2 Land and soil
© Kayhan Guc, Sustainably Yours/EEA
3 par A PART 2
Key messages
• Land and its soils are the • Land recycling accounts for only • European policy aims to develop foundation for producing food, feed 13 % of urban developments in the EU. the bioeconomy but while new uses and other ecosystem services such as The EU 2050 target of no net land take for biomass and increasing food regulating water quality and quantity. is unlikely to be met unless annual and fodder consumption require Ecosystem services related to land use rates of land take are further reduced increasing agricultural output, land are critical for Europe’s economy and and/or land recycling is increased. for agricultural use has decreased. quality of life. Competition for land and This leads to growing pressures on intensive land use affects the condition • Soil degradation is not well the available agricultural land and soil of soils and ecosystems, altering their monitored, and often hidden, but it is resources which are exacerbated by capacity to provide these services. It widespread and diverse. Intensive land the impacts of climate change. also reduces landscape and species management leads to negative impacts diversity. on soil biodiversity, which is the key • The lack of a comprehensive driver of terrestrial ecosystems’ carbon and coherent policy framework for • Land take and soil sealing continue, and nutrient cycling. There is increasing protecting Europe’s land and soil predominantly at the expense evidence that land and soil degradation resources is a key gap that reduces the of agricultural land, reducing its have major economic consequences, effectiveness of the existing incentives production potential. While the annual whereas the cost of preventing damage and measures and may limit Europe’s rate of land take and consequent is significantly lower. ability to achieve future objectives habitat loss has gradually slowed, related to development of green ecosystems are under pressure from infrastructure and the bioeconomy. fragmentation of peri-urban and rural landscapes.
Thematic summary assessment
Theme Past trends and outlook Prospects of meeting policy objectives/targets
Past trends (10-15 years) Outlook to 2030 2020 2050
Urbanisation and land use by agriculture Deteriorating trends Deteriorating developments Not on track and forestry dominate dominate
Soil condition Deteriorating trends Deteriorating developments Not on track dominate dominate
Note: For the methodology of the summary assessment table, see the introduction to Part 2. The justification for the colour coding is explained in Section 5.3, Key trends and outlooks (Tables 5.2 and 5.4).
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05. Land and soil
5.1 gradual decline in the levels of (soil) Scope of the theme biodiversity (Schneiders et al., 2012; Tsiafouli et al., 2015). Productive land and fertile soil are part of our shared natural capital. The management of land by owners and Land-use management 5.2 users is therefore fundamental for is vital for sustainable Policy context sustainable resource use and delivery resource use and delivery of ecosystem services. These services Prevention and restoration of land and include the provision of food, nutrient of ecosystem services. soil degradation are addressed broadly cycling, supporting all terrestrial in the European policy framework. biodiversity, water regulation and Table 5.1 presents an overview of purification, and mitigating climate selected relevant policy targets and change by carbon sequestration. While objectives. More details on policies the demand for food and the pressures from climate change. Shifting spring related to agriculture and forestry are on land and soil are increasing phenology, droughts, fires, storms available in Chapter 13. globally, biodiversity is visibly declining and floods impact the condition of (UNEP, 2014; IPBES, 2018). ecosystems and the food chain. Regarding land and soil policies, binding targets are lacking at European Current land use practices and A complex pattern of pressures results level. The Seventh Environment observed land cover changes put from socio-economic drivers, expressed Action Programme (7th EAP) and significant pressure on the land system as the need for settlements, transport, the EU Roadmap to a resource (EC DG AGRI, 2015; EEA, 2018c). The clean water, food and fibre production, efficient Europe promote ‘no net land condition of land and soils is affected by and tourism. Future scenarios and take’ in the EU by 2050, aiming to loss of productive land because of land projections point to intensification of mitigate the effect of urban sprawl. take and the type and intensity of land agriculture in northern and western ‘No net land take’ supports the land management. Europe’s soils suffer from Europe and extensification and degradation neutrality target of the sealing, erosion, compaction, pollution, abandonment in the Mediterranean United Nations Convention to Combat salinisation and carbon loss. Additional region (Holman et al., 2017). More Desertification (UNCCD), aiming to pressure on the land system comes intensive land use will lead to a maintain the amount and quality of
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TABLE 5.1 Overview of selected policy objectives and targets
Policy objectives and targets Sources Target year Agreement
Land and soil
EU policies help to achieve no net land take by 2050 7th EAP (EU) 2050 Non-binding commitments Reduce soil erosion, increase soil organic matter, and Roadmap to a resource efficient 2020/2050 promote remedial work on contaminated sites Europe (EU)
Prevent further degradation of soil, preserve its Thematic strategy on the protection N/A Non-binding functions and restore degraded soil of soil commitment
Integrate soil protection into relevant EU policies
Restore at least 15 % of degraded ecosystems; better EU biodiversity strategy to 2020 2020 Non-binding integrate biodiversity into agriculture and forestry commitments
Targets 2.4 (food security), 3.9 (soil pollution), Global policies: SDGs, United 2030 Non-binding 15.2 (sustainable agricultural and forest management), Nations Convention to Combat commitments and 15.3 (land degradation neutrality) Desertification
Combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification
Sustainable management of natural resources and Common agricultural policy (CAP) N/A Non-binding climate action: to ensure the long-term sustainability commitments and potential of EU agriculture by safeguarding the natural resources on which agricultural production depends
Ensure the monitoring of negative impacts of air National Emission Ceilings Directive 2030 Binding pollution upon ecosystems (Article 9) (includes soils) (Article 9) commitment
Identify and assess sites contaminated by mercury, Minamata Convention on Mercury N/A Non-binding and address risks (includes soil contamination) (Article 15) commitment
Ensure that emissions do not exceed removals in the LULUCF regulation (2018/841) 2025, 2030 Binding LULUCF sector (no-debit rule) commitment
Note: 7th EAP, Seventh Environment Action Programme; LULUCF, land use, land use change and forestry; SDGs, Sustainable Development Goals; N/A, non-applicable.
