having sex‟ only within a new relationship, while all other categories of behavior were defined as sex regardless of context. Findings also suggest that relational commitments are a stronger contextual barrier in perceptions of appropriate of sexual behavior among Costa Ricans, when compared to Euro-Americans. In fact, the majority of Euro-American respondents rated all sexual behaviors as appropriate prior to a formal commitment (marriage or domestic partnership). The only exception to this was among the Euro-American females, who indicated that anal sex was only appropriate within the context of a formal committed relationship. On the other hand, Costa Ricans generally rated the sexual behaviors as appropriate after a minimum of 3 months dating. For Costa Rican females, phone/cyber sex was only appropriate within the context of a formal commitment and anal sex was almost never considered appropriate. This thesis demonstrates the importance of considering culture when exploring sexual behavior. It explains cultural differences in accordance with the theoretical implications of individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, and conservative morality. Furthermore, it discusses implications for intercultural relationships, the design of prevention programs, and health care. Sexual Behavior Among 5 Sexual Behavior among Costa Ricans and Euro-Americans Sex is universal, but it is one of the most taboo topics. It is “something nobody talks about, but everybody does something about” (Levinger, 1966, p. 261). Sexual behaviors fulfill a number of needs for both the self and partner: procreation, pleasure, and intimacy. In addition to being a biologically hard-wired function, sex is subject to societal expectations and ideas that profoundly impact our experience (Hofstede, 1998). It is often considered alluring, pleasurable, and the quintessential expression of freedom. Simultaneously, sex is seen as something mysterious, disgusting, and even dangerous (Michael, Gagnon, Laumann & Kolata, 1995). The way that a person thinks about sex feeds myths and misconceptions, governs sexual behavior, and leads judgments about the self and others (Michael, et al. 1995). A person‟s understanding of sex may have a strong impact on both personal behavior and the conceptualization of the self. For example, if a teenage boy has not had sex by the time the majority of his friends have, he may wonder if there is something “wrong” with him. He might also make unwise sexual choices to prove his masculinity. When sexual behavior is perceived as socially inappropriate, it is considered promiscuous. Promiscuity is defined in terms of deviant quantities of casual and indiscriminate sexual behavior, according to the norms of a determined society (Clayton & Trafimow, 2007; Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2003). Female promiscuity in particular tends to be linked to negative attributions. If a woman‟s sexual conduct is not considered proper, she may be perceived as being a member of a low socioeconomic status or as cognitively and emotionally unstable (Ericsson & Jon 2006; Attwood, 2007). Sexual Behavior Among 6 In the United States, over 90% of college students are believed to be sexually active, and many engage in unprotected sex (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2002). Engaging in this type of risky sexual behavior is frequently cited as the primary reason for the spread of sexually transmitted infections (United States Food and Drug Administration [FDA], 1990; Rutgers Health Services, 2005). While a few sexually transmitted infections may be fairly harmless, most, if left untreated, could cause cancer, birth defects, infertility, and/or death. One of the deadliest consequences of engaging in risky sexual behavior is the transmission of the HIV virus and the development of AIDS. In fact, since 1981, over 25 million people (more than 3 times the population of New York City) have died as a result of the AIDS epidemic (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS [UNAIDS], 2008). Additionally, it is estimated that on a global level approximately half of all new HIV infections happen among people 15-24 years of age (UNAIDS, 2008). Defining Sex Sex is ever-present and is a prime factor in defining one‟s identity. Risky sexual behavior is the source of major health concerns in the US and worldwide. However, what exactly is understood by the word “sex” is often left to the interpretation of the performer or the receiver of the behavior. In fact, a number of factors appear to influence what people actually define as sex. Sex is primarily defined in terms of the behaviors people consider to be part of a sexual encounter: penile-vaginal intercourse, oral sex, petting or fondling of breasts and genitals, etc. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2003) defines the act of sex as “the activities associated with sexual intercourse.” The book “Questions Kids Ask about Sex” defines it as occurring when one person touches the other‟s genitals Sexual Behavior Among 7 and that person is sexually aroused (Fitch & Cox, 2007). The United States Center for Disease Control included penile-vaginal intercourse, anal intercourse, and oral sex in their definition of sex (CDC, 2002). And, when Bill Clinton was president of the United States, he argued that oral sex wasn‟t sex at all (CBS Broadcasting Inc., 2009). The diversity of definitions and understandings make it clear that there is no general agreement about what constitutes having “had sex” and how sexual partners should be counted (Sanders & Reinisch, 1999). Empirical studies have shown that there is a high level of consensus among young adults that both penile-vaginal intercourse and penile-anal intercourse can be defined as sex (Sanders & Reinisch, 1999; Richters & Song, 1999; Randall & Byers, 2003; Trotter & Alderson, 2007; Peterson & Muehlenhard, 2007). However, there is little agreement about the inclusion of other behaviors. Randall and Byers (2003) found that a small percentage of Canadian students (14%) considered phone or cyber sex to be sex. Findings are even more divided regarding oral sex. Approximately 60% of U.S. Americans do not consider oral sex to be having sex - if it was the most intimate contact they have had until that moment (Sanders & Reinsch, 1999; Richters & Song, 1999). Appropriateness of Sexual Behaviors Sexual experience may be influenced by the appropriateness of various sexual behaviors (DeLamater & Maccorquodale, 1979; Davis & Kaats, 1972). Penile-vaginal intercourse is commonly perceived as standard sexual behavior for married heterosexual couples. It is necessary for procreation as well as for pleasure, and is considered an appropriate behavior for even the most conservative individuals
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