land resources. Land degradation The EU biodiversity strategy to 2020 calls According to a study by Frelih-Larsen neutrality is promoted by Target 15.3 for restoring at least 15 % of degraded et al. (2017), 671 policy instruments of the UN Sustainable Development ecosystems in the EU and to expand related to soil protection exist in Goals (SDGs), which, by 2030, strives the use of green infrastructure, e.g. to the 28 EU Member States (EU-28), to combat desertification and to help overcome land fragmentation. and 45 % of them are linked to EU restore degraded land and soil. SDG 2 The UN Resolution on Soil Pollution policies. For example, the National (to eliminate hunger) connects soils, (UNEP, 2017) requests countries to set Emission Ceilings Directive aims to food production and healthy living. norms and standards to prevent, reduce reduce the impact of emissions of Land and soils are also bound to and manage soil pollution. acidifying substances (Chapter 8); the goals that address poverty reduction Industrial Emissions Directive seeks to (SDG 1), health and well-being through Although specific soil protection prevent emissions from entering the reduced pollution (SDG 3), access to legislation is not in place in the EU, the soil (Chapter 12); several directives clean water and sanitation (SDG 6), the 2006 soil thematic strategy promotes target avoiding soil contamination environmental impact of urban sprawl the inclusion of soil protection from waste disposal and chemicals (SDG 11) and climate change (SDG 13). measures in various policy areas. (Chapters 9 and 10); and the Water
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Framework Directive seeks to due to conversion to industrial sites and identify and estimate water pollution in Ireland due to afforestation. Forests originating from soils (Chapter 4). and transitional woodlands (less than Nevertheless, binding instruments 7.1 % 0.1 % change) and natural grassland and targets are mostly lacking, and (less than 0.3 % change) had most stable not all soil threats and soil functions increase in the area of land cover extents in Europe between are covered. artificial surfaces between 2000 and 2018. 2000 and 2018.
5.3 5.3.2 Key trends and outlooks Urban expansion and land use change 5.3.1 Land cover change the period 2000-2018 show that the area Seventy-two per cent of Europe’s of artificial surfaces has changed the population lives in cities, towns and Land use modifies the quality and most, increasing by 7.1 % (Figure 5.1). suburbs (Dijkstra et al., 2016). Urban quantity of ecosystem services Although the latest period, 2012-2018, agglomerations in the EU are expected (EEA, 2018c) by conditioning the had the lowest increase, during the to grow by 11 % (corresponding to potential of land and soil to provide entire period 2000-2018, 921 km²/year of 34 million people) by 2050 (Kompil et al., these services. Unsustainable land was turned into artificial surfaces. 2015), and artificial surfaces are agricultural and forestry practices, predicted to increase by 0.71 % by 2050, urban expansion and climate While the areas of arable land and leading to increasing land take and change are the main drivers of permanent crops became smaller fragmentation (Lavalle and Barbosa, land degradation, which according during the period 2000-2018 (by 0.5 %, 2015; Lavalle and Vallecillo, 2015). Urban to the recent Intergovernmental 402 km²/year), in 2012-2018 there expansion is accompanied by a greater Science‑Policy Platform on Biodiversity was no significant change in their need for infrastructure (transport, water, and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) report extents. Firstly, the sprawl of economic waste and electricity), which decreases (Scholes et al., 2018) have already and commercial sites decreased the long-term availability of productive resulted in loss of ecosystem services substantially in several countries land resources. Loss of fertile land in many parts of the world. Accounting (-91 % in Spain, -45 % in Germany, caused by urban development decreases for the changes in land stocks, and for -35 % in France). Secondly, withdrawal the potential of land to produce the processes driving these changes, from farming activities decreased bio‑based materials and fuels to support may shed light on some pressures on (-87 % in Hungary) and so did the a low-carbon bioeconomy. Europe’s land use (see the interactive conversion from arable land into land accounts viewer (1)) that are non-tilled agricultural land (-97 % impacting ecosystem services and our in Germany, -93 % in Czechia, Land take natural capital. -79 % in Hungary). The small decrease in pastures and mosaic farmland mainly Land take is the process in which The 2018 mapping of Europe’s arose from a few countries, such as urban areas and sealed surfaces land cover by the Copernicus Land in Ireland as a result of afforestation occupy agricultural, forest or other Monitoring Service, recorded in the and in France, Germany and Spain as a semi‑natural and natural areas Corine Land Cover (2) data sets, indicates result of sprawl of urban and industrial (EEA, 2017). The increase in artificial that the proportion of Europe’s main areas. The loss of wetlands amounted to surfaces often impairs or disrupts land cover types are relatively stable (e.g. around 1 % over the last two decades. valuable ecological functions of soils 25.1 % arable land and permanent crops, During 2012‑2018 the most prominent such as biomass provision, acting as 16.6 % pastures, 34.4 % forests in the decline was observed in Romania and soil biodiversity and a soil carbon pool, EEA’s member countries and cooperating Finland due to conversion to agriculture, or water infiltration potential. This countries). The long-term changes over to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom contributes to negative climate change
(1) https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/dashboards/land-cover-and-change-statistics (2) https://land.copernicus.eu/pan-european/corine-land-cover
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FIGURE 5.1 Change in six major land cover types in the EEA-39 during the period 2000-2018
km2/year Artificial surfaces Arable land and Pastures and mosaic Forests and Natural grassland, Wetlands permanent crops farmland transitional heathland woodland shrub sclerophylous vegetation 1 200 2.7 2.4 1 000
00 1. 2
00
400 0.05 200 0.03 0.04 0 0.00 -0.07 -0.2 -200 -0.22 -0.0 -0.30 -400 -0.20 -0.35 -0.25 - 00 -0.21 -0.2 -0.27 - 00
of EEA-3 4.3 25.1 1 . 34.4 .5 2.5 (201 )
Change 2 2 2 2 2 2 2000-201 1 577 km -7 22 km -7 2 km km -4 7 km -4 335 km
Changes in of the value in 2000 2000-200 200 -2012 2012-201
Note: Open spaces and water bodies are not shown, which is why the percentages do not add up to 100 %.
Source: EEA.
impacts by decreasing the potential for Switzerland, the eastern part of Germany from 922 km²/year in the period carbon storage and sequestration or or the south of France (Colsaet et al., 2000-2006 to 440 km²/year in the increasing surface run-off during flooding 2018). In some cases, artificial land period 2012‑2018 (see the interactive (EC, 2014; Edenhofer et al., 2011). is returned to other land categories Land take data viewer (3)). During (recultivation). The balance between the period 2000-2018, land take Population and income growth have taken and recultivated land is net land concentrated around larger urban been widely reported to drive land take take — the concept behind the EU’s ‘no agglomerations (Map 5.1), with 80 % (Chapter 1), yet this relationship varies net land take’ target (Map 5.1). of land taken at the expense of arable greatly across and within countries. land and permanent crops (50 %) and In most developed countries, the demand Calculated from the Corine Land Cover of pastures and mosaic farmlands for urbanised land grows faster than data set, annual net land take (see (almost 30 %). Nevertheless, while the population, or grows even without definition in EEA (forthcoming (a))) in that period some land was additional population, for example in in the EU-28 continually decreased recultivated in the EU-28, 11 times
(3) https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/dashboards/land-take-and-net-land
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MAP 5.1 Spatial pattern of net land take in the EEA-39 in the period 2000-2018
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°0° Spatial pattern of net land take in the EEA-39 in the period 2000-2018 Km2 < 0 0
0.001-0.5 60° 0.5-2 > 2
Outside coverage 50°500
50°
40°
40°
0500 0° 1 000 1 50010° km 20° 30° 40°
Source: EEA.
more land was taken (14 049 km² land Land recycling data viewer (5) — only take vs 1 269 km² recultivated land). Loss of fertile land to urban 13 % of urban land development Within functional urban areas (cities addressed the reuse of land in the development reduces the and their commuting zones) land period 2006-2012 (EEA, 2018b). recycling, the reuse of abandoned, potential to produce bio-based vacant or underused urban land, is materials and fuels to support Figure 5.2 presents land take in the measured using the Copernicus Urban a low-carbon bioeconomy. EEA-39 during the period 2012-2018, as Atlas (4) data set. Land recycling is the share of the country’s area, which still low in most countries (see the allows comparison of countries of
(4) https://land.copernicus.eu/local/urban-atlas (5) https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/dashboards/land-recycling
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FIGURE 5.2 Country comparison — land take and land recultivation in the EEA-39 in the period 2012-2018 (as a share of the country’s area) m /km2 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0 500 1 000
taly Latvia Spain Malta Greece Serbia Croatia Austria France Turkey Cyprus celandSwedenFinland Albania SloveniaNorway reland ulgaria Estonia Slovakia C echia elgium Poland LithuaniaPortugal Romania HungaryGermany Denmark Swit erland Montenegro Liechtenstein NetherlandsLuxembourg United Kingdom North Macedonia
osnia and Her egovina Kosovo (under UNSC 1244) Land take 2012-201 Recultivation 2012-201
Note: Kosovo under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99.
Source: EEA.
different sizes. Land take was highest Landscape fragmentation can be in Malta, the United Kingdom, Cyprus, A 2.6 % increase in land measured as the number of continuous, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. The unfragmented areas (i.e. meshes) fragmentation occurred in the large proportion of land take in Malta per 1 000 km2 (Moser et al., 2007; was mainly due to mining and urban EEA-39 territory between 2012 EEA, 2018d). It increased by 6.2 % in sprawl. In the United Kingdom, Cyprus and 2015, compared to the EEA-39 territory (8) between 2009 and Luxembourg, the main drivers were a 6.2 % increase in the and 2012 but slowed down to a 2.6 % industrial and commercial activities increase in the period 2012-2015 (EEA, period 2009-2012. and construction sites, the latter being forthcoming (b)). Compared with 2009, the main reason in the Netherlands in 2015 the most rapid increase in as well. Whereas in Malta there was fragmentation was observed in Poland no recultivation, and in Cyprus there (18 %) due to construction of motorways. was very little, in the Netherlands, isolated fragments, leading to habitat Bulgaria, Greece and Hungary also Luxembourg and the United Kingdom, fragmentation. Fragmentation often showed rapid increases in fragmentation together with Kosovo (6), recultivation jeopardises the provision of many pressure (around 14 %). In absolute was the highest in the EEA-39 (see the ecosystem services and affects the terms, indicating the highest density interactive Land take data viewer (7)). stability and resilience of habitats. of meshes per 1 000 km2, Switzerland Although the EU biodiversity strategy and the Benelux states became the to 2020 has a target to ‘restore at most fragmented in Europe (Map 5.2). Landscape fragmentation least 15 % of degraded ecosystems In both measurement periods, mostly in the Union and to expand the use uninhabited areas and dispersed rural The expansion of urban areas and of Green Infrastructure’, there are areas became more fragmented (more transport networks transforms large only a few signs that pressure of land than a 5 % increase); these are areas habitat patches into smaller, more fragmentation has reached its peak. with a relatively higher potential to
(6) Under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99. (7) https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/dashboards/land-take-and-net-land (8) Excluding Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Iceland, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Turkey because of poor data coverage for transport infrastructure elements for this period.
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MAP 5.2 Increase in landscape fragmentation in Europe between 2009 and 2015
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° ragmentation increase in Europe during 2009 2015
Percentage of 2009 values
No changes < 2 2-5 60° 5-10 10-20
20-50 > 50 50°
No data Outside coverage
50°
40°
40°
30° -20° Canary Is. -30° Azores Is.
30° 40°
30°
Madeira Is. 20° 0 500 30° 1 000 1 500 km 40° 0° 10°
Note: Landscape fragmentation as a result of an expansion in urban and transport infrastructure is monitored using the Copernicus Imperviousness (9) and the TomTom Multinet EUR (reference years: 2009, 2012, 2015) road network data sets (10). Data for Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Iceland, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Turkey are not available.
Source: EEA.
(9) Under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99. (10) Excluding Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Iceland, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Turkey because of poor data coverage for transport infrastructure elements for this period
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provide ecosystem services because of extensive livestock farming is given their lower degrees of urbanisation. Urban land take continues, up because of land abandonment or consuming mostly agricultural through conversion to cropland or Fragmentation within Natura 2000 increased fertilisation and mowing sites increased by 5.9 % in the period land. There is however a frequencies. The decline in grassland 2009-2012 and slowed down to a slowing trend in urbanisation areas has negative consequences for 1.6 % increase in the period 2012-2015 and the expansion of transport pollinators and other insects as well (EEA, forthcoming (b)). Urban and road infrastructure. as for birds (Assandri et al., 2019) infrastructure expansion may occur (Chapter 3). Semi-natural grasslands in Natura 2000 sites — depending on, are a core component of high nature if necessary, an assessment of their value farmland in Europe, representing impacts in accordance with Article 6 around 30 % of the EU’s agricultural of the EU Habitats Directive. This and storing and filtering water and land (Paracchini et al., 2008). High explains why fragmentation pressure nutrients. nature value farmland exemplifies the was observed in the sites despite pressures on agro-ecosystems from their protected status. Nevertheless, According to the Copernicus Corine agricultural intensification as well as in all EU-28 countries, the increase in Land Cover data sets (11), during the land abandonment (e.g. Henle et al., fragmentation was lower within Natura period 2000-2018, the largest losses 2008; Renwick et al., 2013). 2000 sites than in areas not protected of arable land and permanent crops by the EU nature directives. were observed in Czechia, Hungary, The forested area in Europe has the interior of Spain and southern been largely stable over the last Portugal (Map 5.3). While in Hungary two decades, and it only expanded 5.3.3 and Portugal the main reason was because of afforestation programmes Land use by agriculture and forestry withdrawal of farming and subsequent in some European countries and ►See Table 5.2 woodland creation, in Czechia the main through spontaneous regeneration driver was the extension of non-tilled on abandoned agricultural land. Sectoral trends (Chapter 13) and high agricultural land and pastures (see the Changes in forest land cover are societal demand for agriculture and interactive Land accounts viewer (12)). now locally concentrated in a few forestry outputs lead to pressures In central Spain, the increase in European countries (Forest Europe, on land and soil. This has a range of construction and industrial sites was 2015). Despite the stable area and negative environmental impacts, such the main cause. The largest gains were sustainable use of timber resources, as loss of biodiversity (Chapter 3), observed in northern Portugal, the forest ecosystems are subject to eutrophication pressures in freshwater Baltic countries (in particular Latvia) pressures (Section 13.4.2 in Chapter 13) ecosystems (Chapter 4) or air pollution and central Finland. While in Latvia and and changes in their condition, which (Chapter 8). Loss of arable land due Lithuania arable land was created by raises concern over their long-term to, for example, land abandonment converting pastures, in central Finland stability and health (EEA, 2016, 2018a). in many cases causes loss of habitats the gains were due to forest conversion. Although the area of protected forests for farmland species (Chapter 3). At has slightly increased in the EEA-39 the same time droughts, forest fires Grasslands provide important (EEA, 2019), the fragmentation of and floods are increasing threats, ecosystem services, such as food forests increased by 8 % between 2009 in particular in southern Europe. provision, enjoyment of landscapes, and 2015 (EEA, forthcoming (b)). In Sustainable management of our land storage of soil carbon, erosion eastern and southern Europe (Bulgaria, and soil resources helps to maintain control and flood regulation. They Croatia, Greece, Hungary, and Poland), agricultural and forest productivity are among the most species-rich the increase in fragmentation of forests (e.g. Brady et al., 2015) while improving vegetation types in Europe with up to and woodlands was more than 15 %, the potential of land and soils as a 80 plant species/m2 (Silva et al., 2008). and illegal logging is increasingly carbon sink, supporting biodiversity Grasslands are generally lost when reported (e.g. in the Carpathian region).
(11) https://land.copernicus.eu/pan-european/corine-land-cover (12) https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/dashboards/land-cover-and-change-statistics
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MAP 5.3 Arable land and permanent crop losses and gains during the period 2000-2018
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°0° Arable land and permanent crops gains and losses between 2000 - 2018 ha/km2 Loss ≥ 5 Loss 2-5
Loss < 2 60° 0 (No change) Gain ≤ 2 Gain > 2
50°5 Outside coverage
50°
40°
40°
0 500 1000 1500 km 0° 10° 20° 30° 40°
Source: EEA.
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TABLE 5.2 Summary assessment — urbanisation and land use by agriculture and forestry
Past trends and outlook
Past trends Europe’s land resources are exposed to intensive use at an accelerated rate. Land take continues, mostly (10-15 years) at the expense of agricultural areas, although the yearly rate shows a tendency to slow down. The rate of reuse of developed land remains low. Landscape fragmentation has increased, impacting mostly uninhabited or dispersed rural areas and suburbs — areas with relatively greater potential to supply ecosystem services.
Outlook to 2030 Land take and resulting landscape fragmentation are projected to increase in forthcoming decades. Farming is likely to retreat further from marginal, biodiversity-rich areas and the intensive use of productive farmland is likely to increase, impacting the quality and ecosystem services of agricultural areas. Logging and consumption of wood for fuel will increase, which, together with increasing droughts, fires and storms, is expected to reduce forest ecosystem services.
Prospects of meeting policy objectives/targets
2050 Europe is at risk of not meeting the 7th EAP objective of managing land sustainably and reaching no net land take by 2050. However, slowing trends in the expansion of urban and transport infrastructure areas indicate that, if appropriate measures are taken, the targets could be reached. The increase in landscape fragmentation is lower within and in the areas surrounding Natura 2000 sites, hence protection policies seem to be effective in partially reaching the target set by the EU biodiversity strategy to 2020 to restore 15 % of degraded ecosystems.
Robustness Data are based on regular and quantitative inventories of the Copernicus Corine Land Cover, Urban Atlas and Imperviousness data sets, using medium- and high-resolution remote sensing images. Interpretation and calibration are harmonised and quality assured and controlled by third party experts. While data quality is subject to sensor performance and weather impacts, and derived data still depend on human interpretation, remote sensing is the only tool that offers standardised and repeatable measurements on high spatial and temporal resolutions, at a large spatial scale and with continental to global coverage. The assessment of the outlook for and prospects of meeting policy objectives relies on models and on expert judgement.
Forest Europe (2015) reports that about increase to maximise the provision of 8 % of the forest area is intensively biomass either from Europe’s forests or managed plantations. Intensive by importing more biomass (e.g. wood management operations involve pellets from North America). clear-cutting, skidding damage to remaining trees and soil compaction. Competition for land, Climate change, as well as economic A study by Schelhass et al. (2018) unsustainable practices and and technological change, will continue underlines that little is known about to drive change in agricultural land pollution affect soil quality. harvesting processes in European management in the coming decades. forests. The current fellings/growth Agricultural productivity in southern ratio is approximately 60-65 % of the Europe will be particularly affected, and annual forest increment harvested. this is likely to involve a further retreat Recent analysis of the wood resource of farming from marginal but often balance (Camia et al., 2018) shows that carbon accounting (land use, land biodiversity-rich areas as well as intensive this ratio is expected to be about 12 % use change and forestry, LULUCF) use of productive farmland in central, larger as a result of underestimation of will influence forest management. western and northern Europe (Holman reported removals. Energy policies already result in an et al., 2017; Stürck et al., 2018). Europe’s increased demand for wood products forests overall maintain their function as and for bioenergy (Levers et al., 2014; a carbon sink, but degradation of forest The climate targets of the Paris Pricewaterhouse Coopers EU, 2017). ecosystems may increase the risks of Agreement and the incentives offered As a consequence, the land used for eroding the biodiversity and ecological under new EU policies, e.g. land-based intensively managed forests may condition of forests and of forest soils
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due to compaction, loss of nutrients erosion is estimated at 970 million and loss of forest soils (Bengtsson et al., tonnes per year (Panagos et al., 2016). 2000; Frelich et al., 2018). The sustainable 2 The average annual soil loss by wind management of ecosystems and soils 85 861 km erosion is estimated to be about under agricultural and forestry land 0.53 t/ha per year (EU-28 arable land, use will continue to be an important of land in the EEA-39 territory 2001-2010; (Borrelli et al., 2017). Crop challenge for conserving and enhancing was sealed in 2015. harvesting contributes to significant Europe’s natural capital. soil removal. Panagos et al. (2019) estimate that 4.2 million hectares of root crops (of 173 million hectares of 5.3.4 utilised agricultural land in the EU) Soil condition (impervious) artificial material contribute to 14.7 million tonnes of ►See Table 5.4 (e.g. asphalt and concrete), though only soil loss. Although there is a declining part of the land that is defined as land trend due to a decrease in sugar beet Pressures on European soils are take is actually sealed. cropping, crop harvesting practices may increasing, and there is a risk that increase the overall soil loss rate in they will affect the services provided In 2015, 1.48 % of the total EEA-39 countries such as Belgium, Ireland and by properly functioning, healthy soils. area was sealed (2.43 % of the EU-28 the Netherlands. Soil is a finite, non-renewable resource in 2012), totalling 85 861 km2. The because its regeneration takes longer annual rate of soil sealing seems to The annual cost of agricultural than a human lifetime. It is a key have decreased since 2012 (annual production (losses in crop yield) due to component of Europe’s natural capital, sealing rate for the monitoring interval severe erosion in the EU is estimated and it contributes to basic human 2006-2009: 460 km2; 2009‑2012: to be EUR 1.25 billion (Panagos et al., needs by supporting, for example, food 492 km2; 2012-2015: 334 km2). 2018). Existing policy, in particular the provision and water purification, while In certain densely populated countries cross-compliance requirements of the acting as a major store for organic with dense infrastructure, such as common agricultural policy (Chapter carbon and a habitat for extremely Belgium and the Netherlands, almost 13), may have reduced rates of soil diverse biological communities. ‘Soil 4 % of the national territory is sealed. loss over the past decade (Panagos formation and protection’ is one of et al., 2015). However, erosion rates the ecosystem services known to be Erosion describes the loss of soil by can be expected to increase in the declining in Europe, according to the water (predominantly as rill or gully future as a result of more extreme recent IPBES assessment (IPBES, 2018). erosion) and by wind and harvest rain events (Panagos et al., 2017), but losses (i.e. soil adhering to harvested sectoral changes, such as increased Soils are threatened by increasing crops such as sugar beet and potato). parcel size, heavier machinery and competition for land, unsustainable Apart from the loss of productivity and increased compaction, also play a practices and inputs of pollutants, soil function, erosion of agricultural role. Maintaining and/or increasing causing their degradation in various soils is also critical because of their landscape features may reduce the risk forms. Exposure to chemicals (mineral proximity to surface waters, leading of soil erosion. fertilisers, plant protection products, to the transfer of soil material industrial emissions), tillage and and pollutants into water systems Soil compaction is the result of compaction, as well as soil loss through (e.g. 55 % of soils in Switzerland have a mechanical stress caused by the sealing from urban expansion, erosion connection to water bodies, passage of agricultural machinery and landslides, degrade soils physically, (BAFU, 2017)). and livestock. The consequences are chemically and biologically. increased soil density, a degradation Panagos et al. (2015) estimated the of soil structure and reduced porosity mean soil erosion rate by water to (especially macroporosity). This causes Physical degradation of soils be about 2.46 t/ha per year in the increased resistance against root EU (which is 1.6 times higher than penetration and also negatively affects Soil sealing causes the complete and the average rate of soil formation). soil organisms, as their presence is irreversible loss of all soil functions. Accordingly, 12.7 % of Europe’s land restricted to sufficiently sized pores Urban expansion and infrastructure area is affected by moderate to high (Schjønning et al., 2015). Compaction consume soils by physical removal erosion (soil loss rates > 5 t/ha per is known to be a significant pre-cursor or covering them with impermeable year). The total soil loss due to water of erosion. Soil compaction may lower
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crop yields by 2.5-15 %, but it also accumulates in 45 % of agricultural contributes to waterlogging during There may be as many as soils, mainly in southern Europe where precipitation events, which not only 2.8 million contaminated sites leaching rates are low due to a low reduces the accessibility of fields to precipitation surplus (Map 5.4). In 21 % machinery but also negatively affects in the EU, but only 24 % of agricultural soils, the cadmium run-off, discharge rate and flooding of the sites are inventoried. concentration in the topsoil exceeds events (Brus and van den Akker, 2018). the limit for groundwater, 1.0 mg/m3 (used for drinking water). Soils therefore About 23 % of soils in the EU-28 need accurate monitoring of the fate are estimated to have critically of accumulating heavy metals in the high densities in their subsoils, chain, threaten human health and be seepage pathway through the soil to the indicating compaction (Schjønning toxic to soil-dwelling organisms (FAO groundwater. et al., 2015). About 43 % of subsoils in and ITPS, 2017). Substances that are not the Netherlands exhibit compaction readily degradable will eventually leach While copper is an essential (Brus and van den Akker, 2018). Climate into surface and groundwaters or be micronutrient, excess levels in soils change (higher precipitation during dispersed by wind erosion are a source of concern. Copper has the cold seasons), heavier machinery (Silva et al., 2018). been widely used as a fungicide spray, and increasingly narrow time windows especially in vineyards and orchards. for field operations are all factors that According to Payá Pérez and Rodríguez Results from the Land Use and could increase the compaction hazard Eugenio (2018), the dominating Coverage Area Frame Survey (LUCAS) in the future. Although some countries activities for contamination at local soil sampling 2009-2012 show elevated have guidelines on access to land when level are municipal and industrial waste copper levels in the soils in the olive the soil is wet, currently there is no sites (37 %) together with industrial and wine‑producing regions of the European-level instrument to protect emissions and leakages (33 %). In the Mediterranean (Map 5.4) (Ballabio soils from severe compaction. EU-28, potentially polluting activities et al., 2018). Animal manure is the took place on an estimated 2.8 million largest source of copper in grassland, sites (but only 24 % of the sites are which together with zinc is added to Chemical degradation of soils under inventoried). Currently, only 28 % of the animal feed and is introduced into the intensive land use registered sites are investigated, a pre- environment through manure spreading requisite to deciding whether remediation (De Vries et al., forthcoming). Soils, with the help of various organisms, is needed or not (Payá Pérez and filter and buffer contaminants in the Rodríguez Eugenio, 2018). Considering There is also increasing concern about environment. Industrial activities, the estimated extent of past and current the residence and accumulation of waste disposal and intensive land pollution, and the uncertainties of reliable pesticide residues and their metabolites management have led to the dispersal estimates, little progress has been made in soils (e.g. glyphosate and AMPA, or of contaminants throughout the in the assessment and management of aminomethylphosphonic acid), and environment and eventually to their contaminated sites. their potential release mechanisms, for accumulation in soils. Sources of example due to acidification and wind contaminants include the residues of While diffuse contamination through erosion (Silva et al., 2018). In the case plant protection products, industrial large-scale atmospheric deposition is of the Netherlands, in one third of the emissions, mineral fertilisers, biosolids decreasing (lead by 87 % and mercury groundwater abstractions, pesticide (some composts, manures and sewage by 40 % since 1990, using concentrations concentrations can be found that sludges), wood preservatives and in mosses as indicators (BAFU, 2017)), exceed 75 % of the pesticide standards. pharmaceutical products. some metals such as cadmium and Two thirds of the substances found copper are accumulating in arable are herbicides (Swartjes et al., 2016). Soil contamination can be diffuse and soils (Map 5.4). Once critical thresholds In Finnish agricultural soils, 43 % of the widespread or intense and localised are exceeded, human health and samples contained pesticides, while (contaminated sites). Contaminants ecosystem functioning is impacted, for quality standards were exceeded in include heavy metals, persistent organic example by the release of substances to 15 % of the groundwater bodies studied pollutants, residues of plant protection groundwater (De Vries et al., 2007). (Juvonen et al., 2017). In a pilot study with products and others. Depending on soil LUCAS soil samples, over 80 % of soils properties and their concentrations, Cadmium — mainly originating from tested contained pesticide residues, with contaminants in soil may enter the food mineral phosphorus fertilisers — 58 % of samples containing mixtures of
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MAP 5.4 Copper concentration in EU soils, and accumulation rates of cadmium and copper
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° Copper concentration Copper concentration in European Union soils
mg/kg
< 9
60° 9-16
16-22 22-30 50° 30-39
39-49 49-65
> 65 50°
No data
Outside coverage 40°
40°
0 500 1 000 1 500 km 0° 10° 20° 30° 40°
-30°Cadmium-20° accumulation-10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° -30°Copper-20° accumulation-10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°
60° 60°
50° 50°
50° 50°
40° 40°
40° 40°
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40°
Accumulation rates of Cadmium (left) and Copper (right), 2010 g/ha/yr g/ha/yr 0 500 1 000 1 500 km
< -1 > 1 No data > 100 Outside coverage < -100 0 to 20 -0.5 to 0 0 to 0.5 0.5 to 1 -20 to 0 -1 to -0.5 20 to 100 -100 to -20
Sources: Ballabio et al. (2018) (top); De Vries et al. (forthcoming) (lower left and lower right).
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MAP 5.5 Calculated nitrogen surplus (inputs vs outputs) (left) and exceedances of critical nitrogen inputs to agricultural land in view of adverse impacts on the environment (right)
-30°Nitrogen-20° surplus-10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° -30°Nitrogen-20° total-10° exceedance0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°
60° 60°
50° 50°
50° 50°
40° 40°
40° 40°
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40°
Nitrogen surplus and exceedances of critical nitrogen inputs to agricultural land in view of adverse impacts on water quality
kg/ha/year kg/ha/year
0 500 1 000 1 500 km
< 0 < 25 > 200 No data Outside coverage > 150 0 to 25 25 to 50 50 to 75 25 to 50 50 to 75 75 to 100 75 to 150 100 to 200
Note: Statistical data refer to 2010 inputs; areas shown in white are non-agricultural soils.
Source: De Vries et al. (forthcoming).
two or more residues in a total of 166 endocrine disruptors, antibiotics and different pesticide combinations (Silva flame retardants. Another source of et al., 2019). These results indicate the concern is excessive nutrient inputs to accumulative effects of pollutants, and soils through fertilisers, which leads that mixtures of pesticide residues in soils to acidification and eutrophication Various soil contamination are the rule rather than the exception. (Chapter 1, Box 1.2 and Chapter 13). thresholds are already Europe is a global nitrogen hotspot In conclusion, contamination of soils with high nitrogen export through exceeded. is widespread, and various thresholds rivers to coastal waters, and 10 % of the
are already exceeded (e.g. cadmium), global nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions indicating that the filtering capacity (Van Grinsven et al., 2013). Exceedance of soils has been exceeded in of critical loads for nitrogen is linked some areas. However, the additive to reduced plant species richness in a effects are still unknown for many broad range of European ecosystems substances in soils. In future attention (Dise, 2011) (see also Chapter 8, needs to be paid to monitoring and Box 8.2, for critical loads). For investigating the effects of emerging approximately 65‑75 % of the EU‑27 contaminants such as microplastics, agricultural soils, nitrogen inputs
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TABLE 5.3 Soil organic carbon by land use category in the period 2009-2015
Land use category Number of samples Mean SOC (g/kg)
2009 2015
Permanent grassland 2 230 42.0 43.8
Long-term cultivated land 5 018 17.9 17.3
Rice 5 22.8 19.2
Permanent crops 704 15.6 16.4
Natural vegetation 4 167 91.7 90.4
Wetlands 23 432.6 456.5
Source: Hiederer (2018).
through fertiliser, manure, biosolids mainly responsible for nutrient cycling, and nitrogen‑fixing crops exceed critical The increased intensity which is essential for plant growth. values beyond which eutrophication of land use has negatively can be expected (e.g. critical ammonia, The dynamics of SOC vary according affected the species richness or NH3, emissions to remain below to land use and specific management critical loads, or 2.5 mg N/l in run-off to of earthworms, springtails practices. Forest soils currently act as surface waters) (Map 5.5). On average and mites across Europe. a strong sink for carbon (30-50 % of across Europe, about a 40 % reduction the current sink by forest biomass) in nitrogen inputs would be needed to (Luyssaert et al., 2010). In a recent prevent this exceedance (De Vries et al., assessment covering 2009-2015, carbon forthcoming). Map 5.5 (left) presents (through erosion, climate change, in mineral cropland soils in the EU-28 the nitrogen surplus, being the drainage of otherwise waterlogged was shown to be broadly stable or difference between nitrogen inputs and soils) impact the supply of ecosystem slightly declining (albeit at much lower uptake by plants, which is a measure of services and reduce biodiversity (Stolte levels compared with other land cover the potential pollution of air and water et al., 2016). Biologically mediated categories) (Table 5.3), while carbon (De Vries et al., forthcoming). decomposition of organic material is in grasslands showed slight increases the fundamental process for building (Hiederer, 2018); similar results were the soil carbon stock, which, together also reported from national soil Biological degradation and the with clay minerals, are important for monitoring (e.g. Kobza, 2015; Kaczynski decline in soil organic matter nutrient retention and cycling. et al., 2017). It should be noted that the LUCAS sampling programme has Soils deliver key ecosystem services Different forms of soil degradation only recently started, so the currently such as nutrient provision, water (SOC loss, tillage, pollution, compaction available 6-year interval is relatively purification, filtering of pollutants and erosion) negatively impact the short to demonstrate significant and a habitat for soil organisms. habitat available for soil organisms. In changes in SOC stocks. Non‑degraded soils provide these all regions across Europe, the species functions simultaneously and to a level richness of earthworms, springtails The largest amounts of SOC are found needed for ecosystem performance and mites has been negatively affected in organic soils such as peat (Byrne and (Chapter 3). Two closely connected by increased intensity of land use et al., 2004; spatial extend of peat and indicators are the basis of soil (Tsiafouli et al., 2015). Healthy soils mires, see Tanneberger et al., 2017). multifunctionality, the soil organic contain active microbial (bacteria and Cultivation of organic soils causes large carbon (SOC) pool and soil biodiversity. fungi) and animal (micro to macro carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Such Carbon is one of the primary sources of fauna) communities (Orgiazzi et al., carbon losses contribute significantly to energy in food webs; losses of carbon 2016), of which bacteria and fungi are the negative greenhouse gas balance
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TABLE 5.4 Summary assessment — soil condition
Past trends and outlook
Past trends Land cover change and management intensity significantly affect soil condition and levels of (10-15 years) contamination. Progress in the remediation of polluted soils is slow. Despite recent reductions in soil sealing, fertile soils continue to be lost by continued land take. On intensively managed land, soil biodiversity is endangered. Soil loss as a result of sedimentation through erosion is still significant. The effects of soil compaction and historical and current losses of soil organic carbon are becoming increasingly visible under climate change.
Outlook to 2030 The underlying drivers of soil degradation are not projected to change favourably, so the functionality of soils is under even more pressure. Harmonised, representative soil monitoring across Europe is needed to develop early warnings of exceedances of critical thresholds and to guide sustainable soil management.
Prospects of meeting policy objectives/targets
2020 Europe is not on track to protect its soil resources based on the existing strategies. There is a lack of binding policy targets; and some threats to soil — compaction, salinisation and soil sealing — are not addressed in existing European legislation. There is a high risk that the EU will fail some of its own and international commitments such as land degradation neutrality.
Robustness A consistent set of indicators and representative databases for all soil threats across Europe has not yet been established. Measurements and monitoring of soil threats are incomplete. For selected indicators, data on changes in the condition of topsoils can be derived from the LUCAS soil programme (pesticide and soil biodiversity components are currently being added). The assessment of the outlook for and prospects of meeting policy objectives relies primarily on expert judgement.
for some countries (Schils et al., 2008), Meeting the 7th EAP objective of no and they are expected to continue to do net land take by 2050 would require so in the future: 13-36 % of the current investments in land recycling, as well soil carbon stock in European peatlands as halting land take. Land recycling is might be lost by the end of this century one way to ensure that a growing urban (Gobin et al., 2011). Europe is at risk of not population consumes less land per meeting the 7th EAP objective capita. Land recycling can be achieved by constructing between buildings of managing land sustainably 5.4 (densification), by constructing on Responses and prospects of and reaching no net land brownfield sites (i.e. already used sites, meeting agreed targets and take by 2050. known as grey recycling) or by converting objectives developed land into green areas (green recycling) (EEA, 2018b). Setting up green Several recent assessments consider infrastructure is an important means of land and soil critical yet finite natural re-establishing and maintaining unsealed resources, subject to competing are largely missing at the European areas, thus allowing patches and networks pressures from urbanisation and level. The European Court of of urban ecosystems to function in more infrastructure development and Auditors recommends establishing sustainable cities (see Chapters 3 and 17 from increased food, feed, fibre and methodologies and a legal framework for more information on the role of green fuel production (FAO and ITPS, 2015; to assess land degradation and infrastructure). However, currently there IPBES, 2018). While many European desertification and to support the is no legal framework or incentive to and national policies address land Member States to achieve land recycle urban land, despite funding being and soil to some extent, binding degradation neutrality by 2030 available for land rehabilitation under the targets, incentives and measures (ECA, 2018). EU cohesion policy.
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Measures to halt land take vary systems that encompass all processes considerably throughout European and activities related to the human use countries. Reducing land take is an of land (EEA, 2018c). A key element of indicative policy objective in Austria, better land stewardship will be a focus whereas the target to achieve ‘zero on ecosystem services. However, the net land take by 2050’ is integrated The absence of suitable services that landowners may supply as into national policies in France and EU soil legislation an obligation to the common good (land Switzerland. In Germany, the national and soil) will need clear specifications contributes to soil sustainable development strategy for (Bartkowski et al., 2018). The more 2020 sets a goal to limit the use of new degradation within Europe. systemic land systems approach may areas for settlement and transport, provide a holistic frame, but it needs whereas in Hungary the 2013 national to be complemented with relevant spatial plan defines suitability zones governance or legal measures. Technical for agriculture, nature protection solutions already known to practitioners and forest. The United Kingdom and still need criteria, thresholds and Flanders (Belgium) aim to have 60 % of incentives to achieve the societal goal of urban development on brownfield sites set of practices, implemented in some more sustainable land use and to make (Science for Environment Policy et al., areas for a limited period of time. its application on the ground part of 2016; Decoville and Schneider, 2016). everyday practice. However, new housing is needed in Glæsner et al. (2014) concludes many urban conglomerates, and the that three threats to soil, namely Diverse policies refer to soil pollution 2050 objective of the 7th EAP continues compaction, salinisation and sealing, and the need for data on pollution to be challenging to meet. are not addressed in existing EU sources (Water Framework Directive, legislation and that targets to limit Industrial Emissions Directive, There is currently no European soil threats are hardly defined. A National Emissions Ceiling Directive, legislation that focuses exclusively coherent coordination of the different Environmental Liability Directive, on soil. The absence of suitable existing policies could make soil Mercury regulation, Sewage Sludge soil legislation at the European protection at EU level effective. In Directive); however, there is a lack of level contributes to the continuous addition, the multifunctionality of binding measures, e.g. to build and degradation of many soils within Europe soil cannot be properly addressed publish registers of polluted sites or to (Virto et al., 2014; Günal et al., 2015). through the existing heterogeneous assess and apply harmonised definitions policy environment. In order to and critical thresholds for contaminants Vrebos et al. (2017) found 35 different progress, a revision of the existing soil in soils. EU policy instruments that — mostly thematic strategy (EC, 2006) is urgently indirectly — affect soil functions, as needed, as well as agreements to With regard to land and soil, how can suggested in the soil thematic strategy. improve Europe‑wide harmonised soil more sustainable use and proper Many of them have the potential monitoring and indicator assessments. preservation of the multifunctionality to address various soil degradative of land be achieved in the absence of processes (Frelih-Larsen et al., 2017). Societal discussion on soil protection direct policies? The 7th EAP has not However, their effectiveness is unclear needs to expand beyond economics and been sufficient to create a common (Louwagie et al., 2011). For example, include the concept of land stewardship. EU vision for sustainable land and soil some of the common agricultural This would complement the production- use. Progress towards sustainable policy measures such as creating oriented and biophysical aspects of development in Europe (and globally) is good agricultural and environmental land management and aim to achieve possible only if land and soil resources conditions (GAEC) refer to only a specific more systemic solutions, such as land are properly addressed.
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